ASSIGNMENT

Name S.AMEER ABBAS

Roll No. 520955311

Course MBA-Semester-1
Management Process and
Subject
Organization Behavior
Subject
Code
MB0022-Set-1
1. “Today managers need to perform various functions.” Elaborate the
statement
Ans.

Management functions can be defined as the action of measuring a

quantity on a regular basis and adjusting some initial plan.

Management functions are as follows:

1. Planning
2. Organising
3. Commanding
4. Coordinating
5. Controlling

However in recent times, management functions have been regrouped

into 4 categories. Since the managerial tasks have become highly challenging
a fluid nature of making distinctions redundant to a certain context.
1. Planning
2. Organising
3. Leading
4. Controlling

1. Planning:
It involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies to achieve
these goals, and developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities.
Effective planning enables an organisation adapt the change by identifying
opportunities and avoiding problems. It provides direction to the other
functions of management and for effective team work. All levels of
management engage in planning in their own way for achieving their presser
goals.

Planning in order to be useful must be linked with strategic intent of an

organisation.

Strategic Planning:

Top level managers often engage in strategic planning or long term

planning. It is a process of developing and analysing the organisation’s
mission, overall goals, general strategies and allocation of resources.
The tasks in strategic planning include the following steps:
a. Define mission:
Planning begins with clearly defining the mission of the organisation. A
mission statement should be short and should be easily understood by
every employee. It guides employees to work independently yet
collectively toward the realisation of organisation’ potential
b. Conduct SWOT analysis:
A situation or SWOT [Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats]
analysis is vital for the creation of any strategic plan. It begins with the
scan of external environment. Organisations need to need to examine
their business situation in order to map out the opportunities and threats
present in their environments. It provides assumptions and facts on which
a plan will be based.
In general terms the best strategy is one that fits the organisations
strengths to opportunities. The SWOT analysis is used as a base line for
future improvement, as well as gap analysis.

Set goals and objectives:

Strategic goals and objectives are developed to fulfill the gap between
current capability and the mission. They are aligned with the mission and
form basis for the action plans. Objectives are also called performance goals.
Develop related strategies (Tactical and operational):
Tactical plans are based on organisations strategic plan. In turn, operational
plans are based on the organisations tactical plans. These are specific plans
that are needed for each task or supporting activity comprising the whole. All
plans must be accompanied by controls to ensure proper implementation.
Monitor the plan:
A systematic method of monitoring the environment must be adopted to
continuously improve the strategic planning process. Feedback is encouraged
and incorporated to determine if goals and objectives are feasible.

2. Organising:
It involves designing, structuring and coordinating the work
components to achieve Organisational goals. It is the process of determining
what tasks are to be done, who to do, how the tasks are to be grouped, who
reports to whom, and where decisions is to be made. The purpose of this
function is to make the best use of the organisation’s resources to achieve
Organisational goals.
The steps in organisation process include:
a. Review plans
b. List all tasks to accomplished
c. Divide the tasks into groups one person can accomplish-a job
d. Group related jobs together in a logical and efficient manner.
e. Assign work to individuals.
f. Delegate authority to establish relationships between jobs ans groups
of jobs.

3. Leading:
An organisation has the greatest chance of being successful when all of
the employees work toward achieving its goals. Since leadership involves the
exercise of influence by one person over others, the quality of leadership
exhibited bys supervisors is critical demand of organisational success.
Leading involves the following functions:
a. Team Building:
Rigid department boundaries and fixed teams are giving way to ad hoc
squads whose membership changes with every project. Competitive
arenas require quick decisions by knowledgeable employees who work
close to the source of problems. Teams enable knowledge-based and
innovative decision making. This collaboration is a revolution in work
place.
b. Consensus Building:
Top performance demands the joint effort of many people working
together toward a common goal. Together, employees can do more than
the collective efforts of each individual working alone.
c. Selecting:
Selecting competent, high-performing employees capable of sustaining
their performance over the long run is a competitive advantage. The
section process consists of forecasting employment needs, recruiting
candidates, interviewing applicants and hiring employees.
d. Training:
After selecting employees, they enter an organisational program to be
formally introduced to their jobs. Orientation sets a tone for new
employees work by describing job-related expectations and reporting
relationships.
Employees are informed about the benefits, policies and procedures.
Specific duties and responsibilities and performance evaluation are
clarified. During orientation, the supervisor has the opportunity to resolve
any unrealistic expectations held by employee. All new employees
[current employee in new jobs] must be trained. Cross training prepares
employees for a job normally handled by someone else.
4. Controlling:
It involves monitoring employee’s behaviour and organisational processes
and takes necessary actions to improve them.
There are 4 steps in control process:
i. Establish performance standards. Standards are created and objectives
are set during planning process.
ii. Measure actual performance. Supervisors collect data to measure
actual performance. Oral reports will allow for fast and extensive
feedback. Computers give supervisors direct access to real time,
unaltered data, and information.
iii. Compare measured performance against established standards.
Establish the acceptable variation. Deviations that exceed this
range would alert the supervisor to a problem.
iv. Take corrective action. If the performance is from a deflect in activity ,
then the supervisor can take immediate corrective action and get
performance back on track.

Controls are effective when they are applied at key places. Supervisors can
implement control measures before the process begins [ Feed forward],
during the process [Concurrent], or after it ceases[ Feedback].

2. “Skills are the tools for performance” Explain Different management

skills.
Ans.

Management Skills

According to Katz (1974), management skills are as follows:

1. Technical Skills
 2. Human Skills

3. Conceptual Skills

1. Technical Skills:

The ability is to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs

require some specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical
skills on the job. Vocational and on-the-job training programs can be used to
develop this type of skill.

2. Human Skills:

This is the ability to work with, understand and motivate other people
(both individually and a group). This requires sensitivity towards other
issues and concerns. People, who are proficient in technical skill, but not
with interpersonal skills, may face difficult to manage their sub-ordinates,.
To acquire the human skill, it is pertinent to recognize the feelings and
sentiments of others, ability to motivate others even in adverse situation
and communicate own feelings to others in a positive and inspiring way.

3. Conceptual Skills:

This is an ability to critically analyse, diagnose a situation and forward

a feasible solution. It requires creative thinking, generating options and
choosing the best available option.

4.Personal Management Skills

There are two areas of personal management skills you must master
to be successful as a manager. These are self management and time
management.

Self management

• Take Ownership of Your Job

Every job you do has your "signature" on it. Do it the best you can; do it
the best it can be done. That is how you succeed.
• Scruples Are a Good Thing
There is a reason for that little voice in your head. Listen to it. Don't just
do things right, but also do the right thing. You will do a better job as a
manager if you don't have to waste time remembering what lies you told
to whom.
• Pareto's Principle - The 80-20 Rule
It is important that as a manager you focus on what is truly important, not
just what appears urgent. The 80-20 Rule can help you do that.
• Ten Things To Do Today To Be A Better Manager
Here are ten areas you can focus on to improve as a manager.

Time Management

• A To Do List That Works

You can't do everything so use a To Do list to keep you focused on the
important ones. It can be simple or complicated, but develop one that
works for you - or use mine.
• Don't Multi-task When You Can Use Chunking
Human beings can't really multi-task . We can do different tasks in rapid
succession, but not at the same time. Chunking lets you spend less time in
"restarting" and more time getting things done. It takes practice to make
it work, but it is well worth the effort.
• Meeting Management
Managers spend a lot of time in meetings and a lot of time running
meetings. You have less control over meetings you attend than over the
 one you set up. Make sure you get the most out of your meetings by
following a few simple tips.
• Managing Projects: Time and Schedule
Time management also is a critically important skill for any successful
project manager. Project Managers who succeed in meeting their project
schedule have a good chance of staying within their project budget.

3. What is negotiation? Explain the process of negotiation.

Ans.

Negotiation:
Negotiation is the process in which two or more parties exchange
goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them.
There are two general approaches to negotiation

- Distributive bargaining:
One’s tactics focus on trying to get one’s opponent to agree to one’s
specific target point or to get as close to it as possible.

 Hard distributive bargaining / negotiation:

This takes place when each party holds out to get its own way. This
leads to win-lose outcome.

 Soft distributive bargaining / negotiation:

This takes place when one party is willing to make concessions to the
other to get things over with.

- Integrative bargaining:
This strategy is adopted to create win-win solution. Following
conditions are necessary for this type of negotiation:
a. Parties who are open with information and candid about their
concerns.
 b. Sensitivity by both parties to the other’s needs.
c. The ability to trust one another.
d. Willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility.

The Negotiation Process:

Preparation and Planning:

• At this stage, homework needs to be done in regard to the nature,

history, concerned parties of the conflict. Based upon the information,
a strategy is developed. Both the parties Best Alternative To a
Negotiated Agreement (BATNA) needs to be determine. BATNA
determines the lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated
agreement for both the parties.

Definitions of Ground rules:

• At this stage, the venue, the negotiators, time will be decided.

Clarification & Justification:

• When initial positions have been exchanged, the original demands of

both the parties need to be explained and justified. Proper
documentation is required at this stage to support each of the parties
position.

Bargaining & Problem Solving:

• The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give and take in
trying to hash out an agreement; concessions will undoubtedly need to
be made by both parties.
Closure and Implementation:

• This is the final step, where the agreement is formalised and

procedures to implement the agreement will be developed.

Issues in Negotiation:

a. Overall assessments of the personality – negotiation relationship finds

that personality trait have no significant direct effect on either the
bargaining process or negotiation outcomes.
b. Men and women do not negotiate differently. The belief that women
are “nicer” is probably due to confusing gender and the lack of power
typically held by women.

4. Explain Classical Conditioning Theory?

Ans.

Classical Conditioning is the type of learning made famous by

Pavlov's experiments with dogs.

Classical conditioning was accidentally discovered around the

beginning of the 20th century by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov [1927].
Pavlov was studying digestive process in dogs when he discovered that the
dogs salivated before they received their food. In fact, after repeated
pairing of the lab attendant and the food, the dogs started to salivate at the
sight of the lab assistants. Pavlov coined this phenomenon “psychic
secretions." He noted that dogs were not only responding to a biological
need (hunger), but also a need developed by learning. Pavlov spent the rest
of life researching why this associate learning occurred, which is now called
classical conditioning.

To experiment on classical conditioning, Pavlov utilized a tuning fork

and meat powder. He hit the tuning fork and followed the sound with the
meat powder. Pavlov presented the sound (tuning fork) with the meat
powder at the exact same time increments. In the beginning, the dog
salivated only to the meat powder, but after this was repeated, salivated at
the sound of the tuning fork. Even when Pavlov took away the meat
powder, the dog continued to salivate at the sound of the tuning fork.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate one stimulus with
another. The organism learns that the first stimulus is a cue for the second
stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment above, the tuning fork(Bell) cued the dogs
that food might be coming. Following is an example of classical conditioning.

KEY CONCEPTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning

• Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Automatic response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus that when paired with an unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) elicits a similar response

• Conditioned Response (CR)

A response that is learned by pairing the originally neutral conditioned
stimulus (CS) with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

• Acquisition:
The acquisition phase is the consistent parings of the CS (bell) and the
UCS (food) that produces a CR (salivation). In the example above,
this phase occurs when the dog begins to salivate at the sound of the
 bell. Conditioning occurs more rapidly when the food follows the bell
by a half a second.

• Extinction
the extinction phase is when the conditioned response no longer
occurs after repeated pairings without the unconditioned stimulus.
The dog’s response to the bell can be extinguished by repeatedly
presenting the bell (CS) without the food (UCS). The dog has not
completely forgotten the association between the bell and the food. If
the experimenter waits a day, the dog may have a spontaneous
recovery of the conditioned response and salivate again to the bell.

• Generalization
Occurs when there is a small difference in the presented stimulus and
the original conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell of a
similar tone, the dog would still salivate.

• Discrimination

The opposite of generalization, discrimination happens when a conditioned

response does not occur when there is a difference between the presented
stimulus and the original conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell
with a different tone and was not awarded the unconditioned stimulus (food),
the dog would learn not to salivate to the second tone.

Classical conditioning is used by trainers for two purposes: To condition

(train) autonomic responses, such as the drooling, producing adrenaline, or
reducing adrenaline (calming) without using the stimuli that would naturally
create such a response; and, to create an association between a stimulus
that normally would not have any effect on the animal and a stimulus that
would.
5.How are culture and society responsible to built value system?
Ans.

Values represent basic convictions that ‘a specific mode of conduct or

end state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. When the values are
ranked in terms of their intensity, it is called value system. Types of values
include social values and aesthetic values. Values have both content and
intensity attributes.

- The content attribute specifies that a mode of conduct or end-state of

existence is important.
- The intensity attribute specifies how important it is.
- Ranking an individual’s values in terms of their intensity equals that
persons value system.
Values shape relationships, behaviour and choices. The more positive our
values more positive are our actions.

Culture, Society and Values:

According to Hofstede’s Research, the following points can be noted:

Power distance-
This dimension measures the social equality in families, institutions and
organisations. Inequality of power in organisations is generally manifested in
hierarchical superior-subordinate relationships.

Uncertainty avoidance-
This is representation of a society tolerance for uncertain situations. It
measures to what extent a society manages those situations by providing
specific and conventional rules, regulations and norms; by rejecting aberrant
ideas or behaviour; by accepting the possibility of absolute truths ans the
accomplishments of expertise.

Individualism Vs Collectivism-
Individualism gauges to what extent individuals in a country consider
themselves as distinct entities rather than members of cohesive groups.
Collectivism, on the other hand, emphasizes on social ties or bonds between
individuals. Individualistic society considers self interest as more important
that the group goal.

Masculinity Vs Femininity-
This dimension refers to what extent dominant values in a society
emphasizes masculine social values like a work ethic expressed in terms of
money, achievement and recognition as opposed to feminine social role will
show more concern for people and quality of life.

Long term orientation-

Measures employee’s devotion to work ethic and their respect for tradition.
The Asian countries are strong in work ethic and respect for tradition.

He also states that each person carries several layers of cultural

programming. It starts when a child learns basic values, what is right and
wrong, good and bad, logical and illogical, beautiful and ugly. Culture is
about your fundamental assumptions of what is to be a person and how you
should interact with other persons. The first level of culture is deepest and
difficult to change. Other layers in the culture are learned or programmed in
the course of education through professional or craft training and in
organisation life.
According to GLOBE, there are 9 cultural dimensions.
• Uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which a society or an
organisation tries to avoid uncertainty by depending heavily on
prevalent norms, rituals and bureaucratic practices.
• Power Distance: it is the degree to which power unequally shared in a
society and organisation.
• Collectivism –I [Social collectivism]: it is the degree to which society
and an organisation encourage and recognises collective performance.
• Collectivism-II [In-group Collectivism]: it is the degree to which
individuals take pride, loyalty and cohesiveness in their organisations
and families.
• Gender egalitarianism: this is an extent to which a society or an
organisation minimizes gender differences.
• Assertiveness: it is the degree to which individuals, both in
organisational and social context are, assertive and confrontational.
• Future orientation: it is the degree to which individuals are encouraged
in long term future oriented behaviour.
• Performance orientation: this encourages and rewards persons on
performance improvement.
• Human orientation: it is the degree to which organisations or society
encourages or reward for being fair, altruistic, friendly and caring.

Work behaviours across cultures:

In every culture, there are different sets if attitudes and values which
affect behaviour. Mangers portray trust and respect in their employees in
different ways in different cultures. This is a function of their own cultural
background. For example managers from specific cultures tend to focus only
on the behaviour that takes place at work, in contrast to managers from
diffused cultures who focus on wider range of behaviour including employee’s
private and professional lives. Most managers from diffused cultures believed
that company should provide such facility where are managers from specific
cultures agreed on the same.

Task and relationship:

In response to the statement which states that, the main reason of hierarchal
structure was to communicate the authority relationship, most of US
managers disagreed where most Asian and Latin American managers are
agreed. It was clear that US managers have extremely task oriented culture,
believe more in flatter organisational structure to become more effective. The
second set of managers was from relationship oriented cultures where the
concept of authority is more important.
Managers as experts or problem solvers:
Manager from various cultures were asked whether it was important for them
to have at hand, precise answers to most questions their subordinates might
raise about their work. French managers believed that they should give raise
to precise answers to the questions in order to maintain their credibility and
retain their subordinate’s sense of security. On contrary, US mangers
believed that a managers’ role should be to act as a mentor who would
facilitate employees to solve the problem. They also believe that providing
direct answers to a problem actually discourages subordinates initiatives and
creativity and ultimately hampers performance.

6. Write short notes on

• Locus of Control
• Machiavellianism
Ans.

Locus of Control:

A person’s perception of the source of his/ her fate is termed as Locus

of Control. Locus of control was formulated within the frame work of Rotter’s
{1954} Social Learning Theory of Personality. Rotter {1975} pointed out that
the internality and externality are the two ends of a continuum, not an
either/or topology.

External Locus of Control Internal Locus of Control

Individual believes that his/her Individual believes that his/her
behaviour is guided by fate, luck, or behaviour is guided by his/her
other external circumstances personal decisions and efforts.

Internals tend to attribute outcomes of events to their own control.

Externals attribute outcome of events to external circumstances.

For example, college students with a strong internal locus of control

may believe that their grades were achieved through their own abilities and
efforts. Whereas, those with strong external locus of control may believe that
their grades are the result of good / bad luck, or to a professor who designs
bad tests or grades capriciously; hence they are less likely to expect that
their own efforts will result in success and are therefore less likely to work
hard for higher grades.

Individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their
jobs, have higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from work wetting
and are less involved on their jobs than are internals. Internals believe that
health is substantially under their own control, and hence, of absenteeism,
are lower.

Internals generally perform better on their jobs, but one needs to

consider differences in jobs. Internals search more actively for information
before making a decision, are more motivated to achieve, and make a
greater attempt to control their environment, and hence, internals do well on
sophisticated tasks, internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative
and independence of action and want autonomy and independence in their
jobs. Externals are more compliant and are willing to follow directions and be
led, and do well on the jobs that are well structured and routine and in which
success depends heavily on complying with the direction of others.

Machiavellianism:

Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality

psychologists use to describe a person’s tendency to deceive and manipulate
others for personal gain. The concept is named after Renaissance diplomat
and writer Niccolo Machiavelli, who wrote II Principe [The prince]. Christie
and Geis [1970] developed a test for measuring a person’s level of
Machiavellianism. This eventually became the MACH IV test, a 20 statement
personality survey that is now standard self assessment tool for
Machiavellianism.

Mach IV, the Machiavelli (Mach) scale measures an individual's

willingness to put self-interest and his or her preferences above the interests
of the group, and an individual's ability to influence and manipulate others
for personal gain (Jaffe et al, 1989). Individuals with a high score on the
scale are comfortable using various means to achieve their personal goals. A
high Mach has a cynical view of human nature, few scruples, and is willing to
step outside the bounds of formal authority (Rayburn and Rayburn, 1996).
Grams and Rogers (1990) found that people who were high in
Machiavellianism used indirect, non-rational tactics like deceit, but also
appealed to emotions to try to plant their ideas to influence their colleagues.

High Mach scorers manipulate more, win more, are persuaded and
persuade others more. High mach outcomes are moderated by situational
factors and flourish when they interact face to face with others rather than
indirectly, and when the situation has minimum number of rules and
regulations, thus allowing room for improvisation. High machs makes good
employees in jobs that require bargaining skills or that offer substantial
rewards for winning.

Literature review

Several hundred studies have examined Machiavellianism, including

several that have researched the degree of Machiavellianism among current
and future business executives (Hegarty and Sims, 1978; Chonko, 1982;
Singhapakdi and Vitell, 1990). However, no previous studies have attempted
to examine the extent of Machiavellianism among Egyptian students.

Robinson and Shaver (1973) reviewed various studies on

Machiavellianism. The authors found different degrees of Machiavellianism
between generations, which indicate that people are becoming more
manipulative and impersonal. Also reviewed, field studies at medical schools
reveal that psychiatrists are most Machiavellian and surgeons are least
Machiavellian. The explanation offered is that psychiatrists' role involves
manipulation per se vs. the surgeon who has as little personal contact with
patient as possible.

Miesing and Preble (1985) compared the different business ideologies,

including Machiavellianism, and tested them with 487 MBA students. This
survey revealed that postgraduates and those with work experience were
less Machiavellian in approach, compared to undergraduates and those
without work experience. In addition, women compared to men, and those
with some religious convictions were found to be less Machiavellian in their
dealings.

Gemmill and Heisler (1972) investigated the relationship between

Machiavellian orientation and several job-related correlates among 150
managers in a large manufacturing firm in the US. The findings indicate that
Machiavellian orientation is positively associated with job strain and
perceived opportunity for formal control, and negatively associated with job
satisfaction. Machiavellian orientation was not significantly associated with
upward mobility.

Siegel (1973) examined the extent to which managers, MBA students, and
faculty members exhibit the Machiavellian, manipulative interpersonal
behaviour and leadership using the Mach scale and theory X/Theory Y
leadership scale. The study found the following ranking of Machiavellian
orientation: managers (lowest), students, faculty (highest). They found
Machiavellianism relates negatively to participative leadership attitudes for
both students and managers.
 ASSIGNMENT

Name S.AMEER ABBAS

Roll No. 520955311

Course MBA-Semester-1
Management Process and
Subject
Organization Behavior
Subject
Code
MB0022-Set-2
1.“Halo effect and selective perception are the shortcuts in judging others”
Explain
Ans.

The Halo effect refers to a cognitive bias whereby the perception of a

particular trait is influenced by the perception of the former traits in a
sequence of interpretations.

Edward L. Thorndike was the first to support the halo effect with
empirical research. In a psychology study published in 1920, Thorndike
asked commanding officers to rate their soldiers; Thorndike found high cross-
correlation between all positive and all negative traits. People seem not to
think of other individuals in mixed terms; instead we seem to see each
person as roughly good or roughly bad across all categories of measurement.

A study by Solomon Asch suggests that attractiveness is a central

trait, so we presume all the other traits of an attractive person are just as
attractive and sought after.

The halo effect is involved in Harold Kelley's implicit personality

theory, where the first traits we recognize in other people influence our
interpretation and perception of later ones because of our expectations.
Attractive people are often judged as having a more desirable personality
and more skills than someone of average appearance. Thus, we see that
celebrities are used to endorse products that they have no actual expertise in
evaluating, and with which they may not even have any prior affiliation.

The term is commonly used in human resources recruitment. It refers

to the risk of an interviewer noticing a positive trait in an interviewee and as
a result, paying less attention to their negative traits (or vice versa).

the social psychologist Richard Nisbett demonstrated that even if we were

told that our judgments have been affected by the halo effect, we may still
have no clue when the halo effect influences us.[5]

Selective perception may refer to any number of cognitive biases in

psychology related to the way expectations affect perception.

For instance, several studies have shown that students who were told
they were consuming alcoholic beverages (which in fact were non-alcoholic)
perceived themselves as being "drunk", exhibited fewer physiological
symptoms of social stress, and drove a simulated car similarly to other
subjects who had actually consumed alcohol. The result is somewhat similar
to the placebo effect.

In one classic study on this subject related to the hostile media effect
(which is itself an excellent example of selective perception), viewers
watched a filmstrip of a particularly violent Princeton-Dartmouth American
football game. Princeton viewers reported seeing nearly twice as many rule
infractions committed by the Dartmouth team than did Dartmouth viewers.
One Dartmouth alumnus did not see any infractions committed by the
Dartmouth side and erroneously assumed he had been sent only part of the
film, sending word requesting the rest.

Selective perception is also an issue for advertisers, as consumers may

engage with some ads and not others based on their pre-existing beliefs
about the brand.

Seymour Smith, a prominent advertising researcher, found evidence

for selective perception in advertising research in the early 1960s, and he
defined it to be “a procedure by which people let in, or screen out,
advertising material they have an opportunity to see or hear. They do so
because of their attitudes, beliefs, usage preferences and habits,
conditioning, etc.” People who like, buy, or are considering buying a brand
are more likely to notice advertising than are those who are neutral toward
the brand. This fact has repercussions within the field of advertising research
because any post-advertising analysis that examines the differences in
attitudes or buying behavior among those aware versus those unaware of
advertising is flawed unless pre-existing differences are controlled for.
Advertising research methods that utilize a longitudinal design are arguably
better equipped to control for selective perception.

The halo effect has to do with judging or evaluating a person, place,

or event by a single trait or experience. This overall impression can be good
or bad but will prejudice our further involvement with the stimulus. Each of
us can remember making a snap judgment about someone based on a first
impression. Often we try to perceive further interaction with the individual
based on this first impression, regardless of whether it was positive or
negative. If this impression is incorrect, it often takes considerable pressure
to concede this fact and break the halo effect. Examples are plentiful in
business. A plush office convinces us someone is an important person in the
organization and must be taken seriously. A sloppily typed letter by our new
secretary proves to us the individual is going to be an unsatisfactory
employee. The halo effect often shows up most conspicuously on
performance appraisals where our overall good or bad opinion of the workers
interferes with our ability to evaluate weaknesses or strengths accurately on
individual job functions.

Selective perception is the personal filtering of what we see and

hear so as to suit our own needs. Much of this process is psychological and
often unconscious. Have you ever been accused of only hearing what you
want to hear. In fact, that is quite true. We simply are bombarded with too
much stimuli every day to pay equal attention to everything so we pick and
choose according to our own needs.
2 Explain “Emotional Intelligence”.
Ans.

Emotional Intelligence (EI) describes the ability, capacity, skill or,

in the case of the trait EI model, a self-perceived ability, to identify, assess,
and manage the emotions of one's self, of others, and of groups. Different
models have been proposed for the definition of EI and disagreement exists
as to how the term should be used. Despite these disagreements, which are
often highly technical, the ability EI and trait EI models (but not the mixed
models) enjoy support in the literature and have successful applications in
different domains.

Substantial disagreement exists regarding the definition of EI, with respect to

both terminology and operationalizations. There has been much confusion
regarding the exact meaning of this construct. The definitions are so varied,
and the field is growing so rapidly, that researchers are constantly amending
even their own definitions of the construct. At the present time, there are
three main models of EI:

• Ability EI models
• Mixed models of EI
• Trait EI model

Measurement of the Emotional Competencies (Goleman) model

Two measurement tools are based on the Goleman model:

1) The Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI), which was created in 1999

and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI), which was
created in 2007.

2) The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal, which was created in 2001 and

which can be taken as a self-report or 360-degree assessment
 Similarly, Locke (2005) claims that the concept of EI is in itself a
misinterpretation of the intelligence construct, and he offers an alternative
interpretation: it is not another form or type of intelligence, but intelligence—
the ability to grasp abstractions--applied to a particular life domain:
emotions. He suggests the concept should be re-labeled and referred to as a
skill.

The essence of this criticism is that scientific inquiry depends on valid

and consistent construct utilization, and that in advance of the introduction of
the term EI, psychologists had established theoretical distinctions between
factors such as abilities and achievements, skills and habits, attitudes and
values, and personality traits and emotional states. The term EI is viewed by
some as having merged and conflated accepted concepts and definitions.

The model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses on EI as a wide array of

competencies and skills that drive leadership performance. Goleman's model
outlines four main EI constructs:

1. Self-awareness — the ability to read one's emotions and recognize

their impact while using gut feelings to guide decisions.

2. Self-management — involves controlling one's emotions and impulses
and adapting to changing circumstances.
3. Social awareness — the ability to sense, understand, and react to

others' emotions while comprehending social networks.

4. Relationship management — the ability to inspire, influence, and

develop others while managing conflict.

Research of EI and job performance show mixed results: a positive

relation has been found in some of the studies, in others there was no
relation or an inconsistent one. This led researchers Cote and Miners (2006)
to offer a compensatory model between EI and IQ, that posits that the
association between EI and job performance becomes more positive as
cognitive intelligence decreases, an idea first proposed in the context of
academic performance (Petrides, Frederickson, & Furnham, 2004). The
results of the former study supported the compensatory model: employees
with low IQ get higher task performance and organizational citizenship
behavior directed at the organization, the higher their EI(Emotional
Intelligence).

EI is compared and contrasted with a measure of abstract intelligence but

not with a personality measure, or with a personality measure but not with a
measure of academic intelligence.

3. “A group formation passes through various stages”: Explain the various

stages of group formation.
Ans.

Group Formation
Well functioning groups do not just form out of the blue. It takes time
for a group to develop to a point where it can be effective and where all
members feel connected to it. Bruce Tuckman has identified four stages that
characterize the development of groups. Understanding these stages can
help determine what is happening with a group and how to manage what is
occurring. These four group development stages are known as forming,
storming, norming, and performing as described below and the skills needed
to successfully guide a group through these stages are described by clicking
here.

The various stages of group formation can be divided as:

Forming
This is the initial stage when the group comes together and members
begin to develop their relationship with one another and learn what is
expected of them. This is the stage when team building begins and trust
starts to develop. Group members will start establishing limits on acceptable
behavior through experimentation. Other members’ reactions will determine
if a behavior will be repeated. This is also the time when the tasks of the
group and the members will be decided.

Storming
During this stage of group development, interpersonal conflicts arise
and differences of opinion about the group and its goals will surface. If the
group is unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or if it cannot agree on
shared goals, the group may collapse at this point. It is important to work
through the conflict at this time and to establish clear goals. It is necessary
for there to be discussion so everyone feels heard and can come to an
agreement on the direction the group is to move in.

Norming
Once the group resolves its conflicts, it can now establish patterns of
how to get its work done. Expectations of one another are clearly articulated
and accepted by members of the group. Formal and informal procedures are
established in delegating tasks, responding to questions, and in the process
by which the group functions. Members of the group come to understand
how the group as a whole operates.

Performing
 During this final stage of development, issues related to roles,
expectations, and norms are no longer of major importance. The group is
now focused on its task, working intentionally and effectively to accomplish
its goals. The group will find that it can celebrate its accomplishments and
that members will be learning new skills and sharing roles.
After a group enters the performing stage, it is unrealistic to expect it
to remain there permanently. When new members join or some people leave,
there will be a new process of forming, storming, and norming engaged as
everyone learns about one another. External events may lead to conflicts
within the group. To remain healthy, groups will go through all of these
processes in a continuous loop.
When conflict arises in a group, do not try to silence the conflict or to
run from it. Let the conflict come out into the open so people can discuss it.
If the conflict is kept under the surface, members will not be able to build
trusting relationships and this could harm the group’s effectiveness. If
handled properly, the group will come out of the conflict with a stronger
sense of cohesiveness then before.

Adjourning and transforming

Tuckman later added a fifth phase, adjourning, that involves

completing the task and breaking up the team. Others call it the phase for
mourning.

A team that lasts may transcend to a transforming phase of

achievement. Transformational management can produce major changes in
performance through synergy and is considered to be more far-reaching than
transactional management.

4. “Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual

wants, either by self or by the subordinates. The essence of power is to
control over the behavior of others”: Explain what are the various bases of
Power?
Ans.

Bases of Power: Simply put, power is the capacity to influence the thought
and behavior of other people. Just as there are many forms of energy used in
our daily lives, there are several forms, sources or bases of power you can
draw upon to influence the motivation, behavior and thoughts of others.

These bases are as follows:

1. Legitimate Power is the formal “legal” authority that is embodied in your

position and/or title. You have the “right to manage” and to expect
compliance because of your place in the organization. With Legitimate Power
there is little need for a personal relationship between you and others. Others
respect the authority carried in the position regardless of who occupies the
position. The higher your rank, the more Legitimate Power you have.

2. Reward Power is based on your capacity to provide things that others

desire. You make positive outcomes such as pay increases, recognition,
interesting job assignments and promotions, among other things, contingent
on desired behavior. To be effective, this power base requires that others
value the incentives offered and that they believe that you can and will
provide them.

3. Coercive Power could be considered the flip side of Reward Power. This
power is based on your capacity and willingness to produce conditions that
the others want to avoid, or find unpleasant. Coercive Power relies on the
contingent use of punishments such as criticism, poor performance
appraisals, reprimands, undesirable work assignments, or dismissal. Coercive
Power is most effective when its application is both immediate, certain and
consistent.
4. Connection Power is the power you derive from relationships with other
influential, important or competent people. In today’s language, it is your
“network”. Because you have a network of connections with other “powerful
people”, you can use these relationships to influence the behavior of others
who also want to be seen favorably by these other influential people. Of
course, be careful you do not over use this and become seen as a “name
dropper”.

5. Information Power is based on you having access to information that

others are not privy to, do not know about and which they believe is
important. Others comply because they believe that what you want them to
do is based on some special and/or maybe even inside information that you
have.

6. Expert Power is based on your skill, knowledge, accomplishments or

reputation. Others are willing to do what you want because they trust that
your superior expertise will produce the desired results. Your Expert Power
also instills confidence in others even when the solution and/or way forward
may not be clearly understood. This base of power requires that the
subordinates trust your expertise and believe it applies to the issue at hand.
Please the leader, have the leader like them and/or want to become like the
leader themselves. This attraction gives the leader power to influence the
behavior of others.

7. Referent Power is based on personal feelings of attraction, or

admiration, that others have for you. Referent Power is truly in the “eye of
the beholder” where others see something special in you allowing you to take
the lead, to be in the lead or be given the lead. This “something special” is
called charisma where others are willing to do what the leader wants because
they want to please the leader, have the leader like them and/or want to
become like the leader themselves. This attraction gives the leader power to
influence the behavior of others.
8.Position & Personal Power: The seven bases of power reviewed above
can be classified as either Position Power or Personal Power. The Position
Power bases are Legitimate, Reward and Coercive. These bases are related
more to the position of authority you hold in the organization and are most
effective with your direct reports. Rarely can you overtly use these to
influence the behavior or your boss or colleagues.

Once you accrue Position Power, it is certainly warranted to use these

power bases at times. It is called asserting your right to manage. It is,
however, best not to flaunt it. Overuse of these bases by constantly
reminding people of your title, how you can reward them for doing what you
want or what you will do to punish them may actually erode your influence in
time. Having these power bases and using them sparingly works best. Maybe
this is what was meant with having an iron fist in a velvet glove.

The Personal Power bases are Connection, Information, Expert and

Referent. These are personal bases of power because they are embodied in
you and not so much your job role, or position. Cultivating these bases of
power gives you the capacity to influence the behavior of everyone — boss-
es, colleagues and direct reports. Having these means that when you speak,
others listen.
Whereas use of the Position Power bases may need to be minimized by
you and the use of rewards and punishment controlled by the organization,
the Personal Power bases of Information, Connection, Expert and Referent
are yours to totally expand upon. It makes good sense to enhance your
influence by knowing what is going on in your work unit and other areas of
the business (Information); building your network within and outside of the
organization (Connection); expanding your skills and competencies (Expert);
and taking the time to cultivate your image, sense of confidence and capacity
to communicate (Referent).

Finally, unlike the bases of Position Power, having and using the
Personal Power bases does not require that you be a manager. If you have
the capacity to influence the behavior of others through these power bases
and have at least one follower, you are a leader. You might say that the
Position Power bases allow you to assert your right to manage and the bases
of Personal Power allow you to be seen as a leader. The goal is to make sure
you have and use all seven bases of power well

5 Explain “Organizational Development” process

Ans.

Organization development (OD) is often defined as a planned, top-

down, organization-wide effort to increase the organization's effectiveness
and health. According to Warren Bennis, OD is a complex strategy intended
to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of organizations so
that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets, and challenges. OD
is neither "anything done to better an organization" nor is it "the training
function of the organization"; it is a particular kind of change process
designed to bring about a particular kind of end result. OD can involve
interventions in the organization's "processes," using behavioural science
knowledge as well as organizational reflection, system improvement,
planning, and self-analysis.

Kurt Lewin (1898 - 1947) is widely recognized as the founding father

of OD, although he died before the concept became current in the mid-1950s

The OD Process is based on the action research model which begins

with an identified problem or need for change. The process proceeds through
assessment, planning of an intervention, implementing the intervention,
gathering data to evaluate the intervention, and determining if satisfactory
progress has been made or if there is need for further intervention. The
process is cyclical and ends when the desired developmental result is
obtained.
 The OD process begins when an organization recognizes that a
problem exists which impacts the mission or health of the organization and
change is desired. It can also begin when leadership has a vision of a better
way and wants to improve the organization. An organization does not always
have to be in trouble to implement organization development activities.

Once the decision is made to change the situation, the next step is to
assess the situation to fully understand it. This assessment can be conducted
in many ways including documentation review, organizational sensing, focus
groups, interviewing, or surveying. The assessment could be conducted by
outside experts or by members of the organization.

After the situation is assessed, defined, and understood, the next step
is to plan an intervention. The type of change desired would determine the
nature of the intervention. Interventions could include training and
development, team interventions such as teambuilding for management or
employees or the establishment of change teams, structural interventions, or
individual interventions.

Once the intervention is planned, it is implemented.

During and after the implementation of the intervention, relevant data

is gathered. The data gathered would be determined by the change goals.
For example, if the intervention were training and development for individual
employees or for work groups, data to be gathered would measure changes
in knowledge and competencies.

This data is used to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. It

is reported to the organization’s decision-makers. The decision-makers
determine if the intervention met its goals. If the intervention met its goals,
the process can end, which is depicted by the raising of the development bar.
If it did not, the decision is made whether to continue the cycle and to plan
and carry out another intervention or to end it.

6. Write short note on “Stress Management”

Ans.

During the course of our life, we encounter stress, some in high levels,
some in low. Stress is the result of placing undue expectations or desire on
ourselves, creating images of our self and trying to live up to the image that
has been created by others.

When we compare the image of ourselves to the reality of ourselves,

opposing forces are created, and our mind tries to match the created image
with the current situation.

Stress can be made worse by other peoples expectations, and being

human we always care what others think of us - even though we tell
ourselves that we do not. We try to change ourselves so that we can be
accepted by other people, regardless of whether or not they care.

Negative thoughts about our self image also add to the stress. We
remember everything that we have done in life, but more so the negative
ones. We re-live those negative moments over and over again in our minds,
lowering our self esteem.

The first thing we have to learn is that what has happened in the past
cannot be changed, or erased. All we can do is take the lesson we learnt, and
learn not to do it again. What happens in the past is exactly that, passed,
and we must learn to live for now.

Stress Management
High or low levels of stress sustained over long periods of time, can lead to
reduced employee performance and, thus, require action by management.

1. Individual approaches:

• Effective individual strategies include implementing time

management techniques, increasing physical exercise,
relaxation training, and expanding the social support network.

• Practicing time management principles also leaves as an

important element in managing stress, such as:

a. Making daily lists of activities to be accomplished.

b. Prioritizing activities by importance and urgency

c. Scheduling activities according to the priorities set.

d. Knowing your daily cycle and handling the most demanding

parts of your job during the high part of your cycle when you
are most alert and productive.
• Non – competitive physical exercise has long been
recommended as a way to deal with excessive stress levels.

• Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through

relaxation techniques, such as, meditation, hypnosis, and
biofeedback.

• Having friends, family, or work colleagues to talk to provides an

outlet for excessive stress.

2. Organizational approaches

• Strategies that management might want to consider include:

a. Improved personnel selection and job placement leading to

right person – job – fit thereby reducing chances of non -
performance and stress level.

b. Use of realistic goal setting, redesigning of jobs can help in

aligning the individuals and job effectively and reduce stress.

c. Training in stress management techniques can be helpful.

d. Increased employee involvement improves motivation,

morale, commitment, and leads to better role integration and
reduction in stress.

e. Improved organizational communication helps in creating

transparency in organizations and reduces confusion, thereby
decreasing stress level at work.

f. Establishment of corporate wellness programs is an

important component in managing stress among
organizational members by rejuvenating and refreshing them
from time to time leading to increased productivity with
renewed energy.