SPM Biology Essays Collection
SPM Biology Essays Collection
SPM Biology Essays Collection
Photosynthesis
Light Reaction
During the light reaction, chlorophyll captures light energy which excites
the electrons of chlorophyll molecules to higher energy levels. In the excited
state, the electrons leave the chlorophyll molecules. Light energy is also used to
split the water molecules into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions. This reaction is
known as the photolysis of water.
The hydrogen ions then combine with the electrons released by the chlorophyll
to form hydrogen atoms.
24H++24e-→24H
The energy from the excited electrons is used to form energy-rich molecules of
ATP. At the same time, each hydroxyl ion loses an electron to form a hydroxyl
group. This electron is then received by the chlorophyll.
24OH-→24OH+24e-
The hydroxyl groups then combine to form water and gaseous oxygen.
24OH→12H2O+6O2
Oxygen is released into the atmosphere and used for cellular respiration. The
ATP molecules provide energy while the hydrogen atoms provide reducing power
for the dark reaction which takes place in the stroma.
Dark Reaction
The dark reaction is also known as the Calvin cycle. It is light independent.
During the dark reaction, the hydrogen atoms are used to fix carbon dioxide in a
series of reactions catalysed by photosynthetic enzymes. The overall reaction
results in the reduction of carbon dioxide into glucose.
6CO2+24H→6(CH2O)+6H2O
(CH2O) is a basic unit of glucose. Six units of it combine to form one molecule of
glucose. The glucose monomers then undergo condensation to form starch
which is temporarily stored as starch grains in the chloroplast. The entire
process can be represented by the following equation.
6H2O+6CO2→C6H12O6+6O2
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Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+2898kJ
Anaerobic Respiration
As such, the muscles obtain extra energy from anaerobic respiration because
oxygen is not available. During anaerobic respiration, the glucose molecules
break down partially into an immediate substance called lactic acid instead of
carbon dioxide and water. Because glucose is not completely broken down, the
energy released during anaerobic respiration is much less than the energy
released during aerobic respiration. In fact, for every molecule of glucose,
anaerobic respiration releases only two molecules of ATP or 150kJ of energy per
mole of glucose. In contrast, aerobic respiration generates 38 molecules of ATP
or 2898kJ of energy per mole of glucose. Thus, in terms of energy yield,
anaerobic respiration is less efficient than aerobic respiration.
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Much of the energy is still trapped within the molecules of lactic acid. The
accumulation of lactic acid can reach a high level of concentration which can
cause muscle cramps and fatigue. This contributes to the exhaustion a person
feels during and after a period of intense exercise. The person needs to breathe
more deeply and rapidly in order to inhale more oxygen. The excess oxygen is
used by the body to oxidise the accumulated lactic acid to carbon dioxide and
water.
Oxidation of lactic acid occurs mainly in the liver where a portion of it is oxidised
to produce energy while the remaining ones is converted into glycogen for
storage in the muscle cells. The oxygen debt is paid off when all the lactic acid is
removed. This happens through the increased breathing rate after vigorous
exercise. Therefore, an oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen needed to remove
lactic acid from the muscle cells.
Digestion
Ruminant
When a cow feeds on grass, it partially chews the grass. This partially
chewed food is swallowed into the rumen, the largest compartment of the
stomach. Here, cellulose is broken down by the cellulose produced by symbiotic
microorganisms such as bacteria and protozoa. Part of the breakdown products
are absorbed by the bacteria and protozoa, the rest by the cow.
As the food enters the reticulum, the cellulose undergoes further hydrolysis. The
content of the reticulum, called the cud, is then regurgitated bit by bit into the
mouth to be thoroughly chewed again. This process helps soften and break down
cellulose, making it more accessible to further microbial action in other parts of
the stomach.
The cud is then re-swallowed and moves into the omasum. Here, large particles
of food are broken down into smaller pieces by peristalsis. Water is removed
from the cud. The food particles finally move into the abomasums, the true
stomach of the cow. Here, gastric juices containing digestive enzymes complete
the digestion of proteins and other food substances. The food then passes
through the small intestine to be digested and absorbed in the normal way.
Rodents
In rodents like squirrels, the caecum and appendix are enlarged to store
the cellulose-producing bacteria. The breakdown products pass through the
alimentary canal twice. The faeces in the first batch are usually produced at
night and are soft and watery. Those are eaten again to enable the animals to
absorb the products of bacterial breakdown as they pass through the alimentary
canal for the second time. The second batch of faeces becomes drier and harder.
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This adaptation allows squirrels to recover the nutrients initially loss with the
faeces.
Definition
*Colonisation: is the process whereby living organisms move into a newly formed
area which is devoid of life.
Mangrove Swamp
The ground becomes higher. As a result, the soil is drier because it is less
submerged by sea water. The condition now becomes more suitable for another
mangrove species, the Bruguiera sp, which replaces the Rhizophora sp. The
buttress root system of the Bruguiera sp forms loops which extend from the soil
to trap more silt and mud. As more sediment is deposited, the shore extends
further to the sea. The old shore is now further away from the sea and is like
terrestrial ground. Over time, terrestrial plants like the nipah palm and Pandanus
sp begin to replace the Bruguiera sp. The gradual transition and succession from
a mangrove swamp to a terrestrial forest and eventually to a tropical rainforest,
which is a climax community, takes a long time. That is why we need to
conserve and preserve our mangrove forest.
Pond
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the pond. The organic matter is converted into humus at the pond base. The
humus and soil which erode from the sides of the pond are deposited on the
base of the pond, making the pond shallower.
The condition becomes more unfavourable for submerged plants but more
suitable for floating plants such as duckweeds (Lemna sp), water hyacinths
(Eichornia sp) and lotus plants (Nelumbium sp). These plants float freely on the
surface of the water. Since these plants receive sunlight directly and can
reproduce rapidly by vegetative propagation, they spread to cover a large area
of the water surface and prevent sunlight from reaching the submerged plants.
As a result, the submerged plants die because they cannot photosynthesise. The
decomposed remains of the submerged plants add more organic matter on the
base of the pond. At the same time, more erosion occurs at the edge which
results in more sediments being deposited on the base of the pond. As a result,
the pond becomes more and more shallow which makes it unsuitable for the
floating plants.
Cell Division
Mitosis
The two major phases mainly interphase and mitotic cell division also
known as the M phase which consists of mitosis and cytokinesis begins and ends
according to the cell cycle. Mitosis begins with interphase. Interphase is divided
into three shorter stages, G1, S and G2. In G1 phase, the cell synthesises protein
and new cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplast. The
chromosomes are not condensed and appear as thread-like structures called
chromatin. In S phase, however, synthesis of DNA occurs. This means that the
DNA in the nucleus undergoes replication. Each duplicated chromosome now
consists of two identical sister chromatid which contain identical copies of the
chromosomes DNA molecule. The cell continues to grow and remain
metabolically active during G2 stage as a preparation for cell division. Interphase
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is followed by the M phase which contains mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis can
further subdivided into four phases mainly prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.
The mitosis in an animal cell begins with prophase. During prophase, the
chromosomes in the nucleus condense and become more tightly coiled. The
chromosomes appear shorter and thicker. Each chromosome now consists of a
pair of sister chromatids joined together at the centromere. In the cytoplasm,
spindle fibres begin to form and extend between the centrioles. Each pair of
centrioles then migrates to lie at the opposite poles of the cell. The chromatids
are attached to the fibres of the spindle by their centromeres. In most plant cell,
the spindle fibre forms without the presence of centrioles. At the end of
prophase, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear membrane disintegrates.
Metaphase begins when the centromeres of all the chromosomes are lined up on
the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane across the middle of the cell. The
mitotic spindles is now fully formed. The two sister chromatids are still attached
to one another at the centromere. Metaphase ends when the centromeres
divide. During anaphase, two sister chromatids of each chromosome separate at
the centromere. The sister chromatids are pulled apart to the opposite poles by
the shortening of the spindle fibres that connect the centromeres to the poles.
Once separated, the chromatids are referred to as daughter chromosomes. By
the end of anaphase, the two poles of the cell have completed and have
equivalent sets of chromosomes.
Telophase begins when the two sets of chromosomes reach the opposite poles of
the cell. The chromosomes start to uncoil and revert to their extended state
(chromatin). The chromosomes become less visible. The spindle fibres disappear
and a new nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes. The
nucleolus also reforms in each nucleus; the process of mitosis is now completed.
Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm occurs towards the end of telophase.
In animal cell, the actin filaments in cytoplasm contracts to pull a cleavage
furrow. The cleavage furrow pinches at the equator of the cell and deepens
progressively until the cell is separated into two daughter cells. Although plant
cells undergo the same stages of mitosis as in animal cells, cytokinesis in plant
cells us markedly different. A cleavage furrow does not form. Instead, membrane
enclosed vesicles fuse to form a cell plate. The cell plate grows outwards until its
edges fuse with the plasma membrane of the parent cell. New cell walls and
plasma membranes are formed from the contents of the cell plate, which
eventually divide the cell into two daughter cells. At the end of cytokineses,
cellulose fibres are produces by the cell to strengthen the new cell walls. After
cytokinesis, the new cells enter the G1 stage of interphase, thus completing the
cell cycle. Each daughter cell contains diploid number of chromosomes.
Meiosis
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and four haploid daughter cells are formed, each containing half the number of
chromosomes and is genetically different from the parent diploid cell. These
haploid cells will develop into gametes.
A small piece of a plant’s leaf, shoot, bud, stem or root tissues are cut out.
These cut out plants tissues are called explants. Alternatively, enzymes are used
to digest the cell walls of tissues, for example, the mesophyll tissue from a leaf.
This result in naked cells without cell walls called protoplasts. The explants or
protoplasts are sterilised and then placed in a glass container which contains a
nutrient solution with a fixed chemical composition. A culture medium or growth
medium normally consists of a complex mixture of glucose, amino acids,
minerals, and other substances required for the growth of the tissues. The
culture medium and the apparatus used must be in a sterile condition and free
from microorganisms which can contaminate the tissue culture. The pH and the
temperature of the culture medium also need to be maintained at optimum
levels.
Cancer
Cancer can be caused by many factors such as damage to the DNA, changes in
genes (mutation) that control cell division, ionising radiation, for example, X-
rays, ultraviolet rays and gamma rays, certain chemical compounds like tar in
tobacco smoke or carcinogenic (cancer-causing) compounds such as
formaldehyde.
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Reproduction
Menstrual Cycle
Menstrual cycle involves two process mainly the breakdown of the endometrium
and the formation of an ovum. On day 1-5, FSH stimulates the development of
primary follicle to produce a Graafian follicle. FSH stimulates the follicle cells and
ovary tissues to secrete oestrogen to heal and repait the uterus lining. This only
takes place in the ovary. On the other hand, menstruation occurs in the uterus
where blood is discharged from the vagina. This is when the uterus lining
breakdown.
On day 6-13, in the ovary, the graafian follicle matures. Oestrogen and
progesterone level continue to increase. Till a certain point, the oestrogen will
stop the pituitary gland from producing FSH and is stimulated to produce LH. In
the uterus, the endometrium wall is repaired and thickens.
On day 14, LH causes ovulation and the formation of corpus luteum from the
follicle cells. In the uterus, however, the endometrium continues to thickens.
On day 15-24, the corpus luteum develops and releases progesterone which
stimulates the thickening of the endometrium. In the uterus, the endometrium
becomes thicker and more blood vessels are present.
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On day 25-28, if there is no fertilisation, then there will not be any implantation.
Thus, the corpus luteum degenerates causing the level of progesterone to
decrease and halt. In the uterus, the endometrium begins to break down and
menstruation occurs. The menstrual cycle continues. However, if fertilisation
happens, a zygote will be implanted in the endometrium. The corpus luteum will
continue to secrete oestrogen and progesterone until the placenta is formed to
replace it. The presence of hormone progesterone inhibits the production of FSH
and LH, this cause the menstrual cycle to stop during pregnancy.
The ovule develops from the ovarian tissue. It has a diploid embryo sac
mother cell (2n). Each ovule consists of protective outer layers of cells called the
integuments. The embryo sac mother cell (2n) undergoes meiosis to form a row
of four haploid cells called megaspores (n). Three of the four megaspores
degenerate, leaving one in the ovule. The megaspore continues to grow and
enlarges filling up most of the ovule. The nucleus of the three megaspores then
undergoes mitosis three times to form eight haploid nuclei. Three of the eight
nuclei migrate to one end of the cell to form antipodal cells. Another two nuclei,
called the polar nuclei, move to the centre. One of the three nuclei nearest the
opening of the ovule (micropyle) develops into an egg cell or female gamete,
flanked by two synergid cells. The structure formed is known as the embryo sac.
It is where the embryo will develop. The ovule, which eventually becomes a
seed, now consists of the embryo sac and the surrounding integuments.
*Eight cells have no cell walls; synergid cells provide nutrient and support to egg
cell; integuments form protective layers around embryo sac.
Pollination is the process in which mature pollen grains from the anther
are transferred to the stigma of a flower. A pollen grain on a stigma initiates the
fertilisation process. The secretion of sucrose solution in the stigma stimulates
the pollen grain to germinate and form a tube known as the pollen tube. The
pollen tube grows through the tissues of the style into the ovule. During the
growth of pollen tube, the generative nucleus divides by mitosis to form two
male gamete nuclei. The male nuclei follow the tube nucleus down the pollen
tube. When the pollen tube reaches the ovary, it penetrates the ovule through
the micropyle. The tube nucleus disintegrates and the tip of the tube bursts,
leaving the passage for the male nuclei to enter the embryo sac.
Double fertilisation, which is unique for angiosperms, occurs within the ovule.
This process involves the union of the two male gametes nuclei with different
nuclei of the embryo sac. One male gamete nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus,
forming a diploid zygote (2n). The other male gamete nucleus fuses with the two
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polar nuclei, forming a triploid nucleus (3n). The division of the tripod nucleus
will give rise to the endosperm, the food-storing tissue of the seed. The synergid
cells and the antipodal cell will degenerates.
Blood that enters the arterial end of the capillaries is under high pressure.
This is because the blood capillaries have a smaller diameter than the arterioles
and arteries. This blood pressure causes fluid to leak continuously from the blood
plasma into the spaces between the cells. This fluid is known as interstitial fluid.
The interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the cells and constantly bathes the
cells. The exchange of substances between the blood capillaries and the body
cells occurs in the interstitial fluid. Nutrients and oxygen diffuses from the blood
through the interstitial fluid into the body cells while carbon dioxide and other
waste products diffuse from the body cells through the interstitial fluid into the
blood.
*The higher BP at the arterial end forces fluid out of blood capillary; the lower BP
at the venous end allows fluid to re-enter the blood capillaries.
Dynamic Ecosystem
Nitrogen Cycle
To build proteins, plants need the element nitrogen. The nitrogen gas in
the atmosphere is about 78% but plants are not able to utilize the nitrogen. This
is because the nitrogen has to be fixed before it can be absorbed by the plants.
Nitrogen fixing bacteria (Nostoc sp, Azotobacter) which live in the root nodule of
leguminous plant can convert nitrogen in the atmosphere into ammonia.
Nitrosomonas converts/oxidises ammonia into nitrites. Nitrobacter
oxidises/converts nitrites into nitrates. Nitrites and Nitrates can be absorbed by
the plants as their nitrogen source. The plants protein is transferred to the
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animals when consumed by the animals. The animals and plants proteins are
transferred to human when consumed.
Blood
Muscle cramps
Muscular Dystrophy
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Osteoporosis
Arthritis
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During exhalation, the external intercostals muscles relax while the internal
intercostals muscles contract. This action causes the rib cage to move
downwards and inwards. At the same time, the diaphragm muscles relax. The
diaphragm curves upwards (dome-shaped). These two actions cause the volume
of the thoracic cavity to decrease, and the pressure of the thoracic cavity
increases. Higher atmospheric pressure inside the lungs forces the ait out of the
lungs.
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pressure of carbon dioxide, PCO2 compared to the air in the alveolus. Carbon
dioxide diffuses into the alveolus and then it is breathed out through the nose or
mouth. Oxygen diffuses into the blood capillaries from the lungs and combines
with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin is the red pigment in
RBC. Oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin is carried to the cells and tissues.
Oxyhaemoglobin is unstable so it will breakdown into haemoglobin and oxygen
when it reaches the cell or tissue with lower PO2.
Carbon dioxide is given out by cell as waste products of cellular respiration. This
carbon dioxide is transported out of the cell by a few means. 7% of them
dissolve in blood plasma, 23% of them binds with haemoglobin to form
carbaminohaemoglobin, a type of multiple amino while 70% of them are carried
with bicarbonate ions.
CO2+H2O→H2CO3→H++HCO3-
CO2+H2O→H++HCO3-
The oxygen content in the blood usually has little effect on the breathing
control centre. The perispheral chemoreceptors in the aortic bodies and the
carotid bodies will only be stimulated if the oxygen level is very low, for example
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When an individual does an activity, the body cells require more energy.
This causes the rate of respiration to increase. When PO2 decreases while PCO2
increases, the rate and depth of breathing also increases. The breathing rate
increases will cause the increase of ventilation rate so that the rate of gaseous
exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries increases. Lastly, the heartbeat
rate increases causes more blood to be pumped into the circulation so that more
oxygen can reach the cell to oxidise glucose for energy and also to remove the
carbon dioxide from the cells to the air.
Compensation Point
Genetics
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Variation
i. Similarities
ii. Differences
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Reproduction II
Identical twins are formed when the ball of cells from a fertilised ovum
splits into two embryos. Only one sperm and one ovum are involved in the
process of fertilisation. The two embryos develop into two separate foetuses in
the uterus. Each foetus has its own umbilical cord but shares the same placenta.
Since the twins originate from one embryo, they are, therefore, identical in every
aspect. They are born the same sex.
Fraternal twins are formed when two ova are released at the same time,
one from each ovary. Each ovum is then fertilised by a sperm. As a result, two
zygotes are formed and develop into two separate embryos. Each embryo has its
own placenta and umbilical cord. They are genetically un-identical thus having
different physique and may or may not varies in sex.
Siamese Twins
Siamese twins are identical twins which did not separate completely
during embryonic development. Normally, Siamese twins are attached at certain
parts of the body such as the head, chest, abdomen or hips. They may also
share some common internal organs. Siamese twins can be separated surgically
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and have a greater chance of survival if they do not share major internal organs
like the heart, brain or lungs.
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Placenta forms a selective blood barrier that prevents the mixing of maternal
and foetal blood. The two bloodstreams are separated by a thin membrane
called blood barrier.
Birth Control
Sterilisation can be done for both male and female for birth control. Vasectomy
is done for male, where sperm duct is cut and tied while tubal ligation is done for
female, where the fallopian tube is cut and tied. These methods can be done by
surgery but they are irreversible. Intrauterine device (IUD) can be used for birth
control. IUD is inserted into the uterus so that it interrupts the normal uterine
environment and prevents the implantation of zygote in the endometrium. The
T-shaped IUD is made up of copper and plastics.
Another method known as the hormone method can too be used for birth
control. This can be done by taking contraceptive pills orally. These pills contain
a combination of oestrogen (increases weight) and progesterone. Ovulation is
prevented by inhibiting the secretion of FSH and LH. This is because a high level
of oestrogen and progesterone inhibits the pituitary gland from secreting FSH
and LH. Lastly there is the awareness method. This is done by analysing the
temperature of the uterus lining by plotting temperature graphs (also known as
the basal body temperature). Sexual intercourse in the period where the basal
body temperature is high is prevented as high basal body temperature give a
sign that the process of ovulation is happening on that particular day.
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woman is inseminated with sperms obtained from the sperm bank. A sperm bank
is a special laboratory that stores sperms in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of
-196oC. Sperms from the donors are collected, frozen and kept in a sperm bank.
The genetic biodata of each donor are kept meticulously, so that a woman
wishing to conceive can use the sperm bank to obtain the sperms she wants.
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
Oogenesis occurs in the germinal epithelium of the ovary before birth and
is regulated by hormones. The primodial germ cell in the germinal epithelium
cells (2n) divide by mitosis to produce oogonia (2n) (oogonium sing.). The
oogonium (2n) grows in size to become a primary oocyte (2n). Each primary
oocyte (2n) undergoes meiosis but stops at prophase I of meiosis I. Meiosis
resumes at puberty to produce a larger secondary oocyte (n) and a smaller first
polar body. The secondary oocyte (n) undergoes meiosis II and stops at
metaphase II. The first polar body completes meiosis II to form two polar bodies
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(n). At this stage, the secondary oocyte, together with the layers of follicle sells
around it, is now called a secondary follicle. The secondary oocyte starts to grow
in the follicle. The secondary follicle increases in size and matures to form the
graafian follicle. At intervals of approximately 28 days, the graafian follicle
merges with the wall of the ovary. The ovarian wall and the graafian follicle then
rupture, releasing the secondary oocyte or egg into the fallopian tube. This
process is known as ovulation. If the secondary oocyte is fertilised by a sperm,
meiosis II will be completed to form two haploid cells of unequal size. The larger
cell is ovum while the other is a polar body. The nuclei of the sperm cell and the
ovum then fuse to form a diploid zygote (2n). This means a primary oocyte
ultimately give rise to a single haploid ovum and three haploid polar bodies. All
polar bodies will degenerates. After ovulation, the follicle cells left in the ovary
form a corpus luteum. If there is no fertilisation, the corpus luteum will
degenerates after a few days. The cycle formation of the graafian follicle,
ovulation and the corpus luteum is known as the ovarian cycle.
Actions
Voluntary actions such as walking and talking are under conscious control.
Voluntary control of the skeletal muscles is governed by the cerebral cortex of
the cerebrum. The pathway of the transmission in voluntary actions is as follows.
When the door bell rings, the receptors in the ear pick up the ringing of the
doorbell. The receptors trigger nerve impulses in the afferent neurones. The
nerve impulses pass from the afferent neurones to the interneurones in the
brain. The brain interprets the nerve impulses from many interneurones that the
doorbell is ringing. The brain also decides that the door should be opened. From
the interneurones, nerve impulses are transmitted to the efferent neurones and
then to the muscles. The muscles in the arm carry out the response and open
the door.
A sharp pin pierces the skin causing the sensory receptors in the skin to
generate impulses. The nerve impulses are transmitted along an afferent
neurone towards the spinal cord. In the spinal cord, the nerve impulses are
transmitted from the afferent neurone to an interneurone. From the
interneurone, the nerve impulses are transmitted to an efferent neurone. The
efferent neurone carries the nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the effectors
(muscle tissue) so that the pin can be pulled out from the skin immediately.
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Knee-jerk only involves the simplest neural circuit because it involves only
two kinds of neurones: the afferent neurone and the efferent neurone. The reflex
hammer hits a tendon that connects the quadriceps muscle in the thigh to a
bone in the lower leg. As the hammer strikes the knee, the force stretches the
quadriceps muscles and stimulates the stretch receptors in the muscles,
triggering nerve impulses. Afferent neurones transmit the information to the
efferent neurones in the spinal cord. The efferent neurones transmit this
information to the quadriceps muscles, and the muscle contracts, jerking the leg
forward.
Synapses
i. Alzheimer’s Disease
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Hormone imbalanced
i. Growth Hormone
ii. Thyroxine
iii. Insulin
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Kidney is situated in the dorsal wall of the abdomen. It has three main
parts that are the outer cortex, inner medulla and the pelvis. Each kidney
consists of numerous tubular units that are called nephrons. Kidney is needed to
remove toxic waste products from our body. Kidney involved in the
osmoregulation to keep the osmotic concentration of the blood constant by
removing excess water and salts. It regulates the pH of the blood by controlling
the removal of hydrogen ions. It also controls the blood volume.
i. Ultra filtration
The afferent arteriole which has a bigger diameter than that of the
efferent arteriole sends blood to the glomerulus. The blood is now under
relatively high pressure and ultra filtration takes place in the Bowman’s
capsule. The filtrate which filters into the Bowman’s capsule consists of
small molecules, water, glucose, amino acids, urea and mineral salts. The
filtrate does not contain blood cells or plasma proteins. These components
remain in the glomerular capillaries as they are too large. The filtrate then
goes down the proximal convoluted tubule for reabsorption.
ii. Reabsorption
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transport. Urea is not reabsorbed. As the filtrate (water, salt and urea)
passes along the loop of Henle, about 20% of the water and some salts
are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries. At the distal convoluted tubule
and collecting duct, the amount of water and salts that are reabsorbed
into the blood capillaries depends on the content of water and salt in the
blood. Reabsorption of water and salts is regulated by the endocrine
system.
iii. Secretion
Secretion takes place in the distal convoluted tubule. Along the tubule,
waste products such as urea, uric acid and ammonia are pumped out of
the blood capillaries into the distal convoluted tubule by active transport.
This process is called secretion. Some drugs and toxic substances are
secreted by simple diffusion. The final glomerular filtrate which remains in
the collecting duct is called urine (96% of water, 2.5% nitrogenous
products such as urea, uric acid, ammonia and cretinine, 1.5% salts and
other trace elements such as bile pigments). From the collecting ducts,
urine is channelled into the pelvis and carried out of the kidney by the
ureter to the urinary bladder before it is excreted through the urethra.
Homeostasis
Osmoregulation
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Glucoregulation
The normal blood glucose level is 90mg in 100cm 3 of blood. When the
blood glucose level increases, the change is detected by the β-cells of the Islets
of Longerhans. This stimulates the pancreas to secrete insulin. Glucose is
converted into glycogen for temporal storage. Glycogen is converted into lipid to
be stored under the adipose tissues. Part of the glucose is used as the
respiration of glucose increases. The blood glucose level declines back to
normal.
When the blood glucose level decreases, the change is detected by the α-cells of
the Islets of Longerhans. This stimulates the pancreas to secrete glucagon. Lipid
is converted back to glycogen while glycogen is converted back to glucose. The
blood glucose level rises back to normal.
Thermoregulation
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cells of the shoot tip. It is then transported to the shoot via the phloem.
Therefore, they are highest in concentration in the shoot tip and lowest at the
root tip. The concentration of auxins in the shoot tip and the root tip affects
growth. High concentration of auxin in shoot promotes elongation of cells. Hence
the lower side of the shoot with a higher concentration of auxins will grow faster
than the upper side. As a result, the shoot curves upwards, showing negative
geotropism. A high concentration of auxins inhibits the elongation of cells in the
root. The upper side of the root grows faster than the lower side. The young root
curves and grows downwards, showing positive geotropism. Auxins move away
from the light, accumulate in the shaded side.
Locomotion
Antagonistic Muscles
When the biceps contract, the triceps relaxes. The biceps becomes shorter
and thicker while the triceps becomes longer and thinner. This exerts a pulling
force transmitted to the radius through the tendons. As a result, the radius is
pulled upward and the arm is bended. The elastic ligaments that held the radius,
ulna and the humerus together enable the radius and ulna to be pulled upward,
bending the arms from the elbow. When the triceps contract, the biceps relaxes.
Now, the triceps becomes shorter and thicker while the biceps becomes longer
and thinner. The triceps that contracts exert a pulling force on the ulna through
its tendon. The ulna and radius, which are jointed to the humerus by the elastic
ligaments, is pulled together downwards, causing the arm to straighten.
Walking
The calf muscle contracts and raises the heel. In doing so, it exerts a
forward thrust by pushing the ball of the foot against the ground. The hamstring
muscle contracts to pull the femur back and bends the knee. The leg is raised.
As the right foot loses contact with the ground, the weight of the body is now
supported by the left leg which is still in contact with the ground. Next, the
quadriceps muscle contracts, pulls the femur forward and extends the leg. When
the extension of the leg is completed, the foot then regains contact with the
ground with the heel touching the ground first. The weight of the body is now
supported on the right leg. The whole sequence is repeated with the left leg.
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Worm
Fish
Bird
The antagonistic actions of the strong muscles enable the bird to flap its
wings up and down. When the pectorial major (in) contracts and the pectorial
minor (out) relax, the wings flapped downwards. When the pectorial minor (out)
contracts and the pectorial major (in) relaxes, the wings goes up.
Grasshopper has strong muscular hind legs that are the flexor (in) and the
extensor (out) muscle to enable them to jump. A flexor muscle controls forward
leg movement while the extensor controls the backward movement. Before
jumping, the hind leg is folded in the shape of alphabet Z, the flexor muscle
contracts while the extensor relaxes. When the extensor muscle contracts and
the flexor muscle relax, the hind leg will straighten quickly resulting in a lift and
the grasshopper jumps forward and upward.
To land, the forelegs are extended forward to absorb the landing shock. The hind
legs are then folded again. For walking, the grasshopper uses three legs to move
while the other three labelled X are used to support the body.
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Frog has locomotion almost identical to grasshopper. It also has long, big and
strong muscular hind legs. The contraction of the femur muscles result in
straightening of the leg quickly. The feet push the ground causing the frog to
jump upward and outward. During landing, the front legs are extended first to
absorb the landing shock. At the same time, the hind legs are folded again into
its Z shape.
Respiration II
Fish
When a fish inhales, its mouth opens and the buccal cavity is lowered. As
this occurs, the operculum closes and the opercular cavity becomes bigger. This
resulted into a lower pressure in the buccal cavity. Water is then drowned into its
mouth along with dissolved oxygen.
When a fish exhales, its mouth closes, raising the floor of the buccal cavity. A
water flows through the lamellae, respiratory gases are exchanged between
blood capillaries and water. As this occurs, the opercular cavity becomes
smaller. The high pressure in the buccal cavity forces the operculum to open
allowing water to flow out.
Grasshopper
Insects inhale and exhale through the rhythmic contraction and expansion
of their abdominal muscles. The body movements and the contractions of the
abdominal muscles speed up the rate of diffusion of gases from the tracheae
into the body cells. When an insect inhales, the abdominal muscles relax and the
spiracles open. Air pressure inside the tracheae decreases and air is drawn in.
When an insect exhales, the abdominal muscles contract. The increased air
pressure forces air out through the spiracles. The spiracle system with its
network of small tubes allows oxygen to be absorbed directly from the
atmosphere into the body cells. Therefore, there is no circulatory system in
insects.
Frog
When a frog exhales, its lung muscles contract, expelling air from its lungs. A
frog does this by the abdominal pressure and elasticity of the lungs. Some of the
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air flows out of its nostrils and some mixed with the air in the bucco-pharyngeal
cavity.
*Filling in air: nostrils open, glottis closed, floor of the mouth lowers
*Force air in: nostrils closed, glottis open, floor of the mouth rises
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