The crust is the outer layer of cooled rock.

It is not one single piece but is

broken into several slabs of varying sizes called plates.

Plates float like rafts on the molten magma in the mantle. They move due to
convection currents in the mantle.

There are two types of crust:

Continental crust:
25 100 km thick
it is older
( most over 1500 million years old)
it is lighter (less dense)
it cannot sink
it cannot be renewed or destroyed

Oceaninc Crust:
5 10 km thick
it is newer (most less than 200 million years old)
it is heavier (denser)
it can sink
it can be renewed and destroyed

1.

Destructive margins

Subduction

Collision

2. Constructive margins

3. Conservative margins

Ocean trench

Subduction zone

What do you notice about the distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes?

Why do you think this is?

The Earths plates

plate
What
makes the plates
boundary
move
in different
direction
the
directions?
plate is moving

Convection currents
in the mantle

How are the earths plates moving?

Types of plate movement

Volcanic
bombs
Vent

Ash and
gas

Crater

Magma
chamber

Secondary
cone

1. At constructive plate margins

convection currents in the
mantle drag the plates apart.
Magma rises to fill the gap and
hardens to form a ridge of new
land e.g. the mid- Atlantic ridge.

In places the ridge of new land

breaks the surface of the sea to
form volcanic islands e.g.
Iceland.

2. At destructive (subduction) margins, the oceanic crust sinks

below the continental crust. As it sinks the oceanic crust melts in
the subduction zone. The newly formed magma rises under
pressure through the continental crust to form a volcano.

3. Some volcanoes form

away from plate
boundaries over fixed
hot spots in the mantle.
E.g. Hawaii

Made up of layers of
ash and lava.

Steep sided

Thick lava (acid type).

Doesnt flow far before
cooling and setting.

Made up of only of
layers of lava

Gentle sides

Thin, runny lava

(basic type). Flows
a long way before
cooling and setting

Make sure you can compare a composite and a shield volcano

e.g. Mt St Helens or
Mt Pinatubo

e.g. Kilauea

Pyroclastic flow

Lava flow

Ash cloud

Lahar

Lava flow
Lahar

River of molten rock

Very fast mudflow (ash/water)

Pyroclastic flow
Ash cloud /
Ash fall

Cloud of extremely
hot gas and ash flowing
down the volcano side

Millions of tonnes of ash falls from

ash cloud and buries buildings,
area is uninhabitable

Climate change

Ash reflects sunlight,

climate cooler

Example case study

Location -

USA

Plate boundary -

Destructive . Juan de Fuca /

N. American plates
Date - 18th May 1980

Details of the eruption

An earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale caused a landslide

on the NE side of the mountain. This led to a sideways blast.

 top 400m of volcano blown off

new crater 2km wide

glacier melted & mixed with ash to
form lahar
sideways blast & pyroclastic flow
deposited tonnes of ash

ash cloud turned day to night

largest landslide ever recorded

 trees flattened up to 32km away

61 deaths from poisonous gases
buildings buried, villages destroyed
bridges collapsed, roads blocked
all wildlife destroyed

profit from volcano souvenirs

logging business boomed clearing
fallen trees

Immediate Responses
evacuation within 8km of
volcano (before eruption)
helicopters used to search
for survivors
emergency treatment for
survivors
clear ash to get traffic flowing
2 million face masks sent to
area for protection from ash

Longer term responses

buildings and bridges
needed rebuilding

roads rebuilt
removal of fallen trees
roads rebuilt

Positive Impacts
Eventually the soil will
become more fertile.
Tourism has revived

Area designated a
national monument in 1982.
$1.4 million spent to
transform area to cater for
3 million visitors per year.
Benefits to the logging
industry

Negative Impacts
Loss of lives
Loss of livelihoods and
property
Huge cost of repairs and
rebuilding programme

Case study

Location: THE
PHILIPPINES
Date:

9TH JUNE, 1991

Plate boundary:
DESTRUCTIVE
Philippines and Eurasian
plates

Details of the Eruption

Ash cloud rose 22 miles
into the air, mushrooming
out to 300 miles.

Pyroclastic flows
roared down the
mountainside.

Primary effects
pyroclastic flow deposited 600m of ash
ash fall from ash cloud covered a huge area

ash and rain created lahars

Secondary effects
weight of ash caused buildings to collapse including:
200,000 homes
hospitals
Global cooling
schools
factories

Power supplies cut off for 3 weeks

Water supplies contaminated
Harvests ruined.
Over a million farm animals died of starvation

Disease spread
Approx 700 deaths - 6 from initial eruption, 70 from
lahars, 600 from disease.

Monitoring and
predicting
volcanoes

The USGS Volcano Hazards Program monitors volcanoes for signs of

unrest (activity). They analyze and interpret the data collected from a
networks of instruments. The data and an understanding of what the data
has meant in the past is crucial for determining when a volcano might
erupt.

How can we monitor the activity of volcanoes in order to predict eruptions

Key Questions:
What are supervolcanoes?
How do they differ from
normal volcanoes:
location
size
shape
formation
effects

A supervolcano is a volcano capable of producing a volcanic

eruption with an ejected volume greater than 1,000 km3
(240 cu mi). This is thousands of times larger than most
historic volcanic eruptions.

Supervolcanoes can occur when magma in the Earth rises into the crust from
a hotspot but is unable to break through the crust. Pressure builds in a large and
growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure. They can also
form at convergent plate boundaries (for example, Toba) and continental hotspot
locations (for example, Yellowstone).

An eruption of Yellowstone
supervolcano could result in:
3

1,000 km of material ejected

10,000km

of land destroyed

87,000 people killed

15cm of ash would cover buildings
within 1,000km radius
1 in 3 people affected would die
the ash would affect transport ,
electricity, water and farming

Lahars are a probability

The UK would await the arrival of
ash 5 days later
Global climates would change, crops
would fail, many people would die.

- measures the
effects of an
earthquake using
a scale of I to XII

2003

Figure rose
to 26,000

What score you would give each of these earthquakes on the

Mercalli scale.

Images of the Bam earthquake - 2003

How can the damage from two

earthquakes of the same intensity
cause such differing degrees of damage?

- the place below the surface where the earthquake

starts.
- The

- the point on the surface directly above the focus

- an instrument used to measure the strength

of an earthquake.

-a scale which indicates the strength of an

earthquake.

- A scale which measures the effects of

an earthquake

A massive wave caused by an under water earthquake

The immediate
damage caused
by an earthquake

The after effects of

an earthquake

Case study of an
earthquake in an MEDC

9.0

MARCH 11TH, 2011

Primary effects

A tsunami - 10 meter high waves swept inland for 6 miles

Secondary effects

mostly damage caused by the

tsunami

Natural gas storage tanks burn at an oil refinery

Explosion at a nuclear reactor

Evacuation of thousands of people within a 20km exclusion

zone

Neon lights
turned off

The
immediate
responses

People evacuate their offices

and pour into the streets of
Sendai

Rescue workers
attend injured
people in Tokyo

People take refuge in

emergency shelters

Messages left by survivors at an evacuation centre

100,000 Japanese troops involved in search and rescue

People tested for levels of radiation

People
siphon petrol
from an
overturned
car

Location:
Date:

11 / 3 / 2011

Japan

Richter scale: 9.0

Plate boundary:

Destructive - Pacific / Eurasian plates

Primary effects:

Destruction of buildings, flooding of large areas

of farmland and industry. Trains swept away,
ships lost, a dam burst, power lines and services
disrupted. 23,000 people died, thousands injured

Secondary effects:

500,000 living in shelters, fires spread, fuel

shortages, Fukushima nuclear plant damaged,
radioactive materials leaked, food shortages,
factories shut down, huge financial bill.

Primary responses

100,000 troops deployed to help, 230 emergency

teams, many countries sent aid, shelters set up
in schools and sports centres.

Long term responses

All new buildings made earthquake proof. Old

buildings refitted to earthquake proof standards.

Case study of an
earthquake in an LEDC
12th January 2010

Richter scale : 7

Type of plate boundary:

Conservative - N. American / Caribbean plates

PRIMARY
EFFECTS

Buildings collapse

250,000 dwellings destroyed or severely damaged

Infrastructure damaged roads, electricity cables, telephone lines, water

supplies

The cathedral and

Presidential Palace
Collapse

Buildings included:
Presidential palace
Cathedral
Schools
Hospitals
Police station
Prison

Damage at the port

Port damaged

Immediate
response SECONDARY
search
with bare hands
EFFECTS
and basic tools

People trapped

One million people made homeless

230,000 people died

Foul smell,
disease spreads

Suspected looters
arrested

Water shortages

IMMEDIATE RESPONSES

People digging with bare hands

Appeal for international aid

Aid supplies
is prepared
to be sent
Aid
are
assembled abroad

Chinese rescue
workers arrive in Port
au Prince

Search and rescue teams

A success story!

US aircraft carrier acts as off-shore base for US rescue operation. It also

US
acted
actswarship
as a hospital
ship. as a hospital.

Supplies distributed by
US troops

People scramble to get water

bottles dropped by US
helicopter in Port au Prince.

Makeshift hospitals set up

US citizens are evacuated by Air Force

Refugee camps are set up

LONGER TERM RESPONSES

Support needed
for amputees

Location:
Date:

12 / 1 / 2010

Haiti, Caribbean

Richter scale: 7.0

Plate boundary:

Conservative N. American / Caribbean plates

Primary effects:

Destruction of buildings schools, hospitals, UN

headquarters, presidential palace, prison, police
stations.
Infrastructure destroyed roads, electricity
cables, telephone lines, water pipes.

Secondary effects:

230,000 people died

300,000 people injured
One million made homeless
Prisoners escaped
Looting
Breakdown in law and order
Foul smell
Disease spread

Primary responses People digging with bare hands.

Appeals for international aid.
US was main contributor with troops,
warship/hospital, helicopters, general supplies.
Many other countries sent search and rescue
teams and other supplies.
Refugee camps set up.

Long term responses

International aid helps Haiti to rebuild.

News buildings must be to earthquake proof
standards.
People return to live in their villages in the
countryside due to devastation of Port au Prince.

How can we be
prepare for
earthquakes?

What are the 3 Ps?

Earthquakes are constantly monitored in the hope that a

warning can be given. Experts know where earthquakes
are likely to occur, but struggle to know when.

Building to an appropriate standard and design to

withstand movement is the main way of ensuring
protection.

Preparation involves hospitals, emergency services

and inhabitants practising for major disasters and
having drills in public buildings so that people know
what to do to increase their chance of survival.

26th December 2004

Height of waves up to 10 metres

Distance travelled from epicentre 2,800 miles

Date: 26th December 2004

Location: Indian Ocean, west of Sumatra, Indonesia
Areas affected: SE Asia Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India,
Malaysia, Thailand, Maldives, Burma,
(also East Africa).
Richter Scale: 9

Primary Effects: Displacement of the sea bed causing a

tsunami.
Secondary Effects:
Approximately 220,000 dead or missing
Approx. 2 million homeless
Over 500,000 homes wrecked

Secondary Effects continued:

Water supplies contaminated
Disease spreads more deaths
Farming destroyed
Industries destroyed
Widespread starvation likely
Communication lines wrecked
Massive cost of rebuilding
Worldwide relief operation

At which type of boundary are

most ocean trenches located?
The majority of
ocean trenches are
located around the
Pacific Ocean at
destructive plate
boundaries.

The subduction zone at a destructive margin is an ocean trench. One wall is

formed by the subducted ocean plate, the other by the continental plate.
Ocean trenches are very deep, typically 5,000 10,000 metres. They are
inaccessible to humans.

Human activities in the Andes

Human activities in the Andes

The Andes are the longest chain of fold mountains in the world,
stretching for 7,000km north-south along the western side of South
America. The mountain chain is about 300km wide and has an
average height of 4,000m.
For the people living in the Andes, the steep slopes and harsh
climate are challenges to be overcome, but the region does provide
opportunities for farming, energy production, mining and tourism.

Where are the Andes?

The Andes are young

fold mountains that
run the length of
South America

Farming

Farming: Key features

Irrigation has been used in the Andes for more
than 6,000 years.
Farmers use terracing to cope with the steep
slopes.
Crops are grown in valleys and grazing llamas and
alpacas takes place on bleak mountaintops.
Potatoes are grown widely throughout the Andes
as a staple crop.
Cash crops include cotton, tobacco and coffee,
which are mostly grown in the sheltered and more
fertile valley bottoms.

Llamas and alpacas are grazed on the

bleak mountain tops.

Mining
The Andes have rich deposits of
copper, gold, silver, tin and iron
ore, as well as coal, oil and
natural gas.

Copper blasting in Chile

The Yanacocha gold mine in
Peru is the largest gold mine in
the world. It is an open cast
mine and the rocks containing
the gold are blasted with
dynamite.

161

Hydroelectric power
The
Yuncan
Project,
Peru

Steep mountain slopes and high rainfall make the Andes ideal for
hydroelectric power production.
The Yuncan project in Peru (above) includes 16 miles of tunnels.
Hydroelectric power makes up 50 per cent of energy production
in Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru.

Tourism: The Inca trail, Peru

Tourism is a massive industry
for Peru and the country has a
lot to offer. In the East you can
take part in Eco-tourism
activities in the Amazon Basin.
Peru has some fantastic
coastline as well, but the
highlight of Peru is undoubtedly
the Inca Trail.

The trail covers 50km of old pathways linking together old Inca
settlements in the inhospitable mountains of the Andes. It is South
America's best known trek.
The trail is strictly controlled, and only 200 trekkers are allowed to
start out on the trail every day.
.

Problems of living in fold

mountain regions
Limited communications

Bad weather

Poor soils

Steep slopes