Chapter 11

CHAPTER
11
DEPTH STUDY 3: expanding contacts
The Black Death

a 14th century plague
Links with our times
In 1997, eighteen people in Hong
Kong were infected with a form of
influenza unknown in human beings.
Six of them died. Their disease was
identified as a type of flu previously
found only in poultry such as chickens,
ducks and geese. It was the first time
this type of flu had crossed from birds
to humans, and it became known
as bird flu or avian flu. In 2005
this strain of flu was discovered in
migratory birds in China and Central
Asia. The newly appointed United
Nations Coordinator for Avian and
Human Influenza warned that the
spread of this form of the disease
could kill anywhere from 5 to 150
million people worldwide. The very
mobile nature of migratory birds
increased the level of fear and panic
at the time. Fortunately, the worst
predictions were not realised but
why would we panic about such a
disease?
This painting by early

sixteenth-century painter
Matthias Grunewald conveys
some of the horror of the
Black Death that devastated
Europe, Asia and North Africa.
Two examples, one from recent

history and one from medieval history,
can help us answer this question.
Between 1918 and 1920 an extremely
infectious type of influenza known
as the Spanish Flu spread from the
United States to virtually all parts of the
world, killing over 50 million people.
When an infectious disease spreads
across a significant part of the world
Create a visual timeline of key events

during the spread of the Black Death
with the interactive timeline application in
your eBookPLUS.
eBook plus
A timeline of the
Black Death in
Asia, Europe and
North Africa in the
fourteenth century
CE
1310
1320
1320 1340
Regular crop failures
and famines
throughout Europe.
1334
The first recorded
outbreak of the Black
Death in Hubei, China.
1348
January the Black
Death first reported in
Venice and Genoa.
December plague
reaches Austria,
Switzerland, central
and north-western
France, southern
England, the Arabian
peninsula and Tripoli.
1352
December by this
date, the Black Death
has left Europe.
1350
1360
1370
1380
The Black Death

appears in Baghdad,
Constantinople,
Alexandria and the
Mediterranean islands.
1349
June southern
Germany, northern
France, Holland, central
England and Mecca in
Arabia are infected.
1350
June plague spreads
to eastern Germany and
Scandinavia.
December parts of
Poland, Russia and the
Baltic coast are
infected.
1381
Peasants Revolt
in England
1390
and causes illness in large numbers of people, it

is known as a pandemic. More people died of the
Spanish Flu than had been killed in World War I.
Although it happened many hundreds of years
ago, the horror of the Black Death pandemic of the
fourteenth century still has a strong influence on us.
Millions of people died a horrible death from this
disease and were completely powerless to prevent
or treat it. When new illnesses suddenly arise, with
no apparent treatment, it is not surprising that our
historical experiences lead us to fear the possible
consequences.
1347
The siege of Caffa
December the Black

Death arrives in central
Germany, Scotland and
Ireland, northern
England, southern
Spain and Marrakesh.
1358
Revolt of the
Jacquerie in France
1378
The Ciompi revolt in
Florence in Italy.
13151317
Crop failures lead to
widespread famine.
1330
1340
June all of Italy,

southern France, the
Adriatic coast,
north-eastern Spain,
Gaza and Syria
are infected.
SEARCHLIGHT ID: int-2953
As you work through this chapter, look for information

that will help you to answer these questions:
1 What was the Black Death, and how did it cause
the death of so many people?
2 How did fourteenth-century living conditions
and the state of medical knowledge leave the
population defenceless against serious disease?
3 Why did the Black Death break out when it did, and
where did it spread?
4 How did people attempt to deal with the disease?
5 What were the consequences of the Black Death in
Europe and other parts of the world?
1 Can you think of any recent health scares that have

caused concern in different parts of the world?
2 What is a pandemic? Do you think HIV/AIDS is
considered a modern pandemic?
3 Why is it possible for disease today to spread
rapidly to all parts of the world?
4 What do you think would be the consequences
today if we suffered from a pandemic that killed
one-third of the worlds population?
Chapter 11: The Black Death a 14th century plague
321
HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT ...?
11.1 The Black Death

The Black Death was a catastrophic event that had a
huge impact on all the countries it passed through.
There are many types of primary and secondary
sources that help historians understand this event,
particularly its effects in Europe. For example, there are
a large number of written accounts of how the plague
affected people, and many artists also recorded their
own observations in paintings and woodcuts.
We do not know as much about how the plague
affected Asia and Africa; however, advances in
medical science in recent times have helped us to
understand the nature and spread of the disease
that savaged so much of the known world in the
fourteenth century.
Written sources
Many written accounts of the Black Death survive to
this day. In monasteries throughout Europe, monks
took on the responsibility of recording in various
chronicles the events occurring around them.
Individual writers such as Geoffrey the Baker
or the monk Henry Knighton recorded the
impact of the plague in England. In Italy,
Agnolo di Tura described in detail the effect of
the plague on the people of the city of Siena.
The Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio used
the Black Death as a basis for his fictional
work The Decameron (see Source 1 ), and the
poet Petrarch used his poetry to express his
personal feelings about the huge loss of life
caused by the disease.
Medieval church parishes kept written
records of baptisms, marriages and
deaths. Although the huge numbers
killed by the Black Death often meant
that priests or monks could not keep
their records completely up-to-date,
some quite accurate details of the
deaths in particular parishes still
survive.
Source 1

Boccaccios Decameron was written in 135051
and contains descriptions of the effects of the Black Death
on the population of the Italian city of Florence. This edition
was printed in the sixteenth century.
322
History Alive 8 for the Australian Curriculum
Source 2

From Agnolo di Turas Description of the Black
Death (1348)
The victims died almost immediately. They would swell

beneath the armpits and in the groin, and fall over while
talking. None could be found to bury the dead for money
or friendship. Members of a household brought their
dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without
divine offices. In many places in Siena great pits were dug
and piled deep with the multitude of dead. And they died
by the hundreds, both day and night, and all were thrown
in those ditches and covered with earth. And as soon as
those ditches were filled, more were dug.
Medical science
At the time of the Black Death, no-one had any idea
of the actual causes of disease. It wasnt until the
nineteenth century that medical science was able to
identify disease-causing bacteria. By comparing the
descriptions and drawings of the disease as provided
by medieval writers and artists, medical scientists have
been able to compare these symptoms with those of
known diseases. This has allowed them to develop an
explanation as to what caused the Black Death.
Archaeological
evidence
Many medieval
villages lost almost
all their inhabitants
during the Black Death.
Many villages were left
completely deserted at
the time, while others
were abandoned by the
small number of surviving
inhabitants in the years
following the plague. These
people found that the
village could not function
with its reduced population,
and so they moved to other
locations. Modern aerial
photography can show us
where these deserted medieval
villages were once located
(see Source 3 ).
Source 3

The medieval village of Binghams Melcombe in England was abandoned
shortly after the Black Death. The location can be seen in this aerial photograph. The
fourteenth-century church still survives.
Contemporary artists
Source 4

Analysis and use of sources

1 Although Boccaccios
Decameron (see Source 1 ) is a
work of fiction, it can still
provide useful historical
information. How can works of
fiction help us to find out about
the past?
2 Read Source 2 . What does
this source reveal about the
symptoms of the plague?
3 How can archaeological
evidence such as that in
Source 3 help us to understand
the effects of the Black Death?
4 Explain the basic idea behind
artworks associated with the
Danse Macabre as shown in
Source 4 .
5 Why might church parish
records of deaths caused by
the Black Death not always be
a reliable source of information
about the impact of the disease?
6 Why would it be unlikely that
primary sources could provide
reliable information about the
spread of the plague?
The Danse Macabre was an artistic theme inspired by the effects of the Black Death.
Just as writers were keen to

record the events happening
around them, artists produced
drawings and paintings showing
many aspects of the Black
Death. As well as illustrating
the symptoms of the disease
in their artworks, artists were
inspired to explore themes of
death and destruction. The
Danse Macabre (or dance of
death) was a theme explored
by many artists in the years
following the Black Death (see
Source 4 ). It demonstrated
that life was fragile and that
death would eventually affect
everyone, no matter how rich or
important a person might be.
chronicle a record of events as
they happened, usually written by a
person who was present at the time
they occurred
323
11.2 What was the

Black Death?
During the time the terrible disease known as the Black Death was killing
so many people in all parts of the known world, no-one actually knew
what caused it. Today we understand that the bite of a flea that lived
on black rats helped spread the disease. However, this was completely
unknown in the fourteenth century.
Why Black Death?

There are a number of theories about the origin
of the English name Black Death. The most
popular of these comes from the appearance of
the disease in its final stages. At this time, small
black or purple blotches appeared on the skin of
those suffering from the disease, and this may
have contributed to the name. In French, the
disease was known as morte bleue (Blue Death).
The Latin name pestis atra (terrible plague) was
widely used by educated writers of the time.
Source 2

The bubonic plague was so
named because of the appearance of
buboes, which were swellings of the
lymph nodes. This illustration comes
from a fifteenth-century manuscript.
Source 1

The appearance of black or purple blotches on
the skin is thought to be the origin of the name Black Death.
or pneumonic plague. This form attacked the lungs

and was always fatal. The third form was septicaemic
plague, which aggressively attacked the bloodstream. In
this form the bacteria multiplied so fast that the person
would die within hours of infection, with bleeding into
the skin causing purpleblack blotches to appear.
How did it spread?

Three diseases in one
The Black Death appears to have been a combination
of three related diseases, all of which had different
symptoms and different ways of being transmitted to
humans. The first of these was the bubonic plague. This
was so named because of the buboes that appeared
on the victims bodies. These buboes were pus-filled
swellings of the lymph nodes in the groin, under
the armpits and on the neck. This disease was not
necessarily fatal by itself and recovery was possible. A
far more severe form of the disease was the pulmonary
324
In 1894 scientists identified a bacterium known by the

scientific name of Yersinia pestis. This is now understood
to be the cause of all three forms of the plague. These
bacteria were transmitted by a number of different types
of flea. One such flea was commonly found living on the
bodies of black rats. Wherever the rats thrived, the fleas
had the opportunity to bite other animals and humans,
usually infecting them with the bubonic or septicaemic
form of the disease. Fleas could bite many people.
Pneumonic plague was the most contagious form of
the disease because it infected the lungs. This would
cause severe coughing, which would spray the bacteria
out into the air. The disease could be breathed in by
anyone close by, who would then be infected.
Source 3

The bacteria that caused the Black Death
were transmitted by fleas living on the bodies of
black rats.
When a flea became infected

with the plague bacteria, the
bacteria would multiply quickly
and block the fleas feeding tube.
This would make the flea very
hungry. It would try to feed on
the blood of a host (an animal or
human) but could not swallow
the blood because of the blocked
feeding tube. The blood mixed
with the bacteria would be
regurgitated and enter the host
through the open wound, leading
to a new infection.
Origins
Bubonic plague appears to be endemic to certain parts of the world,
including western Arabia, Kurdistan, northern India and the Gobi Desert.
It usually lies dormant, but at different times in history it has broken
out in the form of major pandemics. In the sixth and seventh centuries
CE it spread from Arabia, reaching Egypt in 542 and then spreading
through Europe. It eventually reached Ireland in 664. In the 1890s, a
pandemic that began in Yunnan Province in China spread to northern
India, killing over six million people. In 1900 it arrived in Australia and
killed over 550people. Recent scientific research has suggested that the
medieval pandemic known as the Black Death may have originated near
Lake IssykKul, in north-eastern Kyrgyzstan, in Central Asia. From there it
spread into China, India and the Middle East and Europe.
Source 4

Rat-catchers in Sydney in 1900 attempting to control the spread of
bubonic plague
Student workbook
11.1
Explanation and
communication
1 Explain the three forms of the
Black Death, including how
each was transmitted and how
the body was affected in each
case.
Chronology, terms and

concepts
2 a What does it mean if a disease
is endemic?
b Identify two parts of the world
in which bubonic plague
appears to be endemic.
c Why do these parts of the
world not suffer from the
plague all the time?
3 Examine Source 1 and explain
why the Black Death may have
been given that name.
4 Using Source 2 , explain what
buboes are and how they affect
the body.
5 How does Source 3 help us to
understand the role of the flea
in transmitting the plague from
person to person?
6 What information would the
rat-catchers in Source 4 have
had that was not available to the
people of the Middle Ages?
Historical questions and
research
7 Using the internet and your
library, prepare a brief report on
the bubonic plague outbreak
that occurred in Australia in
1900. Which areas were the
worst affected, and what steps
were taken to deal with the
disease?
dormant inactive or sleeping, with

the potential to become active at any
time
endemic normally and regularly
found in a particular location or
environment
lymph node part of the immune
system
pandemic widespread across a
large region
regurgitate to vomit, or bring up
the contents of the stomach or throat
325
11.3 Living conditions and
medical science in the

fourteenth century
The High Middle Ages (c.11001300 CE) in Europe

was a period of rapid population growth and relative
prosperity. It saw the expansion of towns and cities.
Many of these were filthy and overcrowded, providing
ideal conditions for the spread of disease. Medical
science at the time was totally inadequate and
unprepared for the plague that was to come.
Source 1

Medieval houses and towns were generally very
unhealthy places to live.
Living condition in medieval cities

Medieval cities such as London, Paris and
Florence grew very rapidly during the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries, with little thought given
to proper planning or healthy living conditions.
Most houses were small, containing only one or
two rooms. Privacy was not a particularly high
priority, and even members of reasonably welloff families would all sleep in the same room.
Amongst the poor, it was not unusual for as many
as a dozen people to all sleep on the floor together.
In country villages, they would often be joined
by their livestock. If someone became ill, it was
physically impossible to isolate them fromother
members of the family. So if one member
ofthefamily became sick, it was likelythat
allwould catch the same illness.
Hygiene and sanitation

In a small village, the removal of rubbish and
human waste was relatively simple, but in an
overcrowded town it became a more difficult
problem. The streets were narrow, usually
with a drain running down the middle that
was meant to carry waste away. However,
these drains regularly filled up and so the waste
remained. Often the drains fed into the same rivers
and streams from which people drew their drinking
water. While breathing in foul air or drinking contaminated
water could not spread the Black Death, cases of gastric diseases
such as dysentery and diarrhoea were common. If the body was
weakened because of such diseases, the plague could take hold
more easily, and death was likely to occur much sooner.
326
presence of domestic animals

a The
and straw on the floor allowed rats
and other vermin to flourish.
Life expectancy
Although the average life expectancy in Australia today
is about 82 years, most people did not live this long
in medieval times. Death from infectious disease was
common and children were the most likely victims.
Close to a quarter of all babies died within the first
year of life. Less than half of all children would reach
the age of ten. Those who passed the age of ten had a
reasonable chance of reaching adulthood and perhaps
living to around forty years of age. Only a small
minority lived to what we would regard as old age.
Medical science in the Middle Ages

Medical knowledge in the Middle Ages was based largely
on ancient knowledge and had not advanced much for a
thousand years. Doctors relied largely on the theories of
ancient physicians such as Hippocrates and Galen. In the
fourth century BCE, the Greek physician Hippocrates
was one of the first to determine that illness was not a
result of a curse from the gods. He promoted the idea
that illness and disease were part of nature and could be
influenced by factors such as diet and a persons living
habits. Nevertheless, he was completely unaware of
were close together, allowing

B Houses
for the easy spread of disease.
down the middle of the street was

D Athedrain
only way to remove waste and rubbish.
were very small, providing little

c Houses
opportunity to isolate sick family members.
and streams that were used for

E Rivers
drinking water often became contaminated.
327
microscopic organisms as a cause of disease. The Greek

physician and philosopher Galen lived in Rome in the
second century CE. Because human dissections were
illegal under Roman law, Galen carried out anatomical
dissections on various animals. He proposed theories on
the operation of the brain and the nervous system, as
well as on the circulation of the blood throughout the
body. Although many of his theories were later proved
to be incorrect, they were the definitive word on medical
science in Europe. Medieval doctors refused to accept
any idea that was not consistent with Galens theories and
so were not willing to accept any new evidence relating
to the causes or spread of disease.
Source 2

This sixteenth-century diagram illustrates the four humours
that medieval doctors believed determined the health of the body.
were in balance, the body would be healthy. Illness

occurred when these humours were out of balance in
the body. In these circumstances, one common cure
was to drain blood from the body through a process
of bloodletting (see Source 3 ). Applying leeches to the
body to suck the blood was an alternative method
of restoring the bodys balance (see Source 4 ). Herbal
medicines were also popular, but often contained
poisons, and so were sometimes more dangerous than
the disease. Surgery was usually carried out by barbers,
and was rarely successful. Amputations of injured or
diseased limbs were the most common form of surgery.
Because of the strong religious beliefs of the time, most
people believed that prayer was the most effective way
of dealing with serious illness.
Source 3

Bloodletting, as shown in this fifteenth-century artwork,
involved the draining of a measured amount of blood from a vein
believed to be connected to the diseased organ in the body.
Treating the sick

The treatment of illness and disease
in the Middle Ages was based more
on superstition and ignorance than
on any genuine medical knowledge.
Medieval doctors believed that the
body contained four humours or
aspects that influenced a persons
state of health (see Source 2 ). These
humours were black bile, yellow
bile, phlegm and blood. While they
328
Source 4

In this illustration from Boccaccios Decameron, doctors
apply leeches to a royal or aristocratic patient.
Modern anaesthetics were unknown

in medieval times, so the patient
was wide awake during surgery.
One mixture used to try and dull the
pain was known as dwale and it
consisted of lettuce juice, gall from
a castrated boar and assorted
herbs such as bryony, henbane
and hemlock. All these plants were
poisonous and could have killed
the patient. Cuts and wounds from
surgery were treated by cautery. This
was a process of applying hot irons
to the wound to seal it and prevent
further loss of blood.
dysentery a severe,
infectious bowel disease
Life suddenly gets harder

The growth in population throughout Europe
in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries quickly
led to most of the best farming land being
overworked. By the beginning of the fourteenth
century, the quantity and quality of crops were
in decline. This raised the threat of famine.
To make matters worse, there appears to have
been a change in weather patterns early in the
fourteenth century, with the winter of 130607
the coldest experienced in over 300years.
As the colder and wetter weather took hold,
farming conditions became worse, with the
years 131517 bringing crop failures and
widespread famine. The 1320s and 1330s saw
frequent famine conditions continue as the
weather and overworked soils brought regular
crop failures. By the 1340s the standard of
health of much of the European population
was very poor, with little resistance to serious
disease. It was to this ravaged population that
the Black Death was to bring unprecedented
death and destruction.
Explanation and communication

Student workbook
11.2
1 Explain the contributions made by Hippocrates
and Galen to medieval medical knowledge.
2 Why had there been no significant advances in medical
knowledge in Europe for over a thousand years?
3 Of all babies born in medieval times, approximately what
proportion could expect to reach adulthood?
4 How did most people in the Middle Ages attempt to deal
with illness?
5 What happened in the first half of the fourteenth century in
Europe to make people more susceptible to disease?
6 Using Source 1 , list three reasons why people living in
medieval times were at greater risk of disease than we are
today.
7 Explain the purpose of the medical treatments depicted in
Sources 3 and 4 .
8 a How do we know the patient in Source 4 was an
important person?
b From the reactions of the three other people in Source 4 ,
what can you identify as one of the patients symptoms?
Historical questions and research
9 Each of the four humours depicted in Source 2 was
associated with a number of other natural and human
characteristics. Using resources from your library and the
internet, find out the following:
a What were the names of each of the humours?
b What elements in nature was each humour associated
with?
c How were the humours believed to have influenced a
persons personality and mood?
Perspectives and interpretations
10 Imagine that you are a medieval barber. Design an illustrated
sign for your shop advertising all of the services you provide,
including various types of amputations.
329
11.4 Religious beliefs in the

fourteenth century
Religious beliefs were central to medieval life. When

good things happened, people believed they were
being rewarded for their good deeds, and illness and
disease were seen as a punishment from God.
The importance of religion

As you have learned, the Roman Catholic Church was
central to medieval European life. Most people were
illiterate and very superstitious, and they relied heavily
on priests for education and guidance on events that
happened around them. Those who did not follow the
Christian religion were viewed with suspicion and even
hatred. If something bad happened, people looked to
the Bible for an explanation and often believed they
were being punished for their sins.
Source 1

The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, shown in
this twelfth-century manuscript, represented Famine, Plague,
War and Death. They were seen as a sign of Gods punishment
and that the end of the world was near.
330
Religion and medical science

Because the Church controlled every aspect of
education, the training received by medieval doctors
had to be in accordance with religious teachings. All
medical education carried out in universities was
strictly in line with the beliefs of ancient physicians
such as Hippocrates and Galen. No new research was
permitted because it was believed that the ancient
teachings were complete and could not be contradicted.
In 1300, PopeBoniface VIII prohibited the cutting up
of corpses, so any attempt to study human anatomy
was virtually impossible. This meant that even the most
educated doctors had very little knowledge of human
anatomy, making treatment of sickness difficult and any
form of surgery almost impossible.
Source 2

This late thirteenth-century illustration of the human
body was meant to display the flow of blood through the body.
Doctors and priests
Religious conflict
It is clear that in medieval Europe, medicine took

second place to religion. Priests were considered to be
more important than doctors in the treatment of the
sick. When dealing with an ill person, the priest always
took the lead the doctor was permitted to assist
only once the praying was finished. If the patient was
an important or wealthy person, the doctor might wait
while a whole group of churchmen offered up prayers
before being granted access. If the disease was working
quickly, the doctor might not even get to examine the
patient until after they died. It is not surprising then
that doctors were powerless to deal with a pandemic
such as the Black Death.
By the beginning of the fourteenth century, virtually

all of western Europe was Roman Catholic. The Arabic
conquests during the seventh century and onwards,
and the later expansion of the Ottoman Empire, meant
that most of the Middle East and North Africa followed
Islam. Christians and Muslims looked at each other
with suspicion, largely as a result of the Crusades and
of the efforts of Spanish Christians to recapture Spain
from Muslim control. Since both religions viewed
illness as a form of divine punishment, the people of
each religion blamed the other for the Black Death
when it ravaged their people. Christians also treated
Jews very poorly as they blamed the Jews for the death
of Christ. When the Black Death struck, evidence
suggests that European Christians blamed
it on the Jews.
Source 3

Prayer for the sick was considered to be more important
than medical science.
Superstitious minds looked everywhere

for a cause of the Black Death.
Astrologers said that the alignment of the
planets Saturn, Jupiter and Mars in the
house of Aquarius in 1345 was to blame.
An alignment of Saturn and Jupiter was
supposed to bring death and disaster,
while an alignment of Mars and Jupiter
was said to cause disease. The alignment
of all three planets could only mean a
huge catastrophe was imminent.
Student workbook
11.2

1 What was the attitude of the medieval Church
towards medical science?
2 Why was there suspicion between Christians and
Muslims during the Middle Ages?
Source 4

An excerpt from Henry Knightons Chronicon, an
account written during the fourteenth century
The Scots, hearing of the cruel plague of the English,

declared that it had befallen them through the
revenging hand of God ... And thus the Scots, believing
that the English were overwhelmed by the terrible
vengeance of God, gathered ... with the intention
of invading the whole realm of England. The fierce
mortality came upon them, and the sudden cruelty of a
monstrous death winnowed [came upon] the Scots.

3 Examine Source 1 . What does this tell us about the
medieval explanation for events such as famine and
plague?
4 Identify two inaccuracies in the diagram of the
body shown in Source 2 . What prevented medieval
doctors from finding out more about the human
body?
5 In what ways could the activity depicted in Source 3
actually hinder medical treatment for illness?
6 From the information in Source 4 , what do you think
was the attitude of the Scots towards the English?
How did their religious beliefs influence their actions?
331
11.5 Trade and the spread

of disease
The early fourteenth century was

a time of rapid expansion of trade
between Europe, North Africa and
Asia. Wherever people traded,
black rats and their diseasecarrying fleas followed. Disease
that had previously been confined
to an area in Central Asia soon
spread to populations that had no
immunity to its ravages.
Human settlement in the

fourteenth century
As we have learned, the early
medieval era was a period in which
many nomadic groups moved
through Europe and Asia, invading
new land. Through the Middle
Ages, most of these nomadic groups
gradually settled in the lands
they had conquered, establishing
permanent villages and towns as

the centres of agricultural activity.
Warriors such as the Franks,
Magyars and Goths became farmers,
while seafaring raiders such as the
Vikings and Danes came to use
their ships for peaceful trade. By the
fourteenth century, most of Europe,
southern and eastern Asia and much
of northern Africa was subject to
permanent human settlement.
Only in the northern and central
regions of Asia and in sub-Saharan
Africa was the nomadic lifestyle still
prevalent.
and Asia, connecting the rapidly

growing towns and leading to the
growth of some towns as major
trading centres. These towns
would regularly hold fairs to allow
merchants to display and sell their
wares. Major commercial city-states
such as Genoa and Venice sent ships
throughout the Mediterranean and
to western and northern European
ports. Trade between Europe and
Some historians believe that fleas

carrying the Black Death came
to Caffa on the skins of marmots.
These small Central Asian
mammals had no resistance to
the disease, and large numbers
became infected and died in the
mid 1340s. Fur traders came
across the dead animals, removed
their hides (including the deadly
fleas) and sent them along the Silk
Road to cities such as Caffa.
The growth of trade

Settled civilisations in Europe,
and Asian empires such as those
in India and China were quick
to realise the benefits of peaceful
trade. Networks of overland trade
roads developed throughout Europe
Source 1

Permanent human settlement led to the
growth of towns and expansion of trade, which allowed
the Black Death to spread more easily.
Key
Naples
City
Silk Road
Scandinavia
Other trade routes

Muslim pilgrimage routes
Area of outbreak of
Black Death
Moscow
Britain
S P IA
N SE A
Venice
Caffa
BL ACK SE A
ITALY
Naples
Constantinople
GREECE
Athens
Tabriz
Tunis
MED
ITER
RANE
A
N
SEA
Tripoli
Baghdad
Alexandria
Genoa
CA
Marrakesh
Xian
CHINA
Hubei
EGYPT
RE
D
SE
AFRICA
Bagan
Mecca Arabian
Timbuktu
Peninsula
INDIA
ARABIAN
Aden
SEA
INDIAN OCEAN
332
2000
ASIA
EUROPE
SPAIN
Lisbon
1000
kilometres
London
AT L A N T I C
OCEAN
BURMA
Hangzhou
PAC I F I C
OCEAN
Source 3

When the Tartars attacked Caffa, they used trebuchets like the
one shown in this illustration to catapult infected bodies over the city walls.
Asia expanded rapidly along the

SilkRoad, with China and many
other centres through central Asia
coming into regular contact with
European merchants.
Outbreak in Asia
Written reports indicate that
outbreaks of the Black Death may
have occurred in China in the 1320s
and 1330s. The province of Hubei
in central China is considered by
many to be the location of the
first major outbreak in 1334. It
was here that the Black Death first
appeared in its most deadly form.
In the fourteenth century, China
was largely ruled by the Mongols,
who had strong links to Central
Asia, so they may have brought the
disease with them to China. At the
same time trade between China
and a number of European states
was increasing from access along
the Silk Road. The potential was
always there for the Black Death
to be carried to Europe, either by
European traders returning from
the east or by the Central Asian
Tartar warriors (Mongols) who were
continuing their attacks in eastern
Europe.
The siege of Caffa

In the thirteenth century, the Italian
trading city of Genoa had taken
control of Caffa, on the Crimean
Peninsula, in modern-day Ukraine.
Caffa was a major shipping port for
trade throughout the Black Sea. In
1347 the Tartars attacked the city.
They were supported by Genoas
bitter rivals, the Venetians, who
had previously controlled Caffa.
As they laid siege to the city, the
Tartars began to fall sick from a
serious disease and large numbers
died in a very short time. Unable to
maintain the siege, the Tartars began
Source 2

Merchants and soldiers returning from Caffa in late 1347
soon spread the Black Death to the Middle East, North Africa and Italy.
Key
Caffa
City
Mongol city
Cologne
Paris
Jan 1348
Venice
Nov 1347
Caffa
Tunis
Messina
SICILY
Oct 1347
MEDI
Tripoli
SYRIA
TERRAN
EAN
SEA
Alexandria
NovDec 1347
500
kilometres
1000
Trebizond
NovDec 1347
Damascus
PALESTINE
Gaza
SEA
Constantinople
NovDec 1347
IAN
Rome
SP
BLACK SEA
CORSICA
Nov 1347
SARDINIA
Nov 1347
CA
Jan 1348
Genoa
Avignon
Sarai
1346
Astrakhan
Tana
to withdraw; but before they did,

they began catapulting the diseased
bodies of their dead over the walls
and into the city. The Genoans who
escaped from Caffa soon found they
were carrying the deadly disease.
Venetian traders who had been
present during the siege were also
infected and both groups carried the
Black Death deep into the heart of
Europe (see Source 2 ).
How important was

Caffa in the spread of
the Black Death?
Trade links between Asia and
Europe were developing so strongly
during the fourteenth century that
Caffa was probably not the only
source of the Black Death coming
to Europe, as Messina first recorded
the plague shortly before the siege
of Caffa. Nevertheless, the rapid
spread to places that engaged in
trade with Caffa suggests that it was
very important in hastening the
infection into Europe, the Middle
East and North Africa. During the
last few months of 1347, the disease
was carried to Constantinople, the
southern shores of the Black Sea,
Alexandria in Egypt and the islands
of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia in
the Mediterranean. Most of this
spread appears to have originated in
Caffa.
333
The spread through

Europe
Source 4

The Black Death spread like a
wave across Europe between 1348 and 1351.
By January 1348, cases of the plague

were reported in both Genoa and
Venice in northern Italy. From there
it quickly spread to the rest of Italy,
and to southern France and Spain
by middle of that year. Within
a year all of western Europe was
affected and, by 1350, the Black
Death had turned east again and
had reached Russia. Source 4 shows
how quickly the Black Death spread
throughout Europe between the end
of 1347 and 1351.
334
500
750
kilometres
Durham
York
Lancaster
Dublin
Leicester
Norwich
Bristol
London
Calais
Hamburg
Cologne
Liege
Zurich
AT L A N T I C
OCEAN
Erfurt
Wurzburg
Nurnberg
Strasbourg
Paris
Infestation through the

Middle East
The plague appears to have come
to the Middle East through several
different routes. During 1347,
warriors returning to Baghdad
from battle at Tabriz in northern
Persia (now Iran) found that they
had brought the disease with
them. These soldiers would have
carried supplies of grain with them
for food. Not only did black rats
infest the grain supplies but the
fleas carrying the disease would
also have been able to survive
on grain debris. The area that
includes modern-day Iraq, as well
as Syria and southern Turkey, was
soon ravaged by the Black Death.
It is also believed that Muslim
pilgrims coming to Mecca from
northern India via the Persian Gulf
and the Red Sea may have been
transporting rats from Central Asia
to the Arabian Peninsula, bringing
the plague with them.
The Egyptian city of Alexandria
was a major trading port on
the southern shores of the
Mediterranean. It had strong links
with Constantinople, as well as with
Arab cities to the east and all along
the north African coast. Alexandria
became infected in 1347, soon after
the siege of Caffa. The Black Death
250
S
L P
Venice
Genoa
Florence
Avignon Pisa
Montpellier
PYR
Siena
E N E Marseille
Dubrovnik
ES
Corsica
Rome
Barcelona
Naples
Minorca
Sardinia
Valencia Majorca
Sicily
MEDITERRAN
Messina
EAN
Bordeaux
Seville
Key
Naples
SE
City
Extent of Black Death 1347 CE
then spread eastwards to Palestine

and Syria in 1348, and into the
Arabian peninsula, reaching Mecca.
North Africa
From Alexandria, the plague began
to spread along the north African
coast, and had reached Tripoli in
modern Libya by 1348. At the
about the same time, the city of
Tunis appears to have been infected
through its trade with Sicily, with
an outbreak reported in April 1348.
From Tunis, the plague spread
eastwards into Libya, with that
country now attacked by the plague
from both east and west. In 1348,
the ruler of Morocco attempted to
conquer Tunis, but failed, and his

retreating army carried the disease
back to Morocco, infecting Algeria
along the way. The plague reached
Marrakesh in central Morocco in
1349. It is possible that Morocco
was also infected by traders from
Spain, bringing the disease via the
island of Majorca.
From Alexandria, the plague
also spread south along the Nile
valley, although it does not appear
to spread into other parts of Africa.
It appears that settled areas with
towns and agriculture provided
the most suitable environment for
black rats to thrive. The area to the
south of Egypt and the Sahara was
inhabited largely by nomadic tribes.
Their lifestyle did not provide an
environment suitable for the rats, so
the plague did not spread into these
parts of Africa.
Source 5

The spread of the Black Death
across the Middle East and northern Africa
Sarai
Lake Balkhash
Astrakhan
CA
Constantinople
Marrakesh
MOROCCO
Tripoli
Tabriz
ERRA
Samarkand
SEA
ALGERIA
Sicily
MED
IT
Issyk Kul
AN
Tunis
SPI
BL ACK SE A
Majorca
Aral
Sea
SYRIA
NEAN
SEA
PALESTINE Baghdad
Alexandria Gaza
IRAQ
PERSIA
LIBYA
r si
Nile
1000
Gu
lf
RE
500
TIBET
TURKESTAN
Pe
EGYPT
Kashgar
Mecca
D
SE
kilometres
ARABIA
ARABIAN
INDIA
SEA
River
Aden
Ceylon
Key
Tunis
City
Trade route
Spread of Black Death
Area of Black Death
Jacaranda World
History Atlas
Black Death pp. 1223

1 Outline the areas of Europe, Asia and the Middle East
that had become permanent human settlements by the
fourteenth century.
2 Where did the Black Death first appear in the deadly
form that eventually devastated Europe, the Middle
East and North Africa?
3 Why was the city of Caffa important in the spread of the
Black Death?
4 Why did the Black Death primarily affect settled
communities rather than people living a nomadic
existence?
5 Examine Source 2 . Why were the cities of
Constantinople, Alexandria, Venice and Genoa among
the first to be infected after the siege of Caffa?
6 How did the Tartars in Source 3 spread disease into the
city of Caffa?
7 Using Source 4 , identify when each of the following
cities was infected by the Black Death: London; Paris;
Hamburg; Dublin; Marseilles.
8 Using Source 5 , identify three different routes by which
the Black Death came to the Middle East and northern
Africa.
The spread of the plague to Scandinavia is believed to

have occurred through a trading ship carrying wool from
England. The ship was seen floating off the Norwegian
coast and the locals rowed out to examine it. They found
the crew to be dead and decided to take the cargo of
bales of wool. Little did they know the bales were full of
the deadly plague-carrying fleas.
Student workbook
11.3
9 Using the internet and your library, find
out all you can about the Silk Road,
including the answers to the following:
a Where did the Silk Road begin and end, and which
regions or countries did it pass through?
b When was the earliest recorded use of the Silk Road
for trade?
c What were the main goods traded along the Silk
Road?
d Why was the Silk Road so significant in spreading the
plague?
10 One historian has suggested that without trade,
the Black Death may never have happened. Explain
whether or not you agree with this statement. Give
evidence to support your opinion.
Chronology, terms and concepts
11 What is a pandemic? Explain why it is appropriate to
refer to the Black Death as a pandemic.
335
11.6 How did people respond

to the Black Death?
The strength and speed of the

Black Death pandemic caught
everyone in its path off guard.
Medical science had no way of
dealing with the outbreak and
religious beliefs provided no
protection against the onslaught.
Source 1

A Welsh writer, who died in
April 1349, described the buboes that
appeared on the bodies of victims.
It is of the form of an apple, like

the head of an onion, a small boil
that spares no-one. Great is its
seething, like a burning cinder, a
grievous thing of an ashy colour.
It is an ugly eruption that comes
with unseemly haste. It is a
grievous ornament that breaks out
in a rash. The early ornaments of
black death.
Medical treatments
Medieval doctors had no idea what
had caused the Black Death and
so they resorted to the traditional
methods of treating illness. As
mentioned previously, bloodletting
and the use of leeches were tried
and failed. Attempts to cut into
the buboes to remove the bad
blood often did little more than
help spread the disease by exposing
the doctors to the bacteria living in
the blood. A common belief was
that disease came from miasma,
or the bad smells that were often
found in overcrowded towns.
To counter this, doctors often
encouraged their patients to sniff
posies of fragrant flowers, bundles
of herbs or sweet-smelling oils. In
some cases, they even suggested
that patients should breathe in
the smell of human waste in the
hope that one bad smell might
overcome the more dangerous
miasma.
Doctors themselves began
dressing in long hooded robes to
protect themselves from infection.
They would also wear a face mask
that had a long beak-like structure
at the front (see spread 4.16). This
beak would contain sweet smelling
herbs or oils, designed to filter any
evil smells that the doctor might be
exposed to.
336
Some towns resorted to the cure

of sound. They would loudly ring
the church bells, or fire off cannons,
in the hope that the noise would
frighten the plague and drive it away.
In addition to prayer, spells and
charms of all sorts were tried in the
hope of driving away the evil. These
included washing the skin with
vinegar and rose water, or applying
a mixture of tree resin, white lily
roots and dried human excrement to
buboes that had been cut open.
Source 2

Doctors attempted to treat the plague by draining the bad blood
from the buboes in this fifteenth-century fresco.
One plague prevention method

involved the mixing of roasted
and ground eggshells with the
leaves and petals of marigold
flowers, stirring this mixture with
treacle into a pot of warmed
ale and drinking twice day. A
similarly exotic remedy was to
place a live hen near the swelling
to draw out the disease and then
drink a cup of your own urine
twice a day.
Source 3

In this illustration from a medieval
manuscript, a person dies of the plague while
a member of the Church blesses him.
Some effective treatments

The most successful measures taken
to avoid the plague were those that
involved forms of quarantine. In
Venice, disease-carrying ships were
quarantined on a number of small
islands in the lagoon, away from
the main city. In Milan, houses
found to contain the plague were
walled up to prevent anyone going
in or out. These methods did
not completely stop the disease,
but both of these cities had lower
death rates from the plague than
many others. In the French city
of Avignon, Pope Clement VI sat
between two large fires designed to
purify the air. In fact, the plague
bacteria cannot survive intense heat,
and fleas also dislike heat, so this
method may well have been the
most effective. For many people,
simply fleeing an infected town
or village was the best form of
protection, although it was usually
only the wealthy who could take
advantage of this.
Religious responses
Followers of all religions saw the
Black Death as a punishment from
God. Christians, who believed they
were being punished for their sins,
turned to prayer and carried out
pilgrimages to holy places in the
hope of warding off the disease.
When the plague hit Mecca in
1348, devout Muslims believed it
was Gods punishment for allowing

non-believers to enter the city. In
some places, religious authorities
and town councils imposed tight
restrictions on peoples behaviour in
the hope of keeping the plague at
bay. In the French city of Tournai,
men and women living together
but who were not married were
ordered to marry or to separate, and
gambling, swearing and working on
the Sabbath were banned.
Bring out your dead!

So large was the death toll from
the Black Death that all the usual
religious rituals associated with
death could rarely be observed. As
many as half the priests died from
the plague and many others fled,
making the situation worse. In
1348, Pope Clement VI decreed
that those who were infected could
make their confessions to each
other, including to a woman, if no
priest was available. Collection of

corpses took place every night, with
most buried in mass graves on the
outskirts of the town. Very rarely
was a proper funeral service held for
those who had died.
Monks and monasteries

Throughout Catholic Europe,
monasteries had become important
centres of learning, and many had
schools attached. The monks made
an important contribution to the
life of the surrounding community
and were often the first ones that
people would turn to in times of
trouble. Because the monks saw it
as their duty to tend to the sick,
they quickly caught the disease and
numbers in the monasteries were
reduced. In the period after the
Black Death, many inexperienced
and poorly trained monks moved
into the monasteries, reducing their
influence as places of learning.
337
Source 4

In this fourteenth-century English engraving people are escaping from their
village after setting the buildings on fire. The woman on the left appears to be performing
the last rites for a plague-infected man.
group known as the Flagellants. They

believed that whipping themselves
with steel-tipped whips would show
their willingness to be punished for
their sins, and win Gods favour.
The Flagellants are believed to have
originated in the eleventh century
and had undertaken pilgrimages
across Europe in the 1260s. The
onset of the Black Death drew many
new followers to their brotherhood,
and they travelled from town to
town across Europe, whipping
themselves until they bled. In reality,
they were probably helping to spread
the disease. Many of them carried
the disease in their blood, and they
often brought the disease-carrying
rats and fleas with them as they
travelled.
Source 5

A medieval illustration
showing a group of Jews being burnt
at the stake. Jews were required to
wear a yellow circle badge to identify
themselves.
Blaming the Jews

Throughout Europe, people looked for
someone to blame for their misfortune,
and suspicion quickly fell on the Jews.
They were suspected of having poisoned
the air or of infecting the wells from
which people drew their drinking water.
In some towns Jews were tortured
mercilessly until they confessed to
poisoning the wells. In other towns, Jews
were herded into buildings which were
then burned to the ground. Synagogues
were destroyed and many Jews put to the
sword. Despite Pope Clement issuing a
decree declaring the Jews innocent, the
persecution continued from 1348 until
the early 1350s throughout most of
Europe.
The Flagellants
One religious group that responded very
publicly to the spread of the plague was a
338
Source 6

A procession of Flagellants in the Netherlands in 1349
miasma unpleasant smells or fumes thought to be the

cause of disease in medieval times

1 What did many people in the Middle Ages believe to
be the cause of disease?
2 Identify and explain three medical treatments that
were recommended for dealing with the plague.
3 Explain the purpose of the costume worn by doctors
during the period of the Black Death.
4 Why would the actions taken by the Pope probably
have helped to protect him from the plague?
5 Use the information in Source 1 to write your own
description of the buboes that were symptoms of the
plague.
6 Examine Source 2 . Why was this activity potentially
so dangerous for both the patient and the doctor?
7 What does Source 3 tell us about the importance of
religion in medieval life? How did religious authorities
respond to the threat of the plague?
8 Normally, the Catholic Church allowed only priests
to administer the last rites to a dying person. Why
would the woman in Source 4 have been permitted
to carry out this role?
9 How do we know that the people being burned in
Source 5 were Jews?
10 What were the Flagellants, as depicted in

hoping to achieve through their activities?
Student workbook
11.4
Source 6

11 In addition to the fire burning the village in Source 4 ,
there appears to be lightning coming from the
sky above the village. Why do you think the artist
included this lightning in the engraving?
12 Imagine that you are the mayor of a town that has
just begun to be affected by the plague. Draw up
an illustrated notice to advise the townspeople
of measures they should take to treat plague
symptoms. Base this advice on the beliefs held at the
time.
13 Using the internet and your library, find out all you
can about the persecution of the Jews in medieval
Europe, particularly during the Black Death. In
particular, search for answers to the following:
a why Jews were treated as outsiders at this time
b examples of restrictions that were placed on Jews
in different countries
c at least one other incident when Jews were
deliberately targeted for persecution.
339
11.7 How did the Black Death

change society?
Between 1347 and 1351, the Black

Death had a brutal effect on life in
Europe and the area surrounding
the Mediterranean Sea. Despite
all the devastation, there were
also some positive changes in the
following years, many of which
occurred as a direct response to
the horrors of the plague.
Changes to medicine
The failure of medieval medicine to
successfully treat the victims of the
plague led to changes in the practice
of medicine in the years following
the Black Death. Before this time,
hospitals were places where sick
people were sent to be isolated.
When people entered a hospital, all
their possessions were disposed of
because no-one expected them to
survive. During the period of the

Black Death, doctors began to try
to cure patients placed in hospital,
and this practice continued after the
plague had gone. Some hospitals
began to develop relationships with
universities and collect libraries
of medical texts. An increased
emphasis on medical knowledge
led to more dissections of human
corpses, and so improvements in the
knowledge of anatomy and surgical
practices soon followed.
Sanitation and public

health
In a number of places, authorities
became more aware of the need to
take responsibility for the health of
the population. In Italian cities such
as Venice and Milan, public health
boards were set up to deal with the
Source 1

As shown in this fifteenth-century illustration, the desire of doctors to find out
more about the human body led to an increase in dissections, which improved knowledge
of human anatomy.
plague, and these continued after

the disease had moved on. These
boards gradually gained extra powers
and became a valuable means of
preventing the spread of illness. In
London, the city council brought in
regulations to clean up the city. Laws
to prevent littering, the employment
of street sweepers and heavy fines for
dumping waste in the river were all
implemented in the years following
the Black Death.
Religion
The devastation of the Black Death
weakened the influence of the
previously all-powerful Catholic
Church. The inability of religious
leaders to deal with the plague
through prayer and the fact that so
many priests had died of the disease
led to many people losing some
respect for the Church. In the 1360s
and 1370s, an English theologian
John Wycliffe wrote a number of
works critical of the papacy and of
the role of monasteries in society.
He gained a strong following among
people whose recent experiences had
led them to question the power and
influence of the Catholic Church in
society. Many of Wycliffes followers
were executed for heresy.
Political unrest
The huge decline in the numbers of
peasants and agricultural workers
meant there were fewer people
left to perform these tasks. This
meant that peasants were able to
demand higher wages. However,
these demands were often resisted
by those in power. Peasants and
workers in various parts of Europe
rose up to demand their rights in
the years following the Black Death.
340
In France in 1358, a group of

workers called the Jacquerie rose
up in revolt to try and improve
their working conditions. In 1378
a group of workers in the wool
industry, who were known as the
ciompi, led a revolt in Florence
where they managed to force some
democratic government reforms for
a brief time. In England, causes of
the Peasants Revolt of 1381 (see
chapter 4) can be traced back to
the changes in society that resulted
from the Black Death.
Language
In England before the Black
Death, most educated people
spoke Latin or French. The death
of large numbers of educated
monks and other scholars
meant that schools had to resort
to English as the language of
instruction. By the 1380s, poets
such as Geoffrey Chaucer were
publishing their works in what
is now referred to as Middle
English (see Source 3 ). Chaucer
is considered by many to be the
father of English literature.
Source 3

The decline in the use of
Latin and French in England led to
increased use of a form of English,
such as in this extract of a poem by
Chaucer.
And whom I sawgh he wolde

never fine
To reden on this cursed book al
night,
Al sodeinly three leves have I
plight
Out of his book right as he redde,
and eke
I with my fist so took him on the
cheeke
That in oure fir he fil backward
adown.
And up he sterte as dooth a wood
leon
And with his fist he smoot me on
the heed
That in the floor I lay as I were
deed.
And whan he sawgh how stille
that I lay,
He was agast, and wolde have
fled his way,
Till atte laste out of my swough I
braide:
O hastou slain me, false thief?
I saide,
And for my land thus hastou
mordred me?
Er I be deed, yit wol I kisse thee.
Source 2

The Jacquerie uprising in 1358 was an attempt by French
workers to improve their conditions.
Student workbook
11.5, 11.6
Explanation and
communication
1 How did the experience of the
Black Death change the ways in
which hospitals operated?
2 Describe an example of action
taken in London to improve
sanitation and public health after
the plague had moved on.
3 Why did many people begin to
lose respect for the Church after
the Black Death?

4 a Describe what is happening in
Source 1 .
b List the differences in the way
this activity is depicted in the
source compared with how it
would be performed today.
5 a What appears to be happening
in Source 2 and why did this
event take place?
b Where else did similar uprisings
take place?
6 The extract from a poem by
Chaucer in Source 3 is written in
what we now call Middle English.
Although it is a form of the
language that is unfamiliar to us, it
is still recognisable as English.
a Identify the words in the poem
that are the same as modern
English words.
b Identify the words that are
similar to modern English words
and give their equivalent.
c List any words that seem
completely unrecognisable.
Suggest possible meanings
for these words based on the
context.
d After analysing the language,
summarise what you think this
poem is about.
concepts
7 The ciompi in Italy managed to
gain some democratic reforms
in the government of their city.
Give an example of what you think
might be a democratic reform.
heresy any religious opinion that differed

from that of the Roman Catholic Church
theologian a person who is considered
to be an expert in religious matters
341
11.8 Weakening the

feudal system
The dominant form of social

and economic organisation in
Europe in the Middle Ages was
the feudal system. The massive
drop in population that occurred
as a result of the Black Death
was to change the relationship
between landowners and those
who worked the land. This change
severely weakened the feudal
system in the following decades.
Huge decline in
population
It is estimated that approximately
25 million people died in Europe
during the period of the Black
Death. This represents a decline in
the population of between thirty
and fifty per cent in the years 1347
to 1351. The earlier outbreak in
Hubei, China is said to have caused
the death of 5 million, or 90 per cent
of the population. Later outbreaks
in China in 135354 are believed to
have killed almost two-thirds of the
Chinese population. In the Middle
East the effects seem to have been
less devastating, although still very
significant. It has been estimated that
less than one-third of the population
was killed by the plague across the
Middle East, although some local
areas suffered a higher death rate.
New power for the

peasants
Under the feudal system, peasants
had been tied to the land and were
expected to work the land their
families had worked for generations
before. The sudden loss of millions
of peasants across Europe left
342
many estates with insufficient

numbers to work the land. This
led to some wealthy landowners
offering increased payment to
agricultural labourers in other areas
to entice them to their estates.
Peasants suddenly found they had
bargaining power, and in some
places wages doubled in the space
of one year. At the same time, prices
fell for many goods because the
number of customers had declined
so dramatically. The decrease in
available farm workers led many land
holders to move away from growing
crops and to increase the keeping of
livestock, such as sheep and cattle, as
this required fewer farm workers.
Changes in the social

class structure
Under the traditional feudal system
peasants had kept part of the crop
as payment for their labour. By
the end of the fourteenth century
money wages became a more
significant part of peasant earnings.
This often meant that peasants and
their families had money to spend
on goods that had previously been
available only to the wealthy. As the
population began to recover, there
was a gradual rise in the number of
people becoming merchants and
shopkeepers in response to this
increase in demand.
Skilled trades open up

Before the Black Death most of the
skilled craftsmen and tradesmen
such as bakers, blacksmiths
and stonemasons had entered
their trades because of family
connections. The huge death toll
meant that many craftsmen had
to look outside their own families
Source 1

As shown in this Italian fresco,
increased wages led to a growth in
markets and in the number of merchants
offering goods for sale.
In some parts of Europe, kings

and aristocrats were alarmed by
the growth of the middle class
and the increased wealth of
some of the peasant class. They
passed sumptuary laws, which
regulated the type of clothing
that peasants were allowed
to wear. This was to prevent
peasants from using their newfound wealth to begin dressing
and behaving as if they were
members of the upper classes.
for apprentices to train. This often

led to the sons of peasants gaining
access to a trade and the potential
wealth and status this would bring.
Growth in the middle class

Previously, society had been
made up primarily of a wealthy
landowning upper class and a
relatively poor peasant lower
class. The increase in the number
of people involved in business,
crafts and trades brought about
the growth of a middle class,
particularly in some of the rapidly
growing towns. Many historians
believe the increasing importance of
the middle class in some European
countries occurred more quickly
because of the Black Death.
An opposing view
In recent years, some historians
have suggested that the changes
to the feudal system and growth
of the middle class would have
happened without the Black
Death. They argue that the
population was in decline before
1347 because of crop failures and
famine. They also point out that
the plague returned to Europe
many times over the next three
hundred years. Although these later
incidents did not bring such a high
death toll in as short a time, they
did keep the population low. Some
historians argue that the effects
of the Black Death from 1347 to
1351 have been exaggerated in
previous historical studies.
Source 2

A fifteenth-century woodcut
showing an apothecary (a medieval pharmacy
or chemist) with master and apprentice
Student workbook
11.5, 11.6
Explanation and
communication
1 What proportion of the
population is estimated to have
died during the Black Death in:
a Europe
b China
c the Middle East?
2 How did the decline in
population open up
opportunities for peasants who
had previously been tied to one
estate under the feudal system?
3 In what ways did farming
practice change after the Black
Death?

4 How does the Black Death
appear to have contributed to
the development of markets,
such as that shown in Source 1 ?
How would you describe the
people at this market?
5 Examine Source 2 . Why did
access to apprenticeships
become possible for members
of the peasant class after the
Black Death? How do we know
that the tradesman depicted has
a prosperous business?
concepts
6 What do we mean when we
refer to a middle class in
medieval society?
7 Give four examples of
occupations that would have
been carried out by middle class
people during the Late Middle
Ages.
Perspectives and
interpretations
8 From the information in this
spread, and from what you have
learned about the Middle Ages
this year, how important do you
think the Black Death was in the
weakening of the feudal system
and the growth of the middle
class in late medieval Europe?
middle class a class of people who traditionally fit in

between a rich upper class and a working class. In medieval
European society, this was the group in between the
landowning aristocracy and the peasants or labourers who
worked the land. They were usually small landowners or
people involved in trade and commerce.
343
11.9 SkillBuilder
Recognising different perspectives
What is perspective in
history?
Perspective refers to a particular
point of view. When studying
historical sources, it is important
to identify the perspective of the
authors of each of those sources.
Sometimes different sources will
contradict each other, which can
make it confusing when trying to
find out what actually happened. If
we can understand more about the
person who produced the source,
we can recognise the beliefs or
understanding they may have had
that could have influenced their
point of view. Also, the way we view
events today may be quite different
from the way people viewed events
in the past.
Note: We use the term author to
refer to anyone who has produced a
historical source. Works of art can
have a perspective just as well as
written sources.
Why is it important
to recognise different
perspectives?
It is almost impossible for anyone
to write about history without
having a particular perspective.
Their personal experiences and
background will influence the way
in which they interpret and record
an event. This applies to both
primary and secondary sources. The
more we know about the author of
a source, the more likely we are to
take this into account when making
judgements about the accuracy of
that source. This can help us to gain
a more complete view of the past.
344
How do we identify or recognise different

perspectives?
Recognising different perspectives is a useful skill to master. The following are
the types of questions you should ask about the authors of historical sources:
Who wrote the source, and where is that author from? The more we know
about the person providing the source, the better we are able to identify that
persons perspective.
Who was the author writing for? It is important to know the intended audience
for the source. Was the author simply writing for their own records, as in a
diary, or were they trying to convince another person?
What do we know about the background of the author? The authors character
is important in determining the value of the source. For example, was he or
she an ambitious person attempting to influence an important official? To
what extent was the author actually involved in the events or was he or she
simply an observer?
Can the authors point of view be trusted? Some authors may have something
personal to gain by presenting only one side of an issue. They may have a
particular reputation, or a place in society to protect, or ideas and beliefs they
are trying to promote. Some authors will have enemies whose reputations
they wish to discredit.
An example of how to recognise different

perspectives
Source 1 is typical of the level of knowledge about the plague in fourteenthcentury Europe.
Source 1

An extract from Giovanni Boccaccios Decameron, written c.1350
I say, then, that the years of the fruitful Incarnation of the Son of God had
attained to the number of one thousand three hundred and forty-eight
[In1348], when into the notable city of Florence, fair over every other of
Italy, there came to death-dealing pestilence, which, through the operation
of the heavenly bodies or of our own iniquitous [evil] doings, being sent
down upon mankind for our correction by the just wrath of God, had some
years before appeared in the parts of the East and after having bereft these
latter of an innumerable number of inhabitants, extending without cease
from one place to another, had now unhappily spread towards the West.
We can use the questions outlined above to understand the authors perspective
before we try to analyse the source.
Who wrote the source, and where is that author from? The source was written
by Giovanni Boccaccio, an important fourteenth-century Italian author.
Who was the author writing for? The Decameron was a work of fiction, so
Boccaccio was writing for a wide audience. At the time only the relatively
wealthy could read, so he was aiming his writing at the middle and upper
classes. In one sense, he probably hoped he would entertain them.
Student workbook
11.7
Source 3

Adapted from the Paris Consilium, a document
written by 49 medical professors at the University of Paris in
October 1348 at the request of King Philip VI of France. The
king was seeking an explanation for the plague.
What do we know about the background of the author?
Boccaccio came from a prosperous background and

mixed socially with the wealthy members of society in
Florence and Naples.
Can the authors point of view be trusted? Because the
Decameron is a work of fiction, the stories contained
within it are not necessarily true. However, it is believed
that Boccaccio based many of the characters in the book
on real people living at the time. His understanding of
the causes of the Black Death would have been fairly
consistent with beliefs of the time. It would not make
sense for him to describe something too different from
the experiences of his readers. We also know that his
descriptions of the symptoms of the plague and peoples
reaction to it in other parts of the Decameron are
consistent with the descriptions by other authors.
Developing my skills
Examine Sources 2 and 3 and answer the questions about
author perspective for yourself. Then answer the following
question:
How does the difference in the
perspective of the two authors
help us to understand the
Black Death and the society it
affected?
The celestial cause [of the plague] has come from the
conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars, under the
moist sign of Aquarius, that occurred most recently
in the year of Our Lord 1345, following both solar
and lunar eclipses. According to Albert the Great, the
conjunction of Jupiter and Mars will bring plague. The
planet Jupiter is hot and wet the qualities that bring
rotting and putrefaction, harbingers of the plague.
The earthly cause [of the plague] is the poisoning of
the air from noxious gases that arise from earthquakes.
Further unfortunate conjunctions of constellations
have brought on thunder, rain, and wet south winds
that have dispersed the poisonous vapours caused by
carcasses rotting in swamps. As the poisoned air has
entered the body, it has contaminated the heart, and
thus the bodys vital spirit, causing its organs to rot.
No poultry should be eaten, no waterfowl, no pig,
no old beef, altogether no fat meat ... It is injurious
[harmful] to sleep during the daytime ... Fish should
not be eaten, too much exercise may be injurious ...
and nothing should be cooked in rainwater. Olive oil
with food is deadly ... Bathing is dangerous ...
Source 4

An image of Yersinia pestis, the bacteria modern science
now knows causes the bubonic plague
Source 2

Modern medical opinion from
Prevention of Plague: Recommendations of the
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices
(ACIP), US Centre for Disease Control and
Prevention
Recommended means of reducing the risk

for acquiring plague in and around homes
include:
(a) eliminating sources of food and shelter
for rodents near homes,
(b) modifying homes to prevent rodent
access,
(c) treating domestic dogs and cats weekly
with appropriate insecticides,
(d) avoiding direct contact with sick or dead
rodents, and
(e) handling severely ill cats with extreme
caution (these animals should be
examined by a veterinarian).
345
11.10 Review and reflect

In this chapter we have explored the Black Death
and the way in which it devastated Europe, Asia and
North Africa during the fourteenth century, particularly
between 1347 and 1351. We have learned that the
Black Death was a combination of three related
diseases bubonic plague, pulmonary/pneumonic
plague and septicaemic plague. We have also
learned about the effects the plague had on medieval
society, including living conditions, science, religion
and the feudal system.
The plague returned to Europe in the 1360s, but
this time with a much lower death rate. It continued
to reappear at regular intervals throughout different
parts of Europe for the next four hundred years,
although never with the huge death toll suffered
during that brief period from 1347 to 1351.
Quick quiz
1 How did the Black Death get its name?
2 List the three related diseases that caused the Black
Death.
3 Identify two aspects of medieval life that allowed
disease to spread quickly.
4 What was one commonly used cure for illness in
medieval times?
5 Describe one way in which religious belief restricted
the development of medicine in the Middle Ages.
6 Where did the first recorded outbreak of the Black
Death occur?
7 Why was the city of Caffa significant in the spread of
the Black Death?
8 Describe one way the plague spread to the Middle
East and North Africa.
9 Identify one method that was used to try to avoid
the plague.
10 Why were many people buried without the usual
religious observance?
11 Why were the Jews victimised so severely during this
time?
12 Who were the Flagellants and how did they attempt
to avoid the plague?
13 Describe one way the Black Death affected the
attitudes of people towards religion.
14 What advantage do many European peasants
appear to have gained from the Black Death?
346

1 Examine
Source 1 .
Approximately how many people were killed by
the Black Death in England?
b What evidence is there that the plague returned
to England regularly over the next three hundred
years?
c Approximately how long did it take for the
English population to recover to the level it had
reached before the Black Death?
d The statistics in Source 1 are estimates based on
records in parishes where reliable records were
kept. These statistics assume other parishes
without reliable data had similar death rates.
Do you think this is a good method for
estimating population growth? Give reasons for
your answer.
e Do the figures in the table support the view of
historians that the Black Death weakened the
feudal system? Explain your answer.
2 Examine Source 2 .
a What is the name usually given to the artistic
theme presented in this painting?
b What do the skeleton-like figures represent?
c Which social class do you think each person in the
painting might belong to? Give a reason for your
answer.
d What message does the painting convey about
medieval European religious beliefs?
e Why did paintings of this type become more
common after the Black Death?

1 Using the internet and your library, identify three
dates when the plague again appeared in a region of

Europe. For each date, identify:
a which regions or countries were affected
b how many people are believed to have been killed
on each occasion.
2 Using the internet and your library, find out when
was the last time a major plague pandemic affected
each of the following countries:
a England
b France
c Italy
d China.
Student workbook
11.8, 11.9, 11.10
Source 1

English population, 12501700 CE.
Estimates based on parish records
Source 2

Year
Population
(millions)
Year
Population
(millions)
1250
4.23
1400
2.08
1290
4.75
1450
1.90
1300
4.73
1490
2.14
1315
4.69
1560
3.02
1348
4.81
1600
4.11
1351
2.60
1650
5.31
1377
2.50
1700
5.20
A medieval illustration influenced by the Black Death
Back to the big questions

At the beginning of this chapter several big
questions were posed. Use the knowledge you
have gained to answer these questions.
1 What was the Black Death, and how did it
cause the death of so many people?
2 How did fourteenth-century living
conditions and the state of medical
knowledge leave the population defenceless
against serious disease?
3 Why did the Black Death break out when it
did, and where did it spread?
4 How did people attempt to deal with the
disease?
5 What were the consequences of the Black
Death in Europe and other parts of the
world?
Think about your
learning over this topic.
For each of these
statements, tick the box you think best reflects
your learning and briefly state your reasons.
Statements about my learning in
this chapter
Agree
Disagree
Reasons why I agree or disagree
I can explain what the Black Death was

and what caused it.
I understand how peoples religious
beliefs influenced the way they
responded to the Black Death.
I found out some things about medieval
medicine that surprised me.
I discovered that the Black Death led to
some major changes in peoples lives.
I would not like to have lived in
medieval times.
347

Chapter 11

Uploaded by

Chapter 11

Uploaded by

CHAPTER

DEPTH STUDY 3: expanding contacts

The Black Death

This painting by early

Two examples, one from recent

Create a visual timeline of key events

The Black Death

and causes illness in large numbers of people, it

December the Black

June all of Italy,

SEARCHLIGHT ID: int-2953

As you work through this chapter, look for information

1 Can you think of any recent health scares that have

HOW DO WE KNOW ABOUT ...?

11.1 The Black Death

History Alive 8 for the Australian Curriculum

The victims died almost immediately. They would swell

Analysis and use of sources

Just as writers were keen to

Chapter 11: The Black Death a 14th century plague

11.2 What was the

Why Black Death?

or pneumonic plague. This form attacked the lungs

How did it spread?

History Alive 8 for the Australian Curriculum

In 1894 scientists identified a bacterium known by the

When a flea became infected

Chronology, terms and

dormant inactive or sleeping, with

Chapter 11: The Black Death a 14th century plague

11.3 Living conditions and

medical science in the

The High Middle Ages (c.11001300 CE) in Europe

Living condition in medieval cities

Hygiene and sanitation

History Alive 8 for the Australian Curriculum

presence of domestic animals

Medical science in the Middle Ages

were close together, allowing

down the middle of the street was

were very small, providing little

and streams that were used for

Chapter 11: The Black Death a 14th century plague

microscopic organisms as a cause of disease. The Greek

were in balance, the body would be healthy. Illness

Treating the sick

History Alive 8 for the Australian Curriculum

Modern anaesthetics were unknown

Life suddenly gets harder

Explanation and communication

Chapter 11: The Black Death a 14th century plague

11.4 Religious beliefs in the

Religious beliefs were central to medieval life. When

The importance of religion

History Alive 8 for the Australian Curriculum

Religion and medical science

Doctors and priests

It is clear that in medieval Europe, medicine took

By the beginning of the fourteenth century, virtually

Superstitious minds looked everywhere

Explanation and communication

The Scots, hearing of the cruel plague of the English,

Analysis and use of sources

Chapter 11: The Black Death a 14th century plague

11.5 Trade and the spread

The early fourteenth century was

Human settlement in the

permanent villages and towns as

and Asia, connecting the rapidly

Some historians believe that fleas

The growth of trade

Other trade routes

History Alive 8 for the Australian Curriculum

Asia expanded rapidly along the

The siege of Caffa

to withdraw; but before they did,