Gems

I
VOLUMEXXVII
W w
FALL 1991
GEMS&GEMOLOGY F
FALL 1991
Volume 27 No. 3
T A B L
New Sources Bring New Opportunities

Alice S. Keller
Rubies and Fancy Sapphires from Vietnam

Robert E. Kane, Shane F. McClure, Robert C. Kammerling,
Nguyen Dong Khoa, Carlo Mora, Saverio Repetto,
Nguyen Due Khai, and John I. Koiv~il~i
New Rubies from the Morogoro Area, Tanzania
H. A. HLinni and I<. Schmetzer
NOTES
AND NEW
TECHNIQUES
Bohemian Garnet -Today
Jochen Schliiter and Wolfgang Weitschat
Gem Trade Lab Notes

Gem News
"Perfect" Challengers
Book Reviews
Gemological Abstracts
Suggestions for Authors
ABOUT THE COVER: Historically, the most highly prized rubies have come from
the Mogok deposits o f Burma (now called Myanmar). Their deep rich color is well
represented by this necklace o f reportedly Burmese rubies (a total of 46.05 ct; the
largest stone is 6.22 ct) provided courtesy of R. Esmerian, Inc., New York. In
recent years, rubies have emerged from new deposits in Tanzania and Vietnam
that closely resemble Burmese stones and probably originate from geologic
conditions similar to those at Moeok. The lead article in this issue provides a
comprehensive description of the major occurrences and key gemological
characteristics of Vietnamese rubies, while the other main article examines
similar material that has recently emerged from the Morogoro area of Tanzania.
The loose rubies and fancy sapphires illustrated here, all reported to be from
Vietnam, are representative of some of the fine material from that nation. The
5.18-ct and 7.94-ct pink sapphires are courtesy of Andrew Sarosi, Los Angeles, CA;
the 1.69-ct ruby is courtesy of Evan Caplan a ) Co., Los Angeles, CA; the
remaining stones (0.32-0.50 ct) are courtesy of HMO Gemstone S.A., Chiasso,
Switzerland.
Photo of the loose gems 0 Harold a ) Erica Van Pelt - Photographers, Los Angeles,
CA. Photo of the necklace courtesy o f R. Esnienan, Inc., New York.
Typesetting for Gems & Gemology is b y Scientific Composition, Los Angeles, CA.
Color separations are b y Effective Graphics, Conipton, CA. Printing is b y Waverly
Press, Easton, MD.
(0 1991 Gemological Institute of America
All rights reserved
ISSN 0016-626X
EDITORIAL
STAFF
Editor-in-Chief
Richard T Liddicoat
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D. Vincent Manson
John Sinlzankas
Editor
Alice S. Keller
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Telephone: (800) 421 -7250 x251
Editor, Gem Trade Lab Notes

C. W Fryer
Editor, Gemological Abstracts
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Editors, Book Reviews
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Loretta B. Loeb
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Nancy K. Hays
Subscriptions
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Telephone: (800) 421 -7250, x201
FAX: (3101 453-4478
Contributing Editor
John I. Koivula
Editors, Gem News

Joliii I. Koivula
Robert C. Kammerling
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STAFF
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Carol Silver
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EDITORIAL
REVIEW BOARD
Robert Crowningshield
New York, NY
Alan T. Collins
London, United Kingdom
Dennis Foltz
Santa Monica, CA
Emmanuel Fritsch
Santa Monica, CA
C . W Fryer
Santa Monica, CA
C. S, Hurlbut, Jr.
Cambridge, MA
Robert C. Kamn~erling
Santa Monica, CA
Anthony R. Kampf
Los Angeles, CA
Robert E. Kane
Santa Monica, CA
John I, Koivula
Santa Monica, CA
Henry 0. A. Meyer
West Lafayette, IN
Sallie Morton
San lose, CA
Kurt Nassau
PO. Lebanon, N1
Ray Page
Santa Monica, CA
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Pasadena, CA
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London, United Kingdom
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Petershausen, Germany
James E. Shigley
Santa Monica, CA
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MANUSCRIPT
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ecent world events are having a dramatic impact on the gem and jewelry
industry. We all remember how the "opening" of China a decade ago stimulated
exploration at countless potential diamond and colored stone localities. Now, the
more recent opening of political borders in the USSR, as well as the changing
economic outlook of countries such as Vietnam and Tanzania, promises both new
markets and new gem materials. Certainly, as economic needs increase and political
climates relax, formerly isolated gem-producing countries will seek further cooperative ventures for exploration, mining, and distribution of their gem riches. The
additional goods that reach the international marketplace present new opportunities
for the gem community, both in renewing supplies depleted elsewhere and in
stimulating the demands of a growing consumer market.
For example, in the Summer 1991 issue of Gems o) Gemology, we featured an article
on a new production of emeralds from the Ural Mountains of Russia. Historically, the
Urals have been the source of many fine gem materials; with modern exploration
techniques and the infusion of capital, they could again produce beautiful gems in
significant quantities. As we learned from Dr. Vladimir Balitslzy at the International
Gemological Symposium in June, hundreds of other areas in the USSR are also being
explored for their gem potential -from diamond and demantoid deposits in Siberia to
jadeite and malachite occurrences in Kazakhstan.
he current issue of Gems o) Gemology chronicles further developments in

.'countries that are reemerging in the world economy. Czechoslovakia maintains a
jewelry industry based on renewed mining for pyrope garnets from the historic
deposits in the Bohemian Hills. In Tanzania, we have seen mining expanded, leading
to the discovery of a new ruby occurrence. In Vietnam, we are seeing the identification of major deposits of fine rubies and fancy sapphires-with three million carats
produced from one deposit alone over a five-month period. It is especially exciting
that these new Tanzanian and Vietnamese rubies are remarkably similar to rubies
from the classic Mogok deposit in Burma (now Myanmar). Even Myanmar shows
signs of reaching out to world markets; our Gem News section notes that government's renewed interest in working with foreign gem dealers. Reports in the literature
and by our colleagues also indicate that fine rubies have recently been found in Laos
and China. After many years during which fine rubies were in short supply,
significant amounts may soon become available, from many diverse localities.
n the 1980s, massive amounts of irradiated blue topaz entered the market, heat
treatment significantly boosted the supply of inexpensive blue sapphires, and large
quantities of lower-quality diamond melee started to come out of Australia. These
increased supplies of affordable gems helped broaden the customer base for gems and
jewelry worldwide. Relatively inexpensive gem-set goods could now be mass
marketed to lower-income groups that once considered jewelry beyond their means.
Now, in the 1990s; the discovery of significant quantities of fine rubies and other
gems is accelerating. If the challenges in mining and distribution can be met, this
trend promises greater opportunities to market to that broader consumer base. With
the opening of economic and political borders, the decade of the '90s could well be
the most productive in the history of our industry.
Alice S. Keller
Editor
Editorial
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
135
By Robert E. Kane, Shane F. blcClurel Robert C. Kammerling, Nguyen Dang Khoa,

Gdrlo Mom, Saverio Repettol Nguyen Duc Khai, and John I. Koiwla
Gem-quality rubies and pink to purple

sapphires are being recovered from the
Luc Yen and Quy Chau mining regions of
Vietnam, This article briefly reviews the
history and geology of these areas, as well
as the mining methods used. The gemological characteristics of more than 100
of these stones are described in detail,
The most notable internal features are
blue color zones, swirl-lilze and angular
growth features, bluish "clouds," and inclusions of rod-like calcite and pyrrhotite
as well as the rare mineral nordstrandite.
136
Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam
ntil recently, little was lznown about the gem poten'a1 of Vietnam, in spite of the fact that it is
surrounded by countries with significant gem riches. In
1983) however) corundum was reported near the towns of
Ham Yen and An Phu! north of Hanoi, Major exploration
began in 1987)when geologists brought to the attention of
the local government their discovery of rubies near the
town of Luc Yen, 28 lzm west of Ham Yenl in Yen Bai
(formerly Hoang Lien Son) Province.
In a five-month period! from November 1989 through
March 19901one deposit in the Luc Yen district produced
more than three million carats of rough pinlz sapphire and
ruby. Several other deposits are currently being worked in
this gem-rich district. According to various trade sources)
the finest rubies from this locality rival the finest stones
from Myanmar [formerly Burma; see) e.g.) "Vietnam
Claims Major Ruby Find," 1990; Hughes and Sersen, 1991;
and Weldon, 1991). In December of 19901 rudimentary
mining operations began at Quy Chau in Nghe An (formerly Nghe Tinh) Province, south of Hanoi. Stones examined thus far from this latter deposit compare favorably
with those mined at Luc Yen (figure 1).
Two of the authors, Messrs. Khai and Khoa! have been
involved in the geologic study of the gem deposits of
Vietnam and the marketing of the stones recovered.
Messrs. Mora and Repetto are participating in a joint
venture between the Italian firm Tecno-Resource [a subsidiary of FIMO Inc., of Switzerland) and the Vietnamese
government to establish a cutting operation and gemological laboratory in Vietnam. They provided GIA with numerous samples of rubies and pinlz to purple sapphires
obtained in Vietnam, which formed the basis of the current
research. This article reviews the Luc Yen and Quy Chau
mining regions) and provides a gemological characterization of the rubies and fancy sapphires found there.
Vietnamese geologists believe that there is consider-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 199 1
n o w emerging Irom the

Luc Yen and Quy Chau
districts 01 Vietnam. T h e
stones shown here, all o f
which were obtained i n
Vietnam, range from 0.33
10 1.94 ct. Jewelry provided b y the Gold Rz~sh,
North~idge,CA; photo b y
Shone McClure.
able potential for ruby and sapphire elsewhere in

Vietnam. Currently however! the Di Linh/Binh
Dien sapphire mine) in the Lam Dong Province of
southern Vietnam! is the only other active operation.
Reports in the trade press indicate that very
small quantities of pinlz and violet spinels! blue
sapphires, yellow and green tourmalinesl and yellowish green chrysoberyl have reached the gem
market ("Vietnam: An Important Potential New
Source of Fine Ruby1' 1990).Local geologists have
also identified potentially gem-quality zirconl garnetl aquamarine! and topaz. Future prospects for
Rubies and Si~ppl~ires

from Vietnam
some of these other gem materials in Vietnam are

also briefly discussed.
HISTORY
Following the discovery of ruby at Luc Yen in
February 1987) the government began geologic
prospecting of this area in northern Vietnam. In
March 1988! the government set up Vinagemco) a
state-owned company devoted to the explorationl
. mining) cutting! processingl and distribution of
gem materials in Vietnam. That same year! Vinagemco entered into a joint venture with B. H.
Mining Co.) of Banglzolz, to worlz the Khoan Thong
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
137
Yen
I
W c Ngap
NUOC im
Hn Om
Phai Chup
Khau Sum
lunn Thin
@ Xuaa Lo Dlsblct
(Thanh Hoa Prov.)
lhwng Xuan
East S m
Figure 2. This map of Vietnam shows the major

localities where rubies are c~~rrently
being
inined (together with spinels, garnets, and some
tourmaline), 0s well as kiiown deposits of blue
sapphire and other gem materials. The nun~bers
are lzeyecl to specific localities discussed i n the
text and listed it1 the k e y Artworlz b y Carol Silver.
deposit at Luc Yen. In November 1989! the B. H.

MiningIVinagemco joint venture opened Vietnam's first commercial gem-mining operation.
During the period November 1989 through March
19901 they recovered approximately 244 lzg of
potentially gem-quality corundum. At the height
of exploitation at Khoan Thong! there were approximately 70 worlzers. Since March 19901however!
management problems have led to reconsideration
of the joint venture and organized mining has
come to a virtual halt. In October 1990) a law was
enacted that prohibits foreigners from traveling to
the mine area.
Also in 1988) Savimex Cie. of Ho Chi Minh
City entered into a joint venture! called Savitech,
with the Italian firm Tecno-Resource to develop a
faceting industry and gemological laboratory in
Vietnam. Originally, this joint venture was set up
to analyze and facet rough material from the Bo
Pailin ruby and sapphire district in Kampuchea
(Cambodia];however! heavy fighting in that region
has made the supply of such material very erratic.
With the successful mining of rubies and fancy
sapphires at Luc Yen-and! more recently, Quy
Chau-Savitech became involved in the evaluation and cutting of this material as well.
Although mining in the Luc Yen area is officially under the direct control of the Yen Bai
Province People's Committeel most of the activity
is by local 'lsmugglers.ll During some periods!
thousands of these independent miners have
swarmed over the area, It is lilzely, then' that actual
production considerably exceeds official figures.
Mining is lznown to have started at Quy Chau
as early as December 19901by local peasants. In
July 1991) authorities of the Nghe An Province
People's Committee established four mining enterprises to control and exploit gem deposits in the
Quy Chau area. As at Luc Yen, the number of
official worlzers is relatively small-50 in this
case- but during some periods more than 101000
independent miners' from all over Vietnaml have
worlzed illegally throughout the area. Although the
most recent statistics on official production at
Quy Chau are the equivalent of US$2O10O0 per
month! actual production undoubtedly is several
times larger.
LUC YEN
Location and Access. The Luc Yen mining region is
located approximately 270 lzm northwest of
Hanoi, just 75 lzm from the border with China.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
Fig~~re
3. Rubies ore being mined in the volleys and foothills of the imposing Boc Bo Mo~~zitains
of
northern Vietnam.
Seven deposits are currently being worlzed in the

area - a$ I$hoan Thong! Nuoc Ngapl Nuoc Lanh)
Hin Oml+'hai Chep! Khau Sum! and Lung Thin a11 within 8 Izm southl southeastl and southsouthwest of the town of Luc Yen (figure 2). To
date! t h i rubies and fancy sapphires have been
found in secondary largely alluvial deposits in the
lush tropical valleys and foothills of the Bac Bo
[previously Tonlzin) Mountains (figure 31. For the
most part! roads in the region are not paved! but the
area is readily accessible from Hanoi except during
the rainy season (approximately May to November)! when the mud becomes too deep to allow
passage by vehicle.
Geology and Description of the Gem-Bearing Deposits. Exploration has identified rubies and fancy
sapphires in secondary deposits that occur over a
surface area of approximately 50 l ~ m 2with
~ evidence of an even larger area of some 300 km2. The
deposits are located in small valleys within the Bac
Bo Mountain Range! on the sides of surrounding
hills! in rice paddies at the base of the mountainsf
and along the rivers that cross the area.
The placer deposits are found in Quaternary
sediments lying in a karst-like terrain of depressions and valley terraces within a 130 km x 2-5
lzm northeast-southwest trending belt of Upper
Proterozoic-Lower Cambrian marbleized limestones and crystalline schists and quartzites (see
figure 4). The gem-bearing valleys are often nar-
row! small depressions ranging from 0.5 to 7.0 lzm2

but most commonly 2-3 km2. They are part of the
Vietbac formation (Phan Cu Tien! 1989). It has
been s~~ggested
that the mineralized marble belt in
which the Luc Yen stones have been found is
similar to the geologic conditions in which rubies
occur in the Mogok area of Myanmar and the
Hunza Valley of Pakistan (Bank and Henn! 1990;
Henn and BanIzf 1991; H. Hanni) as reported in
Koivula and Kammerling! 1990).The gem-bearing
sedimentary beds average 2-3 m thick; the overburden ranges from less than a meter in some areas
to as deep as 5 m in others. To date! no corundum
has been recovered in s i t q but local geologists
have found some corundum samples still embedded in matrix (figure 5). Local geologists believe
that the rubies are formed in association with
pegmatites.
Associated gem minerals include red) pinlz)
and pale blue spinels (which may represent from
70Y0 to 90Y0 of the gem material in a particular
site)/as well as potentially gem-quality (but small)
yellow and green tourmalines and garnets. All of
the cor~indumfound here to date has been pinlz to
purple to red.
Mining Methods. Open-pit mining is the dominant method used. Several pits! 1.5-3 m in diameter and 3-7 m deep! have been dug using baclzhoes
and by hand throughout the Luc Yen district. In the
most sophisticated operation! at Khoan Thong! the
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 199 1
139
:;z;y
Upper ProterozoicL o w Cambrian
schists and
quartzites
Figure 4. This geologic map of the Luc Yen region shows the areas where gems have been found in
Quaternary sediments lying in karst-like depressions in 0 northeast-southwest trending belt of Upper
Proterozoic-Lower Cambrian marbleized limestones, schists, and quartzites. Map prepared by N.D,
IZhoa; artwork by Carol Silver.
miners would spray the dry pits with water cannons and then pump the resulting mud into an
inclined wood channel that leads to a large jig. In
this sluice-type arrangement (figure 6)) the water
softens the earth and removes the dirtl while the
largest rocks are removed by hand. At the jigl the
corundum is sorted from the gravels by a combination of vibrating action and specific gravity. The
Figure 5, This corund~imcrystal in syenlie matrix was found in the Luc Yen area of Vietnam.
Photo by N.D. IZhoa.
QUY CHAU
Location and Access. Late last yearl mining was
begun in northern Nghe An Province (again, see
figure 2)' near the village of Quy Chau. The
potential ruby-bearing area covers approximately
400 lzm2. The Quy Chau mining district is located
about 120 lzm by road northwest of the city of
Vinh) the administrative center of Nghe An Prov-
A,'
140
last step,is to separate the corundum from the

remaining concentrate by hand. Gem recovery at
Khoan Thong has been very highl averaging 19.6
grams per cubic meter.
Distribution of the final gem production is
ostensibly controlled by the provincial government; however) local miners and dealers commonly travel to Hanoi and other major cities to sell
their rough. To datel it appears that large amounts
of this material have not arrived on the world gem
markets (Weldonl 1991). An auction widely
reported in the trade press has been delayed three
times) with no date confirmed to the a~~thors'
lznowledge as of October 1991 ("Ruby Auction in
Vietnamt'' 1990; Federman' 1991; "Viets Delay
Ruby Sales until . .
1991; "No Date for Ruby
Auction in Vietnaml'' 1991; "Long-Awaited Auction May Come Off in July'' 1991).
GEMS
&A
GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
ince, and 36 k m northwest of the district center of

Nghia Dan. As many as 10,000 miners have
descended on the area during periods of peak
mining, from all over Vietnam (figure 7).
The gem-bearing region is a mountainous area
that reaches heights of 1,058 m near the villages of
Quy Chau and Quy Hop. However, the actual gem
deposits are concentrated in narrow valleys and
along streams that form upper tributaries of the
Hieu River. As at Luc Yen, mining is difficult in
this tropical area during the May to November
rainy season.
Geology and Occurrence. The Quy Chau deposits
lie within the Bu Khang ruby zone of central
Vietnam; geologists report that ruby mineralization covers approximately 2,000 km2 near Bu
Khang Mountain, with, as mentioned above, a 400
km2 zone that appears to have the best rubybearing potential. The rubies have been found
associated with tin minerals in Quaternary sediments. Detailed geologic study has not yet been
conducted on the Quy Chau area.
The?deposits near the village of Quy Chau,
where the best rubies in the area have been found
thus far, appear to be eluvial. Smaller, less transparent gems have been found in alluvial deposits
near Quy Hop, south of Quy Chau.
Mining Methods. To date, mining at Quy Chau has
been very primitive. Although some stones have
Figure 6. The Khoan Thong mining operation

has been the most sophisticated t o date i n the
Luc Yen area. The sluice, carries the gem-bearing gravels, mixed with water, to a jig, where
they are sorted. Photo b y C. Mora,
Figure 7. A t the height of

activity i n 1991, "independent" miners descended on the Q u y
Chaii area from all over
Vietnam i n search of
rubies and other gems.
Photo b y C.Moru.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
141
Figure 8. In many parts of the Quy Chau rubybearing district, the gem-bearing gravels can be
reached only by removing layers of clay and kaolin. Here a pile of wet gray kaolin (foreground)
that has just been removed lies next to mounds
of dry white kaolin, In the buck can be seen
the clay-like soil that covers the surface of the
region. Photo b y C. Mora.
Figure 9. At Quy Chau, pits may be dug as

deep as 7 m to reach the gem-bearing gravels,
and are reinforced with bamboo poles. Photo by
C. Mora.
been found literally on the surface of the ground

and in streams, the miners usually must first
remove layers of kaolin and clay-like soil to reach
the corundum-bearing gravels (figure 8). Pitsanywhere from one to several meters round or even
square -are dug in the relatively soft overburden
approximately 3 to 7 m deep to reach the gembearing layer. The pits are reinforced with bamboo
canes (figure9).Flooding is a constant problem, but
thus far we have not seen pumps used. The gembearing gravel layer has been observed to be
anywhere from approximately 1 to 8 m thick.
Once the gravels are removed, they are washed
and sorted by hand (figure 10).In addition to ruby,
miners have found pinlz and yellow sapphire,
various colors of spinel, and some garnet. As at Luc
Yen, spinel is the most common gem material
found. Although the provincial government is
holding monthly auctions of the material produced
in its operations, to date most of the rough has been
sold outside of legal government channels: at the
mining area, in towns throughout the province,
especially the city of Vinh, and in Hanoi and Ho
Chi Minh City.
DESCRIPTION OF THE RUBIES
AND FANCY SAPPHIRES
Luc Yen. Most of the gem-quality material ranges
from 2 to 6 mm long. Although large pieces of
rough are rare, they have been known to exceed 20
ct. Crystals from Luc Yen exhibit a regular prismatic shape typical of corundum (figure 11).Most of
the rough is moderately worn, but some of the
crystals found to date show unusually sharp faces,
which suggests that they have not traveled far from
their original source. In addition, at least one
(inclined axis) twin crystal has been identified (E.
Fritsch, pers. comm., 1991). The stones range in
color from medium light to medium pinlz and
medium to dark red, purplish red, and pinkish
purple.
Quy Chau. Because this deposit is relatively new,

little can be generalized about the rubies and fancy
sapphires found there. Both extremely worn and
relatively well-formed crystals have been seen to
date. Our examination of the rough seen thus far
indicates that in general these stones appear to be
less included and, therefore, more transparent
than much of the material from Luc Yen. One of
the authors (NDK)has seen pieces of rough as large
as 10 ct, and believes that this deposit could yield
142
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
stones that are larger on average than Luc Yen. The

material ranges from near colorless to red; most is
pink to a lower saturation of red.
Figure 10. For the most part at

Quy Chau, the miners wash
the gravels by hand using rudimentary "pans" in their search
for rubies and other gem m t e rials. photo b y C. ~ o r a .
Figure 11. A number of relatively well formed

crystals (here, 4.75 cm long) have been found at
Luc Yen. Photo 0 CIA and Tino Hninmid.
GEMOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
SOME R ~ J B I E SAND PINK TO
PURPLE SAPPHIRES FROM VIETNAM
Four of the authors (REK, SFM, RCK, and JIK)
examined more than 100 faceted rubies and pink
to purple sapphires, ranging in weight from 0.17 to
1.94 ct, that were reported to be from the Luc Yen
and Quy Chau mining areas in Vietnam. All of the
124 research stones were obtained by FIMO representatives in Vietnam from government sources,
from independent miners in the Luc Yen and Quy
Chau areas, and from "dealers" in Hanoi and Ho
Chi Minh City. Routine gemological testing established that out of the 124 faceted samples that were
provided to these investigators, one was a flamefusion synthetic ruby, two were purple-red almandite garnets, and nine were natural spinels (ranging
in color from pink to orangy red); thus leaving 112
natural rubies and fancy sapphires. This was not
the first time the authors had seen flame-fusion
synthetic rubies being represented as natural Vietnamese stones and reports in the trade press
indicate that this is happening with some frequency [e.g., "Synthetic Found Mixed with Rough
Ruby" 1991; Weidinger, 1991).
The remaining test samples, which were confirmed to be natural corundum, exhibited many
characteristics that are typical of natural rubies
and pink to purple sapphires from various geo-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
143
TABLE 1. Gemological characteristics of rubies and
pink to purple sapphires from the Luc Yen and Quy

Chau gem districts of Vietnam.
No.
samples
Property
Color
112
Clarity
112
Refractive
indices
55
Birefringence
Optic
character
Specific
gravity
Pleochroism
55
55
U.V.
luminescence
Moderate to highly saturated

purplish red to purplish pink
through reddish purple to pinkish
purple in medium light to dark
tones
Most heavily included; few "eye
clean"
Most within the range:
e = 1.759-1.762
0 = 1.768-1.770
0.008-0.009
Uniaxial negative
9 cut
3 XIS
43
112
Long-wave
Short-wave
Optical
absorption
spectrum
(nm)
Internal
features
Observations
55
3.97-4.00
3.99-4.00
Moderate to strong dichroism;
usually reddish purple to purplish
red parallel to c-axis and orangy
pink to orange-red perpendicular to
c; colors vary slightly with body
color of stone
Strongest reactions in stones of
medium to high saturations and
medium to dark tones of pink to
red; weaker reactions in lighter and1
or more purplish stones; weakest
reactions in stones with an orange
component
Weak to very strong red to orangy
red
Similar but weaker
468.5 (sharp, narrow)
475 (extremely weak)
476.5 (sharp, narrow)
659.2 (faint, narrow)
668 (faint, narrow)
692.8 (distinct, narrow)"
694.2 (distinct, n a r r ~ w ) ~
Distinct blue color zones, swirled
growth features, laminated twinning
planes, clouds of minute particles,
orange-stained fractures, and solid
inclusions of: calcite, apatite,
nordstrandite, pyrrhotite,
phlogopite, and rutile
112
.-
%lay appear as a single bright (emission) line.
graphic localities, in addition to some microscopic

features that are distinctly different from any that
we have observed thus far in natural rubies and
fancy sapphires from other sources. Table 1 summarizes the gemological characteristics determined in this study for rubies and pink to purple
144
sapphires from the Quy Chau and Luc Yen areas of

Vietnam.
Visual Appearance. The most noticeable feature of
many of the stones examined in this study is the
similarity in color to rubies and pink sapphires
from Mogok, although some of the stones are more
purple than what is commonly thought of as
"Burmese" color. These colors range from moderate to high saturations of purplish red to purplish
pink through reddish purple to pinkish purple in
medium light to dark tones (figure 12).A significant number of the sample stones also exhibited
eye-visible blue color zones, giving them an uneven color appearance.
The clarity of the stones examined was relatively low. Very few were eye clean and some were
so included that they were uniformly translucent.
In fact, some stones appeared to be orangy red or
orangy pink due to the presence of large orangestained fractures, which are discussed later in the
text. To date, the material examined by Savitech in
Ho Chi Minh City has been 64% carving quality,
30% cabochon quality, and 6% faceting quality.
Refractive Indices and Birefringence. We obtained
refractive index values with a GEM Duplex I1
refractometer and a near-monochromatic light
source that approximates sodium vapor. The observed refractive index and birefringence values
(see table 1) are within the ranges previously
reported for rubies and pink to purple sapphires in
general (Webster, 1983; Liddicoat, 1989),as well as
those reported specifically for Vietnamese material (Bank and Henn, 1990; Henn and Bank, 1990,
1991; Brown and Chill, 1991; Koivula and Kammerling, 1991). One stone had values of
1.764-1.773, outside the normal range. However,
this variation has been reported in corundums
from other sources (Arem, 1987).
Specific Gravity. The specific gravity values for
nine faceted stones (0.71-1.94 ct) and three pieces
of transparent to translucent rough (7.10,8.30, and
14.52 ct) were determined by the hydrostatic
weighing method. The observed values agree with
those previously reported in the literature for
corundums from Vietnam and localities worldwide.
Polariscope Reaction. Surprisingly, it was difficult
-and in some cases, impossible- to resolve an
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
interference optic figure in the polariscope for

many of the stones so examined with a standard
condensing lens. This is believed to be due to the
twinning structures that many of these stones
exhibit (see "Growth Features" below).
Pleochroism. Forty-three of the Vietnamese stones
were examined using a calcite dichroscope. The
reactions observed are typical for rubies and pink
to purple sapphires from other localities.
Reaction to Ultraviolet Radiation. All 1 12 Vietnamese corundums were exposed to long-wave
(366 nm) and short-wave (254 nm) ultraviolet
fancy
.
. sapphires have
been found in a broad
range of colors and satzlrations at the Luc Yen
and Qiiy Chaii deposits
in Vietnam. Note that
the stone at the top center appears orangy because of the presence of
large orange-stained
feathers. These stones
range from 0.17 to 1.94
ct. Photo b y Shane
radiation. Stones of lower saturations and darker

tones tended to be correspondingly weaker in
fluorescence, as were stones of predominantly
purple hues, possibly due to the presence of nonfluorescing blue zones and/or quenching by iron.
Approximately 40% of the stones exhibited
very small to large zones that were completely
inert to both wavelengths. These nonfluorescing
areas correspond directly to the blue color zones in
these stones (as is discussed below and was noted
previously in Koivula and Kammerling, 1991).
Absorption Spectra. Visible-light absorption spectra were obtained with a Beck prism spectroscope
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 199 1
145
mounted on a GIA GEM spectroscope base unit.

Spectra for the Vietnamese rubies are essentially
the same as the diagnostic absorption spectra
described by Liddicoat (1989) for natural and
synthetic ruby, purple sapphire, and dark "padparadscha" sapphire. The distinct lines at 692.8
nm and 694.2 nm often appear as a single bright
fluorescent (emission) line, also typical for ruby.
Internal Characteristics. Careful microscopic examination of all 112 samples in this study revealed
a wealth of interesting internal features. Some of
the most commonly encountered internal features
are reminiscent of those found in Burmese rubies,
while others are similar to some found in rubies
from Thailand. Still others are unlike those we
have observed in stones from any other locality
and appear at this time to be unique to rubies from
Vietnam.
Note that the physical evidence indicates that
most of the stones we examined had not been
subjected to heat treatment. However, we have
received reports that at least some Vietnamese
rubies now in the trade have been heat treated (e.g.,
R. Crowningshield, pers. comm., 1991). It is reasonable to assume that the majority of the material
from Vietnam, like ruby from virtually all other
localities, will be heat treated at some point before
it reaches the jeweler.
dark blue color zones (figure 13) in most, though

not all, of the specimens examined. These zones
range in size from large areas to tiny slivers that
follow growth planes. All are fairly to extremely
well defined with sharp edges and distinct borders.
Some consist of uniformly colored areas, whereas
others consist of rather distinct, parallel color
bands.
The fact that areas of blue zoning were observed in so many of the sample stones implies
that such zones are typical of material from
Vietnam; their presence has previously been noted
in Vietnamese stones examined by other investigators (see, e.g., Brown and Chill, 1991; Hughes and
Sersen, 1991; H. Hanni, as quoted in "Vietnam: An
Important Potential New Source of Fine Ruby,"
1990). They are not unique, however, to Vietnamese stones, having also been observed in some
rubies from Jegdalelz in Afghanistan (e.g., Bowersox, 1985) and from Nepal (Harding and Scarratt,
1986) as well as, by some of the authors, in pink
sapphires from Montana and Sri Lanlza.
In addition to the blue zoning, we also observed pink, orangy pink, red, and/or near-colorless zones in many samples (figure 141, as well as
yellow zones in a few. In many cases, these color
zones are so distinct as to be visible with the
unaided eye, although details of the zoning are best
seen using magnification in conjunction with
immersion in methylene iodide (figure 15).
Color Zoning.One of the most notable features of

these Vietnamese rubies and pink to purple sapphires is the presence of distinct medium-dark to
Growth Features. The stones we examined contain

an abundance of irregular, "swirled" growth fea-
Figure 13. Distinct dark blue color zones were a

c o m m o n feature i n the Vietnamese coriindums
examined i n this study. Dc/rl<fieldw i t h shadowing and partially polarized illumination, m a g nified 35 x ;photomicrograph b y Robert E. Kane.
Figure 14. Color distribution was very i n h o m ogeneous i n t h e stones examined i n this study.
Distinct red, pink, and near-colorless zones
were c o m m o n i n m a n y forms. Darkfield and
shadowing, magnified 25 x ; photon~icrograph
b y Robert E. Kane.
146
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
tures (figure 16). These are commonly referred to

as a "treacle" or "roiled" effect (Webster, 1983)and
were once considered unique to Burmese rubies
(Gubelin and Koivula, 1986).In recent years, however, such swirl-like growth features have been
observedby the authors (andreported by others) in
rubies from several localities other than Myanmar- e.g., India and Tanzania - to which Vietnam
should now be added. The pink, orangy pink, red,
blue, and colorless zones previously mentioned are
frequently related to this feature.
Straight and angular parallel growth features
are also quite common and at times exhibit a
wedge-shaped pattern. Such growth features have
been observed by the authors and reported in the
literature in natural rubies from many localities,
such as Tanzania (Hanniand Schmetzer, 1991)and
Myanmar. Care should be taken not to confuse
these with similar-appearing features in fluxgrown synthetic rubies (Kane, 1983).
Further research is being done on these growth
features, and the results will be presented in a
forthcoming article.
Twinning. Curiously, a structural feature that is
most commonly associated with Thai rubies was
also frequently observed: abundant well-developed laminated twinning planes (figure 17). In
many of the samples, thin, closely spaced twinning
occurs throughout the entire stone. Other stones
have more widely spaced, polysynthetic twinning;
at some angles of observation, we noted different
pleochroic colors from the adjacent, widely spaced
twinning planes (figure 18).In most of the stones
Figure 15. With immersion in methylene iodide,

the numerous color zones
found in these stones are
easily seen. Transmitted
light; photo by Shane
McClure.
Figure 16. The swirl-like "treacle" or "roiled"

effect that is frequently observed in Burmese
rubies and fancy sapphires was also quite common in the Vietnamese stones examined. Darkfield, shadowing, and oblique fiber-optic illumination, magnified 30 x ; photomicrograph by
Robert E. Kane.
where this feature is present, the twinning runs in

one direction only. In a minority of the stones
examined, the twinning planes run in two directions and intersect. Other investigators have also
noted this feature in Vietnamese stones (see, e.g.,
Henn and Bank, 1990; Hughes and Sersen, 1991;
Brown and Chill, 1991).
Inclusions. To those who find the study of inclusions interesting, these rubies and fancy sapphires
will be desirable for that reason alone. Although
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
147
Figure 17. Laminated twinning was observed i n

m a n y o f the Vietnamese corundums. Polarized
light, magnified 35 x ; photomicrograph b y
Robert E. Kane.
some of the inclusions and growth features observed in these Vietnamese stones closely resemble those found in corundums from other deposits,
there are some that the authors have not encountered before.
The most common such inclusions are two
types of "clouds." One type is irregular to angular
in outline and is composed of minute whitish
particles dispersed fairly evenly throughout the
Figure 18. What appears at first glance i n this

photo to be color zoning is actually the effect o f
differences i n pleochroic colors between adfacent widely spaced (polysynthetic) twinning
planes. Diffused transmitted illumination, magnified 25 X ; photomicrograph b y Robert E. Kane.
cloud. Typically, the cloud appears to have a bluish

cast, perhaps the result of a light-scattering effect.
Although this bluish cast may be visible with
darlzfield illumination, it is extremely prominent
when a fiber-optic light source is used. These
clouds often correlate directly with the pink,
yellow, or near-colorless areas that are usually
associated with irregular (swirl-like)growth zones,
as seen with diffused transmitted illumination
(figure 19).
The second type of cloud, consisting of larger
Q u r e 19. Left: Distinctly bluish clouds were frequently encountered, although oblique fiber-optic
illumination (as here) was usually necessary t o see them. Righl: These clouds were often observed i n
conjunction with red, pinli, and near-colorless zones, as seen here in diffused transmitted light.
Magnified 25 x ;photomicrographs b y Robert E. Kane.
148
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
Figure ii0. Irregular, whitish clouds that are

somewhat wispy in appearance were often observed confined to straight growth planes in the
stones in this test sample. Oblique fiber-optic
illumination, magnified 20 x ; photomicrograph
by Robert E. IZone.
Figure 21. Needle-like inclusions of what are

probably boehmite were observed in some
stones along the junctions of laminated twinning planes. Oblique fiber-optic illumination,
magnified 30 x ; photomicrograph b y
Robert E. Kane.
whitish particles, has a less distinct outline and

areas of varying density that give it a wispy
appearance (figure20). This type of cloud, which is
typically confined to straight growth planes, may
occur in small, often planar clusters or dominating
large areas of a stone. When some of these clouds
were examined with high magnification (above
50 x ), it was readily apparent that they are composed of tiny, acicular (needle-like),parallel inclusions of various lengths, probably rutile. Similar
"needles" and minute to small particles have
previously been identified as rutile in corundum
from various localities.
We did not observe, in any of the stones,
features that resemble the longer, acicular or
shorter, wedge-shaped rutile needles that are most
commonly associated with rubies and pink sapphires from Sri Lanlza and Myanmar.
We did, however, see another type of acicular
inclusion: very long, relatively coarse "needles"
along the junctions of laminated twinning planes
(figure 21). In both appearance and position relative to the twinning planes, they resembled the
boehmite inclusions frequently seen in rubies
from Thailand (Gubelin and Koivula, 1986) and
many other sources. However, they were observed
in relatively few of the Vietnamese stones and were
less abundant within an individual stone than is
typical of rubies from Thailand. (Note that Hughes
and Sersen (19911 also report the presence in
Vietnamese rubies of boehmite at crossing twin
lamellae, although they do not indicate how they
confirmed the identity of the inclusion.)
Partially healed fractures, planes of liquid
inclusions, and two-phase inclusions were also
commonly seen in this Vietnamese material, as

they are in rubies from most localities.
Fractures, in fact, are perhaps the most common feature of the Vietnamese stones examined,
and many stones had several of significant size.
Interestingly, virtually all of these fractures contained bright yellowish orange to reddish orange
staining (figure 22), most likely an iron oxide or
Figure 22. Orange staining was observed in

nearly all of the numerous fractures present
throughout this sampling of Vietnamese coru n d u m ~ Darkfield
.
illumination, magnified
25 x ;photomicrograph by Robert E. Kane.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
149
Figure 24. Several stones i n this study contained unusual rod-like transparent crystals
that proved t o be an uncommon form o f calcite.
L)arlz/?eld and oblique fiber-optic illumination,
magnified 4 0 ~photomicrograph
;
b y Robert E. Kane.
Figure 23. Transparent irregular crystals of calcite were the most commonly encountered solid
inclusion found i n these stones. Darlzfield and
partially polarized illumination, magnified
25 x ; photomicrograph b y Robert E. Kane.
hydroxide. Although such staining has been noted

by the authors in corundum from a number of
localities, e.g., Thailand and Myanmar, its prevalence in the Vietnamese stones seems unusual.
In addition to the different types of needles
described above, we observed various other solid
inclusions in these stones. Where inclusions broke
the surface of the stone, we were able to identify
them conclusively by means of X-ray powder
diffraction analysis.
Figure 25. Subhedral transparent crystals o f apatite were randomly arranged i n a significant
number of stones. Darkfield and partially polarized illumination, magnified 30 x ; photomicrograph b y Robert E. Kane.
The most common included crystals encountered were transparent, colorless, doubly refractive
grains and masses with extremely variable and
sometimes complex forms (figure 23). These crystals, which are subhedral to anhedral, proved to be
calcite. Many are reminiscent of the calcite crystals encountered in Burmese rubies (Gubelin and
Koivula, 1986).
Several stones also exhibited groups of very
unusual transparent, elongated rod-like crystals
that were curved and bent in some areas (figure 24).
These unusual inclusions are visually somewhat
similar to the etch pits observed by the authors in a
number of gem species, including corundum.
Where they reach the surface, however, reflected
light readily revealed that they are solid crystals.
X-ray diffraction proved these to be calcite as well.
Also seen with some frequency was another
type of transparent, colorless, doubly refractive
crystal. These are subhedral, range from tabular to
short prismatic, and appear to be randomly oriented with respect to the host corundum (figure
25). X-ray diffraction confirmed these crystals to
be apatite.
Using darkfield illumination, we observed in
several stones what appeared to be black opaque
rod-like crystals that also display no readily identifiable outward crystal form (figure 26) and are
somewhat similar in shape to the transparent rodlike crystals described above. In fact, these black
crystals were frequently associated with thin
strings and rods of transparent crystals that are
possibly the same material as pictured in figure 24.
Fiber-optic illumination gives the crystals a distinct brownish color. Where these opaque crystals
reach the surface it can be seen in reflected light
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
Figure 26. Black-appearing rod-like inclusions

were also noted in some stones. These unusual
inclusions are pyrrhotite, an iron salfide. Darkfield illumination, magnified 35 X ; photomicrograph by Robert E. Kane.
that they are actually brassy yellow with a metallic luster. They were proved to be pyrrhotite.
Several stones had very unusual clusters of
bright orange prismatic inclusions (figure 27).
~h~~~ very distinctive crystals were identified as
rutile (again by X-ray diffraction). Peretti and
Boehm pr~viouslyidentified crystals of rutile in
Vietnamese rubies with microprobe analysis (as
reported in Weldon, 1991).
At least 10 of the stones in this study contained
irregular masses of a translucent yellowish orange
Figure 27. Several stones exhibited clusters o f

bright orange crystals that were proved to be
rutile. Oblique fiber-optic illumination, magnified 30 X ; photomicrograph by Robert E. Kane,
Figwe 28. This unusual yellowish orange inclusion, consisting of.the rare mineral nordstrandite,
be confused with flL,xfound ill
Rumaura synthetic rubies. Darkfield and
oblique fiber-optic
magnified
30x; photomicrograph by Robert E. Kane.
Angeles County Natural History Museum showed

an exact match.
Nordstrandite is a rarely encountered mineral
that is trimorphous with gibbsite and bayerite. It
was first described when produced synthetically in
1956 by Robert A. Van Nordstrand of Sinclair
Research Laboratories in Illinois (Chao and Baker,
1982). Not until 1962 was it reported to occur
naturally in Sarawak, Borneo, and in Guam, in
both cases associated with limestone deposits
(Wall et al., 1962). Since then it has been reported
from other localities around the world, frequently
as a secondary solution mineral filling cavities and
fissures in limestone. On several occasions, it has
been associated with syenite (Chao and Baker,
1982; Petersen et al., 1976).The authors could find
no reference to nordstrandite previously being
reported as an inclusion in gem corundum.
This inclusion should be of special concern to
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
151
Figure 29. Brownian orange crystals of phlogopite mica were among the many solid inclzlsions found in these Vietnamese stones. Darkfield and oblique fiber-optic illumination, magnified 35 x ; photomicrograph by Robert E. Kane.
gemologists because it is very similar in appearance to the orange flux found in Ramaura synthetic rubies (Kane, 1983).However, the fibrous to
granular appearance and yellower color of the
nordstrandite inclusions should be sufficient to
distinguish them from the crackled appearance
Figure 30. One sample was found to have been

repaired. Note the glue layer and the misalignment of the reattached portion. Magnified 30 x ;
photomicrograph by fohn I. Koivula.
and more orange color typical of the flux in the

Ramaura synthetics.
Also noted were transparent, brownish orange
tabular crystals that appear somewhat rounded
(figure 29). X-ray diffraction identified these as
phlogopite mica. Other solid inclusions were observed in various forms and colors, but most have
not yet been conclusively identified. There are
some hexagonal platelets that are most likely
hematite, but none in the stones we examined
reached the surface.
Interestingly, one stone in the sample group
was found to have been repaired. The bottom half
of the pavilion had apparently separated along a
fracture after faceting and was subsequently glued
back on. The glue layer was easily seen, and the
reattached portion was slightly misaligned (figure
30).
Chemical Analysis. The average chemical compositions of three samples, representative in color of
the ruby and pink-purple sapphire from Luc Yen
and purchased in Vietnam prior to the discovery of
the Quy Chau deposits, were obtained by electron
microprobe analysis at the California Institute of
Technology (Paul Carpenter, analyst). These Samples contain chromium as the most abundant
minor element (0.19to 2.08 wt.% Cr203),followed
by smaller amounts of titanium (0.01 to 0.23 wt.%
TiOJ, iron (0.01 to 0.04 wt.% FeO), and vanadium
(0to 0.03 wt.% V203].Small amounts of Z n and Ga
were also found. These minor elements are all
found in gem corundums from numerous localities. These results have been generally confirmed by Sam Muhlmeister and Bertrand Devouard during an ongoing study in GIA Research
on the quantitative chemical analysis of rubies by
energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF;
Muhlmeister and Devouard, in press]. Slightly
higher Fe content (0.02-0.30 wt.% FeO) has been
found by these researchers in some purplish red
stones from Vietnam. The Vietnamese rubies we
have analyzed by both methods show low Fe
contents, similar to those in Burmese material but
lower than the Fe contents in rubies from Thailand
(Tang et al.,1988).
Cutting. Experiments with a variety of cutting
shapes and proportions have been performed at the
Savitech cutting laboratory in Ho Chi Minh City.
A variety of instruments, including a video camera, are used to study the passage of light as it is
152
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
Figure 31. A number of

stones have been cut in
Vietnam. This Vietnamese ruby, which was
cut in Ho Chi Minli City,
is set in a necklace designed and manufactured
by Gianni Giacoppo.
refracted inside a stone in order to determine all

the variables related to shape, color, and transparency.
To date, Savitech has produced thousands of
transparent faceted (figure 31) and serni-transparent cabochon-cut stones from Luc Yen and Quy
Chau. Most of the stones are small, ranging from
0.5 to 1.1 ct; the largest stone cut so far by the joint
venture is approximately 5 ct.
OTHER GEM OCCURRENCES
Occurrences of other gem materials have also been
identified in southern and central Vietnam (again,
see figure 2). Although none of these is currently
being mined commercially, all show promise for
the production of economic amounts in the future.
The Sapphire, Ruby, Zircon, and Garnet GemBearing Zones of Southern Vietnam. Blue and
green sapphires, minor amounts of ruby, yellow
and brown zircons, and pyrope garnets are widespread in alluvial or eluvial deposits on small
basalt layers of various areas of southern Vietnam.
Specifically, in addition to the deposits of rubies
and fancy sapphires noted above, major occurrences of blue (figure 32) and other fancy-color
sapphires have been discovered recently in the

areas of Di LinhIBinh Dien (Lam Dong Province),
Phan Thiet (Thuan Hai Province), and Gia Kiem
(Dong Nai Province, at Xa Vo and Tien Co). These
deposits, which range from about 1 to 4 k m 2 occur
in the weathering crust of alkali basalts. Approximately 60% of the sapphires found thus far are
green; yellow sapphires are seen only rarely. Rough
sapphires as large as 50 ct have been recovered.
Recent exploration also revealed yellow and
brown zircons up to 20-25 m m in the Gia Kiem
district, specifically at Sau Le and Gia Kiem. And
beautiful red pyrope garnets up to 20-30 m m have
been found at Bien Ho (Gia Lai-Kon Turn Province).
The Xuan Le Topaz-Beryl Zones of Central Vietnam. Aquamarine and colorless topaz have been
found in Quaternary sediments in an area of the
Thuong Xuan region (Thanh Hoa Province) that is
estimated to be 1,200 km2. These gem minerals
are probably related to pegmatite bodies that
intrude acidic volcanic rocks and Triassic sedimentary rocks.
In addition, minor amounts of aquamarine and
other beryls, as well as amethyst and smoky
quartz, have been found throughout Vietnam.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
153
Figure 32. Vietnam is not only producing corn

mercial amounts of rubies and fancy sapphires, but also has potentially significant
deposits of blue sapphire. These stones, all of
which were obtained in Vietnam, range from
0.28 to 0.42 ct. Photo 63 GIA and Tino
Hammid.
CONCLUSION
Literally millions of carats of ruby and fancy
sapphires have been mined in Vietnam since November of 1989. The first major discovery was at
Luc Yen, in Yen Bai Province. In 1990, another
major area began production in the vicinity of Quy
Chau, in Nghe An Province, with as many as
10,000 "independent" miners working the deposit
at one time. Although mining has been sporadic in
recent months due to the annual rainy season,
there appears to be considerable potential for the
production of significant amounts of gem corundum for some years to come.
Much of the Vietnamese material is comparable to Burmese stones. For the most part, the
154
gemological properties of the Vietnamese rubies

and pink to purple sapphires are consistent with
those of rubies and fancy sapphires from Mogolz
and other marble-type localities. Notable internal
features in the Vietnamese samples examined
include distinct blue color zones, a swirled growth
("treacle") effect, wedge-shaped growth features,
well-developed laminated twinning planes,
"clouds" of minute (rutile?)particles, and orangestained fractures. A number of solid inclusions
have been identified by X-ray diffraction analysis:
calcite, apatite, pyrrhotite, phlogopite, and clusters of rutile. Irregular masses of translucent
yellowish orange nordstrandite observed in some
of the Vietnamese stones could cause the gemologist to confuse this material with some flux-grown
synthetic rubies. It should be noted again that we
have seen flame-fusion synthetic rubies that were
purchased as Vietnamese rubies both in Vietnam
and elsewhere.
While it is not unusual to find most of these
minerals as inclusions in rubies and pink to purple
sapphires, the form in which some of them occur
in the stones from Vietnam is unique in the
authors' experience: the rod-like habit of the pyrrhotite and some of the calcite inclusions; rutile
crystals in the form of large, bright orange prisms;
and the slightly bluish clouds of fine particles. We
have not seen nordstrandite as an inclusion in
rubies from any other locality.
The above is not meant to suggest that these
inclusions, taken individually or as a suite of
internal features, can be used to designate locality
origin of rubies and pink to purple sapphires from
Vietnam. In fact, as new sources of gem-quality
ruby are discovered, we may learn that these
features are not unique to material mined in
Vietnam. Significantly, the recently reported deposits in southwestern China are not far from the
Vietnamese border, and could conceivably be contiguous with the Vietnamese deposits (see, e.g.,
"Ruby Discovered in China Is Similar to Vietnamese," 1991). In addition, we have learned that
rubies are currently being mined in Laos. It is quite
possible, then, that many of the "Vietnamese"
rubies now entering the world market are actually
from any one of several deposits in Southeast Asia.
It also appears that heat-treated Vietnamese
rubies have reached the market. While in-depth
studies have not yet been performed on the heat
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
treatment of rubies and sapphires from Vietnam,

there is no reason at this time to believe that these
stones will react differently from those from other
geologically similar localities.
The gems described here are from the first
significant gem deposits in Vietnam, and it is
anticipated that they will not be the last. Discoveries of corundum and other gem materials in
various regions of Vietnam suggest that this country could become a rich source as future exploration reveals additional deposits of economic significance.
REFERENCES
Arem J. (1987) Color Encyclopedia of Gemstones, 2nd ed., Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.
Bank H., Henn U. (1990)Borsen Bulletin: Rubies from Vietnam.
Goldschniiede und Uhrmacher Zeitiing, No. 12, December, p. 106.
Bowersox, G.W (1985) A status report on gemstones from
Afghanistan. Gems ei) Genwiogy, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp.
192-204.
Brown G., Chill B. (1991)Vietnamese ruby. Wahroongai News,
Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 3-4.
China's ruby similar to ruby from Myanmar (1991). Jewellery
News Asia, No. 85, p. 180.
Chao G.Y., Baker J. (1982)Nordstranclite from Mont St-Hilaire,
Quebec. Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 20, part 1, pp. 77-85.
Federman D. (1991) Gem profile: Vietnamese ruby. Modern
jeweler, Vol. 90, No. 8, pp. 23-24.
Giibelin 'EX, Koivula J.1. (1986) Photoatlas of Inclusions in
~ e m s l o n e sARC
,
Edition, Zurich.
Hanni H.A., Schmctzer K. (1991) New rubies from the Morogoro area, Tanzania. Gems e) Gemology, Vol. 27, No. 3,
pp. lS'6-167,
Harding R.R., Scarratt K. (1986) A description of ruby from
Nepal. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 3-10.
Henn U., Bank H. (19901 A gemological examination of ruby
from Vietnam. ICA Gazette, November, pp. 9-10.
Henn U., Bank H. (1991) Rubine aus Vietnam. Zeitschrift der
Dentschen Gen~molo,eiscl~en
Gesellschaft, Vol. 40, No. 1,
pp. 25-28.
Hughes R.W., Sersen W.J. (1991) Bangkok gem market review:
Vietnamese ruby. Gen~olosicalDirest, Vol. 3, N
Kane R.E. (1983) The Ramaura synthetic ruby. Gems el
Gemology,Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 130-148.
Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C. (1990) Gem news: Rubies from
Vietnam? Gems ed Gemology, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 163-164.
Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C. (1991) Gem news: More on
Vietnam gem finds. Gems &I Gemology, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp.
51-52.
Liddicoat R.T. (19891 Handbook o f G e m Identificntion, 12th
ed., 2nd rev. printing. Gemological lnstitute of America,
Santa Monica, CA.
Long-awaited auction may come off in July (1991).JewelSiam,

June-July, p. 25.
M~~hlmeister
S., Devouarcl B. (in press) Trace element chemistry of natural and synthetic rubies. In A. S. Keller, Ed,,
Proceedings o f the 1991 International Gemological Symposiiin~,Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica,
CA.
No date for ruby auction in Vietnam (1991).Jewellery News
Asia, No. 77, p. 48.
Petersen O.V, Johnsen O., Leonardsen E.S. (1976)Norclstrandite
from NarssArssuk, Greenland. Mine~alogicalRecord, Vol.
7, NO. 2, pp. 78-82.
Ruby discovered in China is similar to Vietnamese (19911. ICA
Gazette, August, p. 11.
Ruby auction in Vietnam (1990). Thailand jewellery Review,
August, p. 34.
Synthetic found mixed with rough ruby (1991).jewellery News
Asia, No. 85, p. 172.
Tang S.M., Tang S.H., Tay H.S., Retty A.T. (1988) Analysis of
Burmese and Thai rubies by P1XE. Applied Spectroscopy,
Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 44-48.
Tien PC., Ed. (1989) Geology o f Kan~puchea,Laos and Vietnam. Institute for Information and Documentation of
Mines and Geology, Hanoi, Vietnam.
Vietnam: An important potential new source of fine ruby
(1990).ICA Gazette, November, p. 8.
Vietnam claims major ruby find (1990). jewelers' CircularKeystone, Vol. 161, No. 12, pp. 22, 24.
Viets delay ruby sales until . . . (1991). Jewelers' CirculcirKeystone, Vol. 162, No. 3, p. 36.
Wall J.R.D., Wolfenden E.B., Beard E.H., Deans T. (1962) Nordstranclite in soil from West Sarawak, Borneo. Nature, Vol.
196, NO. 4851, pp. 264-265.
Webster R. (1983) Gems: Their Sources, Descriptions and
Identification, 4 t h ed., Rev. by B. W. Anderson.
Butterworth & Co., London.
Weidinger W.A. (1991) Beware of deception on Vietnamese
rubies. jewelers' Circular-Keystone, Vol. 162, No. 7, p. 92.
Weldon R. (1991)Why the Vietnam reds are giving us the blues.
Jewelers' Circular-Keystone, Vol. 162, No. 5, pp. 46-48.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
155
By H. A. Hanni and K. Schmetzer
The authors present the mineralogical and

gemological properties of rubies found recently in the Morogoro area of Tanzania
that have many features in common with
rubies from Myanmar (Burma) and other
comparable marble-type deposits. Spec$cally, microscopic investigations of these
Morogoro stones revealed some internal
characteristics that are also seen i n Burmese rubies-such as angular growth zoning, curved growth zoning ("swirls"), negative crystals, spinel crystals, rutile needles, and clouds of minute particles in
areas defined b y both types of growth
zones, which may also be related to color
zoning. However, the Morogoro material
appears t o have ( 1 ) lower amounts of V
and Ga than Burmese rubies, and (2) a
characteristic angular growth with r, a,
and r' faces. A gemological comparison of
the recently produced Morogoro rubies
with rubies found earlier in this area
shows significant differences.
156
Rubies from Tanzania
n June 1987, one of the authors first received samples of

em-quality spinels from an apparently new source. The
red, orange, reddish purple, purplish blue, and blue spinels
reportedly originated from the Morogoro area in Tanzania.
Physical, chemical, and spectral characteristics of the
spinels were found to be within the range of natural gem
spinels from classic localities such as Myanmar (Burma)
m d Sri Lanlza (see, e.g., Schmetzer et al., 1989). Microscopic examination revealed the presence in about 70% of
the samples of a characteristic feature that had not
previously been noted in spinels: intersecting, doubly
refractive, thin lamellae of what was later determined to be
hogbomite (Schmetzer and Berger, 1990),oriented parallel
to the octahedral faces of the host spinel crystals.
Several parcels of rough and faceted stones subsequently examined were found to contain a high percentage
af material with these hogbomite lamellae, which sugrested that the samples originated from a common source.
All but one of the independent dealers who showed us
these parcels cited the Morogoro area of Tanzania as the
origin of the gem spinels (see also, Bank et al., 1989).
-1n the course of examining- -parcels of these spinels, the
authors identified several samples of ruby; in fact, approximately 10% of the stones in these large "spinel" parcels
were determined to be ruby or "light ruby."*
The two superficially similar minerals - rhombohedra] ruby crystals and octahedral spinel crystalswere generally identified as two different materials before
cutting. However, some dealers did not know that their
spinel parcels contained facetable rubies, some of good to
excellent quality (figure 1).
In recent months, significant quantities of Morogoro
rubies of the type described here have been seen in the
trade (E. Fritsch, pers. comm., 1991). According to C.
Bridges (pers. comm., 1991)) the principal ruby mines
within the Morogoro area are the Epanlzo, Kitonga,
I
I
1
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
Figure 1. A new find of

fine rubies has emerged
from the Morogoro area
of Tanzania. These cut
stones range from 0.51 to
3.31 ct; the rough ranges
from 5.65 to 8.55 ct.
Photo b y Shane E
McClure.
Lulzande, Matombo, and Mayote. C. Forge, a

French geologist who has visited the region,
reports that Maton~bois the locality where rubies
occur together with spinels (pers. comin., 1991;
figure 2).
Initial inspection of the samples using routine
gemological methods revealed that they contained
some types of inclusions that had long been
regarded exclusively as characteristic of Burmese
rubies. Because determination of the locality origin of rubies, sapphires, and emeralds is one of the
most difficult tasks for gemological laboratories
that provide this service, the authors attempted to
ascertain definitive criteria that would allow these
new Tanzanian rubies to be distinguished from
Editor's note: "Light rubies" (lighter tones and/or lower saturations of red) would be called pink sapphires b y the GIA
Cern Trade Laboratory, lac.
those from Mogok and comparable marble or

marble-related deposits.
We also noted that these new Morogoro rubies
differ significantly from the largely cabochonquality rubies that emerged earlier from this same
area (Schmetzer, 1986b).Features that distinguish
these two types of Tanzanian rubies are also
presented in this article.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
More than 60 samples of new material from
Morogoro were examined, including approximately 50 rough crystals, 10 faceted stones, and
three cabochons. All were taken from the parcels of
spinels with distinctive hogbomite lamellae that
were reported to be from the Morogoro area of
Tanzania.
Refractive indices and densities were obtained
by standard gemological methods. Seven samples
(four rough and three cut), representing the range
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
157
Figure 2. Because these

new rubies were found
mixed in large parcels of
spinel rough, they are
believed to come from
the Matombo mine, one
of several in the
Morogoro region of
Tanzania. Artwork by
Carol Silver.
of typical appearances, were analyzed for traceelement contents by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (Tracor X-ray instrument;
operating conditions available on request to the
authors). A total of 48 point analyses were performed on three faceted ruby samples with a
Cameca Camebax microprobe operating at 15 1zV
and 15 nA, using wavelength-dispersive spectrometry. Two microprobe analyses of one spinel
inclusion were performed with a JEOL JAX-8600
Superprobe with combined energy-dispersive1
wavelength-dispersive spectrometry under operating conditions of 15 1zV and 15 nA. Z n was not
quantified, but it was determined to be present.
Zircon, apatite, and garnet inclusions were identified by qualitative analysis on a Philips SEM 515
with Tracor EDS system. Spectral data in the
U.V-visible range were obtained with Leitz-Unicam SE800 and Pye-Unicam SP8-100 UV-Vis spectrophotometers, on approximately 20 representative samples.
Indexing of internal and external growth
planes was performed on selected samples with a
horizontal (immersion) microscope by the
methods described in Schmetzer (1986a) and
Kiefert and Schmetzer (1991). Photomicrographs
were obtained with a Schneider immersion microscope with Zeiss optics and with a Wild-Leitz
Stereomicroscope M8 with Fotoautomate MP S 55.
158
RESULTS
Visual Appearance. The rough samples examined
varied from small, mostly elongated, flat to isometrically shaped crystals, and included irregularly terminated rough (figures 1 and 3)The largest
piece of rough examined was 20 ct. Diaphaneity
varied from translucent to transparent, depending
on the relative content of inclusions. When rutile is
Figure 3. These ruby crystals were sorted from

parcels of rough spinels that were reportedly
from the relatively new find at Morogoro. The
largest pieces are approximately 20 ct. Photo by
H. Hdnni.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
0.008. Densities, determined hydrostatically, were

found to vary between 3.99 and 4.01 gIcm3. These
values are typical for rubies from all localities. We
observed a strong red fluorescence to long-wave
ultraviolet radiation (365 nm), and a weaker red to
short-wave U.V (254 nm); these reactions are
identical to those of Burmese rubies. Pleochroisn~
of yellowish red parallel to the c-axis and reddish
violet perpendicular to c was the same as that for
rubies from similar marble-type deposits.
Figure 4. Some of ihe Morogoro stones had sufficient rutile throughout to produce asterism
when cabochon cut, as was the case with the
approximately 4-ct stone i n this ring. Photo by
Shane F. *MtClure.
densely distributed throughout a crystal, asteriated stones may be cut (figure 4). The largest cut
stone examined was approximately 4 ct.
Our samples varied from a red of medium
saturation to a purplish red of medium to weak
saturation. These colors compare favorably to
those associated with medium-toned and "light"
Burmese rubies.
Although we saw few fully transparent rubies,
approximately one-fifth of the rough Morogoro
stones we examined were sufficiently transparent
for faceting. Most of the material was cabochon
quality. However, such stones are commonly heat
treated to improve clarity by burning off irregularly distributed rutile silk. Fractured rubies also
may be subjected to a type of heat treatmentsimilar or identical to that used to produce glassfilled cavities in corundum-in which a borate
melt fills the voids and, after prolonged heating,
acts as a flux that causes a certain recrystallization
of fracture planes (as described by Hanni, 1986a
and b).
Physical and Optical Properties. We obtained refractive indices of no = 1.769 to 1.770 and n,, =
1.761 to 1.762, resulting in a birefringence of
Chemical Properties. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF] analyses (Stern and Hanni,
1982) of five samples revealed the presence of
chromium and small concentrations of gallium,
iron, and titanium. No vanadium was detected.
Three faceted samples were analyzed by electron microprobe to provide quantitative data on
major and trace elements. The results are listed in
table 1, along with optical data for the samples.
Chromium is the only effective color-causing
element observed and thus governs and correlates
with the intensity (saturation) of red color. Titanium was present above, while iron and vanadium
were found at or below, the limit of detection for
the microprobe (approximately 0.02 wt.%). Because Fe and V are very low or absent, they provide
no superimposed effect on color in this instance.
The small variations in optical values and density
TABLE 1. Optical properties and chemical data for
three rubies from the new deposit in the Morogoro

area, Tanzania.
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Medium
strong red
Medium red
Pink
16
18
Optical properties
and color
Color
Refractive indices
no
ne
An
1.770
1.762
0.008
Electron microprobe analyses8

No. of analyses
14
'Ranges in wt.%. See text lor details of analysis
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
159
noted above occur because of the minor substitution of aluminum by other elements, especially
chromium.
For comparison with the chemistry of rubies
from other localities, see Kuhlmann (1983))
Schmetzer (1986b), Tang et al. (1988, 19891, and
Muhlmeister and Devo~iard(1991).
Optical Spectroscopy. In the hand spectroscope,
Morogoro rubies reveal the typical ruby spectrum
without characteristic iron bands. The absorption
spectrum as recorded by spectrophotometer (figure 5) is also without any peculiarities. Again,
there are no signs of iron in either the visible or the
ultraviolet range. The curve in the ultraviolet to
blue portion of the spectrum exhibits broad absorption minima at 365 and 480 nm for the o
vibration and at 350 and 484 nm for the e vibration.
These spectra are nearly identical to those
reported for most Burmese rubies (Bosshart, 1982;
Schmetzer, 1985, 1986b). A shoulder near the
absorption edge at 315 nm is not always as prominent in the spectra of Morogoro rubies as is shown
in figure 5, and may actually be absent.
Microscopic Characteristics. Growth Features.
Two types of growth zoning were observed in
rubies from Morogoro: curved (swirl-like) and
Figure 5. The absorption spectrum of a Morogoro ruby is typical of that commonly observed in rubies from different localities, especially Mogok or other marble-type deposits.
300
400
500
800
WAVELENGTH (nm)
160
700
Figure 6. Some of the Morogoro stones revealed

swirl-like growth features. Immersion, magnifled SOX; photomicrograph b y K. Schmetzer.
straight or angular. Irregular "swirls" that are quite

similar to those long associated with Burmese
rubies occasionally occur in the Morogoro inaterial (figure 6) and, as discussed elsewhere in this
issue (Kane et al., 1991)) have recently been observed in Vietnamese rubies as well. These curved
growth features, which commonly occur as
swirled color zoning, too, are due to complex
surfaces (e.g., stepped surface growth or etched,
dissolved surfaces) that were subsequently overgrown during crystal formation by layers of corundum of different chemical composition (especially chromium) and/or inclusion content. Such
optical inhomogeneities are well known in, and
have been considered a typical feature of, Burmese
rubies (e.g., Gubelin and Koivula, 1986; Schmetzer, 1986b). Although present in some of the
Tanzanian stones, such swirled growth zoning was
not observed in the majority of samples examined.
Most of the Morogoro rubies exhibited combinations of straight growth planes that were observed to lie parallel to the three major morphologic faces c, r, and a (figure 7).These straight or
angular layers may differ from one another in
chemical composition -and thus, for example, in
transparency or color. In these rubies from Tanzania, inclusions are usually concentrated in specific zones defined by these straight or angular
growth planes. In addition, most color zoning is
related to these same growth features. In fact, we
found that angular color zoning parallel to faces r,
a, and r' (two rhombohedral and one prism) is
characteristic of these Morogoro rubies (again, see
figure 7).Less frequently, we observed color zoning
parallel to a combination of the two rhombohedral
faces r and r'.
The angle between the faces r and a equals
137.W (seeBox A, figure A-2, and figure 7), and the
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
i''*,-S^*fe*S^fe^l'-~"-;.'
We distinguished thre^gtedominant shapes of rough:
(1)flattened to tabular; udo-cubes (referredto here
as "pseudo-squares"); @1 .pseudo-cubes; and (3)corroded, irregularly terminated samples. In all samples
examined, the basal plane c (0001) and the positive
rhombohedron r (1011)were observed to be dominant
faces (figure A-la]. In some of the samples, six
additional subordinate prism faces a (11%) were
found [figure A-lb); these were sometimes similar or
equal in size to the positive rhombohedron r and the
basal plane c (figure A-lc]. The angles between rhombohedral faces r and r' of corundun~are 86and 94",
respectively -very close to a right angle. Rubies with
dominant rhombohedral faces, therefore, form cubeto square-like shapes, according to the relative size of
the six rhombohedra1 faces. On cmc crystal, a small
hexagonal dipyramid 11 (2243)was also observed.
In all of the crystals we examined, two of the
eight comers of each "cube" are cut off by triangular
faces (figureA-la), the crystallographic basal planes c.
If parts of the edges of the pseudo-cubes or pseudosquares arc also cut off, the faces of the hexagonal
prism a are formed. These prism faces form right
angles V t h the basal planes c, and "exhibit lath-like
forms (fifeures A-lb,c).
When two of the eight corners of a ps=uJo-sidarqz
or a pseudo-cube are replaced by triangular faces,>,
habits that superficially resemble spinel octahedra
are formed (figure A-la). In other words, the six"
quadrilateral faces r of a corundum crystal ~ i t h o u t
basal faces c are altered to pentagonal faces by the
addition of two basal pinacoids c.
If the crystal faces are of a certain size, fine
parallel striations can be seen with the unaided eye or
a 10x loupe. These lines represent the traces of
narrow twin lamellae of corundum that cut the
crystal faces c, r, and a,
Normally, ruby and spinel are easily distinguished with a spectroscope or dichroscope, but this
is not always possible. For example, in heavily twin;.
,+-..,+r,.d5,
4,
&me A-I, The ruby crystals from Morogoro

show the basal plane c (OWl),
rhombohedron r (1011,and the

as dominant c r y ~ a faces.
!
I
Spinel
.
,
-t""?^
Figure A-2, The characteristic angles of cor- ., ..-.G

:,
undum (left in photo), formed by rhom:t.ite~~
bohedral and prism faces, are distinctly different from the characteristic angles of spine
(right in photo), formed b y octahedral and
dodecahedra1 faces. Photo by Shane F.
ff"-^,^
ned crystals, which have t ree sets of ame ae, the

dichroic colors of the main crystal may be hidden by
the many narrow twin lamellae, which are present in
different orientations. Therefore, observation of the
traces of protruding twin lamellae (which show up as
sets of parallel lines on the crystal faces) or closer
examination of the crystal morphology may be helpful in some situations to indicate that a crystal is
corundum with rhombohedra1 habit rather than
spinel. Note that the octahedral angle of spinel, at
109.5' iidistinctly dKferent from the rhombohwlral
angle of corumlum, which i s 93.P (figure Ar2)
The iriorphlogie
oherved in our
Morogoro ruby (ample? have also been described for
some Buritttsc rubies (Bauer, 16%j Melczer, 1902).
Taritdnidn c~ystals
with rounded shpe and outline6
that have A ~moothbut cormled surface also strongly
resemble ruby crystals from Mogok. The only dliferences that can be cited at present are that the
hexagonal dipyramid n seems to be more common
and/or somewhat larger in Burmese rubies than in
those from Morogoro, and that the prism faces a may
be more dominant or larger in Burmese rubies.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~cu
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
161
Figure 7. Growth planes parallel to

two rhom bohedral and one prism
face, evident here as straight and
angular layers of color, are characteristic of the Morogoro rubies examined. Note also the irregtilar distribution of what appears to be
rutile dust in the growth zones. This
growth structure is easily seen in
faceted samples as well. Immersion,
magnified 40 x ; photomicrograph by
K. Schmetzer.
angle between faces r and r' is 93.9'. In one cut

stone, growth structures parallel to n, r, and n'i.e., with two angles of 154.0'-were observed.
Growth planes parallel to two rhombohedral faces
and one prism face that form two angles of 137.0'
have been, until now, observed only rarely in
rubies from other localities, including those from
Mogolz. Consequently, since this structural feature is encountered very frequently in the type of
Tanzanian ruby described here, it can be regarded
as characteristic of this locality. It is useful for
purposes of identification as well, since it has
never been observed in synthetic rubies. These
structural differences are useful for distinguishing
rough, faceted, or even cabochon-cut samples
(Schmetzer, 1986a).
The Morogoro rubies also frequently exhibit
narrow twin lamellae oriented parallel to one or,
commonly, two or three rhombohedral faces.
When these sets of thin lamellae occur parallel to
only one rhombohedral face, the interference figure of the ruby commonly looks somewhat distorted, but it is still visible. When there are two
intersecting systems of lamellae, the intersection
forms a set of relatively coarse, parallel straight
lines that can easily be seen with a microscope
(figure 8). With twin lamellae present parallel to
three rhombohedral faces, there will be three sets
of these straight lines intersecting one another at
angles of 94' and forming a nearly rectangular,
three-dimensional framework.
Since the twin lamellae possess a certain
thiclzness, the portions of corundum that lie in
straight lines within the intersections (figure 9)
162
appear as rods with square or rectangular crosssections. Eppler (1974)referred to these as "inclusions of corundum needles." Schmetzer (1986b)
noted that the side walls of these rods are often
covered with polycrystalline boehmite (again, see
figure 9). Such features are common in rubies and
sapphires from several localities that show repeated twinning parallel to more than one rhombohedral face (Hanni, 1987), and provide a quick,
conclusive method of separating natural from
synthetic stones.
Occasionally, small fissures are confined to
Figure 8. The Morogoro rubies frequently exhibited narrow twin lamellae oriented parallel to
one or more rhombohedral faces. Here, two systems of lamellae intersect. Immersion, crossed
polarizers, magnified 25 x ; photomicrograph by
I<. Schmetzer.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
l l ) , the externally dominant faces c, r, and a, and

thus resemble small octahedral crystals. These
inclusions were recognized in Burmese rubies by
Eppler (1976) as negative crystals, although they
had frequently been mentioned earlier as spinels
(e.g., Eppler, 1974).
When examined with the microscope, these
inclusions showed a very strong Becke line and,
where they were exposed at the surface, were
determined to be cavities.
Figure 9. When the stones are viewed with i m mersion at high magnification ( B O X ) , the intersecting l a m e h e are apparent as coarse, parallel
straight lines. In this stone, small boehmite
particles can be seen confined to the intersection line of the lamellae. Photomicrograph b y
K. Schmetzer.
these intE;dection lines from which they hang like

flags on a tope (figure 10).While it is not currently
known what causes these fissures, they may arise
from stres's and strain due to deformation forces
applied to the parent rock.
Negative Crystals. Also well known in Burmese
rubies is the presence of negative crystals that
repeat, in the case of our Tanzanian rubies (figure
Figure 10. Small fissures were occasionally seen
confined t o the intersection lines of the twin
lamellae, hanging from them like flags. Magnified 20x ; photomicrograph by H. Hanni.
Figure 11. Negative crystals with a rhombohedral habit were observed i n many of the
Morogoro rubies. Immersion, magnified 80 x ;
photomicrograph b y K. Schmetzer.
Rutile. Rutile occurs in various forms in rubies

from the Morogoro area. The rutile precipitations
appeared near-colorless, probably due to the absence of iron. Typically, fine needles and lancetlike rutile twins were observed (figure 12)and may
cause asterism in cabochon-cut stones (figure 13).
In addition, dusty to flaky disseminations,
often referred to as clouds, of very fine particles
caused turbidity in many of the stones; these may
consist of rutile as well (figure 14). These fine
inclusions of rutile and/or other particles were
concentrated in varying densities and were often
seen in growth zones bound by planes parallel to c,
r, or a (figures 7, 14). They also occurred in
irregularly defined areas, apparently related to a
process of alternating growth and dissolution.
Other Mineral Inclusions. Four additional mineral
species have, to date, been recognized in the
subject gem-quality rubies from the Morogoro
area.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
163
Figure 12. Rutile was commonly present as

needles and lancet-like twirls in the Momgoro
rubies examined. Magnified 20 x ; pholoniicrograph by H. Hcinni.
Figure 13. Dense concentrations of r ~ ~ t iilnec h sions produced asterism in some of the Morogoro stones. Magnified 10 x ; photomicrograph
by H. Hcinni.
Spinel crystals were seen that are similar to

negative crystals both in octahedral habit and in
lack of birefringence. Thus, these small octahedra
cannot always be differentiated from negative
crystals with a microscope. One of these spinel
inclusions was exposed at the surface of a faceted
sample and so was examined by electron microprobe (see table 2). Analysis revealed small
amounts of Ti, Cr, Y and Fe, in addition to the
major elements Mg and Al.
Small prismatic to rounded crystals with tension cracks (figure 15)were identified as zircon by
SEM-EDS on the basis of Zr and Si present as the
major elenlents.
Apatite was observed as small prismatic crystals (figure 16) and was identified by the presence
of Ca and P as determined by SEM-EDS.
Pyrope inclusions were also identified by SEMEDS, which detected major components of Si, Al,
Figure 14. Extremely fine inclusions of rutiJe

and/or other particles were concentrated in
varying densities and were often, us here, con
fined to growth zones in the ruby. Immersion,
magnified 65 x ; photomicrograph by
I<. Schmet zer.
TABLE 2. Electron microprobe analyses of one spinel inclusion in a ruby from the new
deposit in the Morogoro area, Tanzania.3
Oxide
(wt.%)
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
Cations
(calculated
to 0 - 4 )
Analysis 1
Analysis 2
2.000
0.000
0.007
0.01 1
0.977
A12
v2
Cr203
FeO
MgO
--
2.995
Total
"See text tor details of analysis. Note that Zn was identified as present and estimated in the range of
1-5 wt.% ZnO.
164
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
and Mg. In the Morogoro stones examined, pyrope

appeared as irregularly shaped to rounded pink
grains.
Fluid inclusions were seen in the microscope
as primary voids and pseudo-secondary healing
feathers. The voids predominantly contain a
monophase filling, but two-phase (liquid/gas) fillings, although rare, were also observed.
Unhealed open fissures, usually filled with
secondary FeOOH phases that had stained the
fissures brownish red, were occasionally observed
during microscopic examination.
COMPARISON WITH BURMESE RUBY

The rubies from the new deposit at Morogoro are
significantly different from the rubies that were
found earlier in this general area (BoxB). However,
a number of key features are common to rubies
from Mogolz and this new deposit at Morogoro.
These include:
A characteristic color.
1nhohj6~eneitiesin growth zoning parallel to
distinct faces, as well as irregular "swirls," both
often observed in conjunction with irregular
color distribution.
Sets of thin twin lamellae parallel to one, two,
or three rhombohedra1 faces.
"Clouds" of rutile needles and/or other disseminated particles.
Coarse rutile.
Octahedral inclusions of slightly rounded solid
material (spinel) or similar-appearing negative
crystals.
These similarities between the rubies from Morogoro and those from the Mogolz district are
probably due to a similarity in the geologic
settings of the two occurrences. The Mogok
rubies derive from a dolomitic marble in which
red spinels are even more abundant than ruby
[Keller, 1983). Tanzanian rubies from the new
source in the Morogoro area are also found with
an abundance of red and purple spinels. Therefore,
it may be conjectured that these Tanzanian rubies
also originate from a marble or marble-related
parent rock. Other comparable occurrences of
rubies and spinels situated in marble include
Hunza, Pakistan (Bank and Okrusch, 1976;
Gubelin, 1982); and Luc Yen, Vietnam (Weldon,
1991; Kane et al., 1991); gem-quality ruby with
Figure 15. Small prismatic crystals such as this,

with tension cracks, were identified as zircon.
Immersion, magnified 100 x ; photomicrograph
by K. Schmetzer.
Figure 16. A second type of small prismatic

crystal observed in the Morogoro rubies was determined to be apatite. Magnified 50 x ; photomicrograph by H. Hanni.
similar properties is also known from Nepal

(Harding and Scarratt, 1986; Bank et al., 1988).
Characteristics that, to a certain extent, may
be used to distinguish the new Morogoro rubies
from those of Mogolz are summarized as follows:
Swirl-like growth structures are more frequently observed and more pronounced in Burmese rubies.
Straight or angular color zoning may be more
distinct in Burmese rubies.
Angular color zoning parallel to the r, a, and r'
faces has thus far been seen only in these rubies
from Morogoro.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
165
BOX B: COMPARISON OF NEW AND OLDER TYPES

OF RUBIES FROM THE MOROGORO AREA
Rubies and pink sapphires from the Morogoro area of
Tanzania have been known in the gem trade since the
mid-1980s, or even earlier, as reported to us by a
number of dealers (Schmetzer, 1986b).The first gemological description of material from this area involved stones that are somewhat different from those
described in the present article; descriptions were
provided by Schmetzer (1986b),with additional information in papers by Barot (1989)and Bank and Henn
(1989). The "earlier" rubies from the Morogoro area
are generally of cabochon quality, and most are
translucent at best; only a very small percentage are
facet grade. The following summary of diagnostic
features of this earlier material from Morogoro may
be useful:
T h e color is usually medium to light red to "pink"
with brownish tints.
The material reveals high iron contents, as evidenced by the iron-related absorption bands at 450,
388, and 376 nm in the visible spectrum.
Rutile inclusions are absent, although stones in
Growth planes parallel to two rhombohedra1

faces and one prism face that form two angles of
137.0' are common in Morogoro rubies and rare
in those from other localities, including Mogok.
The presence of two or three systems of twin
lamellae is less common in Burmese rubies,
which usually have only one such system, as are
intersecting straight, parallel lines, or even a
three-dimensional framework of lines, which
are related to the twin lamellae.
Vanadium and gallium contents are generally
higher in Burmese rubies, as measured by
EDXRF (Stern and Hanni, 1982; Hanni and
Stern, 1982).
Consequently, it seems evident that an unequivocal determination of origin of rubies from marble
deposits can be ascertained only under favorable
conditions and may be possible only for certain
stones, even by the best-equipped gemological
laboratory. Thus, the distinction between Burmese
and Tanzanian marble-related rubies will be very
difficult for the practicing gemologist.
166
one parcel examined revealed transparent colorless needles, which microprobe analysis proved to
be sillimanite or lzyanite.
Neither color zoning parallel to growth planes nor
irregular color distribution ("swirls"] has been
observed.
Narrow twin lamellae are frequently found,
n~ostly in three directions; these form dense,
three-din~ensional frameworks of intersecting
straight lines.
Intersecting lamellar straight lines are often confined to boehmite particles, s o that the intersecting lines have a lath-like framework.
Twin lamellae are frequently confined to parallel
planes of polycrystalline boehmite.
Consequently, no difficulties arise in distinguishing
samples of the older material from those stones
discovered more recently at the Morogoro area. Nor
does material from the earlier mining operations
share any distinctive characteristics with Burmatype stones.
CONCLUSION
Appreciable amounts of good-color, translucent to
transparent rubies have recently emerged from the
Morogoro area of Tanzania, possibly the Matombo
mine. These rubies share many distinctive features with rubies from the historic locality at
Mogok, in Myanmar (Burma).This is an important
consideration to certain segments of the trade for
whom origin is of critical concern. However, our
examination of several Morogoro rubies and innumerable Burmese stones suggests that swirl-like
growth features are more frequent, and straight or
angular color zoning more prominent, in Burmese
stones, while the presence of two or three systems
of twin lamellae is more common in the Morogoro
material. However, only the Morogoro rubies very
frequently show growth features and color zoning
parallel to the r, a, and r' faces, forming two angles
of 1 3 7 . EDXRF analyses of seven samples of the
Morogoro material indicate that there are lower
amounts of the trace elements vanadium and
gallium in the Morogoro stones than in their
Burmese counterparts.
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
The examination of Morogoro rubies reinforces the observation that deposits of quite siinilar geologic conditions (in this case, marble or
marble-related deposits) may be encountered in a
variety of localities. The products of such deposits

may also be quite similar, as appears to be the case
for ruby from Myanmar, Pakistan, Vietnam, Nepal,
and Tanzania.
REFERENCES
Bank H., Gubelin E., Harding R.R., Henn U., Scarratt K.,
Schmetzer K. (1988)An unusual ruby from Nepal. Journal
of Gemmology, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 222-226.
Bank H., Henn U. (1989) Schleifwurdige Korunde von
Ngoronghoro, Tansania. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 44-46.
Bank H., Henn U.,Pctsch E. (1989)Spinelle ails den1 Umba-Tal,
Tansania. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen
Gesellschaft, Vol. 38, No. 4,pp. 166-168.
Bank H., Okrusch 1M. 11976) Uber Rubin-Vorkomnien in
Marniorcn von Hiinza (Pakistan).Zeitschrift der Deiitschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp.
67-85,
Barot N.R. 11989) Outlook for world gem production is good.
ICA Gazette, September, pp. 7-10.
Bauer M. (1896)Ueber das Vorkonimen der Riibine in Birma.
Neues lahrbnch fiir Mineralogie Vol. 1896, Band 11, pp.
197-238.
Bosshart G . (1982)Distinction of natural and synthetic rubies
by ultraviolet spectrophotometry. Journal of Gemmology,
Vol. 1 8 No. 2, pp. 145-160.
Eppler WE (1974) ~ b e einige
r
Einschlusse in Birnia-Rubin.
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gernn~ologischei~Gesellschgft, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 102-108.
Eppler WE (1976) Negative crystals in ruby from Burnia.
Journal o f Gemmology, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 1-5.
Glibelin E.J. (1982)Gemstones o f Pakistan: Emerald, ruby, and
spinel. Gems a) Gemology, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 123-139.
Glibelin E.J. Koivula J.I. (19861 Photoallas of Inclusions in
Gemstones. ABC Edition, Zurich.
H h n i H.A., Stern W B . (1982)~ b e dieBedeutungdes
r
GalliumNachweises in Korunden. Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp.
255-260.
Hanni H.A. (1986a)Behandelte Korunde mit glasartigen Fiillungen. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 35, No. 3/4, pp. 87-96.
Hanni H.A. (1986b)Glass-like fillings in rubies and sapphires.
Swiss W u ~ c hund Jewelry Journal, No. 9, p. 779.
Hanni H.A. (1987)On coriind~imsfrom Umba Valley Tanzania.
Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 278-284.
Harding R.R., Scarratt K. (1986) A description of ruby froni
Nepal. Jo11r11alof Gemmology, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 3-10.
Kane R.E., McClure S.F., KanimerlingR.C., Khoa N.D., Mora C.,
Repetto S., Khai N.D., Koivula ).I. (1991! Rubies and
sapphires from Vietnam. Gems ft> Gemology, Vol. 27, No.
3, pp. 136-155.
Keller PC. (1983)The rubies of Burnia: A review of the Mogok
stone tract. Gems o> Gemology, Vol. 19, No. 4, pp.
209-2 19.
Kiefert L., Schmetzer K. (1991)The microscopic determination
of structural properties for the characterization of optical
uniaxial natural and synthetic gemstones. Part 1: General
considerations and description of the method. Journal o f
Gemmology, Vol. 22, No. 6, pp. 344-354.
Kuhlmann H. (1983) Eniniissionsspel~tralanalyse von
naturlichen und synthetischen Rubinen, Sapphiren,
Smaragden und Alexandriten. Zeitschrift der Dentschen
Gemmologischen Gesellscl~aft,Vol. 32, No. 4, p p .
179-195.
Melczer G. (19021 Ueber einige krystallogiaphische Constanten des Korund. Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie L I I I ~
Mineralogie, Vol. 35, pp. 561-581.
Muhlnieister S., Devouard B. (in press) Trace element chemistry o f natural and synthetic rubies. In A. S. Keller, Ed.,
Proceedings of the 1991 International Gemologic~~l
Symposi~~m
Gemol?gical
,
Institute o f America, Santa Monica,
CA.
Schmetzer K. (19851Distinction o f natural and synthetic rubies
by ultraviolet absorption spectroscopy -Possibilities and
limitations o f the method. Zeitschrift der Deiitschen
Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 34, No. 314, pp.
101-129.
Schmetzer K . (1986a)An improved sample holder and its use in
the distinction o f natural and synthetic ruby as well as
natural and synthetic amethyst. Journal o f Gemmolosy,
Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 20-33.
Schmetzer K . (1986b) Naturliche und synthetische RubineEigenschaften und B e s t i m m ~ ~ n gSchweizerbart,
,
Stuttgart, Germany.
Schmetzer K., Berger A. (1990) Lamellar iron-free hogbonlite-24R froni Tanzania. Neues Jal~rLmchfur Mineralogie Monatshefte, No. 9, pp. 401-412.
Schmetzer K., Haxel C., Amthauer G. (1989)Colour of natural
spinels, gahnospinels and gahnites. Neiies fahrbuch fiir
Mineralogie Abhandlungen, Vol. 160, No. 2, pp. 159-180.
Stern WB., Hanni H.A. (1982) Energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry: A non-destructive tool in gemmology. Journal of
Geminology, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 285-296.
Tang S.M., Tang S.H., Tay T.S., Retty A.T. (1988) Analysis of
Burmese and Thai rubies by PlXE. Applied Spectroscopy,
Vol. 42, No. I, pp. 4 4 4 8 .
Tang S.M., Tang S.H., Mok K.F., Retty A.T., Tay T S . (1989)A
study of natural and synthetic rubies by PIXE. Applied
Spectroscopy, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 219-223.
Weldon R. (19911W h y the Vietnam reds are giving us the blues.
Jewelers' Circular-Keystone, Vol. 162, No. 5, pp. 46-48.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
167
NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES
By Jochen Schliiter and Wolfgang Weitschat
Red garnets have been mined in the Bohemian Hills of

Czechoslovakia since the 16th century. These pyrope garnets
reached their height of popularity in jewelry of the Victorian era.
Although the deposits had been generally regarded as depleted,
today a small mining operation is working on garnetiferous
gravels near the village of Podsedice, northwest of Prague.
T h e pyropes of Czechoslovakia have been lznown
since the Middle Ages, but they were first commercially exploited and cut locally in the 16th century.
Although in recent years it was commonly assumed that the deposits had been exhausted,
production does continue in a small mining operation in the Bohemian Hills, approximately 50 lzm
northwest of Prague. The rough is sold to the
Granat cooperative in the city of Turnov, where it
is faceted and then set into a wide variety of
jewelry pieces (figure 1).
In the world of antique jewelry, the name
pyrope garnet immediately recalls the elaborate,
glittering pieces manufactured in Bohemia (once a
kingdom, now a province of Czechoslovakia) by
local craftsmen and studded with small locally
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Schluter is curator 01 the Mineralogical Museum,
and Dr. Weitschal is curator 01 the Geological Museum, University 01 Hamburg, Germany.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the
organizations Artia, in Prague, and Granat, in Turnov,
Czechoslovakia, and the German firm HerrlingSchmuck, in Bramsche, lor providing information and
enabling visits to mines and other facilities.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 168-173.
1Gemological Institute 01 America
168
Notes and New Techniques
mined faceted pyropes. Today, only one garnet

deposit is being mined, near the village of Podsedice in the Bohemian Hills, but it is producing
commercial quantities of these attractive stones.
The following discussion examines the history of
the garnet industry in this area, the geology and
current mining operation, the manufacturing of
the gem-quality stones, and the properties of the
Bohemian pyropes.
HISTORY
The collecting of garnets in the area now lznown as
Bohemia dates back at least to the Middle Ages.
Then, stones were simply gathered from the surface after heavy rainfalls or, in some places, small
pits were dug and the loose ground sifted and
washed.
Traditionally, the stones were cut by local
farmers as an occupation during the long winter.
About 400 years ago, cutting centers were established in the towns of Turnov and Prague. Foreign
lapidary specialists were attracted to the region by
the growing industry, and in 1780 the Venetian
gold- and silversmith Callegari moved to Turnov,
which encouraged other craftsmen to follow. In the
Turnov museum lznown as "Czech Paradise," examples of Callegari's art can still be seen today.
According to O'Day (1974, p. 62), Bohemian
garnets appeared abundantly in Victorian jewelry
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
Figure 1. Today, fine

jewelry continues to be
made in the city of
Turnov, Czechoslovakia,
from pyrope garnets
mined in the Bohemian
Hills. Courtesy of
Herrling-Schmuck,
Bramsche, Germany.
,
of the 1 8 8 0 ~"when
~
clusters of small brilliant or
rose-cut stones were pave-set in almost invisible
silver settings," Bauer (1896, pp. 405-409), provided an unsurpassed (for its time) description of
the pyropes, their geologic setting, mining, cutting, and distribution. His book, written when
pyrope-set jewelry was near the height of fashion,
gives some insight into the extent of mining and
trade activity. He notes that the garnet-cutting
works of Bohemia are "very old-established" and
that "at the present time [ca 18961 in Bohemia
there are 3,000 men engaged in garnet-cutting,
some hundreds of garnet-drillers, about 500 goldsmiths and silversmiths, and some 3,500 working
jewellers. The collecting of garnets employs some
350 or 400 persons, so that, including the many
persons whose work is indirectly connected with
the industry, there must be between 9,000 and
10,000 persons gaining their livelihood by labour
connected with the working of this precious
stone."
Production began to slow down after the turn
of the century, as changing fashions led to a decline
in the popularity of garnet jewelry and an economic depression in the 1920s affected the jewelry
market as a whole (Rouse, 1986).After World War
11, the new political environment in Eastern Eu-
rope led to a shift in economic interests, notably

away from luxury items. Although small-scale
mining continued in the years that followed, it is
only with the opening of Czechoslova1zia's borders
to western Europe and the rest of the world that
interest has been renewed in exploiting these
deposits (K. Hurwit, pers. comm., 1991).
LOCATION AND ACCESS
Currently, the only locality being worked is approximately 10 lzm southwest of the town of
Lovosice just outside the small village of Podsedice
(figure2), which is less than 50 lzm from the border
of Czechoslovakia with Germany. The area is
readily accessible by car from Prague. At the
present time, a small open-pit mining operation is
being conducted by the Rudne Doly cooperative.
The site is located in the Bohemian Hills, south of
the towns of Bilina, Teplice, and usti, where in
years past many sites were exploited for alluvial
garnets by means of trenches and pits.
GEOLOGIC SETTING
Sediments in the basins along the southern slope of
the Bohemian Hills contain garnetiferous gravels
up to 6 m thick that are covered by overburdens of
no more than 6 m. The gravels consist of angular
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
169
Figure 2. This m a p shows the m a i n occurrences o f garnetiferons gravels in the Bohemian Hills of
Czechoslovakia, around the villages o f Mirunice, Stark, Bebenice, and Podsedice. The peridotites i n
which the garnets formed, which originated in the earth's mantle, were brought t o the surface b y
pipes such as the Linhorka and the Granhtov? vrch.
rock fragments of various sizes embedded in a fine

clayey to sandy matrix. At Podsedice, approximately 2.5 acres of gravels are worked by open-pit
mining each year. Once the gravels have been
worked out, the ground is carefully restored to a
state suitable for agriculture.
The sequence of events responsible for the
deposition of pyrope in these young sediments is as
follows. The original pyrope host rock is a serpentinized garnet peridotite (dunite/lherzolite; Fiala
and Padera, 1977) that is believed to have formed
initially at a depth of at least 60 km in the earth's
mantle. South of Teplice, such roclzs have been
emplaced in the upper crust by tectonic processes.
A drill hole near Stare, for example, reached
garnetiferous peridotites at depths between 209
and 436 m (Rostand Griegel, 1969).In this area, the
Precambrian basement consists mainly of granulites, gneisses, and migmatites, with intercalations
of such peridotitic roclzs, and is covered by a 160m-thick stratum of Cretaceous sandstones, marls,
and limestones. Locally, additional sediments consist of Oligocene sands and clay, in some places
covered by basaltic flows (Stutzer and Eppler,
1934).
170
Following Alpine orogeny during the Tertiary

period, crustal stretching in the Bohemian Hills
region triggered allzalic volcanism (feldspathoid
and feldspathoid olivine basalts). In the Miocene
(25million years ago),molten roclzs from the upper
mantle erupted to the surface through fissures and
cracks. In some areas, these volatile-rich melts
built up high pressures before they blasted free
their vents. These violent eruptions brought abundant fragments of crustal roclzs to the surface.
Some of these explosion pipes protrude today as
volcanic necks above the surrounding Cretaceous
country rocks (figure 3). The pipes at Star6 and
Merunice transported fragments of peridotites,
gneisses, granulites, and Cretaceous sediments
upward and incorporated them into their volcanic
breccias and tuffs. At the Stare pipe, called Linhorka, fragments of serpentinized garnetiferous
peridotites can be found (figure4)which are rich in
gem-quality pyrope.
Since the Miocene epoch, about 400 m of rock
have been eroded. Consequently, most of the
volcanic rocks have been decomposed and their
resistant components transported to the present
alluvial gravels. The garnets occur therein as
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 199 1
Figure 3. A power shovel

is used to remove the
overburden and garnetiferous gravels at
Podsedice. In the baclzground can be seen remnant pipes of Tertiary
volcanism i n the Bohemian Hills. Photo b y 1.
Schliiter.
individual, grains. Around Podsedice, there is an

area of approximately 70 km2 (again, see figure 2;
Oehmichen, 19001 that is underlain by garnetiferous gravels of varying thickness, which, as
mentioned above, are covered by recent sediments.
MINING AND RECOVERY
In the open-pit operation near Podsedice, 320 tons
of gravel are mined each day with conventional
power shovels (again, see figure 3) and trucked to a
washing plant. The pyropes, which average 16-18
grams per ton, are separated out by a sieving
Figure 4. This serpentinized game1 peridotite
from the Linhorka pipe near Stare contains several small gem-quality pyropes. Photo b y U. Mahn.
process using a 1-cm mesh. Because of their high

specific gravity, the garnets are then easily recovered by density separation (figure 5).Some 45 kg of
pyrope concentrates (figure 6 ) are produced daily,
from which about 5 kg of cutting-grade pyrope in
sizes over 3 m m are picked out by hand by female
workers (figure 7).This selected material is sold to
the cooperative society called Granat, in the town
of Turnov, where the stones are faceted.
Cutting losses amount to about 10% by volume, with the result that 4.5 kg of faceted stones
are made available to the numerous Granht jewelers each day. The stones are still set using
traditional techniques, with the aim of producing
mountings studded by numerous closely set faceted gems which emphasize the beauty of the
pyropes and relegate the metal of the setting to a
minor role (again, see figure 1).Over time, jewelry
makers in Turnov have developed about 20,000
different models of garnet jewelry that can be
manufactured on demand.
This jewelry is exported through the Czech
foreign trade company known as Artia, which is
headquartered in Prague, or through HerrlingSchmuck, which is located in Bramsche, Germany.
If mining continues at its present pace, it is
estimated by leaders of the Rudne Doly cooperative that the Podsedice deposits have sufficient
reserves to continue for more than 15 years (J.
Hlavsa, pers. coinin., 1989). Other garnet-bearing
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
171
Figure 6. In this garnet concentrate from the

Podsedice deposit, red pyropes (up to 5 mm) are
easily seen among the other n ~ a f i cminerals and
rock fragments. Photo b y J. Schliiter.
Figure 5. Density separation is used t o concentrate the pyropes i n this fig at Podsedice. Photo
b y 1. Schliiter.
alluvials elsewhere in the Bohemian Hills are

currently being explored.
DESCRIPTION OF THE GARNETS
The classic Bohemian garnet is the Mg-Al-rich
member of the garnet group known as pyrope, in
which minor substitutions of iron and especially
chromium are responsible for the characteristic
"fire-red" hue. Specimens of the finest color contain between 1.5 and 2.5 wt.% chromium as
Cr203. In general, the crystals occur as rounded
grains (figure 81 up to 5 m m in diameter, with
larger sizes being very rare. Most of the cut stones
are very small, around 0.10 ct.
Six representative samples were selected for
study. Refractive indices, as obtained with a refractometer and sodium light source, ranged from
1.748 to 1.750. Three of the six samples displayed
anomalous birefringence when immersed in methylene iodide and viewed between crossed polarizing filters. All appeared red when viewed through a
Chelsea filter and were inert to both long- and
short-wave ultraviolet radiation. Density determinations were considered unreliable due to the
small size of the stones. The optical spectra, as
seen with a prism hand spectroscope, were typical
for chrome-bearing pyrope, with chromium lines
in the red and a broad region of absorption in the
yellow.
M. Bauer (1896) stated that "the Bohemian

garnet is generally without exception of ideal
purity; it is the only gemstone deposit where all
stones are equally free of inclusions and impurities." Nevertheless, J. Bauer (1966) has described
three morphologic types of zircon inclusions [up to
0.57 mm] as well as chrome-diopside inclusions.
The changes in volume that zircons undergo due to
metamictization cause internal stress which results in both anomalous birefringence and distinct
cracks around the inclusions, In accord with J.
Bauer's observations, our six study samples contained small colorless inclusions (probablyzircon],
as well as larger ones surrounded by stress cracks.
These inclusions are reminiscent of the zircon
inclusions typically found in Sri Lanka rubies.
Generally, however, Bohemian garnets are relaFigure 7. A t Podsedice, a worker i n t h e Rudnk
Doly cooperative carefully selects gem-quality
stones from the pyrope concentrate. W h e n the
m i n e is i n operation, approximately 5 kg o f
cutting-grade pyrope are produced daily. Photo
b y 1. Schliiter.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
CONCLUSION
Pyrope garnets are still being mined from the
historic Bohemian Hills region, now part of
Czechoslovakia, although currently from a single
alluvial deposit. Nevertheless, production is sufficient to support a local cutting and jewelrymanufacturing operation that exports finished
pieces worldwide. If production continues at its
present pace, the Podsedice deposit should be able
to provide garnets for more than 15 years.
Other localities are currently being explored in
the Bohemian Hills. With the opening of trade
barriers throughout Europe, increased demand for
all types of jewelry may anticipate the discovery or rediscovery-of other commercially viable deposits of this historically renowned gemstone.
TABLE 1. Representative microprobea chemical
Figure 8. These rounded garnet crystals, which

average approximately 0.25 ct (2.5 mm in diameter), are typical of the pyropes currently being mined in Bohemia. Photo by Shane F.
McClure. i
tively free of microscopic features, including

growth zoning and healing planes (feathers).
Chemical data were obtained for the same six
stones by electron microprobe analysis. The results revealed a limited range of compositional
variability. Data for two representative samples are
provided in table 1; the chemical compositions of
the Bohemian garnets appear to be comparable to
those of chrome-bearing pyropes from other localities.
analyses for two samples of pyrope garnet recently

mined in the Bohemian region of Czechoslovakia.
Sample 2
Sample 1
-
Oxide
(wt%)
Core
Rim
Core
Rim
SiO,
Alp03
FeOb
Mgo
MnO
CaO
TiO,
crnOi
n
' o.
41.46
21.51
9.1 7
21.29
0.32
4.45
0.70
1.66
0.09
41.02
21.47
9.20
21.28
0.31
4.46
0.67
1.62
0.03
41.06
21.39
9.10
20.82
0.31
4.48
0.55
1.76
0.05
41.13
21.53
9.21
20.93
0.34
4.45
0.56
1.75
0.08
100.65
100.06
99.52
99.98
Total
'Operating conditions and details of analyses available on request to the

authors
"Total iron as FeO.
REFERENCES
Bauer J. (1966) Inclusions in garnets of ultrabasic and granulitic
rocks in the northern tract of the Bohemian Massif.
Krystalinikiim, Vol. 4, pp. 11-18.
Baucr M. (18961 Edelsteinkunde. Chr. H. Tauchnitz, Leipzig.
Fiala J,, Padera K. (1977) The chemistry of the minerals of the
pyrope dunitc from borehole T-7 near Stare (Bohemia).
Tschermaks Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungeti, Vol. 24, pp. 205-219.
O'Day D. (1974) Victorian Jewellery. Charles Letts and Co.,
London.
Oehnlichen H. (1900) Die bohmischen Granatlagerstatten und

die Edelsteinseife des Seufzergrundels bei H i n terhermsdorf in Sachsen. Zeitschrift fur Praktische Geologie, January, pp. 1-17.
Rost F., Griegel W (1969) Zur Geochemie und Genese granatfuhrender Ultramafitite des mitteleuropaischen Grundgebirges. Chemie der Erde, Vol. 28, pp. 91-177.
Rouse ID. (1986) Garnet. Butterworths, London, pp. 46-47.
Stutzer O., Eppler W.F. (1934) Die Lagerstatten dec Edelsteine.
Gebruder Borntrager, pp. 399-404.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
173
LAB NOTES
EDITOR
C,W. Fryer
Gem Jrade Laboratory, West Coast
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Robert Crowningshield David Hargett Thomas Moses
Gem Jrade Laboratory, East Coast
DIAMOND
either the growth process or from

chemical etching (see, e.g., "Etch Pits
on Diamond Surfaces," by A, R. Patel
and S. Ramanathan, Philosophical
Magazine, Vol. 7, No. 80, 1962, pp.
1305-1314). If the temperature and/
or con~positionof the surrounding
solution varies during formation of
the trigons, a reversal in orientation
is possible. Thus, both positive and
negative depressions can occur in
separate areas of the same octahedral
plane, or they may be superin~posed
in such a way that features with a
distinctly hexagonal outline develop.
In the latter case, either the positive
or the negative form will usually
dominate, creating mostly cut-cornered triangle shapes (figure 1).However, if the reversal is equal in extent,
a perfectly symmetrical hexagon can
occur.
A striking example of this was
recently seen in the West Coast laboratory: Examination of a 1.55-ct
fancy gray-yellow pear-shaped diamond with magnification revealed
an indented natural that displayed a
hexagonal outline where it reached
the surface of a bezel facet on the tip
of the stone. What was so extraordinary was the combination of symmetry and depth that resulted in a hollow hexagonal column extending
deep within the stone (figure 2). Shallow geometric features are common
on the surfaces of rough crystals and
sometimes appear as naturals on cut
stones, but an example as dramatic as
this is rarely seen in a faceted stone.
Christopher I? Smith
With Hexagonal
Indented Natural
Tttangular depressions (usually referred to as trigons) that are sometimes present on the octahedral faces
of diamond crystals can occur in two
orientations: They are referred to as
"positive" when they point in the
same direction as the crystal face and
"negative" when they point opposite
the crystal face. Numerous studies
and observations have proved that
both types of trigons can result from
Figure 1. This 1.35-ct light

greenish yellow diamond crystal shows a predominantly
positive trigon that has been
modified by a negative trigon,
thus creating a cut-cornered
triangular indented natural on
the octahedral face, Magnified 3 5 x .
Gem Trade Lab Notes
Karin Hurwit Robert E. Kane

Gem Trade Laboratory, West Coast
Figure 2. The hexagonal outline of a columnar indented

natural is readily visible in the
bezel facet of this diamond. The
striations seen across the
width of the inclusion, running down the entire length of
the column, are parallel to the
octahedral faces and indicate
the orientation of the faceted
stone to the original crystal.
Magnified 20 x ,
Type IIb with Natural
Irradiation Stains
In the laboratory, we often observe
natural irradiation stains on rough
and son~etimeseven polished diamonds. They are thought to be
caused by the proximity of the diamond crystal to a natural source of
radiation. Although such stains may
be green, they are usually brown
because of exposure to heat either in
the earth or during fashioning.
Editor's Note: The initials at the end of each item
identify the contributing editor who provided that item.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 27, No. 3.
0 1991 Gemological Institute of America
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
We at the East Coast laboratory

were, therefore, somewhat surprised
to identify as natural a long necklace
of graduated saltwater pearls with a
decidedly unnatural green to graygreen appearance (figure 5).Magiiification revealed green dye concentrated around the drill holes and
distributed just below the surface in
conjunction with iridescent rings.
GRC
Figure 3. Irradiation stains can

be seen on the girdle of this
type l l b fancy blue diamond.
Magnified 60 x .
These stains have been seen on
some type la and Ha diamonds and,
rarely, on type Ib diamonds (for a brief
discussion of diamond types, see
Gems &> Gemology, Winter 1986,
Vol. 22, No. 4, p. 197). Recently, the
East Coast laboratory observed
brown irradiation stains on a type IIb
fancy blue diamond. Figure 3 shows
several small stains on the girdle of
this 0.40-ct old European-cut brilliant. To our knowledge, this is the
first t i m e ' irradiation stains have
been reported on a type IIb diamond.
DH
PEARLS
Cultured Pearl,
Accidentally Tissue-Nucleated
To the best of our knowledge, there is
no commercial operation to tissue
nucleate saltwater nioll~isksfor the
production of cultured pearls. Therefore, when we identify such a tissuenucleated pearl, we assume that it is
the result of bead-nucleus rejection
or some other mishap in the nucleation process.
The East Coast lab recently examined what may be the largest such
"accidental" saltwater tissue-nucleated cultured pearl we have yet encountered: At 12 mn1 x 10.50 mni,
this baroque cultured pearl weighed
15.17 ct. The X-radiograph (figure 4)
clearly shows a void that is typical of
tissue nucleation.
GRC
Green-Dyed Natural Pearls
Most jewelers and gemologists are
familiarwith the wide range of colors
Gem Trade Lab Notes
Figure 4. This X-radiograph

clearly shows the void typical
of tissue nucleation in this unusually large (15.1 7 ct) "accidental" saltwater tissue-nucleated cultured pearl.
seen in dyed freshwater cultured
pearls, most comn~onlygreen, yellow, purple, and blue. Dyed saltwater
natural pearls, however, are typically
gray to black and "bronzy"; other
strong colors are virtually unknown.
Figure 5. All of the 111 natural

pearls in this necklace - ranging from 3.40 to 7.05 m m in
diameter-had been dyed
green.
Natural- and Treated-Color

Black Cultured Pearls
in the Same Necklace
The East Coast laboratory examined
a fine necklace of what appeared to
be 39 black pearls graduated from
9.75 to 13.25 mm. X-radiography not
only proved that all of the pearls were
cultured, but it also indicated that,
because two of the pearls showed
lower contrast on the film between
the shell bead and the nacre, they
were probably treated. While the
necklace was being prepared for X-radiography, the same two pearls had
appeared browner in the immersion
fluid (figure 6), thus providing another useful clue to their true nature.
Figure 6. Immersed in film

cleaner in preparation for X-radiography, the two dyed cultured pearls appear brown
when compared to the others
in this necklace.
Natural-color black pearls appear a faint brownish red when exposed to long-wave ultraviolet radiation, while dyed pearls appear chalky
green. As expected, these two pearls
turned chalky green when exposed to
long-wave U.V
This particular necklace emphasizes the in~portanceof careful exaniiiiation and testing because, be-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 199 1
175
Figure 7. It is impossible to detect a difference in color between the two dyed cultured
pearls (arrows) and their natural-color counterparts.
The hollow, partly worked, gray bullet-shaped cultured pearl shown in

figure 8 proved to be of natural color
and is probably from the Tahiti area.
Looking through the base of the pearl
(figure 9), however, we saw a black
round cultured pearl nearly filling
the hollow space. The X-radiograph
(figure 10)shows that the nacre of the
round pearl is unusually thin for
natural-color cultured pearls from
this area.
It is intriguing to speculate how
this specimen grew. Probably, the
round pearl started growth normally
in a pearl sac. If it was son~ehow
ejected from the pearl sac and became lodged on the shell, then the
resulting bullet-shaped pearl would
be considered a blister. However, how
such a blister would have the round
pearl at the apex of the dome rather
than at the base is puzzling. One
possible explanation is that the blister pearl formed on the upper shell of
the n~olluslz,and gravity caused the
several tests to arrive at an accurate

identification.
The East Coast laboratory received for identification the beautiful pendant earclip shown in figure
Figure 11. The 17.65-mm cultared pearl in this earclip was
first thought to be an imitation because i t felt smooth
when rubbed carefully along
the edge of a tooth.
fore testing these two treated-color

cultured pearls looked just like their
natural counterparts (figure 7).
Nicholas DelRe
Remarkable Cultured Pearl
The East Coast laboratory received a
very unusual pearl for identification.
Figure 8. This "hollow" bulletshaped natural-color cultured

pearl measures approximately
11.6 to 12 x 11.3 m m and
weighs 9,62 ct. Note the opening in the base.
Figure 10. The X-radiograph of

the cultured pearl in figure 8
shows the very thin nacre on
the round pearl inside.
Figure 9. The "hollow" cultured pearl in figure 8 was

found to contain a mysterious
round black cultured pearl,
seen here toward the apex of
the dome. Magnified 10 x .
round pearl to somehow fall free of

the shell and thus become part of the
inside of the rounded part of the
blister.
GR C
A "Teething" Problem
Informal testing methods may lead
to inaccurate conclusions if not
backed up with more rigorous tests.
A good gemologist usually relies on
176
Gem Trade Lab Notes
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
11. It was set with what appeared to

be a half-drilled pearl n~easuringapproximately 17.65 m m in diameter.
A cursory examination of the color
and luster with the unaided eye and a
"tooth test" initially led us to believe
that this was an imitation oearl. The
tooth test indicated that the surface
was smooth, a characteristic of imitation pearls. A natural or cultured
pearl will almost always feel gritty
when carefully rubbed along the edge
of a tooth.
A11 X-radiograph followed by
closer examination with magnification revealed that this was a cultured
pearl with a worked surface. Polishing lines could be seen running
across the nacre. Undoubtedly, the
worked surface caused the smooth
"tooth test reaction" falsely indicating that the pearl was inlitation.
Nicholas DelRe
"Treated" Mabe Pearls
At the February 1991 Tucson show,
several staff members noticed a n
abundance of quite attractive, but
relatively inexpensive, white mabe
assembled blister pearls. The majority measured between 15 and 20 m m
in diameter, displayed a very high
luster, and showed very strong pink
overtones. However, some of them
showed a slightly spotty, uneven
color distribution that raised suspi-
Figure 12. When one of these

two 15.5-mm mabe pearls was
sawed in half, the mother-ofpearl base, plastic dome, and
very thin nacre layer were evident (left). Note also the coating on the plastic dome (right).
Gem Trade Lab Notes
cion that they had undergone some

kind of enhancement.
Subsequently, the West Coast
laboratory received a few samples
from a gem merchant who wanted to
share his observations regarding this
type of mabe pearl. Out of curiosity
he had cut one inabe pearl in half to
expose the interior. Figure 12 shows
the two halves together with another
"whole" mabe pearl. The three layers
that make u p this mabe assemblage-mother-of-pearl base, plastic
dome, and outer layer of nacre-are
clearly visible in the half on the left.
It was interesting to note that
the nacre layer was extremely transparent and ultrathin (measured to be
approximately 0.25 to 0.30 mm). In
spite of the layer being so thin, our
client succeeded in separating i t
from the plastic dome. We could now
see that a very fine, highly reflective
coating had been applied to the plastic dome (the sample on the right in
figure 12). The texture of this layer
reminded us of the "pearl essence"
commonly used for imitation pearls.
The GIA Research Department obtained a n infrared spectrum 011 this
layer and determined that it was just
a lacquer, rather than the true, organic "pearl essence." It was obvious,
though, that the lacquer improved
luster and overtone on these mabe
KH
pearls.
Two Different Mabe Pearls
The East Coast laboratory received a
pair of loose mabe assembled blister
pearls, with the request that we "determine if they are natural." Both
were of very similar outward appearance and weight. Although a mabe
pearl by definition is never "natural,"
the X-radiograph (figure 13) did reveal that the two samples were constructed quite differently. It shows
that one is a typical mabe with thin
nacre and a shell hemisphere insert,
while the other mabe lacks a shell
bead insert, but seems to be filled
with a substance that is relatively
transparent to X-rays and approximates the specific gravity of shell,
since the two mabes weigh approximately the same. A layer that is
opaque to X-rays appears to line the
Figure 13. Although these two

mobe pearls ore similar in outword appearance, X-rays reveal
* that one has a shell bead insert and the other does not.
inside of the nacre in both mabe

pearls.
GRC
Early SYNTHETIC RUBIES
Staff members in the East Coast
laboratory were particularly excited
to examine the ruby and diamond
pendant shown in figure 14, Only
eight of the 94 calibre-cut red stones
[each approximately 3-4 m m long)
are natural rubies: the balance are
synthetics, possibly of the early type
known as "Geneva rubies." Judging
from the cut of the diamonds and the
design and workmanship of the pendant, the piece could well have been
manufactured before the turn of the
century.
This was a very trying time for
the jewelry industry, as it was being
faced with two of the most difficult
identification problems in its history.
The introduction in 1895 of the solid
cultured blister pearls grown by Mikimoto and sold as "Japanese" pearls
presented a new challenge in identification. At about this same time,
"Geneva rubies" began to appear in
the gem industry. These were pro-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
177
rubies (figure 16). Such black inaterial is occasionally seen in modern

Verneuil synthetics; a Swiss manufacturer reports that this is actually
unn~eltedalumina. We did not observe curved striae in any of the
stones, but microscopic examination
was restricted due to the settings.
GRC
Diffusion-Treated SAPPHIRES
in Fine Jewelry
Figure 15. T h e apparent internal sin~ilaritiesbetween the

natural ruby on the left and
the synthetic r u b y on the
right, both from the pendant
shown i n figure 14, illustrate
the difficulty jewelers n m s t
have had identifying these
synthetics when they first appeared. Magnified 30 x .
Figure 14. This pendant was
determined t o contain diamonds and eight natural
rubies together w i t h 86 synthetic rubies that appear to be
of early manufacture.
duced as small, "shoe button1'shaped boules from approximately
1884 until 1904, when Verneuil's
larger, more practical product became available. "Geneva rubies"
were characterized by very tightly
curved striae, pron~inentgas bubbles,
strain cracks, and colorless areas, as
well as by areas of black-appearing
foreign material. These features
must really have confused a jeweler a
hundred years ago. One could almost
say that modern gemology started
then, with these products of "modern" technology.
The "Geneva rubies" had been
identified as "artificial" as early as
1886, and the French Syndicate of
Diamonds and Precious Stones ruled
that they must be sold as man-made.
It is likely, though, that their availability in small sizes may have influenced their use in items such as the
pendant shown in figure 14 more
than their cost.
Figure 15 (taken through the pavilions of the stones) shows a natural
178
Gem Trade Lab Notes
ruby on the left and a synthetic on

the right. The natural ruby has a lowrelief, subhedral crystal and prominent color zoning. The synthetic also
has color zoning, including colorless
areas, as well as large, irregular gas
bubbles -an appearance very similar
to that of the natural stone. However,
the synthetic rubies had a characteristically stronger fluorescence to
short-wave U.V radiation. Most of
the other synthetics also had color
zoning, as well as gas bubbles; magnification revealed a black foreign
material in some of the synthetic
Figure 16. Spherical gas bubbles and a black material are

clearly seen i n the synthetic
ruby on the left. (The smudge
on the stone on the right was
used t o indicate for the client
that i t is natural.) Magnified 45 x .
Around 1979, diffusion-treated sapphires were encountered frequently

in the trade and a number were submitted to the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory for identification. The first
Lab Note regarding diffusion-treated
sapphires appeared in the Fall 1979
issue of G e m s a ) Gemology (p. 195).
Although the first one we saw in the
East Coast laboratory was red-orange, practically all of the diffusiontreated sapphires we subsequently
examined were blue. That initial influx of diffusion-treated blue sapphires was short-lived, and in time
we saw fewer and fewer of them in
the trade.
It is important to remember that
some treatments appear to be cyclical. At one point they are widespread, and then they seem to all but
disappear, only to reappear at a later
date. Diffusion-treated blue sapphires seemed to reemerge in the
trade at the 1990 Tucson Gem Show;
an in-depth article on this treatment
process and recent developments was
published by R. Kane et al. in the
Summer 1990 issue of G e m s &> G e m ology
Over the last year, the laboratories on both coasts have seen a strong
comeback for diffusion-treated sapphires and some dramatic examples
of how they are being used. The East
Coast laboratory recently saw an
important gold and diamond necklace that was set with five rather
large (4-5 ct) diffusion-treated sapphires, as well as a matching ring set
with a n even larger diffusion-treated
stone. Within the same time frame,
the West Coast laboratory received
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
matching sapphire earrings (each 5-6

ct] and a ring (approxin~ately10 ct]
set in gold with diamonds. Again, the
large stones were found to be diffusion treated.
This jewelry could be a glimpse
of what is to come. Care must be
taken by the jewelerwhen examining
all sapphires, since any natural inclu-
sions that might be seen with the

microscope will not distinguish a
stone that has simply been heat
treated from one that has been diffusion treated. Immersion, as described
in the above-mentioned article, is
still the best method to identify diffusion treatment whether the stone
is mounted or unmounted.
DH
FIGURE CREDITS
Figure 1 was taken b y Robert
Mcclure Is responsiblelor figure
2. Dave Hargetl took figure 3. The pictures
5-9, 11, and
were
supplied by Nicholas DelRe. Robert
Crowningshield produced the X-radiographs in figures 4 ,
and 13.
Videto furnished figure 12. fino Hammid
used
Note section,
H I S T O R I C A L
N O T E
HIGHLIGHTS
FROM THE GEMTRADE
LAB25,l'jAND FIVE YEARS AGO
FALL 1966
The New York lab discussed various

types of synthetic growth processes
from hydrothermal overgrowth on
Lechleitner stones to flux-grow?
synthetic-ruby. Several photos illus
crated the difference in transparency
to short-wave ultraviolet radiation
that is still a valid test to separate
natural (more opaque) and synthetii
(more transparent] stones. A dia
mond that had been presented as the
finest natural-color green diamond
next to the Dresden Green revealed
an umbrella-like color zoning around
the culet that proved that it had been
cyclotron treated.
FALL 1976
The Santa Monica lab had the opportunity to examine a snuff bottle reportedly carved from rare hornbill
ivory. Our examination revealed that
the bottle had been assembled from
different parts of hornbill, rather
than carved from a single piece. This
lab also noted unusual devitrification around a spherical gas bubble in
glass.
The New York lab illustrated
various materials used to simulate
emerald, as well as selectively dyed,
fine-grained calcite used to imitate
jadeite jade. Even today, we still encounter such material, which has
Gem Trade Lab Notes
With the technology provided by laser sawing, fanciful cuts such as

this 12-mm sailboat and tennis racket can be obtained from
otherwise difficult-to-cut pieces of rough.
been dyed to represent multicolored

jadeite - green and white, purple and
white, or even all three colors in the
same piece.
FALL 1986
Diamonds laser cut in the unusual

shapes of a sailboat and a tennis
racket were illustrated. A rather
complete discussion of light green

diamonds and what might be the
reason for the color was given. We
recommend that the reader review
this item in particular (p. 1711, as i t is
still important today. The 10- to 12m m gray cultured pearls in an attractive brooch and earring set were of
interest because their centers were
determined to be filled with a white
material resembling French pearl cement. There was n o bead nucleus.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
179
DIAMONDS
Argyle set to expand with mining at home.. .To handle
increased production from the AK1 pipe in Western
Australia, CRA Ltd. plans to expand ore processing from
6 million to 8 million tons per year over the next two to
three years. Their goal is to maintain diamond production for the AK1 pipe and nearby alluvial deposits at 33
to 35 million carats annually during the 20-year life of
the pipe, as they reach progressively less-productive
depths, with lower-yield ore. (Diamond Intelligence
Briefs, July 23, 1991)
Mongolia, in the eastern Sayany Mountains. Geologists

have reportedly identified more than 10 diamond-bearing sites in the region. This discovery, which is scheduled to be exploited commercially, follows 50 years of
small-scale prospecting in the area, during which only
minor quantities of diamonds were recovered. (Mining
journal, August 23, 1991).
...
Additional diamonds recovered at Fort a la Corne,

Saskatchewan, Canada. Additional diamonds were recovered from drill samples taken at the Fort a la Corne
property, 80 lzm east of Prince Albert, according to
Uranerz Exploration and Mining, operator of a 50150
joint venture with Cameco Corp.
Diamonds recovered in 1991 range up to 0.6 ct (5.5
mm in diameter); the larger stones (over 0.5 mm in
diameter] appear to be of gem quality. A total of 160
n~acrodiamondshave been recovered to date from 15
separate lzimberlite pipes. The average weight per stone
is 0.04 ct, with a maximum projected grade of approximately 10 ct per 100 metric tons in one drillhole.
Preliminary cost estimates indicate that a minable
deposit would require a much higher grade. Sample
recovery is expensive due to the 100-nl-thick blanket of
overburden that covers the lzin~berlitepipes,
The exploration results to date are insufficient to
determine the economic significance of the Fort a la
Come property. Further exploration and evaluation is
warranted since many target areas remain to be tested by
drilling. No additional field work is planned for 1991,
New Soviet diamond source. According to recent reports

on Radio Moscow, a major new diamond field has been
discovered in Buryatskaya, close to the border with
Conference on synthetic diamond and diamond-like

coatings. In September 1991, Dr. Emmanuel Fritsch of
GIA Research attended the Second European Conference
on Diamond, Diamond-like and Related Coatings in
Nice, France. Titled "Diamond Film 1991," this annual
event focuses on the low-pressure synthesis of diamond
and related materials. it was well attended this year, with
about 350 participants from 28 countries.
One important aspect of the gathering was the large
number of presentations on diamond-like carbon (DLC),
an amorphous form of carbon noted for its high hardness
and great potential for various industrial applications.
...and cutting in China. Argyle has opened a diamondcutting and polishing factory in China, approximately
30 km from Beijing, that it will manage as well as cofinance. The factory, which will also provide training,
was set up as a joint venture between the governments of
Australia and China. The Chinese government hopes to
develop diamond processing as a major new industry for
the country. [Mining Journal, September 6, 1991)
Operations re-established at Elizabeth Bay.. Namibia's

diamond deposit at Elizabeth Bay, discovered in the early
1900s but inactive since the mid-1940s, has been officially re-opened. Operated as an open-cast mine by
Consolidated Diamond Mines, the mine is expected to
produce about 2.5 million carats of predominantly gemquality diamonds from38 million tons of ore over its 10year life. [Mining Journal, August 9, 1991)
amid warnings of large-scale theft. As part of his
comments at the opening of the Elizabeth Bay mine,
Julian Ogilvie Thompson stated that organized crime
syndicates are stealing large values of diamonds each
year from Namibia's mines. The theft of diamonds rose
sharply in the months preceding Namibia's independence. It is believed that the value of diamonds stolen
from the Oranjemund mine may be as high as three
times that of the entire production from the new
Elizabeth Bay mine. [Diamond Intelligence Briefs, August 30, 1991)
180
Gem News
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
For example, DLC-coated sunglasses are currently being

marketed in the United States by the firm Diamonex.
Soviet scientists exhibited sheets of various plasticsincluding flexible ones - covered with hard DLC.
The Norton firm reported that it had succeeded in
producing thick (approximately 0.3 mm], polycrystalline, optical-quality synthetic diamond films of
large dimensions (at least 4 in. - 10 cm-square] using
plasma jet technology. These films are grayish brown
and transparent, unlike previously produced films of
this type, which have been black, opaque, and of rather
poor quality. This opens the way for the development of
fairly inexpensive optical-quality synthetic diamond
films.
There were also some definitive findings relating to
the origin of the brownish color in DLC produced by
chemical vapor deposition techniques. This coloration
appears to be intrinsic to the hard variety of this
material, the type with potential gemological applications. Therefore, the color of DLC films cannot be
improved. However, the brown of CVD-produced polycrystalline synthetic diamond films is due to the concentration of various forms of graphitic carbon between
the crystals that form the film. With this knowledge, it
may now be possible to control (perhaps eliminate) the
brownish,coloration of this particular type of film.
New diamond cuts. New York-based Maico Diamond
recently unveiled their new trademarked "Dream" cuts
(figure 1).These new cuts represent modifications of the
standard fancy-shape brilliant cuts- the oval, marquise,
and pear-to take advantage of relatively flat rough.
Note that the standard octagonal table outline has been
"squared off" to make the table area appear larger. The
Dream marquise also has two elongated star facets
toward the points that add to the impression of an
enlarged table area. The facet arrangements on the
pavilion sides received slight modifications as well. The
majority of the pavilion facets that traditionally meet at
the lzeel-line have been shortened and opened up at the
girdle, thus giving the impression of a finer subdivision
of the pavilion area. The bow-tie effect appears to have
been slightly diminished and moved away from the table
area into the crown facets. The advantage of all these
modifications would appear to be greater weight retention from the rough. Visually, the diamonds appear larger
than their actual weight.
Historical diamond photographs. Many gemologists frequent local-area gem and mineral shows, swap meets,
and even "yard sales," looking for interesting gems and
old pieces of jewelry. Recently, GIA instructor Yianni
Melas made an unexpected find of another sort while
looking through some old twin-image photographs used
in the once-popular stereoscopic viewers. Among the
images were photos relating to early diamond mining in
Gem News
Figure 1 . Visually these "Dream cuts" (0.50 0.54 ct) appear larger than their actual weights.
Photo 0 GIA and Tino Hammid.
South Africa, including ones of Groot Schuur, the
country home of Cecil Rhodes at Cape Town; the
workers' compound at Kimberley; and a mining scene at
Kimberley (figure 2). According to a librarian at the
University of California in Riverside, the facility that
has archived all the images of the now-defunct Keystone
View Company, the photographs from South Africa were
taken in approximately 1899-1900.
COLORED STONES
Colombia reports record emerald exports. Colombia's
Mineralco announced that emerald exports had reached
their highest level ever in February 1991, with sales
totaling $16.7 million for the one-month period. Total
reported emerald sales for 1990 came to $1 16.7 million,
with Japan accounting for $91.6 million and the U.S., $16
million. (Mining Magazine, July 1991)
Large South Sea pearl. William A. Weidinger, a goldsmith

and jewelry designer from Columbus, Ohio, reports
having seen an unusual South Sea pearl on a trip to
Thailand this past May. The gray pearl, seen at Naga Noi
Island off the coast from Phulzet, Thailand, was egg
shaped, approxin~ately42 mm long, and had a high
luster. Of particular interest, the pearl appeared to be an
"enhydroJJJthat is, to contain a liquid, probably water, in
a pocket of air. The liquid was readily apparent when the
pearl was shaken.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
181
Figure 2. This twin-image "slide" for a stereoscopic viewer illustrates

a turn-of-the-century
mining scene at Kimberley. South Africa.
Myanmar to authorize Thai buyers. The Myanmar

(formerly Burma) goverment has agreed to allow AGD
Gem Dealer Co. of Thailand to open an office in Yangon
(Rangoon).AGD, a buying company established by 72
members of the Thai Gem and Jewelry Traders Association, will purchase rough and fashioned gems from
private mining companies in Myanmar as well as from
stocks held by the state's Myanma Gems Enterprise.
(jewellery News Asia, July 199 1)
mechanized mining operations developing around Bo

Phloi in western Thailand, much mining activity in this
country is still carried out by traditional hand methods.
On his trip to Southeast Asia in early 1991, GIA-GTL's
Robert Kane also had the opportunity to visit some of
these traditional sapphire mines. One typical smallscale operation, approximately 6 lzm (10 mi.) outside
Chanthaburi, consisted of a single round, vertical shaft 1
Postage stamp commemorates large Burmese ruby. Earlier this year the government of Myanmar issued a
special comn~emorativepostage stamp (figure3), both in
honor of the 1991 Gems, Jade, and Pearl Emporium and
to celebrate an exceptionally large ruby crystal mined in
the historic Mogok region.
According to a report that appeared in the August
21, 1990, issue of The Working Peoples' Daily, an
English-language journal published in Yangon (Rangoon), the crystal weighs 496.5 ct, measures 43 x 37 x
44 mm, and has a "crimson rose" color. As a special
Emporium guest of the government's gem exploration,
recovery, and marketing division-Myanma Gems Enterprise (MGE)- the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory's
Robert Kane was allowed to examine this exceptional
crystal. He reports that it was typical of the fine color for
which Burmese rubies are renowned. It was reportedly
recovered in the Mogok region in 1990, and was part of
the 30,728 carats of illegally mined rubies confiscated by
members of the governn~ent'sDefence Services Intelligence Office on August 18 of that year; this particular
stone was confiscated "from abroad." Originally clubbed
the "Nawata ruby," the crystal was subsequently renamed the "SLORC ruby," after the acronym for State
Law and Order Restoration Council, the ruling government body.
Figure 3. This postage stamp from Myanmar

(Burma) features an exceptionally large ruby
crystal mined recently in the Mogok region.
Small-scale sapphire mining continues in Thailand.

Although much attention has been paid to the large,
182
Gem News
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
Figure 4. A "handful" of
sapphire rough is
recovered in a good week
of working this small
mine near Chanthaburi,
Thailand. Photo by
Robert E. 1Zone.
nl in diameter and 4 nl deep (figure 4). In place of a ladder,

the miner simply dug footholes into the walls of the
shaft. He then tunneled laterally when he encountered
the sapphire-bearinggravels. The buckets of soil brought
to the surface were washed in artificial pools and hand
sorted in rattan baskets. The miner indicated that in a
good week he could recover a "handful" of green, blue,
and dark brown sapphire rough.
Tanzanian spinel. In the Spring 1990 Gem News section,
we mentioned spinels from the Umba Valley of Tanzania
and showed three representative pieces of rough. This
year at the February Tucson Show, a number of dealers
were selling faceted stones from this locality. Some of
the more attractive spinels ranged from a medium pink
reminiscent of pink sapphire to a light purplish pink that
strongly resembled fine kunzite. In general, these Tanzanian stones display more saturated colors in lighter tones
than what we are accustomed to seeing in Sri Lankan
spinels.
In some of these stones, we noted a soft, "velvety"
look and reduced transparency similar to that for which
sapphires from Kashmir are famous (figure 5).We believe
this effect is due to the presence of submicroscopic
mineral inclusions. Other gemological properties are
consistent with those reported in the literature for
spinels of similar color from other localities.
Tofco in a joint venture with Tanzania Gemstone Industries, a government parastatal.

When the mine was closed some 20 years ago, it had
reached what is described as the "4th level." Since
operations were renewed, miners have reached down to
the 7th level, 270 ft. (approximately 83 m) below the
surface. Plans call for the mine eventually to extend to
the 10th level. At different levels, different types of rock
Figure 5. This 4.28-ct spinel from Tanzania has

a pleasing "velvety" look that is probably
caused by minute inclusions. Photo by Maha
Smith.
Update from Tanzania. Dr. Allen M. Bassett, currently

working as chief geologist and gemologist for the Swiss
company Tofco in northern Tanzania, has provided the
editors with an update on activity at the Longido ruby
deposit. The mine, which had been abandoned at the
time it was nationalized i n 1971, is now being worked by
Gem News
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 199 1
183
required to post a bond. (Mining Journal, September 6,

1991)
Figure 6. These 21.78-ct (left)and 33.13-ct

(right) tourmalines are reportedly from Paraiba,
Brazil; they are unusually large for this locality.
Photo b y Robert Weldon.
have been encountered. 111 addition to the chrome zoisite
and ruby for which the deposit is well known-tons of
cabochon-grade material but only a few carats of facetable material are being recovered-other potential gem
materials include feldspar, apatite, and actinolite.
Tanzania invites tenders for mineral rights. The Tanzanian Ministry for Water, Energy and Minerals has invited
urgent tenders for companies to apply for mineral rights
to the Merelani area of Arusha, where tanzanite is
mined. To be considered, a company must have experience in the mining, processing, and marketing of gem
materials and indicate the prospecting methods, equipn ~ e n t ,and drilling techniques to be used. Applicants
must also provide a detailed work program and indicate
their proposed minimum financial commitment to
exploration and development as well as their security
arrangements for the protection of the mine. Successful
applicants will be awarded mineral rights for 200 nl x
300 nl blocks, nine of which are available, and will be
Large Paraiba tourmalines. The majority of the distinctively colored tourmalines from Paraiba we have
observed have been relatively small. Recently, however,
we had the opportunity to examine two exceptionally
large stones that are reportedly from this source: a 33.13ct green and a 21.78-ct bluish green, both rectangular
cushion cuts (figure 6).
EDXRF analysis by GIA Research revealed the
presence of copper in both stones. This supports their
purported origin as Paraiba, which to date is the only
locality known to produce tourmalines colored by
copper (see the Fall 1989 Gems &) Gemology, p. 204).
Tourmaline with unusual "color change." Gem dealer
Don Clary loaned GIA Research an interesting matched
pair of "golden" yellow tourmalines from East Africa
(Tanzania or Kenya).These two "opposed bar" cut stones,
2.48 and 2.56 ct, exhibit a most unusual color phenomenon: When examined under either incandescent or
fluorescent lighting, they appear slightly brownish yellow (figure 7, left). However, when viewed under a
combination of incandescent and fluorescent lighting,
the stones become distinctly more greenish yellow
(figure 7, right). To our knowledge, this type of color
behavior has not been reported previously in the literature.
Microprobe analysis identified the stones as dravite
tournlalines with approximately 9.9 wt.% MgO. Titanium is the major impurity, with minor a n ~ o u n t sof
vanadium and iron, and traces of manganese and chromium. The optical absorption spectrum shows a broad
absorption feature centered at about 450 nm and a much
less intense broad band at about 630 nm. This type of
spectrum is typical of dravite and is attributed to
FeZ+->Ti4+ charge transfer and V3+, respectively.
The luminescence of the stones was found to be
Figure 7. These two dravite tourmalines appear slightly brownish yellow when seen under incandescent (or fluorescent) lighting (left), but they become distinctly greenish yellow when illuminated
simultaneously with incandescent and fluorescent lighting (right). Courtesy of Don Clary; photos
by Robert Weldon.
184
Gem News
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
somewhat unusual in that they were inert to long-wave

ultraviolet radiation but fluoresced a moderate chalky
yellow to short-wave U.V
Tourmalinelandalusite: A pleocliroism caveat. Gemologists learn to take full advantage of their most sensitive
gemological equipment, their eyes. Visual observation noting features with the unaided eye -thus becomes a
first critical test. This includes such characteristics as
transparency, color, color distribution, dispersion, brilliance, surface condition, and eye-visible inclusions.
Another important feature to note with colored
stones is any eye-visible pleochroism. This can be very
useful in identifying a number of gems such as tanzanite
and iolite. It can also help separate tourmaline and
andalusite, two stones with overlapping R.1.k. Students
are taught that, in general, the two pleochroic colors seen
in tourmaline are different tones of the basic body color,
and stones are usually cut to show the more desirable
color through the table, Andalusite, as normally oriented in cutting, displays two distinct pleochroic colors
through the table (figure 8, right).
cord, SeptemberIOctober 1991, p. 3861 indicate that

significant quantities of purple and green vesuvianite
crystals have been recovered recently from the Jeffrey
mine, in the province of Quebec, Canada, although most
of the material is not gem quality.
Recently, GIA's Dr. Emmanuel Fritsch had a chance
to study some faceted vesuvianites of these unusual
colors, which were loaned by Guy Langelier of Montreal.
The stones had been recovered from the Jeffrey mine
between 1988 and mid-1990. The lot consisted of three
purple, two saturated green, and two bicolored (light
green and light pink] stones (see figure 9 for representative samples).
Figure 9. These unusual-colored vesuvianites,

ranging from 0.48 t o 2.79 ct, were recovered
recently from the Jeffrey mine, Quebec,
Canada. Courtesy of G u y Langelier; photo b y
Maha Smith.
Figure 8. Note the similarity i n pleochroism

between the oval 1.13-ct dravite tourmaline on
the left and the round 1.48-ct andalusite on the
right. Photo b y Robert Weldon.
Becoming overly reliant on such gemological generalities can cause problems, as we were reminded recently
when examining some dravite tourmalines from Sri
Lanka. The pleochroic colors of these stones typically
are significantly different in hue, and both can be seen
through the table of a faceted stone (figure 8, left) - in a
manner similar to the pleochroism in andalusite.
Purple and "chrome" green vesuvianites from Quebec.
Vesuvianite, also known by gemologists as idocrase, is
most often seen as a massive ornamental stone resembling jade. Less commonly, transparent single-crystal
material is seen. Reports (see, e.g., Mineralogical Re-
Gem News
EDXRF and U.V-visible absorption spectroscopy

were used to determine the cause of color in the green
and purple stones. The purple stones were found to be
colored by Mn3+, apparently in a distorted octahedral
site, which would account for their fairly pronounced
pleochroism. The vivid green stones were determined to
be colored by Cr3+, also presumably in an octahedral
site. Small amounts of nickel were also discovered in
both the green and bicolored stones, but the data were
insufficient to determine whether Ni2+ contributes to
the coloration of these gems.
Unusual red zoisite. Dr. Allen Bassett has provided us
with a brief note on an unusual zoisite, a38.8-gram piece
of dark-toned material that was brought to the Tanswit
laboratory in Arusha, Tanzania. The specimen had one
crystal face measuring approximately 4 x 2.5 x 2.5 cm,
and was nearly clean, exhibiting some unidentified
black specks and shallow surface-reaching fractures.
The stone appeared to be too dark to facet into a gem.
The owner, however, disagreed and proceeded to grind
and polish its surfaces, which only served to destroy the
specimen value of the piece.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
185
With strong fiber-optic illunlination, the optic axis

direction of the stone transmitted pure red, showing no
hint of either orange or purple secondary hues; under
ordinary incident light, the stone appeared black when
viewed in this direction. One of the two other axial
directions appeared medium greenish blue under intense illumination and almost black in weaker incident
light, while the third, perpendicular direction transmitted a deep, pure purple with red flashes from the dichroic
ends of the piece. Thin edges in the blue direction
appeared to be almost pure yellow tinged with green. Dr.
Bassett volunteered that, had the stone been lighter in
tone, it would have been a unique gem.
When examined through a dichroscope, the red
direction was seen to be composed of pure red and
yellow-orange components; in the blue direction, the
pleochroic colors were greenish blue and yellow-orange;
and in the purple direction, they were red and greenish
blue.
ENHANCEMENTS
Faceted gems coated with diamond-like carbon. A number of reports have appeared in the trade press relating to
gemstones supposedly coated with synthetic diamond.
To our knowledge, however, the only docunlented faceted gemstones so treated to date are the three diamonds
that were experimentally coated with blue type IIb
synthetic diamond, as reported in the Summer 1991
Gem News section. All other reports refer instead to
coating with diamond-like carbon (DLC).The two materials are quite different. Specifically, DLC is amorphous
and brownish in color, has a refractive index around 2.00,
Figure 10. Note the unusually high luster of this

2.32-ct citrine, which has been coated with a
thin film of diamond-like carbon. Courtesy of
J-L. Mansot and Pierre Fumey; photo by Robert
Weldon.
186
Gem News
a hardness between that of diamond and corundum, and

often contains hydrogen as a major constituent. The thin
films described in the Summer 1991 issue are truly
synthetic diamond: They are monocrystalline, bluish
gray in color, have an R.I. of 2.4, and a hardness of 10.
These particular synthetic diamond thin films do not
contain hydrogen.
At the International Gemological Symposium held
in Los Angeles this past June, Dr. Fritsch reported on the
experimental coating of faceted gemstones with diamond-like carbon (DLC).The treatment was carried out
so that both the identifying characteristics of the coating as well as its impact on various durability aspects of
the stones could be determined.
The deposition of DLC films on faceted stones was
performed at the University of Nantes, France, by Prof.
Yves Catherine, Prof. Jean-Louis Mansot, and Mr. Pierre
Fumey. They covered the top portions of faceted beryls
(aquamarine and emerald], amethyst, citrine, tourmaline, garnet, and strontium titanate with a thin film
of diamond-like carbon approximately 0.08 micron
thick, using a specially designed plasma reactor.
All DLC films did adhere to their gem substrates and
could not be scratched with a corundum (Mohs 9 )
hardness point. When placed in a gem tumbler along
with uncoated gems of the same species and varieties,
the DLC-coated gemstones showed greater resistance to
wear than their uncoated counterparts. Detection of the
presence of the coatings is straightforward. Because of
its high refractive index, the coating imparts an adamantine luster to the treated stones. This is particularly
evident on stones of lower refractive index, such as
citrine (figure 10).O n lighter-toned stones, the brownish
color of the film is evident. In addition, as the adherence
is less than ideal, the film tends to wear at facet
junctions, a feature that can be easily seen with magnification and surface-reflected light.
Montana sapphire heat treatment. For the past few years,
Marc Bielenberg of Hamilton, Montana, has been mining the Dry Cottonwood Creek sapphire deposit in that
state. The sapphire-bearing zone, at the valley bottom, is
approximately 3,000 ft. (900+ m ] long. Exploration has
shown that the area contains deposits of gold as well as
sapphires. Mr. Bielenberg reports that the recovery of
sapphires seems to be good, particularly in sizes over one
carat, although many of the crystals recovered to date
are very pale.
To enhance the color of these pale crystals, Mr,
Bielenberg has been working with Dale E. Siegford of
Missoula, Montana, a specialist in the heat treatment of
Montana sapphires. To date, the results have been
excellent, as illustrated by the pale blue and yellow
rough Dry Cottonwood Creek sapphires shown before
heat treatment in figure 11 top and after heat treatment
in figure 11 bottom. The blue crystals show the greatest
improvement.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
dark crystalline inclusions (figure 12). We believe that

the yellowish orange areas are related to zoned growth
and reflect a higher iron impurity content, while the
disk-like dark blue areas are caused by internal diff~ision, a cannibalization of both iron and titanium from
possibly iron-rich rutile andlor ilmenite inclusions.
Both of these unanticipated color areas no doubt result
from the high temperatures used in the diffusiontreatment process.
. and red stones too. The Spring 1991 Gem News
column nlentioned research being conducted by Gem
Source to produce red diffusion-treated stones. That
entry pointed out one problem being encountered: the
simultaneous development of a blue color component,
believed to be due to the presence of the appropriate
chromophores in the starting gem material.
More recent comnlunication with Mr. Bergman has
shed additional light on the issue. He states that the
development of the unwanted blue component might
also be due to contaminants in the treatment oven, as
the same ovens used to carry out this experimentation
are used in the commercial production of the blue
diffusion-treated stones. Mr. Bergman also indicated that
adequate penetration of the desired red-producing chromophore has not been achieved to date, possibly due to
insufficiently high temperatures. Repolishing has resulted in the removal of over 90% of the diffused color layer.
Mr. Bergman loaned us two of these experimental
treated stones for examination, oval mixed cuts weighing 1.37 and 1.49 ct. The smaller stone had a predominantly violet face-up appearance with some areas that
were more red-purple. Face-up, the larger stone seemed
to be heavily color zoned, with two quadrants appearing
a patchy medium red-purple and the other two appearing
a dark purple, approaching black.
..
~ i g u r e1 1 The improvement in color brought

about by heat treating sapphires from Dry
Cottonwood Creek, Montana, is readily
apparent in these photographs showing typical
material before (top) and after (bottom)
enhancement. Photos by Maha Smith.
More experimentation with blue diffusion-treated
The Summer 1990 issue of Gems s)
sapphires
Gemology carried a comprehensive article on diffusiontreated sapphires. Among the materials examined were
stones marketed by the firm Gem Source of Las Vegas,
Nevada, and Bangkok, Thailand. At that time, Jeffery
Bergman of Gem Source stated that he used Sri Lankan
sapphires as starting material.
Recently, Mr. Bergman shared information relating
to experimental diffusion treatment of sapphires from
another locality: Montana. He also donated eight of
these stones, ranging from 0.53 to 1.18 ct, to CIA for
study. According to Mr. Bergman, approximately 50% of
the Montana sapphires they have diffusion treated to
produce a blue color have also developed unwanted
yellowish orange zones.
Examinationof the eight samplestones with magnification readily revealed the yellowish orange zones
described by Mr. Bergman; also noted in some of the
stones were disk-like areas of dark blue surrounding
...
Gem News
Figure 12. It is likely that both the large

yellowish orange color zone and the smaller
disk-like blue zones in this blue diffusiontreated sapphire from Montana resulted from
the high temperatures used in the diffusiontreatment process Photo by Johri 1 Koivzila.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
187
. - ..
Figure 13. Diffused transmitted illumination

reveals that what little diffusion-produced color
remained after repolishing this experimentally
treated sapphire was concentrated along facet
junctions. Photo by John I. Koivula.
Magnification revealed that the dark areas of the

larger stone corresponded to areas of the pavilion that
were dark red-purple and badly sintered; apparently they
had not been repolished after treatment. Diffused transmitted light revealed that the repolished facets on both
stones had little remaining surface-diffused color, most
of which was found along facet junctions (figure 13).
Interestingly, the surface-diffused color of both
stones had less of a blue component than their face-up
color. Magnification, however, revealed blue color bands
within the stones that no doubt were responsible for the
stronger blue component of the face-up appearance.
These blue bands were most likely caused by internal
color diffusion around stringers of iron-titanium inclusions. The fact that the externally diffused color was redpurple rather than a purer red also gives some credence to
the theory of surface contamination from the oven.
ency first from the periphery and then proceeding

inward [figure 14). The complete transformation, observed with magnification using direct transmitted
light, took approximately 35 minutes. We also observed
bubbles rising from the surface, probably air driven out
of the voids between the silica as these were filled with
water. As the water was absorbed, the distinctive "chiclzen wire" structure of the synthetic opal also became
more apparent.
When removed from the water, the hydrated cabochon appeared slightly more transparent and less
"white" in body color than before it was immersed. The
play-of-colorwas also more pronounced. We dehydrated
the stone in the well of a binocular microscope, using the
heat of the incandescent bulb. This returned the synthetic opal to its original appearance. As one final
observation, we noted that the cabochon sticks to the
tongue, as does the porous, smoke-treated opal from
Mexico.
INSTRUMENTATION
AND NEW TECHNIQUES
Distinguishing diffusion treatment from surface coating. Diffusion treatment and colored surface coating are
two distinctly different types of gemstone enhancement. Unfortunately, some confusion exists because
ambiguous wording is sometimes used to describe the
former (e.g., reference to "heat diffused coating of blue
Figure 14. The peripheral areas of this 6-mm
porous Gilson synthetic opal have absorbed
water while the lighter central area has not.
Note also the air bubbles escaping from the
surface. Photo by William Videto.
SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Porous Gilson synthetic opal. Hydrophane is a porous
natural opal that reveals its play-of-color after it absorbs
water or another liquid. Recently, the editors had the
opportunity to examine a porous synthetic opal that also
improved in appearance after being placed in water. The
material, described as Gilson white porous synthetic
opal, was provided to GIA by Louis Lo of Sunning Gems
Co., Hong Kong. This material currently is not marketed
commercially.
The 6-mm round cabochon had a white translucent
body color and a moderate, predominantly orange playof-color in small, angular patches. The play-of-colorwas
weaker than what is typical of Gilson synthetic opal.
The appearance began to change immediately when the
cabochon was immersed in water, increasing in transpar-
188
Gem News
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
sapphire" in ICA Early Warning Laboratory Alert No.

45).Such confusion may be compounded by the fact that
there can be superficial similarities between the two
treatments, such as uneven facet-to-facet coloration and
a dark color outlining some facet junctions.
In diffusion treatment, high temperatures are used
to literally "cook" chron~ophoresinto the gem's crystal
lattice. The mechanism that produces the blue color in,
for example, blue diffusion-treated sapphires, is the same
as that which produces blue in natural untreated (as well
as heat-treated and synthetic) blue sapphires. Because it
is the same mechanism, the pleochroism of blue diffusion-treated sapphires is essentially the same as that of
natural or synthetic blue sapphires of comparable hue
and depth of color.
Colored surface coatings, on the other hand, are just
that: substances that are applied over the surface of the
gem rather than incorporated into its structure. Those
colored surface coatings we have examined to dateincluding Aqua Aura treated quartz and topaz (see the
Fall 1990 Gem News section)- are isotropic substances,
which have no effect on the stone's pleochroism.
In our experience, the presence or absence of
pleochroism is a useful test to separate diffusion treatment from surface coating in anisotropic materials.
<>
.'
New setting method challenges diamond testers. Gemologists are well aware of the limitations that mountings
can imposein gem identification. For example, specific
gravity cannot be determined on mounted stones, prongs
and other metalwork may obscure diagnostic inclusions,
and modified lighting techniques may be required when
attempting examination with a spectroscope.
Recently, Robert Crowningshield, of the GIA Gem
Trade Laboratory, brought to our attention a problem
with using thermal conductivity meters ("diamond
testers") on very small diamonds set by an ingenious new
method. The setting method, introduced by Claar
Brothers, of New York, holds full-cut diamonds of about
0.01 ct by embedding them up to approximately one-half
the crown area in a transparent, colorless, carbon-based
polymer (figure 151. The setting method has been dubbed
Carbololzd, with the set pieces called Carbolokd Diamond Jewelry.
Because the setting style has such a novel appearance, it would not be unexpected for some jewelers to
suspect the identity of the set stones. And the first line of
defense for most would probably be a diamond tester.
Unfortunately, all such instruments have a lower size
limitation on the stones they can effectively test, with
many instruments, this lower limit is around 0.02 ct.
Some instruments, such as those produced by PresidiumDiamond, include a small metal block with wells
for testing small, loose stones down to 0.02 ct.; diamonds even this small generally read accurately as
"diamond" when so tested unmounted or when they are
set in traditional metal settings. Recent examination of
Gem News
Figure 15. The diamonds in this pendant are

mounted in a transparent colorless carbonbased polymer. The X-radiograph clearly shows
the distinctive X-ray transparency of the
diamonds. Pendant courtesy o f Claar Brothers;
photo b y Nick DelRe. X-radiograph b y Robert
Crowningshield.
such small diamonds set in Carbolokd Jewelry, however,

shows that they give readings short of the "diamond"
indication (although considerably higher than the readings characteristically given by CZ).
It is important that gemologists keep this in mind
when attempting to use diamond testers on stones set
with this new style, and they should depend more on
examination with magnification to help correctly identify the stones. Two important features are characteristic inclusions and the precision of cutting on even very
small diamonds [virtually impossible with sin~ulants
this size). In addition, since the Carbolokd Diamond
Jewelry employs many stones in each piece, a certain
percentage of them will undoubtedly fluoresce blue to
long-wave U.V radiation, the most typical reaction of
diamond; CZ, the most common simulant these days,
tends to fluoresce a uniform orange. Another method
that can be used, albeit not available to most jewelers, is
X-ray transparency. The X-radiograph of the pendant in
the inset in figure 15 clearly shows the diamondsJ
distinctively high degree of X-ray transparency.
Jewelry imaginglteleconferencing system introduced. A
high-resolution color imaging and teleconferencing sys-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
189
Figure 16. This computer-generated

image of a gem-set watch was
produced on an imaging system
developed by Card IN'Tag Systems.
ten1 that allows jewelers to store and transmit photographic images of gemstones and jewelry pieces (figure
16) has been developed by Card IN' Tag Systems of
Benicia, California.
The company reports that their system, designed for
use in pron~otions,special orders, electronic catalogs,
inventories, customer profiles, repairs and appraisals,
uses image compression to solve the problem of color
graphic file storage and transmission. Normal color
graphics files require more than one megabyte of computer memory, impractical for teleconferencing or most
other personal computer applications. The imaging systen1 compresses images by more than 95%, allowing the
transmission of full-screen jewelry images in under one
minute. The software may be combined with other
ANNOUNCEMENTS
The Tucson Gem and Mineral Show will be held February 12-16, 1992, at the Tucson Convention Center. The
featured mineral for the show is pyromorphite. For more
information, contact the Tucson Gem and Mineral
Society, PO. Box 42543, Tucson, AZ 85733. Note that
this year in Tucson a PGA Golf Tournament will be held
February 10-16. Early room reservations are encouraged.
The American Gem Trade Association Gem Fair
will be held in Tucson February 8-13 at the Convention
Center. AGTA will announce the winners of the Spectrum Awards (a jewelry contest aimed at the effective
use of colored stones) at that time. For information,
contact AGTA at the World Trade Center #181, PO. Box
581043, Dallas, TX 75258; (214) 742-4367.
The Gemological Institute of America will present
various lectures and seminars in Tucson, February 8-13
at the Convention Center. For information, call (800)
190
Gem News
programs, and images may be combined with text for a

point-of-purchase display.
Tweezer improvement. After reading the Gems es) Gemology article on diamond grit-impregnated tweezers
(Summer 1990))Standwood S. Schmidt, a physician from
Eureka, California, sent the Gem News editors a sample
of 3M Microfoam Surgical Tape to examine. Dr. Schmidt
uses this soft tape to "coat" the working surfaces of
ordinary tweezers, thereby improving their gripping
capacity while eliminating any danger of damaging even
very small stones. The tape, which has one adhesive side
(the other is soft and pliable), is easy to apply to the
tweezers. The excess is simply trimmed away with a pair
of scissors or a sharp knife blade.
421-7250 or (310)829-2991, ext. 227, or write the GIA

Registrar, PO. Box 21 10, Santa Monica, CA 90407.
American Craft Association joins fight against design
knock-offs. The newly formed American Craft Association has joined The Design Coalition in its fight to pass
legislation to discourage copying of original and distinctive U.S. designs. The proposed bill, H.R. 1790, would
give copyright-like protection to original, distinctive,
and discretionary designs of useful articles. Its goals are
to help preserve the creative integrity of original work of
designers and help protect their livelihood.
The American Craft Association is a Washington,
D.C.-based trade association representing the American
Craft Council's 26,000 members. The Design Coalition
is composed of more than 40 manufacturers, trade
associations, labor unions, and designers working to
strengthen U.S. design protection.
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
Back Issues of
Limited quantities of these issues are still available.
Summer 1988
Fall 1986
Bummer 1987
Spring 1986
A Survey of the Gemstone Resources of China
The Changma Diamond District, China
Gemstone Carving in China: Winds of Change
A Gemological Study of Turquoise in China
The Gemological Characteristics of Chinese Peridot
The Sapphires of Mingxi, Fujian Province, China
Summer 1986
The Coscuez Mine: A Major Source of Emeralds
The Elahera Gem Field in Central Sri Lanka
Some Unusual Sillimanite Cat's-Eyes
An Examination of Four Important Gems
Green Glass Made of Mount Saint Heiens Ash?
Fall 1986
A Simple Procedure to Separate Natural from
Synthetic Amethyst on the Basis of Twinning
Pink Topaz from Pakistan
Carbon Dioxide Fluid Inclusions as Proof of NaturalColored Corundum
Specific Gravity-Origins and Development of the
Hydrostatic Method
Colombage-Ara Scheelite
Winter 1986
The G e m ~ l ~ g i Properties
~al
of the Sumitpmo GemQuality Synthetic Yellow Diamonds
Art Nouveau: Jewels and Jewelers
Contemporary Intarsia: The Medvedev Approach
Sprlng 1987
''Modern" Jewelry: Retro to Abstract
Infrared Spectroscopy in Gem Identification
A Study of the General Electric Synthetic Jadeite
A New Gem Material from Greenland: Iridescent
Orlhoamphibole
Summer 1987
Gemstone Durability: Design to Display
Wessels Mine Sugilite
Three Notable Fancy-Color Diamonds: Purplish
Red, Purple-Pink, and Reddish Purple
The Separation of Natural from Synthetic Emeralds
by Infrared Spectroscopy
The Rutilated Topaz Misnomer
Fall 1987
An Update on Color in Gems. Part I
The Lennix Synthetic Emerald
An Investigation of the Products of Kyocera Corp.
that Show Play-01-Color
Man-Made Jewelry Malachite
Inamori Synthetic Cat's-Eye Alexandrite
Winter 1987
The De Beers Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds
The History and Gemology of Queen Conch
"Pearls"
The Seven Types of Yellow Sapphire and Their
Stability to Light
Sprlng 1988
An Update on Color in Gems. Part 2
Chrysoberyl and Alexandrite from the Pegmatite
Districts of Minas Gerais, Brazil
Faceting Large Gemstones
The Distinction of Natural from Synthetic
Aiexandrite by Infrared Spectroscopy
Summer 1988
The Diamond Deposits of Kalimantan, Borneo
An Update on Color in Gems. Part 3
Pastel Pyropes
Examination of Three-Phase Inclusions in
Colorless, Yellow, and Blue Sapphires from Sri
Lanka
Fall 1988
An Economic Review of the Past Decade in
Diamonds
The Sapphires of Penglai, Hainan Island, China
Iridescent Orlhoamphibole from Wyoming
Detection of Treatment in Two Green Diamonds
Wlnter 1988
Gemstone Irradiation and Radioactivity
Amethyst lrom Brazil
Opal from Opal Butte, Oregon
A Gemological Look at Kyocera's Synthetic Star
Ruby
Sprlng 1989
The Sinkankas Library
The Gujar Killi Emerald Deposit
Beryl Gem Nodules from the Bananal Mine
'Opalite:" Plastic Imitation Opal
Summer 1989
Filled Diamonds
Synthetic Diamond Thin Films
Grading the Hope Diamond
Diamonds with Color-Zoned Pavilions
Fall 1989
Polynesian Black Pearls
The Capoeirana Emerald Deposit
Brazil-Twinned Synthetic Quartz and the Potential for
Synthetic Amethyst Twinned on the Brazil Law
Thermal Alteration of Inclusions in Rutilated Topaz
Chicken-Blood Stone from China
Winter 1989
Emerald and Gold Treasures of the Atocha
Zircon from the Harts Range, Australia
Blue.Pedolite
..Ret.ectance Infrared Spectroscopy in Gemology
Mildly Radioactive Rh'nestones and Synthetic Sp~neland- lass Triplets
-
Spring 1990
Gem Localities of the 1980s
Gemstone Enhancement and Its Detection
Synthetic Gem Materials
New Technologies: Their Impact in Gemology
Jewelry of the 1980s
Summer 1990
Blue Diffusion-Treated Sapphires
Jadeite of Guatemala
Tsavorite Gem Crystals from Tanzania
Diamond Grit-Impregnated Tweezers
Fall 1990
Majorica Imitation Pearls
Tourmalines from Paralba, Brazil
Hydrothermally Grown Synthetic Aquamarines from
the USSR
Diamonds in Trinity County, California
Wlnter 1990
The Dresden Green Diamond
Identification of Kashmir Sapphires
A Suite of Black Diamond Jewelry
Emeraldolite
Spring 1991
Age, Origin, and Emplacement of Diamonds
Emeralds of Panjshir Valley, Afghanistan
Some issues from the 1983. 1984. and 1985

volume years are also available. Please call the
Subscriptions Office at the number given below for
specific details.
TO ORDER: Call: toll free (800) 421-7250, ext. 201

OR WRITE: GIA, 1660
Stewart
Santa Monica, CA 90404,
- . , Street,
..
"PERFECT"
Challengers
undreds of readers participated in the fifth annual Gems o)Gemology Challenge (see
the Spring 1991 issue). As part of the GIA Continuing Education program, the
Challenge was created to strengthen the professional jeweler-gemologist's scholarship in this
ever-changing field. Those with a score of 75% or better received a GIA Continuing
Education Certificate. We are especially proud to list below those respondents who received
a perfect score (100%).Congratulations!
Virginia Lee Adams, Pinellas Park, FL; Sue M. Angevine, DeLand, FL; T J. Arendsen, Lansing, MI; Linda
Anne Bateley, Kent, England; Howard W, Beardsley Naples, FL; Rebecca Ann Bell, Joshua Tree, CA;
Christine Blankenship, N. Royalton, OH; Rudi M. Boskovic, Armidale, N.S.W., Australia; Carol Grobe Buck,
Indianapolis, IN; Lisa Burbach, Manitowoc, WI;
Alnlir Rodrigues Cardoso, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; Kim
Ching Huo Chang, Taipei, Taiwan; Veronica Clark-Hudson, Santa Monica, CA; Margaret T. Clerkin, La Jolla,
CA; Ann Coderko, Muscatine, IA; Bruno Cupillaro, Beroucan, France;
Roger Davidson, Cooperstown,
NY; Robin M. Dinnes, Franklin, NC; Christophe DuBois, Cannes, France; Jean-Davis Duroc-Danner,
Geneva, Switzerland;
Richard W. Edwards, Kettering, OH;
Edward J. Feldman, Jacksonville, FL;
Beth I. Fleitnlan, Milton, MA; Shirley A. Forster, Gresham, OR; Betty Lu Frost, Lonngmont, CO; John
An~ayaGarin, Madrid, Spain; Wayne M. Gilcrease, Santa Monica, CA; Kim
Fuhrbach, Amarillo, TX;
Donna Gilling, Harare, Zimbabwe; Robert Gingras, Bristol, CT; Louis J. Ginsberg, Damascus, MD; Sheila
Goetz, Tucson, AZ; Cynthia L. Goodwin, Manchester, NH; Anthony De Goutiere, Victoria, B.C., Canada;
Manoj B. Gupta, Bombay, India;
Sinikka Hagberg, Cairns, Australia; J. L. Harding, London, England;
April D. Hartner, Gresham, OR; Donna Hawrelko, W. Vancouver, B.C., Canada; Hayo W. Hecknlan, The
Hague, Netherlands; Franklin Herman, Des Moines, IA; Mary Hicks, Humble, TX; Jacqueline C. Hines,
Raleigh, NC; Robert I? Hord, Laguna Park, TX; Myron A. Huebler, Rio Rancho, NM; Michael F. Huegi ,
Berne, Switzerland;
William Iwan, Jacksonville, FL;
Toni Lisa Johnson, Fort Worth, TX; Theresa A.
Jones, Centerville, OH; Chow Ka-Keung, Kowloon, Hong Kong; Mark Kaufman, San Diego, CA; David A.
Keith, Armidale, N.S.W., Australia; Jeff Ketay, Peoria, IL; Carroll J. Kiefer, Jr., Tomball, TX; Dennis G. King,
Savannah, GA; Goran Kniewald, Zagreb, Yugoslavia; Mark S. Kochevar, Klan~athFalls, OR; Wiraman
Kurniawan, Medan, Indonesia;
David M. Larches, Sutton Coldfield, England; Thomas Larsson, Jarfalla,
Sweden; Bert J. Last, Sydney, N.S.W., Australia; William A. Lavender, Pelham, AL; Karen Levian, Timonium,
MD; David R. Lindsay, Bobcaygeon, Ont., Canada; Anthony Lore, Whitestone, NY; Linda Luz, San
Francisco, CA;
Michael C. McCoy Reno, NV; Sandra MacKenzie-Graham, Burlingan~e,CAj Arby G.
Magill 11, Santa Monica, CA; Ronald A. Maher, Armidale, N.S.W, Australia; James S. Markides, Sun~ter,SC;
Leona Claire Marsh, Harare, Zimbabwe; Lesley Faye Marsh, Harare, Zimbabwe; D. Elizabeth Martin,
Johnson City, TN; Warner J. May Ozark, AL; Grenville Millington, Birn~inghan~,
England; Yehya Sabet
Morsy, Alexandria, Egypt; Francisco Muller Bastos, Belo Horizonte, Brazil;
Daniel Octeau, Montreal,
Que., Canada; Barbara A. Odell, Brentwood, T N ; J. Andrew Ontko, Jr., Oklahoma City, OK;
Fabrizio
Paccara, Terni, Italy; Linda Partney, Marathon, FL; Roberta Peach, Calgary, Al., Canada; Mateo Perez-Garcia,
Malaga, Spain; Vincent Peters, Namur, Belgium; Jon C. Phillips, Vancouver, B.C., Canada; Patrick W. Planas,
San Antonio, TX; Ron Plessis, Aldergrove, B.C., Canada;
Sylvia Ramsey, Chicago, IL; Ronald Redding,
Pelham, AL; Carmen Rivet, St. Lambert, Que., Canada; Suzanne Rizzo, Cocoa Beach, FL; Deanna Lynn
Rogers, Dayton, OH; Donald G. Rosenstiel, Mobile, AL;
A. Samsavar, Seattle, WA; Jack Schatzley,
Toledo, OH; Carole Devor Scott, Herndon, VA; Glenn Shaffer, Julian, CA; Alan R. Sheidler, Toledo, OH;
Carolyn Sherman, Dallas, TX; Darlene Louise Simpson, Margate, FL; Ben H. Smith, Jr., Wilmington, NC;
Peter R. Stadelmeier, Levittown, PA; Diana L. Stanley, Grand Island, NE; Judith Steinberg, Santa Monica,
CA; John Stennett, Temple, TX; Cyrille Sureau, Montreal, Que., Canada;
Michael A. Tessiero, Fort
Johnson, NY; Donald . Tonlace, Union, NJ; Alex Tourubaroff, Westminster, CA; Blair I? Tredwell, Advance,
NC; Petri Tuovinen, Kouvola, Finland; Belinda Turner, Tyler, TX;
E. Th. van Velzen, Rotterdam,
Netherlands; Sue Vastalo, Bolingbrook, IL; Gal Vered, Okinawa, Japan; Bruce S. Vick, Belleville, IL;
Donald E. Watson, Wailuku, HI; Nean Wilson, East Luthian, Scotland; Kelly Wiseman, Laramie, WY; Amy
Wolfe-Vancleave, Wall, TX; Robert C. Wyatt, Sr., Mesa, AZ;
Shelley Zamborelli, Laguna, CA; Monique
Zander, Sao Paulo, Brazil; Urs Zwyssig, Bangkok, Thailand
192
Perfect Challengers
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
ELISEB. MISIORWSKI
AND LORETTA
LOEB,EDITORS
GEMOLOGY
2nd Edition
By Cornelius S. Hurlbut a n d Robert
C. Kammerling, 337 pp., illus., publ,
by John Wiley e) Sons, New York,
1991. USS58.00*
It has been 12 years since the first
edition of this well-known book
(then with George S. Switzer as second author] appeared, In the interim,
there have been many major advances and developments in gemology. This second edition (co-authored
by GIAs Robert C. Kammerling) has
successfully met the challenge of
being a detailed and up-to-date gemological text.
Those familiar with the first edition will find few changes in the
second with respect to the fundamentals of crystallography crystal
chemistry, and optical properties, except for improven~entsin presentation (e.g., an illustration to assist in
understanding the spot method].
Likewise, the section devoted to "descriptive gemology" (approximately
one-third of the book) is very similar
to what was present in the first edition. It has been updated where individual gemstones are discussed in
alphabetical order, however, to include new gem materials such as
sugilite.
The chapters on new advances
and developments in the fields of
enhancen~entsand their detection,
synthetics, and simulants, which
dominated gemology in the 1980s,
have received the greatest attention
in this revision. Most of these chapters have been greatly expanded, and
some have been completely rewritten. It is notable that "Gemstone
Enhancements" has been given chap-
Book Reviews
ter status in this new edition in

recognition of its importance. The
color plate section (16 pages with a
total of 147 photographs) has been
completely reworked, and is a collection of excellent photographs that
illustrate a wide variety of characteristics (inclusions, phenomena,
etc.] for both natural and synthetic
gem materials. Regrettably, many of
the black-and-white illustrations
that accompany the text have been
reproduced poorly and are a blemish
on an otherwise fine production.
Overall, this second edition of
Gemology is a welcome addition to
the gemological literature. Its approximately 100-page expansion
over the first edition is almost entirely in areas considered gemological (e.g., enhancements, synthetics),
compared to the mineralogic fundamentals and descriptive gemology.
The book deservedly will continue to
enjoy its reputation as one of the
premier texts in gemology,
ALFRED A. LEVINSON
University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
GEMSTONES OF
PAKISTAN GEOLOGY AND
GEMMOLOGY
By Ali H. Kazmi and Michael
O'Donoghue, 146 pp., illus., publ. by
Gemstone Corporation of Pakistan,
Karachi, Pakistan, 1990. USS24.95 '
A long-awaited description of gem
m a t e r i a l s a n d g e m deposits of
Pakistan, Gemstones of Pakistan not
only examines the interrelationship
between geologic environment and
gem type, but it also describes the
characteristics of each gem material

in detail and serves as the single
definitive source of information on
all known Pakistani gems.
This is concisely and expertly
achieved in 146 pages, which include
72 color photographs of gemstones,
gem deposits, and beautiful highmountain scenery; 24 line drawings,
including 13 maps and nine crosssections; and 19 tables that summarize various gemstone characteristics. The remarkable list of Pakistani
gem materials includes emerald, vesuvianite, rodingite, ruby, spinel, pargasite, epidote, actinolite, aquamarine, tourmaline, garnet, topaz,
moonstone, quartz, zircon, rutile,
azurite, agate, hessonite garnet, turquoise, and tsavolite (tsavorite].
The reader is first prepared for
the discussion of Pakistani deposits
by a description of the important
characteristics of minerals, including crystal classes, color, chemistry
as it affects color, hardness, specific
gravity fluorescence, and the ways to
evaluate these characteristics for
gemstone identification. Additional
background on Pakistani gem deposits is provided by a chapter on the
geology of Pakistan. Using a geologic
franlework, the authors subdivide
the gem deposits of Pakistan into five
groups: Indus suture associated, Karakoram s u t u r e associated, pegmatite associated, gemstones in hydrothermal veins, and a miscellaneous group for the less easily classified deposits. The origin of most
Pakistani gems can be clearly traced
'This book is available for purchase at
the GIA Bookstore, 1660 Stewart Street,
Santa Monica, CA 90404. Telephone:
(800) 427-7250, ext. 282.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
193
to geologic processes that relate to

plate tectonics, and the awe-inspiring Himalaya Mountains are a virtual geologic showcase that displays
the effects of these processes as well
as the beautiful gemstones themselves. The last two sections of the
book are devoted to mineral specimens and marketing, and are very
useful.
The book was printed by Elite
Publishers in Karachi for the Gems t o n e Corporation of P a k i s t a n
(GEMCP);printing is of good quality
and color reproduction is excellent.
The price is indeed a bargain for a
hard-cover book printed in color.
I a m pleased to see another boolz
of this type added to the world literature 011 gem deposits, As more is
learned about the geologic control of
gemstones, this knowledge adds to
the beauty and enchantment of these
exquisite minerals. The readers of
Gems fil Gemology are well served
by this nice addition to the literature.
LAWRENCE W. SNEE
U.S. Geological Survey
Denver, CO
GEMS, GRANITES,
AND GRAVELS,
Knowing and Using
Rocks and Minerals
By Richard V Dietrich and Brian 1.
Skinner, 173 pp., illiis., publ. b y
Cambridge University Press, New
York, NY, 1 990. US$24.95*
Gems, Granites, and Gravels was
written by two prominent geologists
to introduce the public to minerals
and n~ineralogyand to their impact
on the lives of the average citizen.
The rationale for writing such a book
makes good sense in that, as the
authors point out, the average person
uses 10 metric tons of minerals each
year directly or indirectly.
The content of Gems, Granites,
and Gravels is not forbidding in any
sense, but it is designed to point out
the manifold contacts that we have
in our daily lives with various minerals and rocks. There is an overview
on the mineral world and chapters on
194
Book Reviews
crystals, mineral chemistry, and

rocks, plus such unglamorous materials as soils, dusts, and muds. Economically important subjects such
as ores, ore minerals and building
materials are also explored, as are
some of the other effects that rocks
and minerals have on our well-being.
G e m s are nlentioned, but only
briefly, which was somewhat surprising given their prominence in the
title.
The authors use a lighthearted
approach to their subject matter, perhaps best illustrated in the section
under the heading "The Naming of
Minerals." A nunlber of illustrations
are given for how nlincrals are
named, such as aragonite for the
Aragon Province in Spain, rooseveltite for Franlzlin Delano Roosevelt, and at one point: "There is even
a slzinnerite, which is named after
Brian J. Skinner (one of the authors)as
well as a dietrichite which is not
named for R. V Dietrich but for G.
W. Dietrich, the 19th century Bohemian chemist who first analyzed the
mineral. (In any case these two
names seem appropriate - skinnerite
is an ore mineral, and dietrichite is a
vitriolic efflorescence.Jff
Gems, Granites, and Gravels
provides an excellent introduction
for the layperson to the world of
minerals.
RICHARD T LIDDICOAT
Chairman of the Board, GIA
Santa Monica, C A
CRYSTALS
By Ian F. Mercer, 60 pp., illus., publ.
by the Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, MA, 1990. US$9.95'
1 was given this excellent little book
to review while trying to find a text
or two on crystals and crystal growth
that my 11-year old daughter could
use for a school mathematics project
on the geometry of crystal fornls.
Crystals, by Ian F. Mercer, proved to
be the type of introductory book she
needed. That's not to say that this
book is only for children. It is so
beautifully illustrated and enjoyable
to read that, even if you are not
specifically interested i n crystal-
lography, mineralogy, or any of the

related sciences, it is still hard to put
down w i t h o u t a t least leafing
through and reading the figure captions.
This well-organized boolz is divided into three main sections. The
first, titled "The Inside Story," addresses crystal form, structure, symmetry, and classification into crystal
systems. Minerals, gem-quality crystals, crystalline perfection, and the
micro-world of crystals are also introduced.
I11 the second section, "See How
They Grow," the geologic formation
of mineral crystals is illustrated with
a line drawing that shows where
various minerals may form i n a
cross-section of the earth's crust and
upper mantle. Visual evidence of
crystal growth in nature is presented
by a series of color photos that illustrate "ghosts" (phantoms),color zoning, solution or etch pits, growth
marks, and inclusions. This section
also contains detailed instructions
on how to grow your own crystals at
home by vapor or from water solution.
The last section, "Crystals and
You," introduces the reader to the
various means used to study crystals,
such as polarized light, X-ray diffraction, and light refraction. Two particularly interesting photos show the
double image of a sewing needle
when viewed through calcite and a
brass contact goniometer being used
to measure the interfacial angles of a
crystal. The book concludes with
condensed sections on collections,
the growth of synthetics, crystal lore,
crystal technology, and c r y s t a l
wonders (including a photo of a baby
sitting in a n amethyst geode for size
reference). Crystal facts and figures,
an index, and a list of titles suggested
for additional reading are also present.
This is an excellent book to introduce someone, regardless of age,
to the beauty of the crystal world
around us.
JOHN I. KOIVULA
Chief Gemologist, GIA
San ta Monica, C A
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
REVIEW BOARD
Barton C. Curren
lopanga Canyon, California
Emmanuel Fritsch
GIA, Santa Monica
Patricia A. S. Gray
Venice, ~alifornia~
Karin N. Hurwit
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Santa Monica
Robert C. Kammerling
GIA, Santa Monica
Neil Letson
flew York, New York
Loretta B. Loeb
Vasalia, California
Shane F. McClure
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Santa Monica
Elise fl. Misiorowski
GIA, Santa Monica
Gary A. Roskin
GIA, Santa Monica
,
COLORED STONES AND
ORGANIC, MATERIALS
Baotite-A new gemstone in Baiyun Ebo, Inner Mongolia. Sun Weijun and Yang Ziyuen, Abstracts of
the 15 th General Meeting of the International
Mineralogical Association, June 28-July 3, 1990,
Beijing, China, pp. 688-689.
Baotite is a brownish black to black translucent mineral
with a semi-metallic luster and a Mohs hardness of 6
that could potentially be used as a gem material. It is
newly discovered from the Baiyun Ebo rare earth-iron
ore deposit in Inner Mongolia. Its chemical composition
This section is designed to provide as complete a record as

practical of the recent literature on gems and gemology. Articles
are selected for abstracting solely at the discretion of the section
editor and her reviewers, and space limitations may require that we
include only those articles that we feel will be of greatest interest to
our readership.
Inquiries for reprints of articles abstracted must be addressed to
the author or publisher of the original material.
The reviewer of each article is identified by his or her initials at the
end of each abstract. Guest reviewers are identified by their full
names. Opinionsexpressed in an abstract belong to the abstracter
and in no way reflect the position of Gems & Gemology
or GIA.
@ 199 I Gemological Institute of America
Lisa E. Schoening
GIA, Santa Monica
James E, Shigley
GIA, Santa Monica
Christopher f! Smith
Gem ~radeLab, Inc., Santa Monica
Karen B. Stark
GIA, Santa Monica
Carol M. Stockton
10s Angeles, California
Rose Tozer
GIA, Santa Monica
William R. Videto
GIAj Santa Monica
Robert Weldon
Los Angeles, California
is Ba4(Ti,Nb,Fe)oO16(Si4012)
Cl. A brief description of
the occurrence of baotite is presented, although no
information is included on its abundance.
/Es
Emeralds from Colombia (Part 2). C.Bosshart, fournal of
Gemmology, Vol. 22, No. 7, 1991, pp. 409-425.
Part 2 of this trilogy on Colombian emeralds includes a
review of crystal size and morphology, chemical composition, causes of color, physical and optical properties,
and microscopic features. It is interesting to note that
the author, contrary to one commonly held notion in
Europe, acknowledges emeralds colored largely by vanadium. Colon~bianemeralds, with an average Cr:V ratio
of 3:1, fall in the middle of the range of chromophore
composition for emeralds in general. Iron content of
Colombian emeralds is relatively low, and other possible
chromophores are absent or insignificantly low. Optical
absorption spectra, illustrated by unretouched spectrophotometer curves, are related to the chemical causes
of color and to the renowned fine color of Colombian
emeralds.
The discussion of microscopic features that concludes this article covers fluid inclusions, mineral inclusions, internal growth characteristics, and color zoning.
Three pages of color photomicrographs illustrate the
features discussed.
Ifound part 1 of Mr. Bosshart's three-part series to be
commendable and readable, and I have not been disappointed by part 2. Moreover, the discussion in part 2
provides information on emeralds other than those of
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
195
Colombia, making the article of even broader interest

and gemological value. It was, however, mildly frustrating not to have the bibliography printed with the article
in hand (an editor's note advises that the full bibliography was published with part 1).
CMS
An examination of chrysoprase from Goias, Brazil. R. C.
Kammerling, J. I. Koivula, and E. Fritsch, Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 17, No. 8, 1990, pp.
313-315.
The authors studied specimens of chrysoprase that were
reported to have originated in a galena mine near
Niquelandia, Goiis, Brazil. The gemological properties
were found to be consistent with those previously
reported for chrysoprase chalcedony. X-ray fluorescence
spectroscopy revealed that silicon and nickel were the
only elements present in significant amounts. Comparison of these samples with Australian chrysoprase indicated that features are similar except for the intense
absorption in the Australian material, which correlates
with its more saturated color.
Although the authors have observed that chrysoprase is typically inert to U.V radiation, the Brazilian
material fluoresced a moderate greenish blue to longwave U.V, with a weaker reaction to short-wave U.V
There was no phosphorescence to either wavelength.
Maha Smith
Fossil mammoth ivory: A new choice for jewelers. R.
Weldon, Jewelers' Circular-Keystone,Vol. 162, No.
8, August 1991, pp. 154-156.
Since the U.S. banned the import of elephant ivory in
1989, fossilized mammoth ivory has become a favored and legal-alternative. The permafrosts of Alaska and
the Soviet Union are sources for this ivory, which is
thought to have lain preserved for 20,000 to 40,000 years.
This type of ivory has been used by the Athabascan
Indians, Eskimos, and other Alaskans for thousands of
years. According to Al Allen of Alaska Jade and Ivory
Works, Soldotna, Alaska, 20,000 Indians currently make
a living from fossilized ivory.
Depending on the minerals absorbed, fossilized
ivory can occur in different colors: It has been found in
dark blue, black, brown, and green, as well as in various
shades of cream. Besides strength of color, the best way
to distinguish between fossilized ivory and modern
elephant ivory is from the engine-turn effect: The
V-shaped crossing of lines in fossilized specimens forms
acute angles of 90' versus the angles of 120' or more
seen in modern elephant ivory.
Other animal ivories and products exist such as
walrus, narwhal, animal bone, horn, antlers, and chemically treated coral. For those uncomfortable about
wearing ivory of any kind, doum palm, orozo nuts, and
KBS
even plastic are available.
196
Gemmology Study Club Lab Reports. G , Brown, S. M. B.

Kelly, R. Beattie, and H. Bracewell, Australian
Gemmologist, Vol. 17, No. 8, 1990, pp. 325-332.
This series of brief reports covers a number of interesting
gem materials. First described is a 1.12-ct crystal fragment from central Queensland that consists of a ruby
core surrounded by hexagonally banded grayish blue to
bluish to purplish sapphire. Next covered is gem-quali ty
stichtite, a rare, chromium-containing mineral from
northwest Tasmania.
The next, and longest, of the entries covers a suite of
jewelry set with emerald-cut stones that resemble "padparadscha" sapphires. According to the investigators,
these stones were actually flame-fusion synthetic yellow sapphires "coated by a thin layer of surface diffused
synthetic ruby." It is interesting to note that the owner of
the jewelry had purchased it in Kashmir.
This is followed by an entry on two glass imitations,
the first resembling aquamarine and the second composed of a photosensitive glass that changes from colorless to dark brown after a 15-second exposure to a 150watt incandescent bulb.
Also covered are green beryls from Harry's Mine
near Torrington, New South Wales (with a good description of their gemology and inclusions); an aventurescent
quartz that reportedly originated from a site near Inverell, New South Wales, and resembles aventurescent
RCIZ
feldspar; and pit glass from Sri Lanka.
Editor's Note: Diffusion treatment actually diffuses a
layer of color into the stone and is not a coating per se.
However, recutting can remove the color.
Gemmological study on Eonyang amethyst from Korea.
Won-Sa Kim, Abstracts of the 15th General Meeting of the International Mineralogical Association, June 28-July 3, 1990, Beijing, China, pp.
678-679.
Amethyst that occurs in geodes is found in the Eonyang
Granite near the southern part of the Korean peninsula.
The amethyst develops as an epitaxial overgrowth on
earlier-formed smoky or colorless quartz. Fe, Mg, Ca,
and Cu occur as trace elements in the amethyst in
quantities up to 6 ppm. Various solid inclusions (hematite and perthite feldspar) and fluid inclusions (both
liquid and gaseous) that occur in the amethyst were
studied by several analytic methods to reveal the condiIES
tions of amethyst formation.
On the genesis of charoite rocks. N. V. Vladykin,
Abstracts of the 15th General Meeting of the
International Mineralogical Association, June
28-July 3, 1990, Beijing, China, pp. 689-690.
The geologic occurrence of this ornamental gem material in the Soviet Union appears to be unique. Charoite is
found in the Murun massif, a large body of layered
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
ultrapotassic-alkali rocks that have been age dated at

120-160 million years. A number of unusual rock types
are represented in this layered sequence, among which is
charoite. These unusual rocks are thought to have
crystallized from an ultrapotassic lamproite magma.
Inferences are presented on the temperatures and other
conditions of crystallization.
IES
Mineral associations of corundum-bearing marbles and
the problem of ruby genesis. S. I. Konovalenko,

Most high-quality rubies are found in primary and
secondary deposits associated with corundum-bearing
calcite marbles. Much of the world's production comes
from a series of deposits that occur along the AlpincHimalaya fold belt that stretches from Afghanistan and
the Hindu Kush in the west along the Himalayas into
portions of Southeast Asia. Experimental data and the
presence of certain mineral inclusions (such as phlogopite, feldspar, etc.] suggest that rubies are formed
during the metamorphism of carbonate rocks under
high-grade conditions (epidote-amphibolite or amphibolite facies).,Ruby formation also involves recrystallization during which structural defects and inclusions are
often removed from the growing crystal.
/ES
Perestroika gems - natural & not. R. Weldon, Jewelers'
Circular-Keystone,Vol. 162, No. 8, August 1991,
pp. 142-145.
The Soviet Union has long been known for its natural
gem materials -among them Siberian diamonds, emeralds from the Ukraine, spinels from the Pamir Mountains, and demantoids from the Urals. Today, the Soviet
Union is making inroads in the production of synthetic
gems, including synthetic diamonds, synthetic malachite, flux synthetic spinel, "pearl" cubic zirconia, and
hydrothermal quartz. This article gives a concise report
on the past and present situation of the Soviet Union's
production of natural and synthetic gems. It is a mustread for anyone interested in Soviet economics and how
they affect the gem industry in the Soviet Union. The
article is accompanied by nine photos of various
KBS
USSR-produced gems.
A rare baler shell pearl. G. Brown and S. M. B. Kelly,
Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 17, No. 8, 1990, pp.
307-308.
Baler shells are large, spiral-shaped univalves found in
the shallow waters off Australia's northern coasts, from
Shark Bay in Western Australia to southeast Queensland. This nicely illustrated Gemmology Study Club
Report describes the authors' examination of a rare,
nonnacreous "pearl" that was recovered from a baler
shell dredged off the coast from Noosa, some 100 k m

north of Brisbane, Queensland.
The authors preface their description of the "pearl"
with a detailed description of the host shell, Melo
amphora. The "pearl" itself weighs 68.97 ct, measures
22.8 m m x 20.6 mm, and is slightly pinkish orange,
nonnacreous, and slightly pointed on one end. It displays
a distinctive "flame" pattern similar to that seen on socalled conch "pearls." Magnification reveals that the
smooth porcelaneous external surface is covered with a
pattern of yellowish "flames" as well as small brown
spots due to subsurface conchiolin accumulations. Gemological properties include an S.G. of 2.83, a spot R.1. of
1.67, no reaction to both long- and short-wave U.V
radiation, and no identifying absorption spectrum. An
X-radiograph revealed a concentric structure similar to
that of Pinctada pearls.
The authors conclude that this "calcareous concretion" is con~posedpredominantly of aragonite.
RCK
Research on the mineralogy of the calcium chromegarnet of gem grade at a district in Tibet. Yongxian
Liu, Abstracts of the 15th General Meeting of the
Small crystals of transparent uvarovite garnet have been
found at a locality in Tibet. The garnet occurs as part of a
skarn deposit at the contact of metamorphosed carbonate sediments (marble]and igneous rocks that are part
of the Mesozoic-age Gangdise-Liangqing Tanggula fold
belt. Two generations of garnet can be recognized and
differ slightly in occurrence and geochemistry. Chemical composition and other mineralogic data on this gem
material are cited.
1ES
Two strongly pleochroic chatoyant gems. R. C. Kamn~erling and J. 1. Koivula, Journal of Gemmology, Vol.
22, NO. 7, 1991, pp. 395-398.
Gemstones that are both chatoyant and pleochroic are
relatively uncommon. In this note, the authors describe
samples of two such gems: two cat's-eye iolites (23.65 ct
and 8.25 ct] and a 2.69-ct cat's-eye tanzanite. Gemological properties for the stones described are typical for
their respective gem varieties, with the exception of
their phenomenal features, In the iolites, the chatoyancy
was found to be caused by minute, whitish-appearing
parallel fibers. The tanzani te's chatoyancy was observed
to be the result of parallel, whitish, light-reflecting
channels. The authors note that, in both materials,
cutting for the best optic effect resulted in poor face-up
color, because the best pleochroic color was oriented to a
different axis from that of the chatoyancy. This disparity
between good color and chatoyancy which is almost
universal in pleochroic materials, is undoubtedly why
more such stones are not cut. Six color photographs
illustrate the note.
CMS
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
197
DIAMONDS
The Lewis and Clark diamond. J. C. Zeitner, Lapidary
Journal, Vol. 45, No. 5, August 1991, pp. 79-88.
This article provides some details of the July 1990
discovery of a light yellow, transparent, 14-ct dian~ond
along a road near Craig, Montana, by local "rockhound"
Darlene Dennis. The stone was first identified by a local
faceter; the identification was then confirmed by the
owner of the Yogo Sapphire mine. According to the
article, an additional large (8 ct) stone was allegedly
recovered in late 1990 by another Craig resident. The 14ct diamond was sold for $80,000 to New York galleryowner Alexander Acevedo. The article includes a color
photo of the stone, a discussion of the possible source
and future prospects for diamonds from this area, and an
insert on diamonds from the Great Lakes region of the
U.S.
WRV
GEM LOCALITIES
Gemstone [sic] of Malawi: Ruby, sapphire, padparadscha, and fancy corundums. 0. Grubessi,
lnterna~ioncilMineralogical Association, June
This abstract presents a brief summary of gemological
data on various gem corundums from the Landanai
region of Malawi. Chemical con~positiondata (microprobe) along with optical properties and features seen by
microscope examination are described for ruby and a
range of colors of sapphire. The author notes that, except
for green corundum, R.I. and S.G. increase with iron
enrichment and decreasing aluminum. Considerable
data are provided in this brief note.
JE S
INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

The microscopic determination of structural properties
for the characterization of optical uniaxial natural
and synthetic gemstones. Part 2: Examples for the
applicability of structural features for the distinction of natural emerald from flux-grown and hydrothermally-grown synthetic emerald. L. Kiefert
and K. Schmetzer, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 22,
No. 7, 1991, pp. 427-438.
Using the techniques described in part 1 of this threepart series, the authors pursue their research into the
distinction betweennatural and synthetic emeralds. The
authors found that natural emeralds from metamorphic
deposits usually do not have growth structures that can
be used diagnostically. However, emeralds from deposits
with lower temperatures of formation, including those
from Colombia and Nigeria, reveal internal growth
structures that are useful. These appear as striations
parallel to the dominant growth planes. A variety of flux-
198
grown and hydrothermally grown synthetic emeralds

were also examined and revealed certain differences in
growth features from those of natural emeralds. Fluxgrown synthetic emeralds, for example, were never
observed to exhibit structure parallel to the pyramidal
faces u, p, and s, while such structural features were
observed in both Colombian and Nigerian samples. Also
con~monlynoted in flux-grown synthetics is the zoning
of residual flux parallel to dominant growth planes, a
feature not found in natural emeralds.
Hydrothermally grown synthetic emeralds revealed
one dominant set of growth structures parallel to the
orientation of the seed plate, forming an angle with the
c-axis of 22'-40'-a
characteristic never found in natural emeralds. Accompanying the growth striations in
hydrothermal synthetics are distinct color zoning and
subgrain boundaries.
The authors conclude that the structural characteristics they observed in natural and synthetic emeralds cannot be used alone to determine the origin of a
sample. However, they do constitute a valuable source of
information that, in conjunction with other features, can
decisively identify natural or synthetic origin. Thirty
photomicrographs clearly illustrate the features discussed in the text.
CMS
Presidium@DiaMeter-System Berger. T. Linton and G.
Brown, Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 17, No. 8,
1990, pp. 301-303.
This Instrument Evaluation Committee report covers
both the DiaMeterOo-System Berger and Presidium's
Electronic Gemstone Gauge. The former is a specialized
slide rule calculator used to estimate the weight of round
brilliant-cut dian~onds,calculate weight loss in recutting round brilliants, distinguish brilliant-cut diamonds
from simulants of higher specific gravity, and identify
poorly proportioned diamonds. The Gemstone Gauge is
an electronic measuring device that resembles the conventional analog Leveridge gauge but uses instead a
digital LCD read-out.
The investigators used the two instruments to
measure and then estimate the weights of 10 well-made
round brilliants, ranging from 0.05 ct to 1.4 ct. The
electronic gauge was found to be easy to use and accurate
to within0.01 mm, while the DiaMeterUoprovedto be, on
average, within 1% of the exact weights of the stones
(compared to their actual weights as determined on an
electronic balance). The DiaMetero3 also proved to be
successful in detecting deviations from "ideal make" in
10 other round brilliants of moderate to poor make. No
indication was given of what criteria were used for "ideal
make."
The investigators conclude that these two instruments used together will speed weight and girdle diameter estimations, although accuracy is limited by how
much the make of the stones varies from "ideal"
proportions.
RCK
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
Presidium@ Diamond MiniMate@t T Linton and G.

Brown, Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 17, No. 8,
1990, pp. 3 18-320.
After reviewing the working principle behind this and
similar instruments, the authors of this Instrument
Evaluation Committee Report describe in detail the
con~ponentsand use of the Presidium@Diamond MiniMa te03.
On the basis of their evaluation, Messrs. Linton and
Brown found the instrument to distinguish accurately
both mounted and unmounted diamonds (either gem or
industrial quality] from an extensive range of s i n ~ ~ ~ l a n t s .
They also identify a number of critical precautions that
must be observed when using the instrument.
RCK
JEWELRY MANUFACTURING ARTS

The composition and structure of a Byzantine tore [sic].
M. Hockey, Jewellery Studies, Vol. 3, 1989, pp.
33-39.
111 1984, the British Museum received an early Byzantine
gold torque that had passed through several collections
and had been restored many times. At the time the
museum received the neckpiece, both the original work
and the restored areas were deteriorating badly. This
article describes the original methods and materials
used in m'aking the torque, and docunlents the museum's restoration process in great detail.
The torque, which is estimated to date from the
sixth or seventh century A.D., is made of gold foil over a
magnetite, sand, and glue filler; the whole length is
threaded with a copper core wire attached to lion's-head
finials. The core wire itself had swollen from corrosion
and was nlissing in places, and repairs to it had broken;
gold foil had flaked off the body and filler had been lost.
To restore the torque, sheathed copper dowling was
soft-soldered to the remaining core wire; the missing
filler was replaced with polyester resin, which also
provided a base to which the gold foil was attached with
adhesive. Areas missing the original gold were infilled
with an easily removable adhesive-resin mixture and
covered with gold leaf or gold-powder color.
The author provides details of the con~positionof
the various conlponents, and of experiments she performed to determine the exact method of the torque's
assembly. She also describes the means of shaping,
soldering, and burnishing its parts; it is readily apparent
that the methods of manufacture were extremely sophisticated for their day.
LES
From Oroide to Platinageld: Imitation jewellery in the
late nineteenth century. J. R~idoe, Jewellery
Studies, Vol. 3, 1989, pp. 49-71.
In an exhaustive study, the author discusses the enormously popular costume jewelry of the late 1800s. The
first part of the article deals with the many alloys used to
imitate gold and silver, as reported in the trade press of
that period. The second part discusses the jewelry made

by the firm N. C. Reading & Co., a major Birmingham,
England, manufacturer, whose ledgers and sample
boards from the period provided the author with documentary evidence.
The fanciful trade names used by 19th-century
manufacturers make fascinating reading. Various combinations of copper, aluminum, and zinc create 'Abyssinian Gold," "Oroide," "Orissus Gold," "Afghanistan
Gold," and "Crazy Gold." This last prompted one writer
to remark that perhaps the market would soon be
subjected to "deranged electro-plate, delirious rolled
plate, and slightly gone German silver."
In her discussion of N. C. Reading & Co., the author
covers the trademarked alloys used by the company, as
well as their registered designs, and offers many insights
into the techniques of mass-manufacture in the late
1800s. For example, watch-chain swivels for pocket
watches were hand assembled from die-struck parts in a
process that required 36 steps.
It is interesting that the company, which specialized
in chain, hired only women to make its chains. Several of
these women survived, eyesight intact, into the
mid-20th century. ,It would have been extraordinary to
have had their views on working conditions and the like.
LES
The golden age of designer jewelry. S. Menkes, Connoisseur. Vol. 220, No. 942, July 1990, pp. 48-53.
Jewelry produced during the 1940s and '50s has a
distinctive look that has been repopularized in the last
several years. This article briefly describes the influences that brought about the design style and, with
broad strokes, paints a vivid picture of several important
designers, their jewels, and the women who wore them
notably, the Duchess of Windsor). Among the designers
mentioned are Cartier, Van Cleef and Arpels, Schlunlberger, Verclura, Belperron, and Boivin. The article concludes with a list of the major dealers in jewelry of this
period worldwide. Photos of jewels appear throughout
the article.
EBM
Medieval and Renaissance jewelry flowers at Christie's.
R. Shor, Jewelers' Circular-Keystone, Vol. 16 1, No.
5, Heritage Section, May 1990, pp. 148-150.
JCK's senior editor gives a concise report on the December 1989 sale in London of British artist Phyllis Bray
Phillips' important collection of Medieval and Renaissance jewelry. Although this is not a catalog of the 80
pieces offered at auction, several pieces are described and
the characteristics that made them particularly significant are pointed out. The author also provides the
hammer prices on those jewels he has singled out for
discussion, and mentions the final offer ($108,000) on
the only item that did not meet its reserve bid: a 14thcentury rock crystal triptych of superior workmanship
and rarity. Seven color photos augment the text.
EBM
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
199
Metall in Bewegung (Metal in motion). R. Ludwig, Art

Aurea, No. 2, 1991, pp. 55-60.
Jewelry designer Birgit Laken has long been active in
Holland's artistic avant-garde. Drawing her inspiration
from the Haarlem shore, 18 k m west of Amsterdam, she
uses the ancient technique of mokume gane to recreate
the textures of the sea in gold, silver, and other metals.
Mokun16 was first developed in the late 17th century by Japanese armourers who used heat and pressure
to weld several layers of metal into exceptionally resilient swords for the samurai. This labor-intensive
process has only been used in the West since the 1970s.
The swirling patterns of mokum6 are ideally suited
to Birgit Laken's artistic vision. Stark and impressionistic, her jewelry echoes the 17th-century work of painter
Frans Hals, but has the timelessness and energy of the
ocean itself, as can be seen in the five illustrations. This
article is printed in both German and English.
LES
More than elegant, ravishing, and chic-Schlumberger.
A. F. Collins, Connoisseur, Vol. 220, No. 942, July
1990, pp. 54-55 and 105.
Jewelry design underwent a transformation in the 1940s
from the tailored, two-dimensional geometries of the
Art Deco period to the vigorous, three-dimensional
shapes derived from nature that characterized one aspect
of the "Retro" style. French designer Jean Schlumberger
was at the forefront of this evolution, and his vibrant,
distinctive jewels were trend setters among the international haute monde. In the mid-1950s, he was invited to
join Tiffany & Co. as one of their designers. This proved
to be a successful collaboration that continues to benefit
Tiffany to the present day. Although Schlumberger died
in 1987, Tiffany still produces jewels based on his
"elaborate, chimerical designs."
The article traces Schlumberger's career, touching
on the factors that influenced his creative genius and
mentioning many of his associates, particularly his
partner Nicolas Bongard. Colorful descriptions for several pieces of his fantastical jewelry are presented in the
EBM
text, making up for the paucity of illustrations.
Neillo [sic] jewellery in major renaissance. Bangkok
Gems &> Jewellery, Vol. 3, No. 12, July 1990, pp.
34-4 1.
Niello is a decorative technique for silver and, infrequently, gold, wherein the metal is engraved with a
design and the indented areas are filled with a black alloy
to produce a contrast with the polished metal. This
article discusses a recent revival of interest in Thaiproduced niello items and expresses the concern that
this craft is dying out. The text mentions the oldest
nielloware company in Thailand, Thai Nakon R.O.P,
and Simon Callai, an Italian artist who makes niello
jewelry for Rose Tattoo Jewelry in Thailand; articles that
200
describe their work immediately follow this one in the

issue. Historically, niellowork in Thailand is speculated
to have come from Persia, although "its origin has yet to
be found with definitive accuracy." The technique of
producing niello is described in equally vague terms,
with "skill, patience, and precision" as qualities to be
emphasized. Two examples of Thai nielloware illustrate
this article, and niello items produced by Thai Nakon
and by Callai are shown in the two articles that follow.
EBM
Schonheit ist eine Geschichte (Beauty is a story). G.
Staal, Art Aurea, No. 2, 1991, pp. 72-77.
Stories come in many forms and can be told through
many media, The "Beauty Is a Story" exhibition in
Belgium last spring showcased the work of 13 American
and European artists who use jewelry to tell their stories.
With such diverse materials as gold, pearls, gem
crystals, bits of fabric, and tea leaves, these jewelers take
us through their private landscapes. Sometimes obscure,
sometimes eloquent, this jewelry is deeply personal: a
meditation on the artists rather than the design.
Although i t is difficult to imagine that anyone but
the designer would wear some of these pieces, several of
which are illustrated, i t is fascinating to see the conventions of jewelry design being challenged. This article is
printed in both German and English.
LES
JEWELRY METALS
A comparison of recent analyses of British Late Bronze
Age goldwork with Irish parallels. D. R. Hook and
S. l? Needham, Jewellery Studies, Vol. 3, 1989, pp.
15-24.
In trying to determine whether Britain had a goldworking tradition separate from that of Ireland in the Late
Bronze Age, the authors compared stylistic details with
the chemical compositions of 3 1 British bracelets of the
period.
To determine the composition of these historic
artifacts, the authors used X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
testing because it is nondestructive. The XRF results
were confirmed by data from hydrostatic weighing. This
allowed the authors to correct for depletion gilding
caused by the years of burial to which the bracelets had
been subjected. Data for this correction were obtained by
electron microscopy of one bracelet that had broken in
antiquity. Calculated S.G.'s based on the corrected XRF
results seemed close to the measured S.G.'s, but, unfortunately, no statistical analysis is presented.
No systematic compositional differences were
found to correlate with the stylistic differences seen
between the two sets of bracelets. This article is of
interest particularly for its combination of two testing
methods.
Meredith E. Mercer
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

ESR spectrum of Australian synthetic Biron emerald.
D. R. Button and G. J. Troup, Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 17, No. 8, 1990, pp. 299-301.
This report, originally presented at the Australian Bicentennial Physics Conference in 1989, describes the
use of electron spin resonance [ESR) spectra in the
examination of various types of emeralds.
First described is the use of this method to determine the iron content of emeralds. Examination of a
"known hydrothern~alemerald" revealed an appreciable
iron content. Similar examination of a "New Chatham"
synthetic emerald revealed little iron present, while the
ESR spectra of a Biron synthetic emerald also showed
little iron present.
The ESR spectra can also be interpreted to provide
information on the perfection of an emerald's lattice.
Based on ESR spectra, the authors deduce that the Biron
synthetic emerald has an extremely well-ordered lattice
that approaches, if not reaches, laser quality.
RCK
The authors begin with a review of the gemological

properties already reported in the literature for Russian
flux-grown synthetic red spinel, and proceed to describe
their investigation of a 14.69-ct octahedral crystal of this
material.
The gemological properties of this flux-grown synthetic are virtually identical to those previously
reported. Magnification revealed a number of diagnostic
features, which are well illustrated with 10 photographs
in the report, anlong them: (1)etch trigons on octahedral
faces; (2)dissolution microlamellation along octahedral
edges and polycentric development of octahedral faces;
(3) clusters of small, colorless to light pink, spinel
octahedra attached to external crystal faces of the host
crystal; (4) irregular, rounded masses of opaque, darkcolored flux; (5) highly reflective flat triangular platin u m "flakes" (some partly resorbed]; (6)curving internal
fractures; and (7)a single flattened triangular inclusion
decorated by tufted dendrites.
The authors conclude that if no inclusions were
present this material could not be identified as synthetic
by conventional gen~ologicaltesting.
RCK
Imitation chicken-blood stone. G. Brown, S. M.B. Kelly,

C. Sutherland, and I? Callaway, Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 17, No, 8, 1990, pp. 311-313.
Followinga description of the appearance and gemological properdies of chicken-blood stone, a natural ornamental material from China, the authors describe a
rather convincing imitation that is being sold to unwary
tourists in China and Hong Kong.
A representative sample of this imitation is then
discussed. A polished seal blank, measuring 4 x 4 x
11.5 cm, was sawed in half, revealing a central core of
opaque, dark gray talc-like material and a 1-cm-thick
cap of a similar material at one end (where the seal would
be carved).All surfaces except the cap were coated with a
layer 2-5 m m thick of translucent, yellow-brown plastic
that contains red streaks of imitation cinnabar. The
streaky texture of the underlying talc-like material was
visible through the translucent coating, adding to the
realism of the deception.
The core material was cool to the touch with a soapy
feel, had a Mohs hardness of 1-2, a spot R.I. about 1.55,
and peeled readily to yield a fibrous peeling. The coating
was warm to the touch and had a waxy feel, a Mohs
hardness of 1-2, a spot R.I. about 1.57 to 1.58, bubble
inclusions, and peeled readily to yield a "clean" peeling.
The imitation cinnabar streaks fluoresced bright red to
long-wave U.V
The authors conclude that the imitation was produced by coating a steatite core with a layer of thermosetting epoxoid resin that had been included with
streaks of imitation cinnabar.
RCK
Anomalous behaviour of certain geuda coruiiduins during heat treatment. S. I. Perera, A. S. Pannila, and
R. N. Ediriweera, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 22,
No. 7, 1991, pp. 405-407,
Heat treatment of the "ottu" variety of geuda sapphire
(i.e., light blue or colorless with dark blue patches) has
resulted in the production of a nontransparent white
coating on much of the material. In a n attempt to
discover why some "ottu" sapphires heat well and others
do not, the authors performed chemical analyses on
some 50 samples of treated material. They found that
s t o n e s of good blue final color c o n t a i n Fe of
0.03%-0.15% and Ti below 0.03%, with few other trace
elements present. Material that clarified but resulted in
only pale color contained both Fe and Ti in the range
0.03%-0.15%, with a few additional trace elements
present. The "dead milk" coating of the third group of
s t o n e s proved t o h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e Fe
(0.15%-0.3%) and Ti (more than 0.3%], with Ti always
greater than Fe, as well as significantly more trace
elements - including vanadium -present. The chemical
composition of the blue areas in the treated stones of this
third group were found to be similar to that of stones in
the first and second groups, except for the presence of
vanadium. The authors conclude that the presence of
additional minor impurities, including vanadium, may
prevent the forn~ationof the Fe-Ti pairs necessary for the
production of blue color.
CMS
Russian flux-grown synthetic spinel. G. Brown, S. M. B.

Kelly, and R. Sneyd, Australian Genimologist, Vol.
17, No. 8, 1990, pp. 315-317.
Radioactive and radiation treated gemstones. C. E. Ashbaugh, 111, Radioactivity a n d Radiochemistry, Vol.
2, NO. 1, 1991, pp. 42-57.
TREATMENTS
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
201
This well-illustrated report appears in a journal whose

audience is primarily scientists and engineers who deal
with radioactivity and its measurement. Mr. Ashbaugh
first discusses naturally radioactive gems such as zircon
and ekanite and then describes gems that are irradiated
in the laboratory, e.g., tourmaline, diamond, and topaz.
This portion of the article is enhanced by an up-to-date
table on radiation-induced color alterations in various
gem materials and the color centers responsible for the
colors so produced.
The report also includes a discussion of the radioactive nuclides encountered in gems and the n~echanisms
by which they are produced. Finally, there is a small
treatise on how to calculate radiation exposure from
radioactive gemstones over various periods of time.
Well documented with 58 references, this report is
recommended for those interested in irradiated gemstones and radiation doses from various radionuclides.
R CK
Two types of historical traps: On "Diamond Softening"
and the "Antiquity of Emerald Oiling." K. Nassau,
Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 22, No. 7, 1991, pp.
399-403.
The author opens this article by pointing out that
readers of ancient gem "recipes" should watch out for
two "traps": either outright scoffing of seemingly outrageous statements, or ready acceptance of reasonablesounding statements. Dr. Nassau describes two examples of these problems. The process of "diamond softening" described by Pliny proved, through new translations of original texts and reference to older texts from
which Pliny derived information, to refer neither to
diamond nor to softening for the purpose of easier
cutting. The misunderstood process, in fact, referred to
the quench-craclding of quartz in preparation for dyeing.
The example provided for the second "trap" involves
emerald oiling. Pliny has often been cited to prove the
antiquity-and, thus, venerability-of this treatment.
However, closer examination and retranslation of Pliny's
original descriptions revealed that the oiling he described was that of either turquoise or poor-grade malachite. In fact, further investigation by the author
revealed no clear reference to emerald oiling before 1962,
when it appeared in Liddicoat's Handbook of Gem
Identification described as a "longstanding" process.
CMS
202
MISCELLANEOUS
Frederick H. Pough. J. Sinkankas, Lapidary Journal, Vol.
45, No. 4, 1991, pp. 18-24.
This article provides a detailed and interesting account
of Dr. Pough's career. Alter receiving his M.S. in geology
at the University of St. Louis in 1930, he subsequently
studied at the University of Heidelberg before receiving
his doctorate in mineralogy from Harvard University.
Dr. Pough then acquired a position at the American
Museum in New York, where he became Curator of
Mineralogy and Physical Geology in 1943. After retiring
from that position in 1952, he worked for a short time at
the Santa Barbara Natural History Museum before
leaving to become an independent consultant. During
his long career, he has authored and co-authored numerous articles and books on mineralogy, vulcanology,
altering the color of minerals with irradiation, and
pearls. In 1990, Dr. Pough was awarded the Carnegie
Mineralogical Award. Also included in the article is a
one-page compilation of highlights of the rare mineralogy books in Dr. Pough's collection. Four other fascinating articles concerning the life of Fred Pough are included in this issue. Now in his 80s, Fred Pough
continues to be actively involved in the gem and mineral
community.
RT
Old books, old maps, and the gem connoisseur. W J.

Sersen, JewelSiam, Vol. 1, No. 5, 1990, pp.
102-105,
For the gem connoisseur, Sersen provides a brief overview of in~portantliterature and where to find it. He
discusses three rare (late 19th to early 20th century]
books: Ivory and the Elephant by G. F. Kunz, Mani-Ma10
by S. M. Tagore, and Precious Stones and Gems by E. W.
Streeter. Also of value are early British colonial government publications that contain maps and photographs.
One such publication was the Burma Gazetteer, which
focused on different areas in Burma and sometimes
detailed that area's gem deposits and mining techniques.
Two editions of the Gazetteer detail the Ruby Mines
District and the Myitkyina District. British Ceylon also
published gem-related documents. As for how and where
to find these treasures, Sersen points to specific libraries,
sellers that specialize in rare and out-of-print books, and
book publishers.
RT
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
SUGGESTIONS
F
0
R
A U T H O R S
The following guidelines were prepared both to introduce you to
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INTRODUCTION
Gems a ) Gemology is an international publication of original contributions concerning the study of
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 1991
203
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Sample references are as follows:
Kammerling R.C., Koivula J.1, Kane
R.E. (1990) Gemstone enhancement and its detection in the
1980s. Gems o) Gemology, Vol.
26, No. 1, pp. 32-49.
Armstrong J.T. (1988)Accurate quantitative analysis of oxygen and
nitrogen with a Si/W multilayer
crystal. In D. E. Newbury, Ed.,
Microbeam Analysis- 1988, San
Francisco Press, San Francisco,
CAI pp. 301-304.
Liddicoat R.T. (19891 Handbook of
Gem Identification, 12th ed., 2nd
rev. printing. Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica,
CA.
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204
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Fall 199 1

Gems

Uploaded by

Gems

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I

New Sources Bring New Opportunities

Rubies and Fancy Sapphires from Vietnam

Gem Trade Lab Notes

Editor, Gem Trade Lab Notes

Editors, Gem News

he current issue of Gems o) Gemology chronicles further developments in

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

By Robert E. Kane, Shane F. blcClurel Robert C. Kammerling, Nguyen Dang Khoa,

Gem-quality rubies and pink to purple

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

n o w emerging Irom the

able potential for ruby and sapphire elsewhere in

Rubies and Si~ppl~ires

some of these other gem materials in Vietnam are

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 2. This map of Vietnam shows the major

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

deposit at Luc Yen. In November 1989! the B. H.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Seven deposits are currently being worlzed in the

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

row! small depressions ranging from 0.5 to 7.0 lzm2

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

last step,is to separate the corundum from the

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

ince, and 36 k m northwest of the district center of

Figure 6. The Khoan Thong mining operation

Figure 7. A t the height of

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 9. At Quy Chau, pits may be dug as

been found literally on the surface of the ground

Quy Chau. Because this deposit is relatively new,

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

stones that are larger on average than Luc Yen. The

Figure 10. For the most part at

Figure 11. A number of relatively well formed

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

TABLE 1. Gemological characteristics of rubies and

pink to purple sapphires from the Luc Yen and Quy

Moderate to highly saturated

%lay appear as a single bright (emission) line.

graphic localities, in addition to some microscopic

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

sapphires from the Quy Chau and Luc Yen areas of

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

interference optic figure in the polariscope for

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

radiation. Stones of lower saturations and darker

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

mounted on a GIA GEM spectroscope base unit.

dark blue color zones (figure 13) in most, though

Color Zoning.One of the most notable features of

Growth Features. The stones we examined contain

Figure 13. Distinct dark blue color zones were a

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

tures (figure 16). These are commonly referred to

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

Figure 15. With immersion in methylene iodide,

Figure 16. The swirl-like "treacle" or "roiled"

where this feature is present, the twinning runs in

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 17. Laminated twinning was observed i n

Figure 18. What appears at first glance i n this

cloud. Typically, the cloud appears to have a bluish

Rubies and Sapphires from Vietnam

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure ii0. Irregular, whitish clouds that are

Figure 21. Needle-like inclusions of what are

whitish particles, has a less distinct outline and

commonly seen in this Vietnamese material, as