World War I

World War One and Great War redirect here. For

other uses, see World War One (disambiguation) and
Great War (disambiguation).
WW1 and WWI redirect here. For the album by
White Whale, see WWI (album).

its invasion of East Prussia by the Germans. In November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the
Sinai. Italy joined the Allies in 1915 and Bulgaria joined
the Central Powers in the same year, while Romania
joined the Allies in 1916, and the United States joined
World War I (WWI or WW1), also known as the First the Allies in 1917.
World War or the Great War, was a global war centred The Russian government collapsed in March 1917, and
in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 a subsequent revolution in November brought the RusNovember 1918. More than 9 million combatants and 7 sians to terms with the Central Powers via the Treaty
million civilians died as a result of the war, a casualty rate of Brest Litovsk, which constituted a massive German
exacerbated by the belligerents technological and indus- victory until nullied by the 1918 victory of the Westtrial sophistication, and tactical stalemate. It was one of ern allies. After a stunning Spring 1918 German oenthe deadliest conicts in history, paving the way for ma- sive along the Western Front, the Allies rallied and drove
jor political changes, including revolutions in many of the back the Germans in a series of successful oensives. On
nations involved.[5]
4 November 1918, the Austro-Hungarian empire agreed
The war drew in all the worlds economic great pow- to an armistice, and Germany, which had its own trouers,[6] assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies ble with revolutionaries, agreed to an armistice on 11
(based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, November 1918, ending the war in victory for the Allies.
France and the Russian Empire) and the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Although Italy
had also been a member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary, it did not join the
Central Powers, as Austria-Hungary had taken the oensive against the terms of the alliance.[7] These alliances
were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered
the war: Italy, Japan and the United States joined the
Allies, and the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria the Central Powers. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of
the largest wars in history.[8][9] The trigger for war was
the 28 June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by
Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo. This set
o a diplomatic crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered
an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia,[10][11] and entangled international alliances formed over the previous
decades were invoked. Within weeks, the major powers
were at war and the conict soon spread around the world.

By the end of the war, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire
had ceased to exist. National borders were redrawn, with
several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the winners.
During the Paris Peace conference of 1919, the Big Four
(Britain, France, the United States and Italy) imposed
their terms in a series of treaties. The League of Nations
was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition
of such a conict. This, however, failed with weakened
states, economic depression, renewed European nationalism, and the German feeling of humiliation contributing
to the rise of Nazism. These conditions eventually contributed to World War II.

1 Etymology

From the time of its start until the approach of World War
II, it was called simply the World War or the Great War
On 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serand thereafter the First World War or World War I.[14][15]
[12][13]
bia and subsequently invaded.
As Russia mobilised
in support of Serbia, Germany invaded neutral Belgium In Canada, Macleans Magazine in October 1914 said,
[16]
and Luxembourg before moving towards France, lead- Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.
ing Britain to declare war on Germany. After the Ger- During the Interwar period (19181939), the war was
man march on Paris was halted, what became known as most often called the World War and the Great War in
the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with English-speaking countries.
a trench line that would change little until 1917. Mean- The term First World War was rst used in Septemwhile, on the Eastern Front, the Russian army was suc- ber 1914 by the German philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who
cessful against the Austro-Hungarians, but was stopped in claimed that there is no doubt that the course and char1

BACKGROUND

acter of the feared 'European War' ... will become the

rst world war in the full sense of the word.[17] After
the onset of the Second World War in 1939, the terms
World War I or the First World War became standard,
with British and Canadian historians favouring the First
World War, and Americans World War I.

Britain and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention.

While these agreements did not formally ally Britain with
France or Russia, they made British entry into any future conict involving France or Russia a possibility, and
the system of interlocking bilateral agreements became
known as the Triple Entente.[7]

2.2 Arms race

Background

Main article: Causes of World War I

0

500 KM
Baltic
Sea

UNITED KINGDOM

North Sea
RUSSIA

GERMAN EMPIRE
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Czechs

Poles
Slovaks

FRANCE

Ukrainians

AUSTRIA
HUNGARY

Italians
Slovenians

Mediterranean Sea
Mor

Black Sea

Military alliances
in 1914

SERBIA
BULGARIA

MONTENEGRO
ITALY

Morocco (Fr)

ROMANIA

Serbs

Da Sarajevo
lm
ati
a

SPAIN

Spa
nish

Romanians

Croats

PORTUGAL

Central Powers

ALBANIA

GREECE

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

Triple Entente
Slavic allies of Russia

occo

Algeria (Fr)

Tunisia (Fr)

minority groups in
AustriaHungary

Military alliances leading to World War I; Triple Entente in

green; Central Powers in brown

2.1

German industrial and economic power had grown

greatly after unication and the foundation of the Empire
in 1871 following the Franco-Prussian War. From the
mid-1890s on, the government of Wilhelm II used this
base to devote signicant economic resources for building up the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy),
established by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, in rivalry with
the British Royal Navy for world naval supremacy.[19] As
a result, each nation strove to out-build the other in capital
ships. With the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906,
the British Empire expanded on its signicant advantage
over its German rival.[19] The arms race between Britain
and Germany eventually extended to the rest of Europe,
with all the major powers devoting their industrial base
to producing the equipment and weapons necessary for a
pan-European conict.[20] Between 1908 and 1913, the
military spending of the European powers increased by
50%.[21]

Political and military alliances

In the 19th century, the major European powers had gone

to great lengths to maintain a balance of power throughout Europe, resulting in the existence of a complex network of political and military alliances throughout the
continent by 1900.[7] These had started in 1815, with
the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria.
Then, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von
Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserbund) between the monarchs of
Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany. This agreement
failed because Austria-Hungary and Russia could not
agree over Balkan policy, leaving Germany and Austria- Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Hungary in an alliance formed in 1879, called the Dual Austrian annexation in 1908.
Alliance. This was seen as a method of countering Russian inuence in the Balkans as the Ottoman Empire continued to weaken.[7] In 1882, this alliance was expanded
2.3 Conicts in the Balkans
to include Italy in what became the Triple Alliance.[18]
Bismarck had especially worked to hold Russia at Germanys side to avoid a two-front war with France and Russia. When Wilhelm II ascended to the throne as German
Emperor (Kaiser), Bismarck was compelled to retire and
his system of alliances was gradually de-emphasised. For
example, the Kaiser refused to renew the Reinsurance
Treaty with Russia in 1890. Two years later, the FrancoRussian Alliance was signed to counteract the force of the
Triple Alliance. In 1904, Britain signed a series of agreements with France, the Entente Cordiale, and in 1907,

Austria-Hungary precipitated the Bosnian crisis of 1908

1909 by ocially annexing the former Ottoman territory
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since
1878. This angered the Kingdom of Serbia and its patron,
the Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russian Empire.[22] Russian
political manoeuvring in the region destabilised peace accords, which were already fracturing in what was known
as the "powder keg of Europe".[22] In 1912 and 1913, the
First Balkan War was fought between the Balkan League
and the fracturing Ottoman Empire. The resulting Treaty

3.2

Escalation of violence in Bosnia and Herzegovina

of London further shrank the Ottoman Empire, creating

an independent Albanian State while enlarging the territorial holdings of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and
Greece. When Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on
16 June 1913, it lost most of Macedonia to Serbia and
Greece and Southern Dobruja to Romania in the 33-day
Second Balkan War, further destabilising the region.[23]

Prelude

Crowds on the streets in the aftermath of the Anti-Serb riots in

Sarajevo, 29 June 1914.

3.2 Escalation of violence in Bosnia and

Herzegovina
Main articles:
Schutzkorps

This picture is usually associated with the arrest of Gavrilo Princip, although some[24][25] believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.

3.1

Sarajevo assassination

Main article: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

On 28 June 1914, Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand
visited the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo. A group of six
assassins (Cvjetko Popovi, Gavrilo Princip, Muhamed
Mehmedbai, Nedeljko abrinovi, Trifko Grabe,
Vaso ubrilovi) from the nationalist group Mlada Bosna,
supplied by the Black Hand, had gathered on the street
where the Archdukes motorcade would pass. abrinovi
threw a grenade at the car, but missed. Some nearby
were injured by the blast, but Franz Ferdinands convoy
carried on. The other assassins failed to act as the cars
drove past them. About an hour later, when Franz Ferdinand was returning from a visit at the Sarajevo Hospital with those wounded in the assassination attempt, the
convoy took a wrong turn into a street where, by coincidence, Princip stood. With a pistol, Princip shot and
killed Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. The reaction among the people in Austria was mild, almost indierent. As historian Zbynk Zeman later wrote, the
event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever.
On Sunday and Monday (28 and 29 June), the crowds in
Vienna listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing
had happened.[26][27]

Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo and

However, in Sarajevo itself, Austrian authorities encouraged violence against the Serb residents, which resulted
in the Anti-Serb riots of Sarajevo, in which Croats and
Bosnian Muslims killed two ethnic Serbs and damaged
numerous Serb-owned buildings.[28][29] The events have
been described as having the characteristics of a pogrom.
Writer Ivo Andri referred to the violence as the Sarajevo frenzy of hate.[30] Violent actions against ethnic
Serbs were organized not only in Sarajevo, but also in
many other large Austro-Hungarian cities in modern-day
Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina.[31] Austro-Hungarian
authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and
extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to
2,200 of whom died in prison. 460 Serbs were sentenced to death and a predominantly Muslim special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried
out the persecution of Serbs.[32][33][34][35]

3.3 July Crisis

Main article: July Crisis
The assassination led to a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia,
France, and Britain called the July Crisis. Believing correctly that Serbian ocials (especially the ocers of the
Black Hand) were involved in the plot to murder the
Archduke, and wanting to nally end Serbian interference
in Bosnia,[36] Austria-Hungary delivered to Serbia on 23
July the July Ultimatum, a series of ten demands that were
made intentionally unacceptable, in an eort to provoke
a war with Serbia.[37] The next day, after the Council of
Ministers of Russia was held under the chairmanship of

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

the Tsar at Krasnoe Selo, Russia ordered general mobilization for Odessa, Kiev, Kazan and Moscow military districts and eets of the Baltic and the Black Sea.
They also asked for other regions to accelerate preparations for general mobilization. Serbia decreed general
mobilization on the 25th and that night, declared that
they accepted all the terms of the ultimatum, except the
one claiming that Austrian investigators visit the country. Following this, Austria broke o diplomatic relations
with Serbia, and the next day ordered a partial mobilization. Finally, on 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared
war on Serbia.

4.1 Opening hostilities

4.1.1 Confusion among the Central Powers
The strategy of the Central Powers suered from miscommunication. Germany had promised to support
Austria-Hungarys invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant diered. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but
had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian
leaders believed Germany would cover its northern
ank against Russia.[42] Germany, however, envisioned
Austria-Hungary directing most of its troops against Russia, while Germany dealt with France. This confusion
forced the Austro-Hungarian Army to divide its forces
between the Russian and Serbian fronts.

On 29 July, Russia in support of its Serb protg, unilaterally declared outside of the conciliation procedure
provided by the Franco-Russian military agreements
partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary. German
Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg was then allowed until the
31st for an appropriate response. On the 30th, Russia
ordered general mobilization against Germany. In re- 4.1.2 Serbian campaign
sponse, the following day, Germany declared a state of
danger of war. This also led to the general mobilization in Austria-Hungary on 4 August. Kaiser Wilhelm
II asked his cousin, Tsar Nicolas II, to suspend the Russian general mobilization. When he refused, Germany
issued an ultimatum demanding the arrest of its mobilization and commitment not to support Serbia. Another was
sent to France, asking her not to support Russia if it were
to come to the defence of Serbia. On 1 August, after the
Russian response, Germany mobilized and declared war
on Russia.
The German government issued demands that France remain neutral as they had to decide which deployment
plan to implement, it being dicult if not impossible to
change the deployment whilst it was underway. The modied German Schlieen Plan, Aufmarsch II West, would
deploy 80% of the army in the west, and Aufmarsch I Ost
and Aufmarsch II Ost would deploy 60% in the west and
40% in the east as this was the maximum that the East
Prussian railway infrastructure could carry. The French
did not respond but sent a mixed message by ordering
their troops to withdraw 10 km (6 mi) from the border
to avoid any incidents while ordering the mobilisation
of her reserves. Germany responded by mobilising its
own reserves and implementing Aufmarsch II West. Germany attacked Luxembourg on 2 August and on 3 August declared war on France.[38] On 4 August, after Belgium refused to permit German troops to cross its borders into France, Germany declared war on Belgium as
well.[38][39][40] Britain declared war on Germany at 19:00
UTC on 4 August 1914 (eective from 11 pm), following an unsatisfactory reply to the British ultimatum that
Belgium must be kept neutral.[41]

Progress of the war

Serbian Army Blriot XI Oluj, 1915.

Main article: Serbian Campaign (World War I)

Austria invaded and fought the Serbian army at the Battle
of Cer and Battle of Kolubara beginning on 12 August.
Over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were thrown
back with heavy losses, which marked the rst major Allied victories of the war and dashed Austro-Hungarian
hopes of a swift victory. As a result, Austria had to
keep sizable forces on the Serbian front, weakening its
eorts against Russia.[43] Serbias defeat of the AustroHungarian invasion of 1914 counts among the major upset victories of the last century.[44]

4.1.3 German forces in Belgium and France

Main article: Western Front (World War I)
At the outbreak of World War I, 80% of the German
army (consisting in the West of seven eld armies) was
deployed in the west according to the plan Aufmarsch II
West. However, they were then assigned the operation
of the retired deployment plan Aufmarsch I West, also
known as the Schlieen Plan. This would march German
armies through northern Belgium and into France, in an
attempt to encircle the French army and then breach the

4.1

Opening hostilities

German soldiers in a railway goods wagon on the way to the front

in 1914. Early in the war, all sides expected the conict to be a
short one.
British hospital at the Western Front.

'second defensive area' of the fortresses of Verdun and

Paris and the Marne river.[10]

army, led by general Paul von Hindenburg defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First
Battle of Tannenberg (17 August 2 September). While
the Russian invasion failed, it caused the diversion of German troops to the east, allowing the tactical Allied victory
at the First Battle of the Marne. This meant that Germany failed to achieve its objective of avoiding a long
two-front war. However, the German army had fought
its way into a good defensive position inside France and
eectively halved Frances supply of coal. It had also
killed or permanently crippled 230,000 more French and
British troops than it itself had lost. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions
cost Germany the chance of a more decisive outcome.[46]

Aufmarsch I West was one of four deployment plans available to the German General Sta in 1914, each plan
favouring but not specifying a certain operation that was
well-known to the ocers expected to carry it out under
their own initiative with minimal oversight. Aufmarsch
I West, designed for a one-front war with France, had
been retired once it became clear that it was irrelevant to
the wars Germany could expect to face; both Russia and
Britain were expected to help France and there was no
possibility of Italian nor Austro-Hungarian troops being
available for operations against France. But despite its unsuitability, and the availability of more sensible and decisive options, it retained a certain allure due to its oensive 4.1.4 Asia and the Pacic
nature and the pessimism of pre-war thinking, which expected oensive operations to be short-lived, costly in casualties and unlikely to be decisive. Accordingly, the Aufmarsch II West deployment was changed for the oensive
of 1914, despite its unrealistic goals and the insucient
forces Germany had available for decisive success.[45]

The plan called for the right ank of the German advance
to bypass the French armies concentrated on the FrancoGerman border, defeat the French forces closer to Luxembourg and Belgium and move south to Paris. Initially
the Germans were successful, particularly in the Battle
of the Frontiers (1424 August). By 12 September, the
French, with assistance from the British Expeditionary
Force (BEF), halted the German advance east of Paris
at the First Battle of the Marne (512 September), and Military recruitment in Melbourne, Australia, 1914.
pushed the German forces back some 50 km (31 mi).
The French oensive into southern Alsace, launched on Main article: Asian and Pacic theatre of World War I
20 August with the Battle of Mulhouse, had limited success.
New Zealand occupied German Samoa (later WestIn the east, the Russians invaded with two armies. In re- ern Samoa) on 30 August 1914. On 11 September,
sponse, Germany rapidly moved the 8th Field Army from the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force
its previous role as reserve for the invasion of France, landed on the island of Neu Pommern (later New Britain),
to East Prussia by rail across the German Empire. This which formed part of German New Guinea. On 28 Oc-

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

tober, the German cruiser SMS Emden sank the Russian 4.2 Western Front
cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang. Japan seized
Germanys Micronesian colonies and, after the Siege of Main article: Western Front (World War I)
Tsingtao, the German coaling port of Qingdao on the
Chinese Shandong peninsula. As Vienna refused to withdraw the Austro-Hungarian cruiser SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war not only on Ger- 4.2.1 Trench warfare begins
many, but also on Austria-Hungary; the ship participated
in the defense of Tsingtao where it was sunk in November 1914.[47] Within a few months, the Allied forces
had seized all the German territories in the Pacic; only
isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New
Guinea remained.[48][49]
4.1.5

African campaigns

Main article: African theatre of World War I

Some of the rst clashes of the war involved British,
French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6
7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorate of Togoland and Kamerun. On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South
Africa; sporadic and erce ghting continued for the rest
of the war. The German colonial forces in German East
Africa, led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, fought a
guerrilla warfare campaign during World War I and only
surrendered two weeks after the armistice took eect in
Europe.[50]

Royal Irish Ries in a communications trench, rst day on the

Somme, 1916.

Military tactics before World War I had failed to keep

pace with advances in technology and had become obsolete. These advances had allowed the creation of
strong defensive systems, which out-of-date military tactics could not break through for most of the war. Barbed
wire was a signicant hindrance to massed infantry advances, while artillery, vastly more lethal than in the
1870s, coupled with machine guns, made crossing open
4.1.6 Indian support for the Allies
ground extremely dicult.[54] Commanders on both sides
Further information: Third Anglo-Afghan War and failed to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, however, techHinduGerman Conspiracy
nology began to produce new oensive weapons, such as
gas warfare and the tank.[55]
Contrary to British fears of a revolt in India, the outbreak
of the war saw an unprecedented outpouring of loyalty Just after the First Battle of the Marne (512 September
and goodwill towards Britain.[51][52] Indian political lead- 1914), Entente and German forces repeatedly attempted
ers from the Indian National Congress and other groups manoeuvring to the north to outank each other: this sewere eager to support the British war eort, since they ries of manoeuvres became known as the "Race to the
believed that strong support for the war eort would fur- Sea". When these outanking eorts failed, Britain and
ther the cause of Indian Home Rule. The Indian Army France soon found themselves facing an uninterrupted
German forces from Lorraine to Belin fact outnumbered the British Army at the beginning of line of entrenched
[10]
Britain
and France sought to take the
giums
coast.
the war; about 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers
oensive,
while
Germany
defended the occupied terriserved in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while the
tories.
Consequently,
German
trenches were much betcentral government and the princely states sent large supter
constructed
than
those
of
their
enemy; Anglo-French
plies of food, money, and ammunition. In all, 140,000
trenches
were
only
intended
to
be
temporary before
men served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000
their
forces
broke
through
the
German
defences.[56]
in the Middle East. Casualties of Indian soldiers totalled 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded during World Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientic and
War I.[53] The suering engendered by the war, as well technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second
as the failure of the British government to grant self- Battle of Ypres, the Germans (violating the Hague Congovernment to India after the end of hostilities, bred dis- vention) used chlorine gas for the rst time on the Westillusionment and fuelled the campaign for full indepen- ern Front. Several types of gas soon became widely
dence that would be led by Mohandas K. Gandhi and oth- used by both sides, and though it never proved a deers.
cisive, battle-winning weapon, poison gas became one

4.3

Naval war

of the most-feared and best-remembered horrors of the

war.[57][58] Tanks were rst used in combat by the British
during the Battle of FlersCourcelette (part of the Battle
of the Somme) on 15 September 1916, with only partial
success. However, their eectiveness would grow as the
war progressed; the Germans employed only small numbers of their own design, supplemented by captured Allied tanks.

7
the sides. Strategically, while the Germans only mounted
one major oensive, the Allies made several attempts to
break through the German lines.
In February 1916 the Germans attacked the French
defensive positions at Verdun. Lasting until December 1916, the battle saw initial German gains, before
French counter-attacks returned matters to near their
starting point. Casualties were greater for the French,
but the Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere
from 700,000[59] to 975,000[60] casualties suered between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of
French determination and self-sacrice.[61]
The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French oensive
that ran from July to November 1916. The opening of this
oensive (1 July 1916) saw the British Army endure the
bloodiest day in its history, suering 57,470 casualties,
including 19,240 dead, on the rst day alone. The entire
Somme oensive cost the British Army some 420,000 casualties. The French suered another estimated 200,000
casualties and the Germans an estimated 500,000.[62]

French 87th regiment near Verdun, 1916.

4.2.2

Continuation of trench warfare

Protracted action at Verdun throughout 1916,[63] combined with the bloodletting at the Somme, brought the
exhausted French army to the brink of collapse. Futile attempts at frontal assault came at a high price for both the
British and the French and led to the widespread French
Army Mutinies, after the failure of the costly Nivelle Offensive of AprilMay 1917.[64] The concurrent British
Battle of Arras was more limited in scope, and more successful, although ultimately of little strategic value.[65][66]
A smaller part of the Arras oensive, the capture of Vimy
Ridge by the Canadian Corps, became highly signicant
to that country: the idea that Canadas national identity
was born out of the battle is an opinion widely held in
military and general histories of Canada.[67][68]
The last large-scale oensive of this period was a British
attack (with French support) at Passchendaele (July
November 1917). This oensive opened with great
promise for the Allies, before bogging down in the October mud. Casualties, though disputed, were roughly
equal, at some 200,000400,000 per side.
These years of trench warfare in the West saw no major
exchanges of territory and, as a result, are often thought
of as static and unchanging. However, throughout this
period, British, French, and German tactics constantly
evolved to meet new battleeld challenges.

4.3 Naval war

Canadian troops advancing with a British Mark II tank at the
Battle of Vimy Ridge, 1917.

Neither side proved able to deliver a decisive blow for the

next two years. Throughout 191517, the British Empire
and France suered more casualties than Germany, because of both the strategic and tactical stances chosen by

Main article: Naval warfare of World War I

At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers
scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The
British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down,
though not without some embarrassment from its inabil-

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

Battleships of the Hochseeotte, 1917.

ity to protect Allied shipping. For example, the German detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the EastAsia squadron stationed at Qingdao, seized or destroyed
15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser
and a French destroyer. However, most of the German
East-Asia squadronconsisting of the armoured cruisers
Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, light cruisers Nrnberg and
Leipzig and two transport shipsdid not have orders to
raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when
it met British warships. The German otilla and Dresden
sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel, but
was almost destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands
in December 1914, with only Dresden and a few auxiliaries escaping, but at the Battle of Ms a Tierra these
too were destroyed or interned.[69]

U-155 exhibited near Tower Bridge in London, after the 1918

Armistice.

out warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival.[74][75] The United States launched a
protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement.
After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania
in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them
beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules", which demanded warning and placing crews in a place of safety
(a standard that lifeboats did not meet).[76] Finally, in
early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted
submarine warfare, realising that the Americans would
eventually enter the war.[74][77] Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transSoon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a port a large army overseas, but could maintain only ve
naval blockade of Germany. The strategy proved eec- long-range U-boats on station, to limited eect.[74]
tive, cutting o vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated accepted international law The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships
codied by several international agreements of the past began travelling in convoys, escorted by destroyers. This
two centuries.[70] Britain mined international waters to tactic made it dicult for U-boats to nd targets, which
prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, signicantly lessened losses; after the hydrophone and
causing danger to even neutral ships.[71] Since there was depth charges were introduced, accompanying destroyers
limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a sim- could attack a submerged submarine with some hope of
success. Convoys slowed the ow of supplies, since ships
ilar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.[72]
had to wait as convoys were assembled. The solution
The 1916 Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, to the delays was an extensive program of building new
or Battle of the Skagerrak") developed into the largest freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines
naval battle of the war, the only full-scale clash of battle- and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys.[78] The
ships during the war, and one of the largest in history. It U-boats had sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at a
took place on 31 May 1 June 1916, in the North Sea cost of 199 submarines.[79] World War I also saw the
o Jutland. The Kaiserliche Marines High Seas Fleet, rst use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furicommanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, squared ous launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against
o against the Royal Navys Grand Fleet, led by Ad- the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as
miral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement was a stand blimps for antisubmarine patrol.[80]
o, as the Germans, outmanoeuvred by the larger British
eet, managed to escape and inicted more damage to the
British eet than they received. Strategically, however, 4.4 Southern theatres
the British asserted their control of the sea, and the bulk
of the German surface eet remained conned to port for 4.4.1 War in the Balkans
the duration of the war.[73]
German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines be- Main articles: Balkans Campaign (World War I),
tween North America and Britain.[74] The nature of Bulgaria during World War I, Serbian Campaign (World
submarine warfare meant that attacks often came with- War I) and Macedonian Front

4.4

Southern theatres

Faced with Russia, Austria-Hungary could spare only of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the rst ten months of
1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves
to ght Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats,
however, scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join
the attack on Serbia on 6 September 1915 in Pless.[82]
The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia, Croatia and
Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary, invading
Serbia as well as ghting Russia and Italy. Montenegro
allied itself with Serbia.[83]

Bulgarian soldiers in a trench, preparing to re against an incoming airplane.

Austro-Hungarian troops executing captured Serbians, 1917.

Serbia lost about 850,000 people during the war, a quarter of
its pre-war population.[81]

Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the

Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000
troops. The Serbian army, ghting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania. The
Serbs suered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo. Montenegro covered the Serbian retreat towards the Adriatic
coast in the Battle of Mojkovac in 67 January 1916,
but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro.
The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated by ship to
Greece.[84] After conquest, Serbia was divided between
Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria.
In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica
in Greece, to oer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against the Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the
pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before
the Allied expeditionary force arrived.[85] The friction between the King of Greece and the Allies continued to accumulate with the National Schism, which eectively divided Greece between regions still loyal to the king and
the new provisional government of Venizelos in Salonica.
After intense negotiations and an armed confrontation in
Athens between Allied and royalist forces (an incident
known as Noemvriana), the King of Greece resigned and
his second son Alexander took his place; Greece then ofcially joined the war on the side of the Allies.
In the beginning, the Macedonian Front was mostly static.
French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir Oensive, which brought stabilization of the front.[86]
Serbian and French troops nally made a breakthrough in
September 1918, after most of the German and AustroHungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians
suered their only defeat of the war at the Battle of
Dobro Pole. Bulgaria capitulated two weeks later, on
29 September 1918.[87] The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold the line, but these
forces were far too weak to reestablish a front.[88]

The disappearance of the Macedonian Front meant that

the road to Budapest and Vienna was now opened to Allied forces. Hindenburg and Ludendor concluded that
Refugee transport from Serbia in Leibnitz, Styria, 1914.
the strategic and operational balance had now shifted
decidedly against the Central Powers and, a day after
one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suering
the Bulgarian collapse, insisted on an immediate peace
heavy losses, the Austrians briey occupied the Serbian
settlement.[89]
capital, Belgrade. A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle

10
4.4.2

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

Ottoman Empire

Main article: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I

The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in the

British artillery battery on Mount Scopus in the Battle of

Jerusalem, 1917.

Mustafa Kemal Atatrk at the trenches of Gallipoli during the

Gallipoli Campaign.
Russian forest trench at the 19141915 Battle of Sarikamish.

As the conict progressed, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the European powers preoccupation with the
war and conducted large-scale ethnic cleansing of the indigenous Greek, Assyrian and Armenian Christian populations, known as the Greek genocide, Assyrian Genocide
and Armenian genocide.[91][92][93]
The British and French opened overseas fronts with the
Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamian campaigns (1914).
In Gallipoli, the Ottoman Empire successfully repelled
the British, French, and Australian and New Zealand
Army Corps (ANZACs). In Mesopotamia, by contrast,
after the disastrous Siege of Kut (191516), British Imperial forces reorganised and captured Baghdad in March
1917. The British were aided in Mesopotamia by local
Arab and Assyrian tribesmen, while the Ottomans employed local Kurdish and Turcoman tribes.[94]
Further to the west, the Suez Canal was defended from
Ottoman attacks in 1915 and 1916; in August, a German and Ottoman force was defeated at the Battle of Romani by the ANZAC Mounted Division and the 52nd
(Lowland) Infantry Division. Following this victory, a
Egyptian Expeditionary Force advanced across the Sinai
Peninsula, pushing Ottoman forces back in the Battle of
Ottoman 3rd Army troopers with winter gear.
Magdhaba in December and the Battle of Rafa on the borEgyptian Sinai and Ottoman Palestine in
war with the secret OttomanGerman Alliance signed der between the
[95]
January
1917.
[90]
in August 1914.
The Ottomans threatened Russias
Caucasian territories and Britains communications with Russian armies generally saw success in the Caucasus.
India via the Suez Canal.
Enver Pasha, supreme commander of the Ottoman armed

4.4

Southern theatres

11
ever, in March 1917 (February in the pre-revolutionary
Russian calendar), the Czar abdicated in the course of
the February Revolution and the Russian Caucasus Army
began to fall apart.
Instigated by the Arab bureau of the British Foreign Ofce, the Arab Revolt started June 1916 at the Battle of
Mecca, led by Sherif Hussein of Mecca, and ended with
the Ottoman surrender of Damascus. Fakhri Pasha, the
Ottoman commander of Medina, resisted for more than
two and half years during the Siege of Medina before
surrendering.[100]
Along the border of Italian Libya and British Egypt, the
Senussi tribe, incited and armed by the Turks, waged
a small-scale guerrilla war against Allied troops. The
British were forced to dispatch 12,000 troops to oppose
them in the Senussi Campaign. Their rebellion was nally
crushed in mid-1916.[101]
Total Allied casualties on the Ottoman fronts amounted
650,000 men. Total Ottoman casualties were 725,000
(325,000 dead and 400,000 wounded).[102]

Xmas card from British Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force with

list of engagements, Basra, 1917

4.4.3 Italian participation

forces, was ambitious and dreamed of re-conquering central Asia and areas that had been lost to Russia previously.
He was, however, a poor commander.[96] He launched an
oensive against the Russians in the Caucasus in December 1914 with 100,000 troops; insisting on a frontal attack
against mountainous Russian positions in winter. He lost
86% of his force at the Battle of Sarikamish.[97]
In December 1914 the Ottoman Empire, with German
support, invaded Persia (modern Iran) in an eort to cut
o British and Russian access to petroleum reservoirs
around Baku near the Caspian Sea.[98] Persia, ostensibly neutral, had long been under the spheres of British
and Russian inuence. The Ottomans and Germans were
aided by Kurdish and Azeri forces, together with a large
number of major Iranian tribes, such as the Qashqai,
Tangistanis, Luristanis, and Khamseh, while the Russians
and British had the support of Assyrian and Armenian
forces. The Persian Campaign was to last until 1918 and
end in failure for the Ottomans and their allies, however
the Russian withdrawal from the war in 1917 led to Armenian and Assyrian forces, who had hitherto inicted
a series of defeats upon the forces of the Ottomans and
their allies, being cut o from supply lines, outnumbered,
outgunned and isolated, forcing them to ght and ee toAustro-Hungarian troops, Tyrol.
wards British lines in northern Mesopotamia.[99]
General Yudenich, the Russian commander from 1915
to 1916, drove the Turks out of most of the southern
Caucasus with a string of victories.[97] In 1917, Russian
Grand Duke Nicholas assumed command of the Caucasus front. Nicholas planned a railway from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories, so that fresh supplies
could be brought up for a new oensive in 1917. How-

Main articles: Italian Campaign (World War I) and

Albania during World War I
Further information: Battles of the Isonzo
Italy had been allied with the German and AustroHungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Al-

12

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

a year, despite several Italian oensives, centred on the
Banjice and Karst Plateau east of Gorizia.

Depiction of the Battle of Doberd, fought in August 1916 between the Italian and the Austro-Hungarian armies.

The Central Powers launched a crushing oensive on

26 October 1917, spearheaded by the Germans. They
achieved a victory at Caporetto (Kobarid). The Italian
Army was routed and retreated more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) to reorganise, stabilising the front at the
Piave River. Since the Italian Army had suered heavy
losses in the Battle of Caporetto, the Italian Government
called to arms the so-called '99 Boys (Ragazzi del '99):
that is, all males born on 1899 and after, and so were 18
years old or older. In 1918, the Austro-Hungarians failed
to break through in a series of battles on the Piave and
were nally decisively defeated in the Battle of Vittorio
Veneto in October of that year. On 1 November, the Italian Navy destroyed much of the Austro-Hungarian eet
stationed in Pula, preventing it from being handed over
to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. On 3
November, the Italians occupied Trieste from the sea. On
the same day, the Armistice of Villa Giusti was signed.
By mid-November 1918, the Italian military occupied the
entire former Austrian Littoral and had seized control
of the portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to
Italy by the London Pact.[107] By the end of hostilities in
November 1918,[108] In 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italys Governor of Dalmatia.[108] AustriaHungary surrendered in early November 1918.[109][110]

liance. However, the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Trentino, the Austrian Littoral, Fiume
(Rijeka) and Dalmatia. Rome had a secret 1902 pact
with France, eectively nullifying its alliance.[103] At the
start of hostilities, Italy refused to commit troops, arguing
that the Triple Alliance was defensive and that AustriaHungary was an aggressor. The Austro-Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality,
oering the French colony of Tunisia in return. The Allies made a counter-oer in which Italy would receive
the Southern Tyrol, Austrian Littoral and territory on
the Dalmatian coast after the defeat of Austria-Hungary.
This was formalised by the Treaty of London. Further 4.4.4 Romanian participation
encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey in April
1915, Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Main article: Romania during World War I
Austria-Hungary on 23 May. Fifteen months later, Italy Romania had been allied with the Central Powers since
declared war on Germany.[104]
The Italians had numerical superiority but this advantage
was lost, not only because of the dicult terrain in which
ghting took place, but also because of the strategies
and tactics employed.[105] Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna,
a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of
breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and
threatening Vienna.
On the Trentino front, the Austro-Hungarians took advantage of the mountainous terrain, which favoured
the defender. After an initial strategic retreat, the
front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian
Kaiserschtzen and Standschtzen engaged Italian Alpini
in bitter hand-to-hand combat throughout the summer.
The Austro-Hungarians counterattacked in the Altopiano
of Asiago, towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of
1916 (Strafexpedition), but made little progress.[106]
Beginning in 1915, the Italians under Cadorna mounted
eleven oensives on the Isonzo front along the Isonzo
(Soa) River, northeast of Trieste. All eleven oensives
were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians, who held the
higher ground. In the summer of 1916, after the Battle of
Doberd, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia. After this minor victory, the front remained static for over

Marshal Jore inspecting Romanian troops, 1916.

1882. When the war began, however, it declared its neutrality, arguing that because Austria-Hungary had itself
declared war on Serbia, Romania was under no obligation
to join the war. When the Entente Powers promised Romania large territories of eastern Hungary (Transylvania
and Banat), which had a large Romanian population, in
exchange for Romanias declaring war on the Central
Powers, the Romanian government renounced its neutrality and, on 27 August 1916, the Romanian Army
launched an attack against Austria-Hungary, with limited Russian support. The Romanian oensive was
initially successful, pushing back the Austro-Hungarian
troops in Transylvania, but a counterattack by the forces

4.5

Eastern Front

13

of the Central Powers drove back the Russo-Romanian

forces.[111] As a result of the Battle of Bucharest, the Central Powers occupied Bucharest on 6 December 1916.
Fighting in Moldova continued in 1917, resulting in a
costly stalemate for the Central Powers.[112][113] Russian
withdrawal from the war in late 1917 as a result of the
October Revolution meant that Romania was forced to
sign an armistice with the Central Powers on 9 December 1917.

Romanian troops during the Battle of Mreti, 1917.

In January 1918, Romanian forces established control

over Bessarabia as the Russian Army abandoned the
province. Although a treaty was signed by the Romanian
and the Bolshevik Russian governments following talks Russian troops in a trench, awaiting a German attack, 1917.
from 59 March 1918 on the withdrawal of Romanian
forces from Bessarabia within two months, on 27 March
1918 Romania attached Bessarabia to its territory, for- 4.5.1 Initial actions
mally based on a resolution passed by the local assembly
While the Western Front had reached stalemate, the war
of that territory on its unication with Romania.[114]
continued in East Europe.[118] Initial Russian plans called
Romania ocially made peace with the Central Powers for simultaneous invasions of Austrian Galicia and East
by signing the Treaty of Bucharest on 7 May 1918. Un- Prussia. Although Russias initial advance into Galicia
der that treaty, Romania was obliged to end the war with was largely successful, it was driven back from East Prusthe Central Powers and make small territorial conces- sia by Hindenburg and Ludendor at the Battle of Tansions to Austria-Hungary, ceding control of some passes nenberg and the Masurian Lakes in August and Septemin the Carpathian Mountains, and to grant oil concessions ber 1914.[119][120] Russias less developed industrial base
to Germany. In exchange, the Central Powers recog- and ineective military leadership was instrumental in
nised the sovereignty of Romania over Bessarabia. The the events that unfolded. By the spring of 1915, the
treaty was renounced in October 1918 by the Alexandru Russians had retreated to Galicia, and, in May, the
Marghiloman government, and Romania nominally re- Central Powers achieved a remarkable breakthrough on
entered the war on 10 November 1918. The next day, Polands southern frontiers.[121] On 5 August, they capthe Treaty of Bucharest was nullied by the terms of the tured Warsaw and forced the Russians to withdraw from
Armistice of Compigne.[115][116] Total Romanian deaths Poland.
from 1914 to 1918, military and civilian, within contemporary borders, were estimated at 748,000.[117]
4.5.2 Russian Revolution
Main article: Russian Revolution

4.5

Eastern Front

Main article: Eastern Front (World War I)

Despite the success of the June 1916 Brusilov Oensive

in eastern Galicia,[122] dissatisfaction with the Russian
governments conduct of the war grew. The oensives
success was undermined by the reluctance of other gen-

14
erals to commit their forces to support the victory. Allied
and Russian forces were revived only temporarily by Romanias entry into the war on 27 August. German forces
came to the aid of embattled Austro-Hungarian units in
Transylvania while a German-Bulgarian force attacked
from the south, and Bucharest fell to the Central Powers on 6 December. Meanwhile, unrest grew in Russia,
as the Tsar remained at the front. Empress Alexandras
increasingly incompetent rule drew protests and resulted
in the murder of her favourite, Rasputin, at the end of
1916.

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

from exploiting Russian resources, and to a lesser extent, to support the Whites (as opposed to the Reds)
in the Russian Civil War.[124] Allied troops landed in
Arkhangelsk and in Vladivostok as part of the North Russia Intervention.

4.5.3 Czechoslovak Legion

In March 1917, demonstrations in Petrograd culminated

in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the appointment
of a weak Provisional Government, which shared power
with the Petrograd Soviet socialists. This arrangement led
to confusion and chaos both at the front and at home. The
army became increasingly ineective.[121]

Czechoslovak Legion, Vladivostok, 1918.

Main article: Czechoslovak Legion

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918.

1. Count Ottokar von Czernin
2. Richard von Khlmann
3. Vasil Radoslavov

Following the Tsars abdication, Vladimir Lenin was allowed passage by train back into Russia from Switzerland,
and nanced by Germany. Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led to a rise in the
popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Lenin, which
demanded an immediate end to the war. The Revolution
of November was followed in December by an armistice
and negotiations with Germany. At rst, the Bolsheviks
refused the German terms, but when German troops began marching across the Ukraine unopposed, the new
government acceded to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3
March 1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic provinces, parts of Poland and
Ukraine to the Central Powers.[123] Despite this enormous apparent German success, the manpower required
for German occupation of former Russian territory may
have contributed to the failure of the Spring Oensive
and secured relatively little food or other materiel for the
Central Powers war eort.

The Czechoslovak Legion fought with the Entente;

their goal was to win support for the independence of
Czechoslovakia. The Legion in Russia was established in
1917, in December 1917 in France (including volunteers
from America) and in April 1918 in Italy. Czechoslovak
Legion troops defeated the Austro-Hungarian army at the
Ukrainian village Zborov in July 1917. After this success, the number of Czechoslovak legionaries increased,
as well as Czechoslovak military power. In the Battle of
Bakhmach, the Legion defeated the Germans and forced
them to make a truce.
In Russia, they were heavily involved in the Russian Civil
War ghting the Bolsheviks, at times controlling most
of the Trans-Siberian railway and conquering all major
cities in Siberia. The presence of the Czechoslovak Legion near the Yekaterinburg appears to have been one of
the motivating forces for the Bolshevik execution of the
Tsar and his family in July 1918. Legionaries came less
than a week afterwards and captured the city. Because
Russias European ports were not safe, the corps was to
be evacuated by a long detour via the port of Vladivostok. The last transport was the American ship Heron in
September 1920.

4.6 Central Powers peace overtures

In December 1916, after ten brutal months of the Battle

of Verdun and a successful oensive against Romania,
the Germans attempted to negotiate a peace with the Allies. Soon after, the US president, Woodrow Wilson, atWith the adoption of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the tempted to intervene as a peacemaker, asking in a note
Entente no longer existed. The Allied powers led a for both sides to state their demands. Lloyd Georges
small-scale invasion of Russia, partly to stop Germany War Cabinet considered the German oer to be a ploy

4.7

19171918

15

German lm crew recording the action.

"They shall not pass", a phrase typically associated with the defense of Verdun.

to create divisions amongst the Allies. After initial outrage and much deliberation, they took Wilsons note as a
separate eort, signalling that the United States was on
the verge of entering the war against Germany following the submarine outrages. While the Allies debated
a response to Wilsons oer, the Germans chose to rebu it in favour of a direct exchange of views. Learning of the German response, the Allied governments were
free to make clear demands in their response of 14 January. They sought restoration of damages, the evacuation of occupied territories, reparations for France, Russia and Romania, and a recognition of the principle of nationalities. This included the liberation of Italians, Slavs,
Romanians, Czecho-Slovaks, and the creation of a free
and united Poland. On the question of security, the Allies sought guarantees that would prevent or limit future
wars, complete with sanctions, as a condition of any peace
settlement.[125] The negotiations failed and the Entente
powers rejected the German oer, because Germany did
not state any specic proposals. To Wilson, the Entente
powers stated that they would not start peace negotiations
until the Central powers evacuated all occupied Allied
territories and provided indemnities for all damage which
had been done.[126]

4.7
4.7.1

States into the conict, but calculated that British shipping losses would be so high that they would be forced
to sue for peace after 5 to 6 months, before American
intervention could make an impact. In reality, tonnage
sunk rose above 500,000 tons per month from February
to July. It peaked at 860,000 tons in April. After July,
the newly re-introduced convoy system became extremely
eective in reducing the U-boat threat. Britain was safe
from starvation, while German industrial output fell and
the United States troops joined the war in large numbers
far earlier than Germany had anticipated.

19171918
Developments in 1917

Events of 1917 proved decisive in ending the war, although their eects were not fully felt until 1918.
The British naval blockade began to have a serious impact on Germany. In response, in February 1917, the
German General Sta convinced Chancellor Theobald
von Bethmann-Hollweg to declare unrestricted submarine warfare, with the goal of starving Britain out of the
war. German planners estimated that unrestricted submarine warfare would cost Britain a monthly shipping
loss of 600,000 tons. The General Sta acknowledged
that the policy would almost certainly bring the United

Haut-Rhin, France, 1917.

On 3 May 1917, during the Nivelle Oensive, the French

2nd Colonial Division, veterans of the Battle of Verdun,
refused orders, arriving drunk and without their weapons.
Their ocers lacked the means to punish an entire division, and harsh measures were not immediately imple-

16

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

mented. The French Army Mutinies eventually spread to

a further 54 French divisions and saw 20,000 men desert.
However, appeals to patriotism and duty, as well as mass
arrests and trials, encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their trenches, although the French soldiers refused
to participate in further oensive action.[127] Robert Nivelle was removed from command by 15 May, replaced
by General Philippe Ptain, who suspended bloody largescale attacks.
The victory of Austria-Hungary and Germany at the Battle of Caporetto led the Allies to convene the Rapallo
Conference at which they formed the Supreme War
Council to coordinate planning. Previously, British and
Ottoman troops in Mesopotamia.
French armies had operated under separate commands.
In December, the Central Powers signed an armistice
with Russia. This released large numbers of German
troops for use in the west. With German reinforcements
and new American troops pouring in, the outcome was
to be decided on the Western Front. The Central Powers
knew that they could not win a protracted war, but they
held high hopes for success based on a nal quick oensive. Furthermore, the leaders of the Central Powers and
the Allies became increasingly fearful of social unrest and
revolution in Europe. Thus, both sides urgently sought a
decisive victory.[128]

advance of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, which had

begun in August 1916 at the Battle of Romani.[131][132]
At the end of October, the Sinai and Palestine Campaign resumed, when General Edmund Allenby's XXth
Corps, XXI Corps and Desert Mounted Corps won the
Battle of Beersheba.[133] Two Ottoman armies were defeated a few weeks later at the Battle of Mughar Ridge
and, early in December, Jerusalem was captured following another Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Jerusalem
(1917).[134][135][136] About this time, Friedrich Freiherr
Kress von Kressenstein was relieved of his duties as the
Eighth Armys commander, replaced by Djevad Pasha,
and a few months later the commander of the Ottoman
Army in Palestine, Erich von Falkenhayn, was replaced
by Otto Liman von Sanders.[137][138]

In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly attempted

separate peace negotiations with Clemenceau, through
his wifes brother Sixtus in Belgium as an intermediary, without the knowledge of Germany. Italy opposed
the proposals. When the negotiations failed, his attempt was revealed to Germany resulting in a diplomatic Early in 1918, the front line was extended into the Jordan
Valley, was occupied, following the First Transjordan and
catastrophe.[129][130]
the Second Transjordan attack by British Empire forces
in March and April 1918.[139] During March, most of
4.7.2 Ottoman Empire conict, 19171918
the Egyptian Expeditionary Forces British infantry and
Yeomanry cavalry were sent to ght on the Western Front
Main article: Sinai and Palestine Campaign
as a consequence of the Spring Oensive. They were reIn March and April 1917, at the First and Second Bat- placed by Indian Army units. During several months of
reorganisation and training during the summer, a number
of attacks were carried out on sections of the Ottoman
front line. These pushed the front line north to more advantageous positions in preparation for an attack and to
acclimatise the newly arrived Indian Army infantry. It
was not until the middle of September that the integrated
force was ready for large-scale operations.
The reorganised Egyptian Expeditionary Force, with an
additional mounted division, broke Ottoman forces at
the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918. In two days
the British and Indian infantry, supported by a creeping
barrage, broke the Ottoman front line and captured the
headquarters of the Eighth Army (Ottoman Empire) at
Tulkarm, the continuous trench lines at Tabsor, Arara
and the Seventh Army (Ottoman Empire) headquarters
at Nablus. The Desert Mounted Corps rode through the
break in the front line created by the infantry and, durBritish troops on the march in Mesopotamia, 1917.
ing virtually continuous operations by Australian Light
tles of Gaza, German and Ottoman forces stopped the Horse, British mounted Yeomanry, Indian Lancers and

4.7

19171918

New Zealand Mounted Rie brigades in the Jezreel Valley, they captured Nazareth, Afulah and Beisan, Jenin,
along with Haifa on the Mediterranean coast and Daraa
east of the Jordan River on the Hejaz railway. Samakh
and Tiberias on the Sea of Galilee, were captured on
the way northwards to Damascus. Meanwhile, Chaytors
Force of Australian light horse, New Zealand mounted ries, Indian, British West Indies and Jewish infantry captured the crossings of the Jordan River, Es Salt, Amman
and at Ziza most of the Fourth Army (Ottoman Empire).
The Armistice of Mudros, signed at the end of October,
ended hostilities with the Ottoman Empire when ghting
was continuing north of Aleppo.

17
ident Wilson who released the Zimmermann note to the
public, and Americans saw it as casus belli. Wilson called
on antiwar elements to end all wars, by winning this one
and eliminating militarism from the globe. He argued
that the war was so important that the US had to have a
voice in the peace conference.[142] After the sinking of
seven US merchant ships by submarines and the publication of the Zimmermann telegram, Wilson called for war
on Germany,[143] which the US Congress declared on 6
April 1917.

The United States was never formally a member of the

Allies but became a self-styled Associated Power. The
United States had a small army, but, after the passage of
the Selective Service Act, it drafted 2.8 million men,[144]
and, by summer 1918, was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers
4.7.3 Entry of the United States
to France every day. In 1917, the US Congress gave US
citizenship to Puerto Ricans when they were drafted to
Main article: American entry into World War I
At the outbreak of the war, the United States pursued participate in World War I, as part of the Jones Act. Germany had miscalculated, believing it would be many more
months before American soldiers would arrive and that
their arrival could be stopped by U-boats.[145]

President Wilson before Congress, announcing the break in ocial relations with Germany on 3 February 1917.

a policy of non-intervention, avoiding conict while trying to broker a peace. When the German U-boat SM
U-20 sank the British liner RMS Lusitania on 7 May
1915 with 128 Americans among the dead, President
Woodrow Wilson insisted that America is too proud to
ght but demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships.
Germany complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. However, he also repeatedly warned that
the United States would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of international law. The former
president Theodore Roosevelt denounced German acts as
piracy.[140] Wilson was narrowly reelected in 1916 as
his supporters emphasized he kept us out of war.

The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa

Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to
Queenstown, Ireland, and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of US Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted American units used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on bringing over
supplies. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up
American units to be used as reinforcements for British
Empire and French units. As an exception, he did allow
African-American combat regiments to be used in French
divisions. The Harlem Hellghters fought as part of the
French 16th Division, and earned a unit Croix de Guerre
for their actions at Chteau-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and
Sechault.[146] AEF doctrine called for the use of frontal
assaults, which had long since been discarded by British
Empire and French commanders because of the large loss
of life.[147]

4.7.4 German Spring Oensive of 1918

Main article: Spring Oensive
Ludendor drew up plans (codenamed Operation
Michael) for the 1918 oensive on the Western Front.
The Spring Oensive sought to divide the British and
French forces with a series of feints and advances. The
German leadership hoped to end the war before significant US forces arrived. The operation commenced on
21 March 1918, with an attack on British forces near
Amiens. German forces achieved an unprecedented advance of 60 kilometres (37 mi).[148]

In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing it would mean American entry.
The German Foreign Minister, in the Zimmermann Telegram, invited Mexico to join the war as Germanys ally
against the United States. In return, the Germans would
nance Mexicos war and help it recover the territories of
Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.[141] The United King- British and French trenches were penetrated using novel
dom intercepted the message and presented it to the US inltration tactics, also named Hutier tactics, after Genembassy in the UK. From there it made its way to Pres- eral Oskar von Hutier, by specially trained units called

18

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

supreme commander of the Allied forces. Haig, Petain,
and Pershing retained tactical control of their respective
armies; Foch assumed a coordinating rather than a directing role, and the British, French, and US commands
operated largely independently.[151]

British 55th Division soldiers, blinded by tear gas during the

Battle of Estaires, 10 April 1918.

Following Operation Michael, Germany launched

Operation Georgette against the northern English Channel ports. The Allies halted the drive after limited
territorial gains by Germany. The German Army to the
south then conducted Operations Blcher and Yorck,
pushing broadly towards Paris. Operation Marne was
launched on 15 July, in an attempt to encircle Reims
and beginning the Second Battle of the Marne. The
resulting counterattack, which started the Hundred Days
Oensive, marked the rst successful Allied oensive
of the war.
By 20 July, the Germans had retreated across the Marne
to their starting lines,[152] having achieved little, and the
German Army never regained the initiative. German casualties between March and April 1918 were 270,000,
including many highly trained storm troopers.
Meanwhile, Germany was falling apart at home. Antiwar marches became frequent and morale in the army fell.
Industrial output was 53% of 1913 levels.
4.7.5 New states under war zone

French soldiers under General Gouraud, with machine guns

amongst the ruins of a cathedral near the Marne, 1918.

stormtroopers. Previously, attacks had been characterised by long artillery bombardments and massed assaults. However, in the Spring Oensive of 1918, Ludendor used artillery only briey and inltrated small
groups of infantry at weak points. They attacked command and logistics areas and bypassed points of serious resistance. More heavily armed infantry then destroyed these isolated positions. This German success relied greatly on the element of surprise.[149]
The front moved to within 120 kilometres (75 mi) of
Paris. Three heavy Krupp railway guns red 183 shells on
the capital, causing many Parisians to ee. The initial offensive was so successful that Kaiser Wilhelm II declared
24 March a national holiday. Many Germans thought victory was near. After heavy ghting, however, the oensive was halted. Lacking tanks or motorised artillery, the
Germans were unable to consolidate their gains. This situation was not helped by the now stretched supply lines as
a result of their rapid advance over devastated ground.[150]
General Foch pressed to use the arriving American troops
as individual replacements, whereas Pershing sought to
eld American units as an independent force. These units
were assigned to the depleted French and British Empire
commands on 28 March. A Supreme War Council of
Allied forces was created at the Doullens Conference on
5 November 1917.[151] General Foch was appointed as

In the late spring of 1918, three new states were formed

in the South Caucasus: the First Republic of Armenia,
the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, and the Democratic
Republic of Georgia, which declared their independence
from the Russian Empire.[153] Two other minor entities were established, the Centrocaspian Dictatorship and
South West Caucasian Republic (the former was liquidated by Azerbaijan in the autumn of 1918 and the latter by a joint Armenian-British task force in early 1919).
With the withdrawal of the Russian armies from the Caucasus front in the winter of 191718, the three major republics braced for an imminent Ottoman advance, which
commenced in the early months of 1918. Solidarity
was briey maintained when the Transcaucasian Federative Republic was created in the spring of 1918, but
this collapsed in May, when the Georgians asked and received protection from Germany and the Azerbaijanis
concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that was
more akin to a military alliance. Armenia was left to fend
for itself and struggled for ve months against the threat
of a full-edged occupation by the Ottoman Turks.[153]

4.8 Allied victory: summer 1918 onwards

4.8.1 Hundred Days Oensive
Main articles: Hundred Days Oensive and Weimar Republic
The Allied counteroensive, known as the Hundred

4.8

Allied victory: summer 1918 onwards

Allies increased their front-line rie strength while German

strength fell in half in 1918[154]

19

Canadian Scottish, advancing during the Battle of the Canal du

Nord, 1918.

against the enemy was heavy and unrelenting. From German accounts, Each day was spent in bloody ghting
against an ever and again on-storming enemy, and nights
passed without sleep in retirements to new lines.[157]
Faced with these advances, on 2 September the German
Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL) issued orders to withdraw
to the Hindenburg Line in the south. This ceded without a
ght the salient seized the previous April.[160] According
to Ludendor We had to admit the necessity ... to withdraw the entire front from the Scarpe to the Vesle.[161]

Aerial view of ruins of Vaux-devant-Damloup, France, 1918.

September saw the Allied advance to the Hindenburg

Line in the north and centre. The Germans continued
to ght strong rear-guard actions and launched numerous counterattacks on lost positions, but only a few succeeded, and then only temporarily. Contested towns, villages, heights, and trenches in the screening positions and
outposts of the Hindenburg Line continued to fall to the
Allies, with the BEF alone taking 30,441 prisoners in the
last week of September. On 24 September an assault by
both the British and French came within 2 miles (3.2 km)
of St. Quentin.[159] The Germans had now retreated to
positions at or behind the Hindenburg Line.

Days Oensive, began on 8 August 1918, with the Battle

of Amiens. The battle involved over 400 tanks and
120,000 British, Dominion, and French troops, and by
the end of its rst day a gap 15 mi (24 km) long had been
created in the German lines. The defenders displayed a
marked collapse in morale, causing Ludendor to refer to
this day as the Black Day of the German army.[155][156]
After an advance as far as 14 miles (23 km), German
resistance stiened, and the battle was concluded on 12 In nearly four weeks of ghting beginning 8 August, over
100,000 German prisoners were taken, 75,000 by the
August.
BEF and the rest by the French. As of The Black Day
Rather than continuing the Amiens battle past the point of the German Army, the German High Command reof initial success, as had been done so many times in the alised that the war was lost and made attempts to reach
past, the Allies shifted their attention elsewhere. Allied a satisfactory end. The day after that battle, Ludendor
leaders had now realised that to continue an attack after said: We cannot win the war any more, but we must not
resistance had hardened was a waste of lives, and it was lose it either. On 11 August he oered his resignation to
better to turn a line than to try to roll over it. They began the Kaiser, who refused it, replying, I see that we must
to undertake attacks in quick order to take advantage of strike a balance. We have nearly reached the limit of our
successful advances on the anks, then broke them o powers of resistance. The war must be ended. On 13
when each attack lost its initial impetus.[157]
August, at Spa, Hindenburg, Ludendor, the ChancelBritish and Dominion forces launched the next phase of lor, and Foreign Minister Hintz agreed that the war could
the campaign with the Battle of Albert on 21 August.[158] not be ended militarily and, on the following day, the
The assault was widened by French[159] and then further German Crown Council decided that victory in the eld
British forces in the following days. During the last week was now most improbable. Austria and Hungary warned
of August the pressure along a 70-mile (113 km) front that they could only continue the war until December,

20

4 PROGRESS OF THE WAR

ber, Ludendor, having been under great stress for
months, suered something similar to a breakdown. It
was evident that Germany could no longer mount a successful defence.[164][165]

Men of US 64th Regiment, 7th Infantry Division, celebrate the

news of the Armistice, 11 November 1918.

An American major, piloting an observation balloon near the

front, 1918.

and Ludendor recommended immediate peace negotiations. Prince Rupprecht warned Prince Max of Baden:
Our military situation has deteriorated so rapidly that
I no longer believe we can hold out over the winter; it is
even possible that a catastrophe will come earlier. On 10
September Hindenburg urged peace moves to Emperor
Charles of Austria, and Germany appealed to the Netherlands for mediation. On 14 September Austria sent a note
to all belligerents and neutrals suggesting a meeting for
peace talks on neutral soil, and on 15 September Germany made a peace oer to Belgium. Both peace oers
were rejected, and on 24 September OHL informed the
leaders in Berlin that armistice talks were inevitable.[159]

News of Germanys impending military defeat spread

throughout the German armed forces. The threat of
mutiny was rife. Admiral Reinhard Scheer and Ludendor decided to launch a last attempt to restore the valour of the German Navy. Knowing the government of
Prince Maximilian of Baden would veto any such action, Ludendor decided not to inform him. Nonetheless,
word of the impending assault reached sailors at Kiel.
Many, refusing to be part of a naval oensive, which they
believed to be suicidal, rebelled and were arrested. Ludendor took the blame; the Kaiser dismissed him on 26
October. The collapse of the Balkans meant that Germany was about to lose its main supplies of oil and food.
Its reserves had been used up, even as US troops kept
arriving at the rate of 10,000 per day.[166] The Americans supplied more than 80% of Allied oil during the war,
meaning no such loss of supplies could aect the Allied
eort.[167]
With the military faltering and with widespread loss of
condence in the Kaiser, Germany moved towards peace.
Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new government as Chancellor of Germany to negotiate with the
Allies. Negotiations with President Wilson began immediately, in the hope that he would oer better terms
than the British and French. Wilson demanded a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary control over the
German military.[168] There was no resistance when the
Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann on 9 November
declared Germany to be a republic. The Kaiser, kings
and other hereditary rulers all were removed from power.
Imperial Germany was dead; a new Germany had been
born: the Weimar Republic.[169]

The nal assault on the Hindenburg Line began with

the Meuse-Argonne Oensive, launched by French and
American troops on 26 September. The following week,
cooperating French and American units broke through in
Champagne at the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge, forcing
the Germans o the commanding heights, and closing
towards the Belgian frontier.[162] On 8 October the line
was pierced again by British and Dominion troops at the
4.8.2 Armistices and capitulations
Battle of Cambrai.[163] The German army had to shorten
its front and use the Dutch frontier as an anchor to ght Main article: Armistice of 11 November 1918
rear-guard actions as it fell back towards Germany.
The collapse of the Central Powers came swiftly. BulWhen Bulgaria signed a separate armistice on 29 Septem- garia was the rst to sign an armistice, on 29 September

4.8

Allied victory: summer 1918 onwards

21

The New York Times of 11 November 1918.

Ferdinand Foch, second from right, pictured outside the carriage
in Compigne after agreeing to the armistice that ended the war
there. The carriage was later chosen by Nazi Germany as the
symbolic setting of Ptains June 1940 armistice.[170]

the armistice and its taking eect, opposing armies on the

1918 at Saloniki.
On 30 October, the Ottoman Em- Western Front began to withdraw from their positions,
but ghting continued along many areas of the front, as
pire capitulated, signing the Armistice of Mudros.[171]
commanders wanted to capture territory before the war
On 24 October, the Italians began a push that rapidly ended.
recovered territory lost after the Battle of Caporetto.
This culminated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, which The occupation of the Rhineland took place following the
marked the end of the Austro-Hungarian Army as an ef- Armistice. The occupying armies consisted of American,
fective ghting force. The oensive also triggered the Belgian, British and French forces.
disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. During In November 1918, the Allies had ample supplies of men
the last week of October, declarations of independence and materiel to invade Germany. Yet at the time of the
were made in Budapest, Prague, and Zagreb. On 29 Oc- armistice, no Allied force had crossed the German frontober, the imperial authorities asked Italy for an armistice. tier; the Western Front was still some 450 mi (720 km)
But the Italians continued advancing, reaching Trento, from Berlin; and the Kaisers armies had retreated from
Udine, and Trieste. On 3 November, Austria-Hungary the battleeld in good order. These factors enabled Hinsent a ag of truce to ask for an armistice. The terms, ar- denburg and other senior German leaders to spread the
ranged by telegraph with the Allied Authorities in Paris, story that their armies had not really been defeated. This
were communicated to the Austrian commander and ac- resulted in the stab-in-the-back legend,[172][173] which atcepted. The Armistice with Austria was signed in the tributed Germanys defeat not to its inability to continue
Villa Giusti, near Padua, on 3 November. Austria and ghting (even though up to a million soldiers were sufHungary signed separate armistices following the over- fering from the 1918 u pandemic and unt to ght), but
throw of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the out- to the publics failure to respond to its patriotic calling
break of the German Revolution of 19181919, a repub- and the supposed intentional sabotage of the war eort,
lic was proclaimed on 9 November. The Kaiser ed to particularly by Jews, Socialists, and Bolsheviks.
the Netherlands.
The Allies had much more potential wealth they could
[171]

On 11 November, at 5:00 am, an armistice with Germany

was signed in a railroad carriage at Compigne. At 11
am on 11 November 1918"the eleventh hour of the
eleventh day of the eleventh montha ceasere came
into eect. During the six hours between the signing of

spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 US dollars) is

that the Allies spent $58 billion on the war and the Central
Powers only $25 billion. Among the Allies, the UK spent
$21 billion and the US $17 billion; among the Central
Powers Germany spent $20 billion.[174]

22

5 AFTERMATH

Aftermath

the Republic of Turkey was not signed until 24 July 1923,

at Lausanne.

Main article: Aftermath of World War I

Some war memorials date the end of the war as being
In the aftermath of the war, four empires disappeared: when the Versailles Treaty was signed in 1919, which was
when many of the troops serving abroad nally returned
to their home countries; by contrast, most commemorations of the wars end concentrate on the armistice of
11 November 1918. Legally, the formal peace treaties
were not complete until the last, the Treaty of Lausanne,
was signed. Under its terms, the Allied forces divested
Constantinople on 23 August 1923.

5.2 Peace treaties and national boundaries

The French military cemetery at the Douaumont ossuary, which

contains the remains of more than 130,000 unknown soldiers.

the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian.

Numerous nations regained their former independence,
and new ones created. Four dynasties, together with
their ancillary aristocracies, all fell after the war: the
Hohenzollerns, the Habsburgs, and the Ottomans. Belgium and Serbia were badly damaged, as was France,
with 1.4 million soldiers dead,[175] not counting other casualties. Germany and Russia were similarly aected.[176]

5.1

Formal end of the war

A formal state of war between the two sides persisted for

another seven months, until the signing of the Treaty of
Versailles with Germany on 28 June 1919. The United
States Senate did not ratify the treaty despite public support for it,[177][178] and did not formally end its involvement in the war until the KnoxPorter Resolution was
signed on 2 July 1921 by President Warren G. Harding.[179] For the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the state of war ceased under the provisions of the
Termination of the Present War (Denition) Act 1918 with
respect to:
Germany on 10 January 1920.[180]
Austria on 16 July 1920.[181]
Bulgaria on 9 August 1920.[182]
Hungary on 26 July 1921.[183]
Turkey on 6 August 1924.[184]
After the Treaty of Versailles, treaties with Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire were signed.
However, the negotiation of the latter treaty with the Ottoman Empire was followed by strife (the Turkish War
of Independence), and a nal peace treaty between the
Allied Powers and the country that would shortly become

The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28th June

1919

After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers ocially ending the war. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany, and building on Wilsons 14th point, brought into
being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919.[185][186]
The Central Powers had to acknowledge responsibility for
all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them
by their aggression. In the Treaty of Versailles, this
statement was Article 231. This article became known as
War Guilt clause as the majority of Germans felt humiliated and resentful.[187] Overall the Germans felt they had
been unjustly dealt by what they called the "diktat of Versailles. Schulze says, the Treaty placed Germany, under legal sanctions, deprived of military power, economically ruined, and politically humiliated.[188] Belgian historian Laurence Van Ypersele emphasizes the central role

5.3

National identities

23

played by memory of the war and the Versailles Treaty in 5.3 National identities
German politics in the 1920s and 1930s:
Further information: SykesPicot Agreement
Active denial of war guilt in Germany and German resentment at both reparations and continPoland reemerged as an independent country, after more
ued Allied occupation of the Rhineland made
than a century. The Kingdom of Serbia and its dywidespread revision of the meaning and memnasty, as a minor Entente nation and the country with
ory of the war problematic. The legend of the
the most casualties per capita,[193][194][195] became the
"stab in the back" and the wish to revise the
backbone of a new multinational state, the Kingdom of
Versailles diktat, and the belief in an interSerbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia.
national threat aimed at the elimination of the
Czechoslovakia, combining the Kingdom of Bohemia
German nation persisted at the heart of Gerwith parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new
man politics. Even a man of peace such as
nation. Russia became the Soviet Union and lost Finland,
Stresemann publicly rejected German guilt. As
Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia, which became indepenfor the Nazis, they waved the banners of dodent countries. The Ottoman Empire was soon replaced
mestic treason and international conspiracy in
by Turkey and several other countries in the Middle East.
an attempt to galvanize the German nation into
a spirit of revenge. Like a Fascist Italy, Nazi
500 km
0
Germany sought to redirect the memory of the
war to the benet of its own policies.[189]
FINLAND

NORWAY
SWEEDEN

Former Russian Empire

ESTONIA

Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor

states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and
Yugoslavia, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines.
Transylvania was shifted from Hungary to Greater Romania. The details were contained in the Treaty of SaintGermain and the Treaty of Trianon. As a result of the
Treaty of Trianon, 3.3 million Hungarians came under
foreign rule. Although the Hungarians made up 54%
of the population of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary,
only 32% of its territory was left to Hungary. Between
1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians ed former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia,
and Yugoslavia.[191]
The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the
war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much
of its western frontier as the newly independent nations
of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were
carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in
April 1918.[192]

IRELAND

Schleswig

Gdask

AlsaceLorraine

FRANCE

Austria-Hungary
Soviet Union

GERMANY

Saarland

Ottoman Empire

Olsztyn

POLAND

EupenMalmedy

Free cities

Silesia

CZEC
H

OSLO

VAKIA

Be

Areas subject
to referendum

ssa

rab
ia

Contested areas

AUSTRIA HUNGARY
SWITZERLAND
Trieste

SPAIN

Germany

Klaipda

GER.

NETHERLANDS
BELGIUM

Defeated former empires:

LATVIA
LITHUANIA

DENMARK

UNITED
KINGDOM

ITALY

Klagenfurt

ROMANIA

Rijeka

Da

YU
GO

lm

SL

ati

AV

ALBANIA

Meanwhile, new nations liberated from German rule

viewed the treaty as recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by much larger aggressive
neighbors.[190] The Peace Conference required all the defeated powers to pay reparations for all the damage done
to civilians. However, owing to economic diculties and
Germany being the only defeated power with an intact
economy, the burden fell largely on Germany.

New Countries
New Borders

Key Countries
Winners

FINLAND

IA

BULGARIA
Thrace

TURKEY

IRAN

zmir

A.F.N.

SYRIA-LEBANON
(French Mandate)

IRAQ

(British Mandate)

Map of territorial changes in Europe after World War I (as of

1923).

In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of

nationalism. In Australia and New Zealand the Battle
of Gallipoli became known as those nations Baptism of
Fire. It was the rst major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the rst times
that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the British Crown. Anzac Day, commemorating
the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, celebrates
this dening moment.[196][197]
After the Battle of Vimy Ridge, where the Canadian divisions fought together for the rst time as a single corps,
Canadians began to refer to theirs as a nation forged
from re.[198] Having succeeded on the same battleground where the mother countries had previously faltered, they were for the rst time respected internationally for their own accomplishments. Canada entered
the war as a Dominion of the British Empire and remained so, although it emerged with a greater measure
of independence.[199][200] When Britain declared war in
1914, the dominions were automatically at war; at the
conclusion, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South
Africa were individual signatories of the Treaty of Versailles.[201]

The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, and much of its nonAnatolian territory was awarded to various Allied powers
as protectorates. The Turkish core in Anatolia was reorganised as the Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire
was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Svres of 1920.
This treaty was never ratied by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish National Movement, leading to the
victorious Turkish War of Independence and the much
The establishment of the modern state of Israel and the
less stringent 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.

24

5 AFTERMATH

roots of the continuing IsraeliPalestinian conict are

partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the
Middle East that resulted from World War I.[202] Before
the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a
modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle
East.[203] With the fall of the Ottoman government, power
vacuums developed and conicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge.[204] The political boundaries
drawn by the victors of World War I were quickly imposed, sometimes after only cursory consultation with
the local population. These continue to be problematic
in the 21st-century struggles for national identity.[205][206]
While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end
of World War I was pivotal in contributing to the modern
political situation of the Middle East, including the ArabIsraeli conict,[207][208][209] the end of Ottoman rule also
spawned lesser known disputes over water and other natural resources.[210]

nel who were mobilised from 1914 to 1918, 8 million

were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15
million were seriously injured. Germany lost 15.1% of
its active male population, Austria-Hungary lost 17.1%,
and France lost 10.5%.[211] In Germany civilian deaths
were 474,000 higher than in peacetime, due in large part
to food shortages and malnutrition that weakened resistance to disease.[212] By the end of the war, starvation
caused by famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon.[213] Between 5 and 10 million people
died in the Russian famine of 1921.[214] By 1922, there
were between 4.5 million and 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation
from World War I, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent famine of 19201922.[215] Numerous anti-Soviet
Russians ed the country after the Revolution; by the
1930s, the northern Chinese city of Harbin had 100,000
Russians.[216] Thousands more emigrated to France, England, and the United States.

5.4

In Australia, the eects of the war on the economy

were no less severe. The Australian prime minister,
Billy Hughes, wrote to the British prime minister, Lloyd
George, You have assured us that you cannot get better
terms. I much regret it, and hope even now that some
way may be found of securing agreement for demanding
reparation commensurate with the tremendous sacrices
made by the British Empire and her Allies.[217] Australia
received 5,571,720 war reparations, but the direct cost
of the war to Australia had been 376,993,052, and, by
the mid-1930s, repatriation pensions, war gratuities, interest and sinking fund charges were 831,280,947.[217]
Of about 416,000 Australians who served, about 60,000
were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.[218]

Health eects

Transporting Ottoman wounded at Sirkeci.

Diseases ourished in the chaotic wartime conditions. In

1914 alone, louse-borne epidemic typhus killed 200,000
in Serbia.[219] From 1918 to 1922, Russia had about 25
million infections and 3 million deaths from epidemic
typhus.[220] In 1923, 13 million Russians contracted
malaria, a sharp increase from the pre-war years.[221] In
addition, a major inuenza epidemic spread around the
world. Overall, the 1918 u pandemic killed at least 50
million people.[222][223]
Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that American Jews would encourage the United States to support Germany culminated in the British governments
Balfour Declaration of 1917, endorsing creation of a
Jewish homeland in Palestine.[224] A total of more than
1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 275,000 in
Austria-Hungary and 450,000 in Czarist Russia.[225]

The social disruption and widespread violence of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil
War sparked more than 2,000 pogroms in the former
Russian Empire, mostly in the Ukraine.[226] An estimated 60,000200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the
The war had profound consequences in the health of the atrocities.[227]
troops. Of the 60 million European military personEmergency military hospital during the Spanish u pandemic,
which killed about 675,000 people in the United States alone.
Camp Funston, Kansas, 1918.

6.1

Ground warfare

In the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against

Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal, a war which
resulted in a massive population exchange between the
two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne.[228] According to various sources,[229] several hundred thousand
Pontic Greeks died during this period.[230]

25
at the beginning of the war, had inventories of various calibers of Minenwerfer, which were ideally suited for trench
warfare.[234]

Much of the combat involved trench warfare, in which

hundreds often died for each yard gained. Many of
the deadliest battles in history occurred during World
War I. Such battles include Ypres, the Marne, Cambrai,
the Somme, Verdun, and Gallipoli. The Germans em6 Technology
ployed the Haber process of nitrogen xation to provide
their forces with a constant supply of gunpowder despite
[235]
Artillery was responsible
See also: Technology during World War I and Weapons the British naval blockade.
[236]
for
the
largest
number
of
casualties
and consumed
of World War I
vast quantities of explosives. The large number of head
wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation
forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel
helmet, led by the French, who introduced the Adrian
6.1 Ground warfare
helmet in 1915. It was quickly followed by the Brodie
helmet, worn by British Imperial and US troops, and in
1916 by the distinctive German Stahlhelm, a design, with
improvements, still in use today.

A Russian armoured car, 1919

World War I began as a clash of 20th-century technology

and 19th-century tactics, with the inevitably large ensuing casualties. By the end of 1917, however, the major
armies, now numbering millions of men, had modernised
and were making use of telephone, wireless communication,[231] armoured cars, tanks,[232] and aircraft. Infantry
formations were reorganised, so that 100-man companies were no longer the main unit of manoeuvre; instead,
squads of 10 or so men, under the command of a junior
NCO, were favoured.

The widespread use of chemical warfare was a distinguishing feature of the conict. Gases used included
chlorine, mustard gas and phosgene. Few war casualties were caused by gas,[238] as eective countermeasures to gas attacks were quickly created, such as gas
masks. The use of chemical warfare and small-scale
strategic bombing were both outlawed by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and both proved to be of
limited eectiveness,[239] though they captured the public
imagination.[240]
The most powerful land-based weapons were railway
guns, manufactured by the Krupp works, weighing hundreds of tons apiece. These were nicknamed Big Berthas,
even though the namesake was not a railway gun. Germany developed the Paris Gun, able to bombard Paris
from over 100 kilometres (62 mi), though shells were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb).

Artillery also underwent a revolution. In 1914, cannons

were positioned in the front line and red directly at their
targets. By 1917, indirect re with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using
new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably aircraft
and the often overlooked eld telephone.[233] Counterbattery missions became commonplace, also, and sound
detection was used to locate enemy batteries.
Germany was far ahead of the Allies in utilising heavy
indirect re. The German Army employed 150 mm (6
in) and 210 mm (8 in) howitzers in 1914, when typical
French and British guns were only 75 mm (3 in) and 105
mm (4 in). The British had a 6 inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be hauled to the eld
in pieces and assembled. The Germans also elded Austrian 305 mm (12 in) and 420 mm (17 in) guns and, even

British Vickers machine gun, 1917.

Trenches, machine guns, air reconnaissance, barbed wire,

and modern artillery with fragmentation shells helped
bring the battle lines of World War I to a stalemate. The
British and the French sought a solution with the cre-

26

WAR CRIMES

ation of the tank and mechanised warfare. The British

rst tanks were used during the Battle of the Somme
on 15 September 1916. Mechanical reliability was an
issue, but the experiment proved its worth. Within a
year, the British were elding tanks by the hundreds, and
they showed their potential during the Battle of Cambrai
in November 1917, by breaking the Hindenburg Line,
while combined arms teams captured 8,000 enemy soldiers and 100 guns. Meanwhile, the French introduced
the rst tanks with a rotating turret, the Renault FT,
which became a decisive tool of the victory. The conict
also saw the introduction of light automatic weapons and
RAF Sopwith Camel. In April 1917, the average life expectancy
submachine guns, such as the Lewis Gun, the Browning
of a British pilot on the Western Front was 93 ying hours.[241]
automatic rie, and the Bergmann MP18.
Another new weapon, the amethrower, was rst used
by the German army and later adopted by other forces.
Although not of high tactical value, the amethrower was
a powerful, demoralising weapon that caused terror on the
battleeld.

were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used
Zeppelins as well.[242] Towards the end of the conict,
aircraft carriers were used for the rst time, with HMS
Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy
Trench railways evolved to supply the enormous quanthe Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918.[243]
tities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large numbers of soldiers in areas where conven- Manned observation balloons, oating high above the
tional transportation systems had been destroyed. Inter- trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platnal combustion engines and improved traction systems for forms, reporting enemy movements and directing arautomobiles and trucks/lorries eventually rendered trench tillery. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped
with parachutes,[244] so that if there was an enemy air
railways obsolete.
attack the crew could parachute to safety. At the time,
parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft
6.2 Naval
(with their marginal power output), and smaller versions
were not developed until the end of the war; they were
Germany deployed U-boats (submarines) after the war also opposed by the British leadership, who feared they
began. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted might promote cowardice.[245]
submarine warfare in the Atlantic, the Kaiserliche MaRecognised for their value as observation platforms, balrine employed them to deprive the British Isles of viloons were important targets for enemy aircraft. To detal supplies. The deaths of British merchant sailors and
fend them against air attack, they were heavily protected
the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the develby antiaircraft guns and patrolled by friendly aircraft; to
opment of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (passive
attack them, unusual weapons such as air-to-air rockets
sonar, 1917), blimps, hunter-killer submarines (HMS Rwere even tried. Thus, the reconnaissance value of blimps
1, 1917), forward-throwing anti-submarine weapons, and
and balloons contributed to the development of air-to-air
dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in
combat between all types of aircraft, and to the trench
[80]
1918).
To extend their operations, the Germans prostalemate, because it was impossible to move large numposed supply submarines (1916). Most of these would be
bers of troops undetected. The Germans conducted air
forgotten in the interwar period until World War II reraids on England during 1915 and 1916 with airships,
vived the need.
hoping to damage British morale and cause aircraft to
be diverted from the front lines, and indeed the resulting
panic led to the diversion of several squadrons of ghters
6.3 Aviation
from France.[242][245]
Main article: Aviation in World War I

7 War crimes
Fixed-wing aircraft were rst used militarily by the Italians in Libya on 23 October 1911 during the Italo-Turkish
7.1 Baralong incidents
War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of
grenades and aerial photography the next year. By 1914,
their military utility was obvious. They were initially Main article: Baralong incidents
used for reconnaissance and ground attack. To shoot
down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and ghter aircraft On 19 August 1915, the German submarine U-27 was

7.4

Genocide and ethnic cleansing

27

sunk by the British Q-ship HMS Baralong. All German

survivors were summarily executed by Baralong's crew
on the orders of Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, the captain of the ship. The shooting was reported to the media by American citizens who were on board the Nicosia,
a British freighter loaded with war supplies, which was
stopped by U-27 just minutes before the incident.[246]

sualties during the war, and up to one-third of American

casualties were caused by them. The Russian Army reportedly suered roughly 500,000 chemical weapon casualties in World War I.[250] The use of chemical weapons
in warfare was in direct violation of the 1899 Hague Declaration Concerning Asphyxiating Gases and the 1907
Hague Convention on Land Warfare, which prohibited
[251][252]
On 24 September, Baralong destroyed U-41, which was their use.
in the process of sinking the cargo ship Urbino. Accord- Poison gas was not only limited to combatants but also
ing to Karl Goetz, the submarines commander, Baralong civilians as civilian towns were at risk from winds blowcontinued to y the US ag after ring on U-41 and then ing the poison gases through. Civilians rarely had a warnrammed the lifeboat carrying the German survivors ing system put into place to alert their neighbors of the
sinking it.[247]
danger. In addition to poor warning systems, civilians
often did not have access to eective gas masks. An estimated 100,000260,000 civilian casualties were caused
7.2 HMHS Llandovery Castle
by chemical weapons during the conict and tens of thousands of more (along with military personnel) died from
The Canadian hospital ship HMHS Llandovery Castle scarring of the lungs, skin damage, and cerebral damage
was torpedoed by the German submarine SM U-86 on in the years after the conict ended. Many commanders
27 June 1918 in violation of international law. Only 24 on both sides knew that such weapons would cause maof the 258 medical personnel, patients, and crew sur- jor harm to civilians as wind would blow poison gases
vived. Survivors reported that the U-boat surfaced and into nearby civilian towns but nonetheless continued to
ran down the lifeboats, machine-gunning survivors in the use them throughout the war. British Field Marshal Sir
water. The U-boat captain, Helmut Patzig, was charged Douglas Haig wrote in his diary: My ocers and I were
with war crimes in Germany following the war, but es- aware that such weapons would cause harm to women
caped prosecution by going to the Free City of Danzig, and children living in nearby towns, as strong winds were
beyond the jurisdiction of German courts.[248]
common in the battlefront. However, because the weapon
was to be directed against the enemy, none of us were
overly concerned at all.[253][254][255][256]

7.3

Chemical weapons in warfare

Main article: Chemical weapons in World War I

7.4
The rst successful use of poison gas as a weapon of war-

Genocide and ethnic cleansing

Austro-Hungarian soldiers executing men and women in Serbia,

1916.[257]

French soldiers making a gas and ame attack on German

trenches in Flanders

fare occurred during the Second Battle of Ypres (April

22-May 25, 1915).[249] Gas was soon used by all major
belligerents throughout the war. It is estimated that the
use of chemical weapons employed by both sides throughout the war had inicted 1.3 million casualties. For example, the British had over 180,000 chemical weapons ca-

Main article: Ottoman casualties of World War I

See also: Armenian Genocide, Assyrian Genocide,
Greek genocide and Genocide denial
The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empires Armenian
population, including mass deportations and executions,
during the nal years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide.[259] The Ottomans saw the entire Armenian population as an enemy[260] that had chosen to
side with Russia at the beginning of the war.[261] In early

28

8 SOLDIERS EXPERIENCES

and sometimes killed hostages from among the civilian population. The German army executed over 6,500
French and Belgian civilians between August and November 1914, usually in near-random large-scale shootings
of civilians ordered by junior German ocers. The German Army destroyed 15,00020,000 buildingsmost famously the university library at Louvainand generated
a wave of refugees of over a million people. Over half
the German regiments in Belgium were involved in major incidents.[268] Thousands of workers were shipped to
Germany to work in factories. British propaganda dramatizing the Rape of Belgium attracted much attention
in the United States, while Berlin said it was both lawful
Armenians killed during the Armenian Genocide. Image taken and necessary because of the threat of franc-tireurs like
from Ambassador Morgenthaus Story, written by Henry Mor- those in France in 1870.[269] The British and French maggenthau, Sr. and published in 1918.[258]
nied the reports and disseminated them at home and in
the United States, where they played a major role in dissolving support for Germany.[270][271]
1915, a number of Armenians joined the Russian forces,
and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to
issue the Tehcir Law (Law on Deportation). This authorized the deportation of Armenians from the Em- 8 Soldiers experiences
pires eastern provinces to Syria between 1915 and 1917.
The exact number of deaths is unknown, however the Main articles: List of last surviving World War I veterInternational Association of Genocide Scholars estimates ans by country, World War I casualties, Commonwealth
over 1 million.[259][262] The government of Turkey has War Graves Commission and American Battle Monuconsistently rejected charges of genocide, arguing that ments Commission
those who died were victims of inter-ethnic ghting, The British soldiers of the war were initially volunfamine, or disease during World War I.[263] Other ethnic
groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire
during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks, and
some scholars consider those events to be part of the same
policy of extermination.[264][265][266]

7.4.1

Russian Empire

Main article: Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian

The First Contingent of the Bermuda Volunteer Rie Corps to the
Empire
See also: Russian occupation of Eastern Galicia, 1914 1 Lincolns, training in Bermuda for the Western Front, winter
19141915. The two BVRC contingents suered 75% casualties.
1915, Volhynia and Volga Germans
Many pogroms accompanied the Russian Revolution of
1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War. 60,000
200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities
throughout the former Russian Empire (mostly within the
Pale of Settlement in present-day Ukraine).[267]

7.5

Rape of Belgium

teers but increasingly were conscripted into service. Surviving veterans, returning home, often found that they
could only discuss their experiences amongst themselves.
Grouping together, they formed veterans associations
or Legions.

8.1 Prisoners of war

Main article: World War I prisoners of war in Germany

Main article: Rape of Belgium

The German invaders treated any resistancesuch as
sabotaging rail linesas illegal and immoral, and shot
the oenders and burned buildings in retaliation. In addition, they tended to suspect that most civilians were
potential franc-tireurs (guerrillas) and, accordingly, took

About eight million men surrendered and were held in

POW camps during the war. All nations pledged to follow the Hague Conventions on fair treatment of prisoners
of war, and the survival rate for POWs was generally
much higher than that of their peers at the front.[272]
Individual surrenders were uncommon; large units usu-

8.2

Military attachs and war correspondents

ally surrendered en masse. At the siege of Maubeuge

about 40,000 French soldiers surrendered, at the battle
of Galicia Russians took about 100,000 to 120,000 Austrian captives, at the Brusilov Oensive about 325,000
to 417,000 Germans and Austrians surrendered to Russians, at the Battle of Tannenberg 92,000 Russians surrendered. When the besieged garrison of Kaunas surrendered in 1915, some 20,000 Russians became prisoners, at the battle near Przasnysz (FebruaryMarch 1915)
14,000 Germans surrendered to Russians, at the First
Battle of the Marne about 12,000 Germans surrendered
to the Allies. 2531% of Russian losses (as a proportion of those captured, wounded, or killed) were to prisoner status; for Austria-Hungary 32%, for Italy 26%, for
France 12%, for Germany 9%; for Britain 7%. Prisoners from the Allied armies totalled about 1.4 million
(not including Russia, which lost 2.53.5 million men
as prisoners). From the Central Powers about 3.3 million men became prisoners; most of them surrendered to
Russians.[273] Germany held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia
held 2.22.9 million; while Britain and France held about
720,000. Most were captured just before the Armistice.
The United States held 48,000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers
were sometimes gunned down.[274][275] Once prisoners
reached a camp, conditions were, in general, satisfactory
(and much better than in World War II), thanks in part
to the eorts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. However, conditions were terrible in Russia: starvation was common for prisoners and
civilians alike; about 1520% of the prisoners in Russia died and in Central Powers imprisonment8% of
Russians.[276] In Germany, food was scarce, but only 5%
died.[277][278][279]
The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly.[280]
Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them
Indians, became prisoners after the Siege of Kut in
Mesopotamia in April 1916; 4,250 died in captivity.[281]
Although many were in a poor condition when captured,
Ottoman ocers forced them to march 1,100 kilometres
(684 mi) to Anatolia. A survivor said: We were driven
along like beasts; to drop out was to die.[282] The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the
Taurus Mountains.

29

Emaciated Indian Army soldier who survived the Siege of Kut.

8.2 Military attachs and war correspondents

Main article: Military attachs and war correspondents
in the First World War
Military and civilian observers from every major power
closely followed the course of the war. Many were able
to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to
modern "embedded" positions within the opposing land
and naval forces.

9 Support and opposition to the

war

In Russia, when the prisoners from the Czech Legion of

the Austro-Hungarian army were released in 1917, they 9.1 Support
re-armed themselves and briey became a military and
In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as the leader,
diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War.
Ante Trumbi, strongly supported the war, desiring
While the Allied prisoners of the Central Powers were the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria-Hungary and
quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same other foreign powers and the creation of an independent
treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of Yugoslavia.[285] The Yugoslav Committee was formed in
the Allies and Russia, many of whom served as forced Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its oce to
labor, e.g., in France until 1920. They were released only London; Trumbi led the Committee.[285] In April 1918,
after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Allied the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities met, inSupreme Council.[283] German prisoners were still being cluding Czechoslovak, Italian, Polish, Transylvanian, and
held in Russia as late as 1924.[284]
Yugoslav representatives who urged the Allies to support national self-determination for the peoples residing

30

9 SUPPORT AND OPPOSITION TO THE WAR

ists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it; some were militant supporters of the war, including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati.[292] However, the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the
war after anti-militarist protestors were killed, resulting
in a general strike called Red Week.[293] The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini.[293] Mussolini, a syndicalist
who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims
on Italian-populated regions of Austria-Hungary, formed
the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci
Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista (Revolutionary Fasci for International Action) in October 1914 that
later developed into the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919,
the origin of fascism.[294] Mussolinis nationalism enabled
him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments rm) and
other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince
socialists and revolutionaries to support the war.[295]

9.2 Opposition
Main articles: Opposition to World War I and French
Army Mutinies
Once war was declared, many socialists and trade unions

Poster urging women to join the British war eort, published by

the Young Womens Christian Association

within Austria-Hungary.[286]
In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman
territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism
during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state.[287] In 1916, the
Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of
the Middle East in an eort to achieve independence.[287]
A number of socialist parties initially supported the war
when it began in August 1914.[286] But European socialists split on national lines, with the concept of class
conict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and
syndicalists being overborne by their patriotic support for
war.[288] Once the war began, Austrian, British, French,
German, and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their countries intervention in the war.[289]
Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the
war and was initially strongly supported by a variety
of political factions. One of the most prominent and
popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was
Gabriele d'Annunzio, who promoted Italian irredentism
and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention
in the war.[290] The Italian Liberal Party, under the leadership of Paolo Boselli, promoted intervention in the war
on the side of the Allies and utilised the Dante Alighieri
Society to promote Italian nationalism.[291] Italian social-

Sackville Street (now O'Connell Street) after the 1916 Easter Rising in Dublin.

backed their governments. Among the exceptions were

the Bolsheviks, the Socialist Party of America, and
the Italian Socialist Party, and individuals such as Karl
Liebknecht, Rosa Luxemburg, and their followers in Germany.
Benedict XV, elected to the papacy less than three months
into World War I, made the war and its consequences the
main focus of his early ponticate. In stark contrast to
his predecessor,[296] ve days after his election he spoke
of his determination to do what he could to bring peace.
His rst encyclical, Ad beatissimi Apostolorum, given 1
November 1914, was concerned with this subject. Benedict XV found his abilities and unique position as a religious emissary of peace ignored by the belligerent powers. The 1915 Treaty of London between Italy and the
Triple Entente included secret provisions whereby the Allies agreed with Italy to ignore papal peace moves to-

9.2

Opposition

31

wards the Central Powers. Consequently, the publication

of Benedicts proposed seven-point Peace Note of August
1917 was roundly ignored by all parties except AustriaHungary.[297]

German Revolution, Kiel, 1918.

and Bertrand Russell in Britain. In the US, the Espionage

Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 made it a federal
crime to oppose military recruitment or make any stateThe Deserter, 1916. Anti-war cartoon depicting Jesus facing a ments deemed disloyal. Publications at all critical of
ring squad with soldiers from ve European countries.
the government were removed from circulation by postal
censors,[142] and many served long prison sentences for
In Britain, in 1914, the Public Schools Ocers Train- statements of fact deemed unpatriotic.
ing Corps annual camp was held at Tidworth Pennings,
A number of nationalists opposed intervention, particnear Salisbury Plain. Head of the British Army, Lord
ularly within states that the nationalists were hostile to.
Kitchener, was to review the cadets, but the imminence of
Although the vast majority of Irish people consented
the war prevented him. General Horace Smith-Dorrien
to participate in the war in 1914 and 1915, a minority
was sent instead. He surprised the two-or-three thousand
of advanced Irish nationalists staunchly opposed taking
cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher
part.[299] The war began amid the Home Rule crisis in
Smith, a Bermudian cadet who was present), that war
Ireland that had resurfaced in 1912 and, by July 1914,
should be avoided at almost any cost, that war would solve
there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war
nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would
in Ireland.[300] Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted
be reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so
to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter
large that whole populations would be decimated. In our
Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 ries to
ignorance I, and many of us, felt almost ashamed of a
Ireland to stir unrest in Britain.[300] The UK government
British General who uttered such depressing and unpatriplaced Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter
otic sentiments, but during the next four years, those of
Rising; although, once the immediate threat of revolution
us who survived the holocaustprobably not more than
had dissipated, the authorities did try to make concessions
one-quarter of uslearned how right the Generals progto nationalist feeling.[301]
nosis was and how courageous he had been to utter it.[298]
Voicing these sentiments did not hinder Smith-Doriens Other opposition came from conscientious objectors
career, or prevent him from doing his duty in World War some socialist, some religiouswho refused to ght. In
Britain, 16,000 people asked for conscientious objecI to the best of his abilities.
tor status.[302] Some of them, most notably prominent
peace activist Stephen Henry Hobhouse, refused both
military and alternative service.[303] Many suered years
of prison, including solitary connement and bread and
water diets. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked No conscientious objectors
need apply.
The Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916,
when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service.[304]
In 1917, a series of French Army Mutinies led to dozens
of soldiers being executed and many more imprisoned.
Execution at Verdun at the time of the mutinies in 1917.

In Milan, in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the
Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public
conict. These included Eugene Debs in the United States transportation.[305] The Italian army was forced to enter

32
Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks
and anarchists, who fought violently until 23 May when
the army gained control of the city. Almost 50 people
(including three Italian soldiers) were killed and over 800
people arrested.[305]
In September 1917, Russian soldiers in France began
questioning why they were ghting for the French at all
and mutinied.[306] In Russia, opposition to the war led
to soldiers also establishing their own revolutionary committees, which helped foment the October Revolution of
1917, with the call going up for bread, land, and peace.
The Bolsheviks agreed to a peace treaty with Germany,
the peace of Brest-Litovsk, despite its harsh conditions.

10 LEGACY AND MEMORY

tralia in 1917 to pursue the matter. Farmers, the labour
movement, the Catholic Church, and the Irish Catholics
successfully opposed Hughes push, which was rejected
in two plebiscites.[309]
In Britain, conscription resulted in the calling up of nearly
every physically t man in Britainsix of ten million
eligible. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives; Most
deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000
wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers.[310]
In the United States, conscription began in 1917 and was
generally well received, with a few pockets of opposition
in isolated rural areas.[311]

In northern Germany, the end of October 1918 saw

the beginning of the German Revolution of 19181919. 10 Legacy and memory
Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last,
large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as Main article: World War I in popular culture
lost; this initiated the uprising. The sailors revolt which
then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel
spread across the whole country within days and led to
... Strange, friend, I said, Here is no
the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918 and
cause to mourn.
shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II.
None, said the other, Save the undone
years...
Wilfred Owen, Strange Meeting,
9.2.1 Conscription
1918[237]

The rst tentative eorts to comprehend the meaning and

consequences of modern warfare began during the initial
phases of the war, and this process continued throughout
and after the end of hostilities, and still is underway, more
than a century later.

10.1 Historiography
Historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography
has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn in recent years.
Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding
military occupation, radicalizion of politics, race, and the
male body. Furthermore, new research has revised our
Young men registering for conscription, New York City, June 5,
understanding of ve major topics that historians have
1917.
long debated. These are: Why did the war begin? Why
Conscription was common in most European countries. did the Allies win? Were the generals to blame for the
However it was controversial in English speaking coun- high casualty rates? How did the soldiers endure the horthe civilian
tries. It was especially unpopular among minority eth- rors of trench warfare? To what extent did [312]
homefront
accept
and
endorse
the
war
eort?
[307]
nic groupsespecially the Irish Catholics in Ireland
and Australia, and the French Catholics in Canada. In
Canada the issue produced a major political crisis that
permanently alienated the Francophiles. It opened a po- 10.2 Memorials
litical gap between French Canadians, who believed their
true loyalty was to Canada and not to the British Empire, Main article: World War I memorials
and members of the Anglophone majority, who saw the
war as a duty to their British heritage.[308] In Australia, Memorials were erected in thousands of villages and
a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Billy Hughes, towns. Close to battleelds, those buried in improthe Prime Minister, caused a split in the Australian Labor vised burial grounds were gradually moved to formal
Party, so Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Aus- graveyards under the care of organisations such as the

10.3

Cultural memory

33

10.3 Cultural memory

World War I had a lasting impact on social memory. It
was seen by many in Britain as signalling the end of an
era of stability stretching back to the Victorian period,
and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed.[319]
Historian Samuel Hynes explained:

A typical village war memorial to soldiers killed in World War I

A generation of innocent young men, their

heads full of high abstractions like Honour,
Glory and England, went o to war to make the
world safe for democracy. They were slaughtered in stupid battles planned by stupid generals. Those who survived were shocked, disillusioned and embittered by their war experiences, and saw that their real enemies were not
the Germans, but the old men at home who had
lied to them. They rejected the values of the
society that had sent them to war, and in doing
so separated their own generation from the past
and from their cultural inheritance.[320]

Commonwealth War Graves Commission, the American

Battle Monuments Commission, the German War Graves
Commission, and Le Souvenir franais. Many of these
graveyards also have central monuments to the missing or
unidentied dead, such as the Menin Gate memorial and This has become the most common perception of World
War I, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems, and stothe Thiepval Memorial to the Missing of the Somme.
ries published subsequently. Films such as All Quiet on
On 3 May 1915, during the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieu- the Western Front, Paths of Glory and King & Country
tenant Alexis Helmer was killed. At his graveside, his have perpetuated the idea, while war-time lms includfriend John McCrae, M.D., of Guelph, Ontario, Canada, ing Camrades, Poppies of Flanders, and Shoulder Arms
wrote the memorable poem In Flanders Fields as a salute indicate that the most contemporary views of the war
to those who perished in the Great War. Published in were overall far more positive.[321] Likewise, the art of
Punch on 8 December 1915, it is still recited today, espe- Paul Nash, John Nash, Christopher Nevinson, and Henry
cially on Remembrance Day and Memorial Day.[313][314] Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conict
National WWI Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, in keeping with the growing perception, while popular
Missouri, is a United States memorial dedicated to all war-time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more
Americans who served in World War I. The Liberty serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected
Memorial was dedicated on 1 November 1921, when the as inaccurate.[320] Several historians like John Terraine,
supreme Allied commanders spoke to a crowd of more Niall Ferguson and Gary Sheeld have challenged these
than 100,000 people.[315] It was the only time in his- interpretations as partial and polemical views:
tory these leaders were together in one placeLieutenant
General Baron Jacques of Belgium; General Armando
These beliefs did not become widely shared
Diaz of Italy; Marshal Ferdinand Foch of France; General
because they oered the only accurate interPershing of the United States; and Admiral D. R. Beatty
pretation of wartime events. In every respect,
of Britain.[316] After three years of construction, the
the war was much more complicated than they
Liberty Memorial was completed and President Calvin
suggest. In recent years, historians have arCoolidge delivered the dedication speech to a crowd of
gued persuasively against almost every popu150,000 people in 1926. Liberty Memorial is also home
lar clich of World War I. It has been pointed
to the National World War I Museum, the only museum
out that, although the losses were devastatin the United States dedicated solely to World War I.[315]
ing, their greatest impact was socially and geoThe UK Government has budgeted substantial resources
to the commemoration of the war during the period 2014
to 2018. The lead body is the Imperial War Museum.[317]
On 3 August 2014, French President Francois Hollande
and German President Joachim Gauck together marked
the centenary of Germanys declaration of war on France
by laying the rst stone of a memorial in Vieil Armand,
known in German as Hartmannswillerkopf, for French
and German soldiers killed in the war.[318]

graphically limited. The many emotions other

than horror experienced by soldiers in and out
of the front line, including comradeship, boredom, and even enjoyment, have been recognised. The war is not now seen as a 'ght about
nothing', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive militarism and more or less
liberal democracy. It has been acknowledged
that British generals were often capable men

34

10 LEGACY AND MEMORY

facing dicult challenges, and that it was under their command that the British army played
a major part in the defeat of the Germans in
1918: a great forgotten victory.[321]

Though these views have been discounted as

myths,[320][322] they are common.[321] They have
dynamically changed according to contemporary inuences, reecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as
aimless following the contrasting Second World War
and emphasising conict within the ranks during times of
class conict in the 1960s.[321] The majority of additions
to the contrary are often rejected.[321]

10.4

Social trauma

posttraumatic stress disorder).[326] Many more returned

home with few after-eects; however, their silence about
the war contributed to the conicts growing mythological status.[323] Though many participants did not share in
the experiences of combat or spend any signicant time
at the front, or had positive memories of their service,
the images of suering and trauma became the widely
shared perception.[323] Such historians as Dan Todman,
Paul Fussell, and Samuel Heyns have all published works
since the 1990s arguing that these common perceptions
of the war are factually incorrect.[323]

10.5 Discontent in Germany

The rise of Nazism and Fascism included a revival of
the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war
changes. Similarly, the popularity of the stab-in-the-back
legend (German: Dolchstolegende) was a testament to
the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a
rejection of responsibility for the conict. This conspiracy theory of betrayal became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as victims. The
widespread acceptance of the stab-in-the-back theory
delegitimized the Weimar government and destabilized
the system, opening it to extremes of right and left.
Communist and fascist movements around Europe drew
strength from this theory and enjoyed a new level of popularity. These feelings were most pronounced in areas
directly or harshly aected by the war. Adolf Hitler was
able to gain popularity by utilising German discontent
with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles.[327] World
War II was in part a continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by World War I. Furthermore,
it was common for Germans in the 1930s to justify acts
of aggression due to perceived injustices imposed by the
victors of World War I.[328][329][330] American historian
William Rubinstein wrote that:

A 1919 book for veterans, from the US War Department.

The social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested itself in dierent ways, which have been
the subject of subsequent historical debate.[323]
The optimism of la belle poque was destroyed, and those
who had fought in the war were referred to as the Lost
Generation.[324] For years afterwards, people mourned
the dead, the missing, and the many disabled.[325] Many
soldiers returned with severe trauma, suering from shell
shock (also called neurasthenia, a condition related to

The 'Age of Totalitarianism' included

nearly all of the infamous examples of genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish
Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the Communist world, other
mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany and
its allies, and also the Armenian genocide of
1915. All these slaughters, it is argued here,
had a common origin, the collapse of the elite
structure and normal modes of government of
much of central, eastern and southern Europe
as a result of World War I, without which surely
neither Communism nor Fascism would have
existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and crackpots.[331]

10.6

10.6

Economic eects

35

Economic eects

1919, the US demanded repayment of these loans. The

repayments were, in part, funded by German reparations
See also: Economic history of World War I
which, in turn, were supported by American loans to GerOne of the most dramatic eects of the war was the ex- many. This circular system collapsed in 1931 and the
loans were never repaid. Britain still owed the United
States $4.4 billion[332] of World War I debt in 1934, and
this money was never repaid.[333]
Macro- and micro-economic consequences devolved
from the war. Families were altered by the departure
of many men. With the death or absence of the primary wage earner, women were forced into the workforce
in unprecedented numbers. At the same time, industry
needed to replace the lost labourers sent to war. This
aided the struggle for voting rights for women.[334]

Poster showing women workers, 1915.

pansion of governmental powers and responsibilities in

Britain, France, the United States, and the Dominions
of the British Empire. To harness all the power of their
societies, governments created new ministries and powers. New taxes were levied and laws enacted, all designed
to bolster the war eort; many have lasted to this day.
Similarly, the war strained the abilities of some formerly
Hyperination reduced German banknotes value so much that
large and bureaucratised governments, such as in Austriathey could be used as wallpaper. Many savers were ruined.[335]
Hungary and Germany.
Gross domestic product (GDP) increased for three Allies (Britain, Italy, and US), but decreased in France and
Russia, in neutral Netherlands, and in the three main Central Powers. The shrinkage in GDP in Austria, Russia,
France, and the Ottoman Empire ranged between 30%
to 40%. In Austria, for example, most pigs were slaughtered, so at wars end there was no meat.
In all nations, the governments share of GDP increased,
surpassing 50% in both Germany and France and nearly
reaching that level in Britain. To pay for purchases in the
United States, Britain cashed in its extensive investments
in American railroads and then began borrowing heavily on Wall Street. President Wilson was on the verge
of cutting o the loans in late 1916, but allowed a great
increase in US government lending to the Allies. After

World War I further compounded the gender imbalance,

adding to the phenomenon of surplus women. The deaths
of nearly one million men during the war in Britain increased the gender gap by almost a million; from 670,000
to 1,700,000. The number of unmarried women seeking
economic means grew dramatically. In addition, demobilisation and economic decline following the war caused
high unemployment. The war increased female employment; however, the return of demoblised men displaced
many from the workforce, as did the closure of many of
the wartime factories.
In Britain, rationing was nally imposed in early 1918,
limited to meat, sugar, and fats (butter and margarine),
but not bread. The new system worked smoothly. From
1914 to 1918, trade union membership doubled, from a

36

14 NOTES

little over four million to a little over eight million.

Britain turned to her colonies for help in obtaining essential war materials whose supply had become dicult from
traditional sources. Geologists such as Albert Ernest Kitson were called on to nd new resources of precious minerals in the African colonies. Kitson discovered important new deposits of manganese, used in munitions production, in the Gold Coast.[336]
Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the so-called war
guilt clause) stated Germany accepted responsibility for
all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them
by the aggression of Germany and her allies.[337] It was
worded as such to lay a legal basis for reparations, and
the same clause was inserted, mutatis mutandis in the
treaties with Austria and Hungary, neither of whom interpreted it as declaration of war guilt.[338] In 1921, the
total reparation sum was placed at 132 billion gold marks.
However, Allied experts knew that Germany could not
pay this sum. The total sum was divided into three categories, with the third being deliberately designed to be
chimerical and its primary function was to mislead public opinion ... into believing the total sum was being
maintained.[339] Thus, 50 billion gold marks (12.5 billion
dollars) represented the actual Allied assessment of German capacity to pay and therefore ... represented the
total German reparations gure that had to be paid.[339]
This gure could be paid in cash or in kind (coal, timber, chemical dyes, etc.). In addition, some of the territory lostvia the treaty of Versailleswas credited towards the reparation gure as were other acts such as
helping to restore the Library of Louvain.[340] By 1929,
the Great Depression arrived, causing political chaos
throughout the world.[341] In 1932 the payment of reparations was suspended by the international community,
by which point Germany had only paid the equivalent
of 20.598 billon gold marks in reparations.[342] With the
rise of Adolf Hitler, all bonds and loans that had been
issued and taken out during the 1920s and early 1930s
were cancelled. David Andelman notes refusing to pay
doesn't make an agreement null and void. The bonds, the
agreement, still exist. Thus, following the Second World
War, at the London Conference in 1953, Germany agreed
to resume payment on the money borrowed. On 3 October 2010, Germany made the nal payment on these
bonds.[343]

12 See also
Outline of World War I
Death rates in the 20th century
European Civil War
List of people associated with World War I
Lists of wars
List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death
toll
Lists of World War I topics
Timeline of World War I
World War I casualties
World War I medal abbreviations

13 Footnotes
[1] The United States did not ratify any of the treaties agreed
to at the Paris Peace Conference.
[2] Bulgaria joined the Central Powers on 14 October 1915.
[3] The Ottoman Empire agreed to a secret alliance with Germany on 2 August 1914. It joined the war on the side of
the Central Powers on 29 October 1914.
[4] The United States declared war on Austria-Hungary on
December 7, 1917.
[5] Austria was considered one of the successor states to
Austria-Hungary.
[6] The United States declared war on Germany on April 6,
1917.
[7] Hungary was considered one of the successor states to
Austria-Hungary.
[8] Although the Treaty of Svres was intended to end the
war between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire, the Allies and the Republic of Turkey, the successor state of the
Ottoman Empire, agreed to the Treaty of Lausanne.

14 Notes
[1] British Army statistics of the Great War.
1918.net. Retrieved 13 December 2011.

1914-

[2] Figures are for the British Empire

[3] Figures are for Metropolitan France and its colonies

11

Media

[4] Tucker & Roberts 2005, p. 273

[5] Willmott 2003, p. 307
[6] Willmott 2003, pp. 1011

37

[7] Willmott 2003, p. 15

[8] Keegan 1998, p. 8
[9] Bade & Brown 2003, pp. 167168
[10] Taylor 1998, pp. 8093
[11] Djoki 2003, p. 24
[12] Evans 2004, p. 12
[13] Martel 2003, p. xii
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[20] Prior 1999, p. 18
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15

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Sanborn, Joshua. Russian Historiography on the 16.1 Animated maps

Origins of the First World War Since the Fis An animated map Europe plunges into war
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Sharp, Heather. Representing Australias Involvement in the First World War: Discrepancies between Public Discourses and School History Text- 16.2 Library guides
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16

External links

1914-1918-online International Encyclopedia of the

First World War
The Heritage of the Great War / First World War.
Graphic color photos, pictures and music
A multimedia history of World War I
European Newspapers from the start of the First
World War and the end of the war
Powerpoint summary of the war
The World War I Document Archive Wiki, Brigham
Young University
Maps of Europe covering the history of World War
I at omniatlas.com
World War I Crossroads current discussions by
scholars
World War I (First World War) Guide to websites
Documents from Mount Holyoke College
EFG1914 Film digitisation project on First World
War
WWI Films on the European Film Gateway
The British Path WW1 Film Archive
World War I British press photograph collection A
sampling of images distributed by the British government during the war to diplomats overseas, from
the UBC Library Digital Collections
World War I in Colour in YouTube.

State Library of New South Wales

US Library of Congress
Indiana University Bloomington, USA
New York University, USA
University of Alberta, Canada

50

17

17
17.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

World War I Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I?oldid=674364348 Contributors: AxelBoldt, TwoOneTwo, The Epopt,

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File:1908-10-07_-_Moritz_Schiller{}s_Delicatessen.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/
1908-10-07_-_Moritz_Schiller%27s_Delicatessen.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Archive photo, Sarajevo. Scanned
from the 1954 edition of Sarajevski Atentat by Vojislav Bogievi. Original artist: Unknown
File:1914-06-29_-_Aftermath_of_attacks_against_Serbs_in_Sarajevo.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/e/e6/1914-06-29_-_Aftermath_of_attacks_against_Serbs_in_Sarajevo.png License: Public domain Contributors: Historijski
Arhiv Sarajevo. Found in a .pdf edition of Sarajevo, biograja grada (Sarajevo, A Biography) by Robert J. Donia. Original artist:
Unknown
File:1917_-_Execution__Verdun_lors_des_mutineries.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/1917_-_
Execution_%C3%A0_Verdun_lors_des_mutineries.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Paris, Bibliothque Nationale Original artist:
?
File:Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux,_France,_1918,_ca._03-1918_-_ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.tif
Source:
https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Aerial_view_of_ruins_of_Vaux%2C_France%2C_1918%2C_ca._03-1918_-_
ca._11-1918_-_NARA_-_512862.tif License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original
artist: Edward Steichen, 1879-1973, Photographer (NARA record: 1444144)
File:Affiche-guerre_Femmes-au-travail.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Affiche-guerre_
Femmes-au-travail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.wdl.org/fr/item/582/ Original artist: Unknown
File:Armisticetrain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Armisticetrain.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Press photo published all over the world. F.ex. Jan Dbrowski Wielka wojna 1914-1918 ( The Great War 1914-1918) Warsaw
1937 Original artist: Unknown
File:Austin21.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Austin21.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
PIBWL Military Site (moved from ru::Austin21.jpg uploaded by ru::Vikiped) Original artist: .
File:Austrians_executing_Serbs_1917.JPG Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Austrians_executing_
Serbs_1917.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dodmedia.osd.mil/DefenseLINK_Search/Still_Details.cfm?SDAN=
HDSN9902350&JPGPath=/Assets/1999/DoD/HD-SN-99-02350.JPG
http://research.archives.gov/description/533647 Original artist: UNDERWOOD & UNDERWOOD
File:Austro-Hungarian_mountain_corps.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Austro-Hungarian_
mountain_corps.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned image Original artist: Unknown Austro-Hungarian ocer
File:BVRC-Great-War-Contingent_1914.jpg
Source:
BVRC-Great-War-Contingent_1914.jpg License: PD Contributors:
Original image
Original artist:
British Army

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b2/

File:Battle_Sarikamis_winter_gear.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Battle_Sarikamis_winter_

gear.png License: Public domain Contributors: The Turkish general sta web site explaining the Battle of Sarikamis. http://www.tsk.mil.tr/
8_TARIHTEN_KESITLER/8_8_Turk_Tarihinde_Onemli_Gunler/sarikamis_harekati/sarikamis_harekati.html Original artist: It is government property, which original photographer may not be listed. Original photographer unknown.
File:Bluetank.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Bluetank.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: LA2
File:Bombers_of_WW1.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Bombers_of_WW1.ogg License: Public
domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Brest-litovsk_treaty.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Brest-litovsk_treaty.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: This le has source information, but it either links directly to the le or is a generic base URL, or is not an Internet
source for an le that was likely found on the Internet. Source information should be provided so that the copyright status can be veried
by others. It is requested that a better source be provided to make determination of the copyright information easier. Please provide a URL
to an HTML page that contains this le. See Commons:Licensing#License_information for more information. Original artist: Unknown
File:British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/
British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph Q 11586 from the
collections of the Imperial War Museums (collection no. 1900-22) Original artist: Thomas Keith Aitken (Second Lieutenant)
File:British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/British_Raj_Red_Ensign.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: based on Canadian Red Ensign.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Canadian_Red_Ensign_1957-1965.svg' class='image'><img alt='Canadian Red Ensign 1957-1965.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Canadian_Red_Ensign_1957-1965.svg/48px-Canadian_Red_Ensign_1957-1965.svg.png'

17.2

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55

width='48'
height='24'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Canadian_Red_Ensign_1957-1965.
svg/72px-Canadian_Red_Ensign_1957-1965.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/
Canadian_Red_Ensign_1957-1965.svg/96px-Canadian_Red_Ensign_1957-1965.svg.png
2x'
data-le-width='1000'
data-leheight='500' /></a> and Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg'
class='image'><img
alt='Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/
be/Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg/32px-Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg.png'
width='32'
height='32'
srcset='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg/48px-Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg.png
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg/64px-Star-of-India-silver-centre.svg.png
2x' data-le-width='99' data-le-height='99' /></a> Original artist: Barryob
File:British_Troops_Marching_in_Mesopotamia.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/British_
Troops_Marching_in_Mesopotamia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Unknown
File:Bulgaria_southern_front.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Bulgaria_southern_front.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.lostbulgaria.com/?p=3541 Original artist: Unknown
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00104,_Inflation,_Tapezieren_mit_Geldscheinen.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00104%2C_Inflation%2C_Tapezieren_mit_Geldscheinen.jpg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part
of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or
positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Pahl, Georg
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0323-501,_Kriegskinematograph_im_Schtzengraben.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-1983-0323-501%2C_Kriegskinematograph_im_Sch%C3%BCtzengraben.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches
Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals
(negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R72520,_Kiel,_Novemberrevolution,_Matrosenaufstand.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/b/be/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R72520%2C_Kiel%2C_Novemberrevolution%2C_Matrosenaufstand.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals
(negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown
File:Calling_on_the_Kaiser.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Calling_on_the_Kaiser.ogg License:
Public domain Contributors: www.exulanten.com Original artist: Edison Records
File:Canadian_Red_Ensign_1868-1921.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Canadian_Red_Ensign_
1868-1921.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Canadian_Scottish_at_Canal_du_Nord_Sept_1918_IWM_CO_3289.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/5/55/Canadian_Scottish_at_Canal_du_Nord_Sept_1918_IWM_CO_3289.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is
photograph CO 3289 from the collections of the Imperial War Museums. Original artist: Canadian Ocial photographer : Rider-Rider,
William (Lieutenant)
File:Canadian_tank_and_soldiers_Vimy_1917.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Canadian_tank_
and_soldiers_Vimy_1917.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from Library and Archives Canada under the
reproduction reference number PA-004388 and under the MIKAN ID number 3522713
Original artist: Canada. Dept. of National Defence
File:Capture_of_Jerusalem_1917d.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Capture_of_Jerusalem_
1917d.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress LC-DIG-ppmsca-13291-00030 Original artist: American Colony
Photo Department (Jerusalem), photographer not named
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Cover-of-book-for-WWI-veterans-by-William-Brown-Meloney-born-1878.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/en/a/a9/Cover-of-book-for-WWI-veterans-by-William-Brown-Meloney-born-1878.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Czech_Troops.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Czech_Troops.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://nortvoods.net/rrs/siberia/siberia-d.htm Original artist: Unknown
File:Detail_of_Xmas_card_from_British_Mesopotamian_Expeditionary_Force,_1917.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/0/09/Detail_of_Xmas_card_from_British_Mesopotamian_Expeditionary_Force%2C_1917.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hjaltland Collection
File:Dominion_of_Newfoundland_Red_Ensign.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Dominion_of_
Newfoundland_Red_Ensign.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lrenhrda
File:Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic,_Camp_Funston,_Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg
Source:
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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Emergency_hospital_during_Influenza_epidemic%2C_Camp_Funston%2C_
Kansas_-_NCP_1603.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: NCP 1603 Original artist: Otis Historical Archives Nat'l Museum of Health
& Medicine
File:FirstSerbianArmedPlane1915.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/FirstSerbianArmedPlane1915.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Museum of Yugoslav Aviation in Belgrade Original artist: Unknown
File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Austria-Hungary_(1869-1918).svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Flag_of_
Austria-Hungary_%281869-1918%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: vectorized by Sgt_bilko,
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n=000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp
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03/page/2/, originally from Serbian archives Original artist: Unknown
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1917_-_1919_-_NARA_-_533724.tif License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original
artist: Unknown or not provided
File:German_soldiers_in_a_railroad_car_on_the_way_to_the_front_during_early_World_War_I,_taken_in_1914._Taken_
from_greatwar.nl_site.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/German_soldiers_in_a_railroad_car_on_
the_way_to_the_front_during_early_World_War_I%2C_taken_in_1914._Taken_from_greatwar.nl_site.jpg License: Public domain
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Original artist: Unknown German war photographer. Original uploader was Sus scrofa at en.wikipedia

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File:Guetteur_au_poste_de_l'cluse_26.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Guetteur_au_poste_de_

l%27%C3%A9cluse_26.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Hochseeflotte_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Hochseeflotte_2.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Aus: Abbot, Willis John: The Nations at War: A Current History. Leslie-Judge Co., NY, 1917; Download von http://www.
gwpda.org/photos/bin19/imag1811.jpg Original artist: Unknown
File:Hospital_ward.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Hospital_ward.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: UBC Library Digital Collections Original artist: Unknown
File:Hromadn_poprava_srbskho_obyvatelstva.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Hromadn%
C3%A1_poprava_srbsk%C3%A9ho_obyvatelstva.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Lta zkzy a nadje 1914-1918, Miroslav a
Hana Honzkovi (Miroslav Honzk and Hana Honzkov) Original artist: Unknown
File:Indian_army_soldier_after_siege_of_Kut.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Indian_army_
soldier_after_siege_of_Kut.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Mesopotamia campaign, UK National Archives: Indian army
soldier after siege of Kut. Original artist: ?
File:John_McCrae_in_uniform_circa_1914.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/John_McCrae_in_
uniform_circa_1914.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Guelph Museums, Reference No. M968.354.1.2x Original artist: William
Notman and Son
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%281870%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: kahusi - <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Kahusi' title='User
talk:Kahusi'>(Talk)</a>'s le Original artist: kahusi - <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Kahusi' title='User talk:
Kahusi'>(Talk)</a>
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Morgen50.jpg) Original artist: Henry Morgenthau
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jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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uboat155London.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Flickr the Commons, http://www.flickr.com/photos/nationaalarchief/
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License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_badly_shelled_main_road_to_Bapaume.jpg' class='image'><img alt=''

src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/The_badly_shelled_main_road_to_Bapaume.jpg/
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commons/thumb/0/09/The_badly_shelled_main_road_to_Bapaume.jpg/379px-The_badly_shelled_main_road_to_Bapaume.jpg
1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/The_badly_shelled_main_road_to_Bapaume.jpg/
505px-The_badly_shelled_main_road_to_Bapaume.jpg 2x' data-le-width='800' data-le-height='570' /></a>
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<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AlbatDIII.jpg' class='image'><img alt='' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/AlbatDIII.jpg/237px-AlbatDIII.jpg' width='158' height='120' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/AlbatDIII.jpg/355px-AlbatDIII.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/0/0e/AlbatDIII.jpg/473px-AlbatDIII.jpg 2x' data-le-width='506' data-le-height='385' /></a>
German Albatros D.III biplane ghters of Jasta 11 at Douai, France
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src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Vickers_machine_gun_crew_with_gas_masks.jpg/
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wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Vickers_machine_gun_crew_with_gas_masks.jpg/434px-Vickers_machine_gun_crew_with_
gas_masks.jpg 1.5x,
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<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:British_Mark_V_Tanks_With_Crib_Fascines_1918.jpg' class='image'><img alt=''
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/British_Mark_V_Tanks_With_Crib_Fascines_1918.jpg/
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wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/British_Mark_V_Tanks_With_Crib_Fascines_1918.jpg/361px-British_Mark_V_Tanks_With_
Crib_Fascines_1918.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/British_Mark_V_Tanks_With_
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March_1915.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/HMS_Irresistible_abandoned_18_March_
1915.jpg/523px-HMS_Irresistible_abandoned_18_March_1915.jpg 2x' data-le-width='3696' data-le-height='2544' /></a>
British battleship HMS Irresistible
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