Elements of Nuclear Reactor Theory

The elements of nuclear reactor theory.
Glasstone, Samuel, 1897-1986.

New York : Van Nostrand, 1952.
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The Elements of
NUCLEAR REACTOR
THEORY
by
SAMUEL
GLASSTONE

Consultant, United States Atomic Energy Commission
AND
MILTON
C.
EDLUND
Physicist, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
SIXTH PRINTING
D.
VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INC.

PRINCETON,
^TO
NEW JERSEY
NEW YORK
LONDON
Engineering
'A
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INC.
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,ChS5
(^.p
Alexander St., Princeton, New Jersey

Fourth Avenue, New York 10, New York
25 Hollinger Rd., Toronto 16, Canada
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^ correspondence
should
be addressed to the
principal office of the company at Princeton, N.
Copyright,
1952,
J.
by
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, Inc.

The publishers
United
assign copyright to the General Manager of the

States Atomic Energy Commission to be held by him.
Published simultaneously
in Canada by

D. Van Nostrand Company (Canada), Ltd.
All
rights in this book are reserved. Without written

authorization
Company,
from D. Van Nostrand
Inc., 120 Alexander Street, Princeton, New Jersey,
it may not be reproduced in any form in whole or
in part (except for quotation in critical articles or
reviews), nor may it be used jor dramatic, motion-,
talking-picture, radio, television or any other similar
purpose.
Library of Congress Catalogue Card No.

First Published November
Reprinted February
November 1955, August
PRINTED
IN THE UNITED
52-12438
1952
1954,
May
1956,
February
1955,
STATES OF AMERICA
1957
Nothing is more essential to the Nation's atomic energy program than our
As the AEC project has expanded,
for
more
and
more
trained
personnel has been ever present.
the need
The
established educational organizations of the Nation have eagerly sought ways
and means to provide the proper training for present-day students who wish
to study nuclear science and engineering, but to some extent the educators have
been hampered by the lack of informational material available.
In order to provide the essential information in the important field of nuclear
reactor theory, the AEC engaged Dr. Samuel Glasstone, a scientist, educator,
and textbook writer of established reputation, to assist in the preparation and
presentation of the information that could be gathered from all sources, including
In so doing, he participated in the activ
the files and facilities of the project.
ities of the Oak Ridge School of Reactor Technology and collaborated with the
staff, chiefly Mr. Milton C. Edlund, who conducted the course in nuclear reactor
The text prepared by these men has been reviewed by a number of
theory.
scientists and engineers within the atomic energy program.
The AEC Office
of Classification also checked the final manuscript to ascertain that its publica
tion would in no way prove harmful to national security.
The scientific evalua
tion and presentation of the information, however, are wholly the work of the

resources of trained scientists and engineers.
authors.
The Atomic Energy Commission takes pride in offering this book as an aid
to further education and training in the field of nuclear science.
ili
FOREWORD
by
Alvin M. Weinberg, Research Director

Oak Ridge National Laboratory
The field of nuclear reactor theory is unique among physical theories in that
it is a subject of extreme practical importance whose principles have not been

written down in fairly complete, coherent fashion.
Parts of the theory have
been the subjects of several monographs and books, notably Soodak and Camp

bell's Elementary
Pile Theory and the
MIT
volumes, The Science and Engineer
However, because of previous secrecy restrictions there

ing of Nuclear Power.
has been, up to now, no more or less complete exposition of the subject from a
single unified point of view.
The present volume by Glasstone and Edlund is the first attempt at presenting
the whole field in one reasonably complete work. The book bears resemblance
to the Soodak and Campbell volume since both are based on courses in
reactor theory at Oak Ridge the older on Soodak's lectures in the original
Clinton Laboratories Training School, the newer on Edlund's lectures in the
recently reconstituted Oak Ridge School of Reactor Technology. The fuller
treatment in the Glasstone-Edlund book is mainly a reflection of the broader
scope of the training given to embryo nuclear engineers in the new school as
compared with the old.
While it is too early to say with certainty, it seems very probable that reactor
The
technology will remain an extraordinarily important engineering field.
theory of nuclear reactors is of course central to an understanding of this field.
To the authors who have given so much effort to the preparation of this text
deep gratitude is therefore due not only from the coming generation of nuclear
engineers, but also from the many original contributors to the theory who,
because of day-to-day pressures, have never been able to accomplish
which Messrs. Glasstone and Edlund have done so admirably.
tv
the task
PREFACE
This book is intended as an introduction to the subject of nuclear reactor
for the use of physicists, engineers, and others who are being brought
theory

into the reactor program for the first time.

Because of the varying backgrounds
of the readers, there is a considerable range in the scope and difficulty of the
material. Some readers will consequently wish to omit certain chapters, and
this can frequently be done without affecting the fundamental development of
the subject.
The present form is a revision of the preliminary draft, issued in 1950, that
was developed from lectures given by M. C. Edlund at the Oak Ridge School of
Reactor Technology. The authors wish to take this opportunity to acknowl
edge their indebtedness to the many scientists whose cooperative efforts in
connection with the Manhattan Project led to the development of the ideas
discussed in this book.
Mention may be made in particular of the contributions
of R. F. Christy, C. Eckart, E. Fermi, F. L. Friedman, L. W. Nordheim,
P. Morrison, G. Placzek, L. Szilard, E. Teller, A. M. Weinberg, J. A. Wheeler,
E. P. Wigner, and G. Young.
The authors' thanks are also due to a number of colleagues, who read the
preliminary draft, and, in particular, to A. M. Weinberg for his helpful advice
and valuable criticism.
Samuel Glasstone
Milton C. Edlund

CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
II.
III.
v
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
The
The
The
The
Fission Process
Diffusion of Neutrons
Slowing Down of Neutrons
Bare Homogeneous Thermal

termined
VIII.
DC.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
PAGE
Nuclear Structure and Stability

Nuclear Reactions
Production and Reactions of Neutrons
16
33
62
90
137
Reactor
(Sources
De
by Fermi Age Theory)
with Reflector: The

Reactor
Diffusion Method
Heterogeneous (Natural Uranium) Reactors
Homogeneous
191
Group-
of a Bare Thermal Reactor

Reactor Control
General Theory of Homogeneous Multiplying Systems
Perturbation Theory
Transport Theory and Neutron Diffusion
225
250
Time Behavior
Index
290
314
.
345
372
384
405
vfi

Chapter
NUCLEAR STRUCTURE AND STABILITY*

CHARACTERISTICS
OF ATOMIC NUCLEI
Protons and Neutrons

The operation of nuclear reactors depends on various types of interaction
In order to understand the nature and char
neutrons with atomic nuclei.
acteristics of these reactions, it is desirable to review briefly some of the funda
mental aspects of nuclear structure and nuclear energy.
1.2. An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a number
of negatively charged electrons, so that the atom as a whole is electrically neu
tral.
In the processes taking place in a reactor, leading to the release of atomic
energy, it is only the atomic nuclei which are involved, and the electrons may
be neglected.
Chemical energy, such as is obtained by the combustion of coal
and oil, results in a rearrangement of the atoms due to a redistribution of the
electrons.
Atomic energy, on the other hand, is a consequence of the redistribu
tion of the particles within the atomic nuclei.
For this reason, the term nuclear
a
more
precise alternative to the historic name,
energy is frequently used as
1.1.
atomic energy.
Atomic nuclei are built up of two kinds of primary particles, called protons
and neutrons, respectively.
Because they are the units of which the nuclei are
and
for
other
reasons,
protons and neutrons are often referred to by
composed,
the general term nucleon.
Both protons and neutrons can be obtained in the
free state, i.e., outside atomic nuclei, and their individual properties can thus
1.3.
be
studied.
The proton carries a single unit positive charge, equal in magnitude to

This particle
in fact, identical with the nucleus of
the electronic charge.
Hence, the
hydrogen atom without its single electron.
hydrogen atom, i.e.,
a
is,
1.4.
*
General references to these topics are H. A. Bethe, "Elementary Nuclear Theory," John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1947; D. Halliday, "Introductory Nuclear Physics," John Wiley and
given by S. Gladstone, "Sourcebook on
Sons, Inc., 1950.
more elementary treatment
Atomic Energy," D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1950.
is

of
THE ELEMENTS
OF NUCLEAR REACTOR THEORY
mass of a proton is taken as equal to the mass of a hydrogen atom minus

Thus, expressed in atomic mass units or amu,*
IM
the
mass of an electron.
Mass of hydrogen atom =

Mass of proton =
1.00813
amu
1.00758 amu.
which is of fundamental importance in connection with

Con
the release of nuclear energy, is electrically neutral and carries no charge.
when
an
it
electrical
it
atomic
repulsion
approaches
does
not
suffer
sequently,
(positively charged) nucleus from outside, as does a charged particle, such as a
The mass of a neutron is somewhat greater than that of a proton, and
proton.
1.5.
The neutron,
even of a hydrogen atom
thus,
Mass of neutron =
1.00897
amu.
Methods for the production of neutrons and a discussion of their interaction with
atomic nuclei will be given later.
Atomic Number and Mass Number
1.6.
For a given element, the number of protons present in the atomic nucleus,
which is the same as the number of positive charges it carries, is called the atomic
It is usually represented by the symbol Z, and it is equal,
number of the element.
apart from
a few exceptions,
to the number of the element in order of increasing
Thus, the atomic number of hydrogen is 1, of helium 2, oi

to 92 for uranium, the element with the highest atomic
A number of heavier ele
weight existing in nature to any appreciable extent.
ments, of which plutonium, atomic number 94, is important in connection with
the release of nuclear energy, have been made artificially.
1.7. The total number of protons and neutrons in an atomic nucleus is callec
the mass number of the element and is indicated by A . The number of proton?
is equal to Z, as stated above; hence, the number of neutrons in a given atomic
nucleus is A Z. Since both neutron and proton have masses which are close
to unity on the atomic weight scale, it is evident that the mass number is the
integer nearest to the atomic weight of the species under consideration.
atomic
weight.
lithium 3, and
so on up
Isotopes and Nuclides

1.8.
It
is the atomic number, i.e., the number of protons, and not the atomic
This is because the

weight, that determines the chemical nature of an element.
chemical properties depend on the electrons, and the number of the latter in ar
Consequently, atoms with nuclei contain
atom is equal to the atomic number.
ing the same number of protons, i.e., with the same atomic number, but wit!
different numbers of neutrons, i.e., with different mass numbers, are essentiallj
*
The atomic mass unit is denned in terms of the mass of the atom of O", the main isotope
The weight of this atom is taken to be exactly 16 atomic mass units.
oxygen.
o:
NUCLEAR STRUCTURE AND STABILITY
1.12]
chemically, although they frequently exhibit marked differences of

Sjuch species, having the same atomic number but different
stability.
identical
nuclear
mass
numbers, are called isotopes.
.Most elements present in nature exist in two or more stable isotopic

which are virtually indistinguishable chemically, although their mass
Altogether, some 280 stable iso
numbers and atomic weights are different.
topes have been identified as occurring naturally, and in addition some 50 un
Another 700 or more unstable species have
stable species are found in nature.
In order to distinguish
been obtained artificially by various nuclear reactions.
element,
it
is
usual to indicate the mass
among the different isotopes of a given
Thus, the isotope of
number together with the name or symbol of the element.
be
as
represented
uranium-238, U-238, or U238.
uranium of mass number 238 may
1.10. The element uranium, which is at present the most important for the
release of nuclear energy, exists in nature in at least three isotopic forms, with
The proportions in which the
mass numbers 234, 235, and 238, respectively.
in
natural
uranium
and
the
of the respective atoms in
weights
isotopes occur
It is seen that uranium-238 is by far
atomic mass units are given in Table 1.10.
all
.natural
uranium
contains a little over 0.7 per
abundant
but
isotope,
the most
The proportion of uranium-234 is so small that it is usually
cent of uranium-235.
in
the
of nuclear reactors.
study
neglected
1.9.

forms,
TABLE 1.10.
ISOTOPIC
COMPOSITION
OK NATURAL URANIUM
Mass Number
Per Cent
Isotopic Mass
234
0.006
234.11
235
0.712
235.11
238
99.282
238.12
(omu)
1.11. Although the majority of elements exist naturally as a mixture of iso

For this and other reasons, it has
topes, about 20 occur as single species only.
It is used to describe an
been found desirable to introduce the term nuclide.
atomic species characterized by the composition of its nucleus, i.e., by the num
An isotope is consequently one of a ,

bers of protons and neutrons it contains.
jroup of two or more nuclides having the same number of protons, i.e., the same
An element like fluorine,
but different numbers of neutrons.
which only one species exists in nature, is said to form a single stable nuclide.
atomic number,
5f
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactive Isotopes
1.12.
It
was stated above that a number
of unstable
isotopes (or unstable
Actually, the naturally occurring elements of

nuclides)
highest atomic weight, such as polonium, thorium, radium, and uranium, con
sist entirely of unstable nuclides or radioactive isotopes. These substances
are found in nature.
THE ELEMENTS
undergo spontaneous change, referred to as radioactive
[1.12
disintegration or radio
active decay, at definite rates.

The decay is accompanied by the emission from
the atomic nucleus of an electrically charged particle, either an alpha particle,
which is a helium nucleus, or a beta particle, which is an electron.
the products of decay are themselves radioactive,
beta particle.
Frequently,
expelling either an alpha or a

an atomic species
After a number of stages of disintegration,
with a stable nucleus is formed.

1.13.
In many instances,
when
a nucleus
suffers
radioactive
decay,
the
product (or daughter) nucleus is not in its lowest energy state or ground state.
In other words, the product nucleus is in an excited state, having energy in excess
Within a very short time, perhaps 10-16 sec of its formation,
of the ground state.

the excited nucleus emits the excess (or excitation) energy in the form of radia
tion called gamma rays. These rays are similar in character to X-rays; they are
highly penetrating and have wave lengths in the range of 10-8 to 10-11 cm or less.
The greater the excitation energy of the nucleus, the shorter the wave length of
the gamma radiatioriT
1.14. Although the elements of highest atomic number,
from polonium
exist
in
onward,
only
number
radioactive
unstable,
forms, thallium
(atomic
84)
(81), lead (82), and bismuth (83) occur in nature largely as stable isotopes, and
also to some extent as unstable isotopes.
With a few exceptions, which are not
important here, the elements below thallium, as found in nature, consist entirely
of stable nuclides.
However, in recent years there have been produced, by
various nuclear reactions, unstable, i.e., radioactive, isotopes of all the known
elements.
1.15.
For reasons which will
be apparent
shortly (
1.45, et seq.),
if a particular
nuclide is to be stable, the ratio of neutrons to protons in its nucleus must lie
within a certain limited range.
This may be seen from Fig. 1.15, in which the
number of neutrons (ordinates) is plotted against the number of protons (abscis
It is apparent that the
sas) present in each of the known stable atomic nuclei.
points lie within a relatively narrow band, corresponding to a restricted stability

range of neutron-to-proton ratios for any given mass (or atomic) number.
Asthe mass number, i.e., the sum of the neutrons and protons, increases, the neu
tron-to-proton ratio for stability increases steadily from 1.00 to about 1.56.
For each mass (or atomic) number there is a relatively small variation in the
ratio within which stable nuclides occur.
Radioactive Change
When the numbers of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of a given
atomic species are such that the ratio lies outside the stability range for that
mass number, the nuclide will be radioactive.
The unstable nucleus will undergo
spontaneous change in the direction of increased stability.
Should the nucleus
contain more neutrons or, what is the same thing, fewer protons, than are required
1.16.
1.16]
<12
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120
HO
100
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i i
so
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/:'

90
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50
.. . .
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.i .
.
:
* .
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40
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30
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t
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.
/,,:;
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20
20
10
40
30
NUMBER
Fig.
00
proton and at the

neutron will be spontaneously converted into
negative electron, i.e., negative beta particle, will be expelled; thus,
a
11
0+1
Neutron
Charge
Mass
Proton
Negative Beta Particle
time
30
same
80
70
U)
Numbers of neutrons and protons in stable nuclei
>
stability,
60
PROTONS
lor
1.15.
50
OF
-1
0
10
Iz
..:
/i
/ /
//
//
>

. :.
THE ELEMENTS
[1.16
is
the number of neutrons
+1
Positive Beta Particle
Neutron
+1
0
Mass
within
proton will
Now, however,
positive electron or positron,
Charge
11
Proton
into neutron, and at the same time

positive beta particle, will be ejected; thus,
>
i.e.,
too small,
too large, for the neutron-to-proton ratio to be
the stability range for the particular mass number.

be converted
is
nuclide will also be unstable
or the number of protons
if
is
formed.
is
1.18.
stable species
it
The product nucleus will then have an atomic number one unit lower than its
parent, although the mass number will be the same. As in the case considered
also will be radio
above, the daughter may still be somewhat unstable, and then
In any event, after one or more stages of positive beta decay, a stable
active.
neutron-to-proton ratio within the stability range will be
nucleus having
formed.
detail.
is
it
is
is
is
is
is
There are two other ways in which nuclide with ratio of neutrons to
by the emis
too low for stability can become more stable.
One
by the nucleus capturing a
sion of an alpha particle
1.12), and the other
negative electron from outside the atom, thus reversing the process described in
In each case the change associated with an increase in the neutron-to1.16.
important in
proton ratio. Since neither of these modes of radioactive decay
connection with nuclear reactors,
unnecessary to consider them in further
1.19.
protons that

is
it
is is
is,
The charge and mass on the left-hand side, i.e., the neutron, are seen to balance
those on the right-hand side, i.e., proton + negative beta particle.
It may be
mentioned that there are reasons for postulating that another particle, called a
neutrino, having essentially zero mass and no charge, is also formed and carries
off some of the energy liberated in the radioactive transformation.
1.17. The result of the change depicted above,
effectively, to replace
proton, so that the atomic number of the product (or daughter)
neutron by
element
one unit greater than that of the parent element, although its mass
In other words, the radioactive (negative beta) change
number
unchanged.
leads to the formation of an isotopic form of another element with the same mass
number as the parent element.
In this new species the neutron-to-proton ratio
will be less than in the nucleus of the parent, because the change of neutron to a
proton means decrease in the number of neutrons and an accompanying increase
in the number of protons.
Hence, in general, the daughter nucleus will tend to
be more stable than the parent.
It may not be entirely stable, however; in this
will also be radioactive, expelling
event,
negative beta particle and forming
an isotope of still another element.
After one, two, or more stages, in each of
which neutron
replaced by
proton and
emitted,
negative beta particle
1.231
Rate op Radioactive Decay

1.20.
For
a given radioactive species, every nucleus has a definite probability

in unit time; this decay probability is characteristic of the particular
decaying
and has a constant value which cannot be changed in any known way.
It is the same irrespective of the chemical or physical state of the element at all
accessible temperatures and pressures. In a given specimen, the rate of decay at
any instant is always directly proportional to the number of radioactive atoms
of the isotope under consideration present at that instant. Thus, if N is the
number of the particular radioactive atoms (or nuclei) present at any time t, the
decay rate is given by
of
species
-Xtf,
(1.20.1)
where X is called the decay constant of the radioactive species. Upon integration
between any arbitrary zero time, when the number of radioactive nuclei of the
specified kind present is No, and a time t later, when the number of these nuclei
remaining is AT, it is readily found that
= Woe~*.
(1.20.2)
method for representing the rate of radioactive decay is

It is denned as the time re
by means of the half life of a particular nuclide.
quired for the number of active nuclei (or the activity) to decay to half its initial
iVo, the corresponding
set equal to
OMl,
= ln_2 =
or
is
in (1.20.2), N
This means that
the half life T; thus,
-xr _
time
is
value.
convenient
if,
1.21.
is
is
inversely proportional to the decay constant.

The half
that the half life
small fraction of
second to
lives of known radioactive species range from
billions of years.
the mean life
1.22. The reciprocal of the decay constant, represented by tm,
or average life of the radioactive species; thus,
so
can be shown that the mean life

nuclei present at any time.
is
(1.22.1)
j[-
tm
It
equal to the average life expectancy of the
NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGIES

Nuclear Forces
The remarkable fact about atomic nuclei
not that some show partial

instability and are radioactive, but rather that they exhibit any stability at all.
1.23.
is

THE ELEMENTS
It might
[1.23
upon first consideration, that a system of closely packed

(positively charged) protons, such as exists in an atomic nucleus, would fly apart
The stability of atomic
because of the electrostatic repulsion of the charges.
be thought,
nuclei is evidently related, at least partly, to the presence of neutrons in addition

to protons.
The existence of the stable nucleus of deuterium, the isotope of hydrogen

of mass number 2, consisting of a neutron and a proton, shows that attractive
neutron-proton forces must be involved. In addition, there is good evidence
that at close range, as in an atomic nucleus, there are forces of attraction between
1.24.
protons
themselves
as well
stability of the helium-3

indicates
as
between neutrons.
nucleus,
For example, the definite
containing one neutron
and two protons,
the existence of proton-proton forces of attraction within the atomic
it is accepted that attractive neutron-neutron,

proton-proton, and neutron-proton forces exist, little is known of the nature of
The subject of nuclear stability cannot yet be satisfactorily treated
such forces.
from a theoretical standpoint, and so a semi-empirical approach, based on nuclear
masses, will be used here.
nucleus.
'However,
although
Mass Defect and Binding Enebgt

1.25.
If
there were no energy changes, due to the operation
of nuclear forces,
the mass of a nucleus would be equal to the sum of the masses of its constituent Z
Z neutrons (1.7). The total mass of the atom as a whole

would then be the sum of these quantities plus the mass of Z electrons.
Since a
proton and an electron make up a hydrogen atom, it may be supposed that the
mass of an atom of any nuclide of atomic number Z and mass number A should
be equal to the mass of Z hydrogen atoms plus that of A Z neutrons, i.e., to
Zmn + (A Z)mn, where mH and mn are the masses of a hydrogen atom and of a
protons and
neutron, respectively.
Actual determinations of individual atomic masses show that they are

The difference between
always less than the values calculated in this manner.
the calculated mass and the experimental mass M, called the mass defect, is repre
sented by
Mass defect = ZmH + (A
M.
Z)m
(1.26.1)
1.26.
This mass defect represents the mass which would appear in the form of energy
in the hypothetical process of assembling a particular atom from the requisite
The same amount of energy would,

of course, have to be supplied to the atom in order to break it up into its constitu
Hence, the energy equivalent of the true mass defect is taken as a
ent particles.
measure of the binding energy of the particular atomic species.
1.27. In order to determine the energy equivalent of the mass defect, use is
made of the Einstein mass-energy relationship
number of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
mc2,
(1.27.1)
1.30]
where
E is the
energy equivalent of the mass m, and c is the velocity of light.
If
in grams, and c in cm per sec, i.e. , 3 X 1010 cm per sec, E will be in ergs.
For
present purposes, it is more useful to express m in atomic mass units, where
24
1 amu = 1.67 X 10gram*; equation (1.27.1) then becomes
m is
(ergs) = m(amu)
1.28.
In atomic
studies
1.49
10-3.
(1.27.2)
it has become the practice to express energies in
elec
units. The electron volt, i.e., 1 ev, is the energy acquired by any charged
particle carrying a unit (electronic) charge when it passes without resistance
through a potential difference of 1 volt. From the known magnitude of the
electronic charge, it is found that
tron volt
ev = 1.60
10-12
erg.
(1.28.1)
Consequently, (1.27.2) can be written as

(ev) = m(amu)
9.31
10s.
Actually, the electron volt is too small a unit for many purposes, and the million
electron volt unit, i.e., 10s ev, abbreviated to Mev, is used; hence,
E(Mev)
= wi(amu)
931,
(1.28.2)
to 931 Mev.
1.29. Returning to equation (1.26.1) for the mass defect, it follows from the
arguments presented above that the binding energy is given by
so
that
atomic mass unit is equivalent
Binding energy in Mev = 931[ZmH + (A
- Z)mB - M],
(1.29.1)
where wih is 1.00813 amu, m is 1.00897 amu, and M is the isotopic mass in amu.
In this derivation the binding energy of the electrons to the nucleus has been
In any
neglected or, rather, it has been regarded as included in the ZmH term.
Con
event, the electron binding energy is a very small fraction of the total.
of
net
as
a
measure
the
giving
binding
be
taken
sequently, (1.29.1) may
energy
of the constituent nucleons, i.e., protons and neutrons, in the nucleus of the
atom under consideration.
1.30. By means of (1.29.1) the binding energies have been calculated for all
If the bind
nuclides whose isotopic weights are known with sufficient accuracy.
ing energy is divided by the mass number, i.e., by the total number of nucleons
in the nucleus, there is obtained the mean binding energy per nucleon for the given
The results have been plotted against the respective mass numbers in
nuclide.
*
This is one-sixteenth part of
the actual mass in grams of an
O"
atom.
THE ELEMENTS
10
[1.30

Fig. 1.30. It will be seen that with the exception of a few light nuclei, the values
fall on, or in close proximity to, a single curve. The mean binding energy per
nucleon in the elements of low mass number is low, but over a considerable
range it is close to 8 Mev. The total binding energy is then approximately pro
portional to the mass number, i.e., to the number of nucleons in the nucleus.
MASS NUMBER
Fig.
1.30.
Binding energy per nucleon of stable nuclides
Liquid Drop Model of Nucleus
;
1.31.
It
has been found useful in certain respects to regard an atomic nucleus
similar in character to a drop of incompressible liquid. Just as

for surface tension tend to maintain a liquid drop in a
spherical form which resists distortion, it is believed that nuclear forces have a
similar effect on the atomic nucleus.
This point of view has been especially
valuable in the consideration of nuclear fission.
1.32. In a liquid the forces between molecules are short-range forces; that is to
say, they operate only between any given molecule and such others as are imme
diately adjacent to it. Hence, in a liquid, there is no appreciable interaction
between more distant molecules.
Similar considerations are apparently applica
This
ble to the forces operating between the nucleons in an atomic nucleus.
If nuclear forces
view is supported by the binding energy data given above.
had long-range character, so that each nucleon interacted with every other nu
as somewhat
the forces responsible
1.36)
11
total binding energy would increase roughly as the square of the

Actually, the total binding energy is almost directly pro
portional to the number of nucleons, as stated in 1.30.
1.33. Further evidence for the short-range character of nuclear forces is pro
vided by determinations of nuclear radii.
Three main methods have been used
for this purpose.
The first method, applicable to radioactive nuclides of high
mass number which emit alpha particles, depends on the rates of decay and the
The second method is based on the dif
energies of the alpha particles expelled.
ference in the binding energies of mirror nuclei, i.e., pairs of nuclei in which the
neutron and proton numbers of one member of the pair are the proton and neu
Finally, there is a method for
tron numbers, respectively, of the other member.
determining nuclear radii which can be used, at least in principle, for any species,
This involves measurement of the
irrespective of its stability or mass number.
cleon, the
number of nucleons.
cross sections of fast neutrons ( 3.38, et seq.).

The values obtained by different methods for a given nuclide are gen
1.34.
Except for the elements of lowest
erally in good agreement with each other.
mass number, the results can be expressed, to a fair approximation, by the
scattering

formula
R =
1.5
X HHM*
cm,
(1.34.1)
A. The fact that the nuclear

approximately proportional to the cube root of the mass number is of
The volume of the nucleus is consequently directly propor
great importance.
tional to the mass number and, hence, to its actual mass.
This means that all
same
atomic nuclei containing the
constituents, namely, neutrons and protons,
have essentially the same density.
The constancy of the nuclear density, irreis
just what is to be expected if the nucleus
spective of the number of nucleons,
behavesTiEe a liquid witlTshort-range forces operating between the constituent
where
R is the radius of
a nucleus of mass number
radius is
particles.
Semi-empirical
Calculation of Binding Energies
The liquid-drop model of the atomic nucleus can
be used, in default of a
to
derive
a
theory
of nuclear forces,
semi-empirical expression for the
complete
This is done by considering, in what is undoubtedly an over
binding energy.
simplified manner, the various factors which are believed to contribute to nuclear
The appropriate weighting constants are then derived from theoretical
binding.
considerations where possible and from experimental data where the theory is
1.35.
still inadequate.
1.36.
If
will, in the
strongly attracted by those in its immediate vicinity,

This leads to an attractive contribution to
which is proportional to the number of nucleons in the nucleus. The
first place,
but will be unaffected

the energy
(f'A
the forces in the nucleus are like those in a liquid drop, each nucJeriri
be
by the others.
THE ELEMENTS OF NUCLEAR REACTOR THEORY
12
attractive energy
will thus vary
represented by
where
<ii
as the mass number
[1.36
A , and it can consequently
Attractive energy = aiA,
be
(1.36.1)
is a constant.
In stating that the attractive energy is proportional to the mass num
1.37.
ber, it is tacitly assumed that every nucleon has the same access to other nucleons.
Actually, those at the surface of the nucleus will be less tightly bound than
those in the interior, so that the attractive energy, as given by (1.36.1), has been
overestimated by an amount which depends on the surface area. The larger
this area, the greater will be the number of nucleons which are not completely
The amount whereby the attractive energy has been
surrounded by others.
overestimated may thus be regarded as proportional to the surface area of the
It is frequently referred to as the surface tension effect, because it is due
nucleus.
to a factor similar to that which causes surface tension in a liquid. Since, ac
cording to (1.34.1), the nuclear radius is proportional to A$, the surface area
varies as A$, and hence

Surface tension effect = aÂ^,

where
1.38.
form.
02
(1.37.1)
is a constant.
In stable nuclei there is a tendency for groups of neutron-proton pairs to

For example, the most stable species, such as He4, C12, and O16 (see
Fig. 1.30), are those consisting of equal numbers of neutrons and protons.
Most nuclei, however, especially the heavier ones, have an excess of neutrons
This excess is necessary in order that the attractive neutronover protons.
neutron and neutron-proton forces may compensate for the electrostatic re
At the same time, a degree of instability is introduced
pulsion between protons.
because the excess neutrons occupy a number of nuclear energy levels that
The presence of more neutrons than protons in the nucleus
contain no protons.
means that the estimate of the attractive energy given by (1.36.1) is too large.
The appropriate correction can be made by a composition term, expressed by
Composition term =
where
a3
is a constant
and
2Z is the
a3
(A
excess
-j
2ZY
of neutrons
(1.38.1)
over protons in
the nucleus.*
1.39.
The sum of the three terms derived above probably represents essen
It is necessary now to examine
tially the net attractive energy in the nucleus.
the
mutual electrostatic repulsion of the protons.
the repulsive energy due to
The potential energy of a uniformly charged sphere is proportional to Zi/R,
where Z is the number of unit charges, i.e., the atomic number in the present case,
*
See
E. Fermi, "Nuclear Physics,"
page 22, University
of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1950.
1.42]
and
As applied to the nuclear binding energy, the

represented by
R is the radius of the sphere.
electrostatic repulsion can be
Repulsive energy =
where the nuclear radius
as
13
a4
Z2
r,
(1.39.1)
4*
R has been replaced by .4*, to which it is proportional
in the other expressions,

1.40.
a4
Finally, consideration
must be given to the influence of the odd and
of the numbers of protons and neutrons.
even character
is a constant.
even, i.e., even-even type, the nucleus is exceptionally
When these are both
stable, and when they are
particularly unstable.
This may be
attributed to the stabilizing effect of the pairing of nucleon spins, which is pos
both odd, i.e., Qdd-odd type, the system is
sible when there are even numbers of both protons and neutrons.
in an even-even
Consequently,
nucleus there is an additional positive contribution to the bind
in an odd-odd nucleus, having a neutron and a proton with

unpaired spins, there is a corresponding negative (or repulsive) effect. Purely
empirical considerations, based on binding energies calculated from the isotopic
mass by (1.29.1), show that the spin effect contribution can be represented by

ing energy, whereas
Spin effect
where
nuclei.
=^\,
(1.40.1)
the plus sign applies to even-even nuclei and the minus sign to odd-odd
For odd-even (or even-odd) nuclei the spin term is zero.
Upon combining the various contributions to the binding energy, as

given in the preceding paragraphs, it follows that the total binding energy (B.E.)
of a nucleus may be represented by
1.41.
B.E. = aU
- a24* - a, (A ~.2Z)*
A
a<
4*
i,
4*
(L4L1)
where a6 is zero for odd-even nuclei.

Of the five constants in this equation, a4
can be obtained from electrostatic theory, but the others must be derived em
pirically as follows.
1.42. Differentiation of (1.41.1) with respect to Z, with 4 constant, leads to
d(B.E.)
and, consequently,
a maximum
- 2Z
in the binding energy occurs when
4a/
~ 2Z
2a44-
This equation should express the relationship

the atomic
number
between the mass number
Z of the most stable nuclei,
binding energy for each mass number.
(L42-D
4 and
as these will have the largest

Since at is known, as stated above, a3
14
THE ELEMENTS
[1.42
can be determined by finding the value which, when inserted in (1.42.1), will best
represent a plot of A against Z for the most abundant naturally occurring nu
Actually, no single constant is adequate for the whole range of mass

numbers, and so a compromise has to be made in assessing the best value of a%
to be uged in (1.41.1).
1.43. With a3 and a4 known, the values of a,i and 02 can be determined from the
known binding energies, calculated from the isotopic weights of any pair of oddeven nuclei, since a6 is then zero. Finally, the value of a6 is estimated from the
binding energies of even-even nuclei, since only a very few stable odd-odd nuclei
are known, and these are of low mass number.
1.44. Upon inserting the constants derived in the manner explained above,
(1.41.1) for the binding energy, expressed in Mev, becomes
clides.

B.E. (Mev) =
14.0.4
13.04*
19.3
2Z)'
- 0.585
A*
.
A*
(1.44.1)
The relative effects of the various terms on the net binding energy can best be
seen by using (1.44.1) to calculate the values for nuclides of low, medium, and
The results for 2oCa40, 47Agm, and MUJ38 are given in Table
high mass number.
1.44; the experimental values of the total binding energies obtained from the
The agreement between
known isotopic weights are included for comparison.
the calculated and observed values is satisfactory, since the constants in (1.44.1)
are given only to three significant figures.
TABLE 1.44.
CALCULATION OF BINDING ENERGIES

rcCa"
Attraction of nucleons
Surface effect
Composition effect
Electrostatic repulsion
Spin effect
Calculated binding energy
Experimental binding energy
B.E. per nucleon
4,Ag'
560
1500
3330
-152
-293
-501
-30.6
-68.4
-272
3.2
-236
-799
0.5
343
904
1790
341
907
1785
8.5
8.4
7.5
Nuclear Forces and Stability

1.45. The results derived above may be used to provide a qualitative interpre
tation of the fact that for any mass (or atomic) number there is a limited stability
range for the neutron-to-proton ratio ( 1.15). As stated earlier, the actual
value of this ratio increases from 1.00 for low mass numbers to about 1.56 for
Since the neutron-neutron, proton-proton, and
elements of high atomic weight.
neutron-proton attractive forces are approximately equal, a neutron-to-proton
1.471
ratio close to unity is to be expected for stability ; this is the case for nuclei of low
However, as the atomic number increases, the electrostatic re
pulsion between protons begins to have an increasingly important effect. The
electrostatic forces are long-range in character, and each proton repels, and is re
Thus, as seen in 1.39, the repulsive energy
pelled by, all the other protons.
varies as Z2/ 'A$, and so it increases rapidly with increasing atomic number.
1.46. In order to overcome the increasing repulsion of the protons and main
tain stability in the heavier elements, the nuclei must contain an increased pro
The additional nucleon-nucleon attractive forces then
portion of neutrons.
partly compensate for the growing proton-proton repulsion. Consequently, the
neutron-to-proton ratio in stable, heavier nuclei is greater than unity.
1.47. There
limit to the number of neutrons which can be pres
however,
ent for a stable system of given mass (or atomic) number, because, as explained
in 1.38 in connection with the so-called composition term, an excess of neutrons
over protons introduces some instability. This fact determines the upper
stability limit for the neutron-to-proton ratio. The lower limit, on the other
hand, arises because increasing the number of protons would lead to instability
The fact that the stability range for the
due to increased electrostatic repulsion.
neutron-to-proton ratio
relatively small can thus be understood.
is
is,
mass number.

15
Chapter
II
NUCLEAR REACTIONS*
RATES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Comparison
of Nuclear and Chemical Reactions
2.1. Under suitable laboratory conditions atomic nuclei can be made to react
with other nuclei, especially those of the lightest elements, namely, hydrogen
Atomic nuclei
can also interact with neutrons, electrons, and gamma radiation. However, at
ordinary temperatures the rates of nuclear reactions, i.e., the number of nuclei in
a given volume reacting in a specified time, are very much less than for chemical
reactions involving atoms or molecules.
There are essentially two reasons for
this marked difference in reaction rate between chemical processes and nuclear

(protons),
deuterium
(deuterons),
and helium (alpha particles).
processes.
2.2.
In the first place, the small size of the nucleus, whose diameter is of the
cm, as compared with 10-7 or 10-8 cm for the whole atom or mole
cule, means that nuclear collisions or encounters are much less frequent than
There are special circumstances, to be referred
atomic (or molecular) collisions.
order of
10-12
to below ( 2.9), in which a nucleus or nuclear particle of low mass and energy
if it had a diameter approaching that of the whole atom. The
can behave as
rates of nuclear reactions are then greatly increased over the usual values.
2.3. The second factor responsible for the relatively low rate of interaction of
one nucleus with another is the coulombic repulsion between them, arising from
their positive electrical charges. The repulsion energy is proportional to

ZiZz/R, where Zi and Z2 are the charges, i.e., the atomic numbers, of the inter
Since the two nuclei
acting nuclei, and R is the distance between their centers.
must approach each other to within distances of about 10-12 cm before they can
interact, the repulsive energy which must be overcome is very large, especially for
Even for nuclei of low atomic number, e.g.,
nuclei of high atomic number.
hydrogen and helium, the coulombic energy is of the order of millions of electron
volts.
*
See general references
E. P. Wigner, Amer.
to Chapter I, also H. A. Bethe, Rev. Mod. Physics, 9, 69 (1937);

17, 3 (1949); and references in the text.
J. Physics,
16
Nuclear reactions
2.7]
17
For chemical reactions, on the other hand, the energies required to permit
2.4.
interaction
of the electronic
fields are rarely more than a few electron volts.

At ordinary temperatures, there is an appreciable probability that a pair of collid
The reaction
ing atoms or molecules will possess this amount of kinetic energy.
then takes place at an easily detectable rate.
The probability that at ordinary
temperatures two colliding nuclei will possess kinetic energy of a million electron
Hence, not only is the number of encounters between

for atoms or molecules, under equivalent conditions, but
the probability of interaction occurring upon collision is also considerably less.
The rates of reactions between nuclei are thus very much less than for chemical
volts is extremely
small.
atomic nuclei less than
reactions between atoms or molecules.
There are two ways in which nuclear reactions can be made to take
First, by increasing the temperature to several million de
grees, the interacting nuclei will acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome
their mutual electrostatic repulsion or coulomb barrier.
Such nuclear processes,
referred to as thermonuclear reactions, take place in the sun and stars ; they repre
sent the energy source of these celestial bodies.
Second, in the laboratory, reac
tions involving atomic nuclei are studied by bombarding various materials with
light nuclei, e.g., protons, deuterons, or alpha particles, which have been acceler
ated until they have kinetic energies in the vicinity of a million electron volts or
more.*
Cyclotrons and other devices are used for this purpose. Reactions of
nuclei with highly accelerated electrons, and with gamma rays and X-rays of
2.5.
high energy, have also been achieved.
Interaction of Neutrons with Nuclei

2.6. Although the foregoing nuclear processes are of great interest, they are
not important in connection with the present discussion of nuclear reactors.
As stated earlier, these devices involve interaction of atomic nuclei with neutrons,
and such reactions differ in one important respect from those considered above.
Since the neutron has no electric charge, it does not have to overcome any appre
ciable repulsive force in approaching an atomic nucleus.
Consequently, even
the so-called "slow" neutrons, having the same mean kinetic energy as ordinary
gas molecules, e.g., about 0.03 ev at
ordinary temperatures ( 3.10), can readily
The probability of interaction between
2.7.
a nucleus and a neutron
is,
interact with atomic nuclei.
in fact,
generally greater for slow neutrons than for fast neutrons with energies of the
order of several thousand or more electron volts.
An explanation of this fact, in
to be
At
Mev kinetic
energy,
the equivalent temperature is about
fast-moving neutron.
The chances of interaction would thus be expected
However, in quantum mechanics, the collision
larger in the former case.
1
does
classical terms, might be that, in an encounter with

nucleus,
slow-moving
neutron spends, on the average, more time in the vicinity of the nucleus than

place more readily.
10' degrees.
THE ELEMENTS
18
[2.7
between a neutron and a nucleus is regarded as the interaction of a neutron wave
with the nucleus. As will be shown below, the effective wave length of the neu
tron is inversely proportional to its velocity. Hence, the wave length of a slow
neutron is greater than that of a fast neutron, and the probability of interaction
with a nucleus is increased correspondingly.
Neutron Wave Length

2.8.
According to the wave theory of matter, all particles are associated with
X being given by
waves, called matter waves or de Broglie waves, the wave length
mv
where h is Planck's quantum theory constant, i.e., 6.62
X 10 n
erg sec, m is the
mass of the particle, and v is its velocity. Let E be the kinetic energy of the
particle, then E = \mv%, and (2.8.1) may be written as
(2.8.2)

V2mE
m is in grams, E in ergs, and h is in erg sec, the wave length will be in centi
If m is expressed in amu units, which are 1.67 X 10-24 gram ( 1.27),
meters.
and E in electron volts, i.e., 1.60 X 10-1J erg, (2.8.2) becomes
If
2.9.
mately
X 10-'
7= cm.
V2mE
4.05
(2.8.3)
For a neutron, which is the particle of special interest here, m
is approxi
unity in amu, and hence the expression for the neutron wave length
becomes
2.86
X 10-"
Ve
nm
cm,
7
"
(2.9.1)
is the neutron energy in electron volts. For fast neutrons of energy

about 1 Mev, the wave length is seen from (2.9.1) to be of the order of 10-1 cm,
If the neutron energy
which is the same magnitude as the diameter of a nucleus.
where
Thus, a slow
is about 0.03 ev, however, X is found to be about 1.7 X 10-8 cm.
neutron might have an effective diameter approaching that of the whole atom.*
Even if the energy were 1000 ev, the neutron wave length (or effective diameter)
would be of the order of 10-10 cm ; this is still much larger than a nuclear diameter.
The conditions under which slow neutrons thus behave as if they were almost as
large as a whole atom, and hence have a relatively large probability of interacting
with atomic nuclei, will be described in 2.31, et seq.
It is because slow neutrons have equivalent wave lengths of the order of 10_* cm that, like
X-rays, they can be diffracted by crystals.
*
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
2.11]
19
THE COMPOUND NUCLEUS MODEL

Mechanism
of Nuclear Reactions
Before considering various types of interaction of neutrons with atomic

nuclei, a brief review will be given of some of the general features of nuclear
reactions.
In the first place, two broad classes of such reactions may be dis
2.10.
on the energy of the particle, called the incident particle

projectile, which impinges on an atomic nucleus, called the target nucleus. In
nucleus the constituent nucleons are tightly bound, the degree of binding being
tinguished, depending
or
a
by the average interaction energy per nucleon.

As seen in 1.30,
this interaction (or binding) energy is of the order of 8 Mev per nucleon for nuclei
of medium or high mass number.
If the kinetic energy of the incident particle
is roughly equal to or greater than the average interaction energy between nu
cleons in the target nucleus, i.e., about 10 Mev or more, the incident particle
interacts with only a single nucleon or with a small number of nucleons. \ Since
the operation of nuclear reactors generally depends on the interaction with matter
of neutrons of energies considerably less than 10 Mev, this type of process need
measured

not be discussed
furtherj
2.11. When the kinetic energy of the incident particle is less than the mean
interaction energy per nucleon, the incident particle may be regarded as interact
In these circumstances, the model of the com
ing with the nucleus as a whole.
independently by Bohr and by Breit and Wigner ( 2.38,

et seq.),* is applicable.
According to this model, a nuclear reaction is considered
First, the incident particle is absorbed by the target nu
to occur in two stages.
cleus to form a compound nucleus; then, after the lapse of a short time, the latter
disintegrates expelling a particle (or a photonf) and leaving another nucleus,
called the residual nucleus or recoil nucleus.
The two stages may thus be
written as follows:
pound nucleus, advanced
(1)
Formation of Compound Nucleus

Target nucleus -f- Incident particle
(2)
Disintegration of Compound Nucleus

Compound nucleus Recoil nucleus + Ejected particle.
> Compound nucleus
It should be noted that the compound nucleus may well

atomic species,
*N.
familiar
In any event, the disinte

to the fact that the compound nucleus
or it may be one which is unstable.
gration stage (2) described above is due

when
be a nucleus of a
formed in stage (1) is in an unstable, high-energy state ( 2.16).

Bohr, Nature, 137, 344 (1936); G. Breit and E. P. Wigner, Phys. Rev., 49, 519 (1936).
evidence for the formation of a compound nucleus in nuclear reactions is
The experimental
largely due
to W. D. Harkins
(1935).
According to quantum
t A photon may be regarded as an "atom" or "particle" of radiation.
theory, the energy quantum carried by a photon is equal to hv, where h is Planck's constant
(1 2.8), and v is the frequency of the radiation.
20
THE ELEMENTS
[2.12
2.12. In order that the compound nucleus may be considered as a separate

entity, its lifetime must be long compared to the time required for the incident
particle to traverse a distance equal to the nuclear diameter.
The time required
for a slow neutron, having a speed of about 106 cm per sec, to cross a distance of
about 10-12 cm is of the order of 10~" sec. Actually, after capture, an initially
slow neutron will acquire additional kinetic energy and, hence, will move more
rapidly. The time of transit is thus less than the 10~17 sec, just estimated.
It
will be seen shortly ( 2.29) that the mean lifetime of the excited compound
nucleus in many reactions with heavy nuclei is about 10-14 sec.
Since this is
less than the transit time by a factor of 1000, at least, the condition for the oc
currence of the compound nucleus as a separate entity is satisfied.
Excitation Energy of Compound Nucleus

2.13. When a target nucleus captures an incident particle, the resulting com
pound nucleus is invariably in a higher energy, i.e., excited, state ( 2.16). The
excitation energy, i.e., energy above the ground state, is equal to the kinetic
energy of the captured particle plus its binding energy in the compound nucleus.
That this is so may be seen by considering the case of the capture of a neutron (n1)
of zero kinetic energy by a nucleus
of mass number
2.14. The formation of the compound nucleus

be represented as
XA + nl ->
Y,
A.
of mass number
A +
1,
may
[YA+1]*,
where the asterisk indicates an excited state of the YA+1 nucleus.

Suppose now
that the excited compound nucleus emits the excitation energy and thereby
passes into its normal or ground state; thus,
[YA+l]*
Y^+1
+ Ea,
where Eex is the excitation energy, i.e., the difference in energy between the
Next, imagine a neutron of zero kinetic energy to be
excited and ground states.
the
state
of YA+1, leaving the ground state of the nucleus
removed from
ground
XA. The energy which must be supplied is the binding energy Eb of the neutron
in the compound nucleus
thus,
Y^+i
XA +
n1
#b.
Upon combining the three stages, as a result of which the original condition
is restored, it is seen that the excitation energy Ecx of the compound nucleus is
It
equal to E\ the binding energy of the neutron, which is about 5 to 8 Mev.
readily follows that, if the neutron possesses kinetic energy, as it invariably does,
the excitation energy is equal to the binding energy plus the kinetic energy of
the neutron.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
2.17]
21
The situation may be represented diagrammatically by means of a po

tential energy curve, as in Fig. 2.15, where the energy of the system of target
nucleus and neutron of zero kinetic energy is plotted against the distance between
these particles.
At the extreme right, at B, the target nucleus and neutron are
At the extreme left,
far apart and may be regarded as being quite independent.
at A , on the other hand, the target nucleus and the neutron may be regarded as
being completely fused so as to form the ground state of the compound nucleus.
The vertical distance between A and B represents the binding energy of the
This amount of energy would have to be
neutron in the compound nucleus.
supplied in a process starting from the ground state of the compound nucleus at
A and ending with the separated target nucleus and neutron at B.

2.1S.
GROUND STATE OF
COMPOUND NUCLEUS
DISTANCE FROM NEUtRON
Fig.
2.15.
TO TARGET
NUCLEUS
Potential energy of target nucleus-neutron
system
2.16. If a neutron of zero kinetic energy is gradually brought up to a target

nucleus, there is no attraction or repulsion, and the energy of the system remains
equal to that at B.
Eventually, when the nucleus has completely absorbed the
the energy state of the compound nucleus is at C. This nucleus is

evidently in an excited state, the excitation energy being equal to AC, which is
the same as the neutron binding energy.
If the captured neutron has kinetic
neutron,
energy, the state of the compound nucleus is indicated by the line
C,
so
that the
excitation energy is given by AC. It can be seen, in general, that when a com
pound nucleus is formed by neutron capture, the excitation energy, i.e., the
(internal) energy in excess of the ground state of the compound nucleus, is equal
to the binding energy of the neutron plus its kinetic energy.
It may be
pointed out that the foregoing conclusion is strictly true only

when the target nucleus has infinite mass.
In general, because of the conserva
tion of momentum in a capture collision between a nucleus and a neutron, the
compound nucleus will acquire some kinetic energy, even though the target
2.17.
22
THE ELEMENTS
[2.17
nucleus was at rest.
Consequently, only part of the energy of the neutron ap

pears as internal, i.e., excitation, energy of the compound nucleus.
For target
nuclei of appreciable mass number, however, virtually the whole of the kinetic
to the internal energy of the nucleus.
Throughout the subsequent discussion, it will be assumed that this condition
energy of the neutron
is transferred
holds.
Statistical Distribution of Energy in Nucleus

2.18. Immediately after its formation, the excitation energy of the compound
nucleus may be regarded as being concentrated
But,
interactions within the nucleus, the additional energy is rapidly

This distribution occurs in a statistical manner.
Thus, at a given instant, the excitation energy may be shared between two or
more nucleons, while at a subsequent instant it may be shared by other nucleons
In the course of time, one
or it may be concentrated on one of the nucleons.
particular nucleon or combination of nucleons in the compound nucleus may
This corresponds to the disin
acquire sufficient energy to permit it to escape.
referred
in
2.11.
tegration stage
2.19. Because of the large number of ways that the excitation energy may be
shared among the nucleons, the probability that a single nucleon will acquire
sufficient energy to permit escape from the compound nucleus during the time
Conse
required for a captured particle to traverse the nucleus is usually small.
quently, the average life of the compound nucleus will be long in comparison with
the time required for a neutron to cross it.
2.20. An important consequence of the relatively long lifetime of the excited
compound nucleus is that, for a given excitation energy, the manner in which the
If
compound nucleus breaks up is independent of its mode of formation.
the lifetime of the compound nucleus is sufficiently long, the distribution of the
excitation energy will depend only on the total excitation energy, the number of
The mode of forma
nucleons, and the energy levels of the compound nucleus.
tion is thus "forgotten" by the compound nucleus as a result of the statistical
manner in which the excitation energy is shared.
2.21. Because of its relatively long lifetime, there is a possibility that the
excited compound nucleus will rid itself of its excess energy by the emission of
radiation. Nuclear processes in which a particle is captured and the excess
The condi
energy is emitted as radiation are called radiative capture reactions.
tions for such reactions are especially favorable when a slow neutron is captured.
In the majority of instances, although not always, the only process for which the
compound nucleus has sufficient energy is the re-emission of a slow neutron.
In other words, this stage would involve reversal of the capture process. How
ever, before the redistribution of energy among the nucleons results in a particu
lar neutron acquiring enough energy to escape from the compound nucleus, the
as a result of
shared among the nucleons.

on the captured particle.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
2.26]
23
excess (excitation) energy of the latter is emitted as gamma radiation, i.e., radia
tion of 10-10 to 10-11 cm wave length.*
2.22.
In certain reactions involving heavy atomic nuclei, the capture of a
suitable particle results in the formation of an excited state of a compound
nucleus so unstable that jt splits up into two smaller nuclei. This is the process
of fission, which is of fundamental importance for the operation of nuclear re
actors. It will be referred to again in 3.35 and discussed more fully in Chap
ter TV.

Nuclear Energy Levels

2.23. The existence of definite nuclear energyf levels or quantum states is
supported by various types of experimental evidence. In particular, mention
may be made of the emission of gamma rays of definite energy (or wave length)
in many radioactive processes. The nuclear energy levels are quite analogous to
the familiar atomic or electronic energy levels which permit an interpretation
of atomic spectra. However, since the forces acting between nucleons are not
completely understood, it has not yet been possible to apply quantum me
chanics to the study of nuclear energy levels with the same degree of success
as has been done in connection with the problem of electronic energy levels.
Nevertheless, certain aspects of the subject can be considered.
2.24. From various studies it has been concluded that the energy levels of
atomic nuclei are relatively far apart for the low energy states, i.e., near the
ground state, but become closer and closer as the internal energy of the nucleus
increases.
At very high energies, about 15 to 20 Mev or more, the energy levels
are so close that they may be regarded as virtually continuous.
2.25. For nuclei with mass numbers in the medium range, namely, from about
100 to 150, the separation (or spacing) of the levels near the ground state is in the
vicinity of 0.1 Mev. However, when the energy is in the region of 8 Mev above
the ground level, as in a compound nucleus formed by the capture of a slow neu
tron, the level spacing is only 1 to 10 ev. For light nuclei, the energy levels are
somewhat farther apart ; the separations are of the order of 1 Mev near the ground
state and roughly 10,000 ev when the internal energy is about 8 Mev above the
ground level.
Lifetime and Level Width

2.26. To every excited quantum state of a nucleus there may be ascribed a
mean lifetime, r ; this is the period of time, on the average, that a nucleus will
remain in the given excited state before undergoing a change, e.g., emission of a
particle or of radiation. Correspondingly, each quantum state has a level
*
It can
be shown from Planck's equation (E = hv) that the wave length X in cm is equal to
where E is the energy, expressed in Mev, emitted by the nucleus in one step
(cf. 2.11, footnote).
t The energy under consideration is internal energy of the nucleus, and not kinetic energy
of the nucleus as a whole.
1.24
10~10/E,
THE ELEMENTS
24
[2.26
width T, which may be regarded as an indication of the indefiniteness involved in

the determination of the energy of the particular state.*
From the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle the mean lifetime and the level width are related by
rT
where h is Planck's constant.
- A,
(2.26.1)
The level width has the dimensions of energy and

Making use of the conversion factor in
is usually expressed in electron volts.

1.28,
where
it follows that
t is in
tT = 0.7 X
10-16,
(2.26.2)
seconds and T in ev.
2.27. Since a compound
nucleus in a given excited state can frequently un
dergo change in several ways, e.g., emission of a neutron, proton, alpha particle,
or radiation, it is necessary to define a partial level width for each type of process.
If t, is the mean lifetime of the particular quantum state, assuming the process i
to be the only possible way in which excitation energy could be lost, then the
partial level width I\ for this process is given by
nTi
~,
(2.27.1)
in (2.26.1). The total level width r for the given quantum state is then the
sum of the partial level widths for all the possible processes which the com
pound nucleus in that state can undergo; thus,
as
2r<<
(2.27.2)
2.28. The level width has a simple and interesting physical significance : it is
proportional to the probability that the compound nucleus, in the given energy
As was seen in connection with radio

state, will undergo change per unit time.
active disintegration ( 1.22), the mean life of an unstable species is equal to the
reciprocal of the decay constant, the latter representing the probability of decay
Since, by (2.26.1), the total level width is inversely proportional
per unit time.
to the mean lifetime of the compound nucleus, the level width is related to the
total probability that the latter will decay (or change) in unit time. Similarly,
the partial level width I\ is a measure of the probability that the given excited
quantum state will undergo the process i per unit time.
2.29. Level widths of about 0.1 ev have been observed for heavy nuclei which
The mean
have captured neutrons of low energy, e.g., an electron volt or less.
such
is
found
from
to
be about
in
cases,
compound
of
the
nucleus,
lifetime
(2.26.2)
As stated earlier, this is relatively long in comparison with the
7 X 10-16 sec.
time required for a neutron to travel a distance equal to the nuclear diameter
( 2.12).
*
It
This "indefiniteness"
has nothing to do with the accuracy of the experimental methods.

to all measurements and may be considered as arising from the
is something fundamental
interaction of the measuring device with the system being measured.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
2.32]
25
At
high excitation energies, such as would result from the capture of a

particle having a large kinetic energy, the level width is increased and the mean
Thus, if
lifetime of the compound nucleus is correspondingly decreased.
is
1000 ev, the mean lifetime would be 0.7 X 10-18 sec, which is of the same order
In these circumstances, the compound
as the time of transit of a nucleon.
nucleus model, based on an exchange of energy among the nucleons, would
break down.
At the same time, the level width would exceed the spacing be
In
tween the energy levels, especially for the nuclei of moderate mass ( 2.25).
other words, as far as experimental measurements were concerned, the energy
levels would appear to overlap.
jl2.30.
RESONANCE ABSORPTION
Conditions for Resonance
2.31.
In
experimental
studies of nuclear reactions,
by bombarding
different
elements with various projectiles, such as protons, neutrons, etc., it has

been found that, when the incident particles have certain specific energy values,
In other words, for certain energy
there is a sharp increase in the reaction rate.
values the probability that the incident particle will be captured and a compound
This phenomenon, which is very marked
nucleus formed is exceptionally large.
in connection with nuclear reactions involving slow neutrons, is attributed to
For elements of moderate and high mass numbers,
what is called resonance.
resonance absorption frequently occurs with neutrons of energy between roughly
tlranium-238, for example, exhibits resonance absorption of
1 ev and 10 ev.
neutrons with energies in
QUANTUM LEVELS
the electron volt range.
2.32. It is generally
accepted that a marked

target
in the rate of
increase
nuclear reac
tion occurs when the
energy of the incident
particle is such that the
the given
resulting excited state of

the compound nucleus is
very close to one of the
quantum states of the
This is what is
latter.
meant
by resonance ab
sorption.
The effect may
illustrated by considering Fig. 2.32, the lines

be
ground state
compound nucleus
target nucleus
Fig.
2.32.
Compound nucleus formation and energy levels
26
THE ELEMENTS
[2.32
at the right indicating (schematically) the quantum levels of the compound

The line marked E0, in the middle, represents the energy of the target
nucleus plus that of a neutron with zero kinetic energy.
Thus, the energy E0
corresponds to that at the point C in Fig. 2.15 ; it is above the ground state by an
amount equal to the binding energy of the neutron in the particular compound
nucleus.
nucleus (2.16).
2.33. An examination
of Fig. 2.32 indicates that the energy E0 does not corre

to
of
the
any
quantum levels of the compound nucleus.
spond
However, if the
neutron has a certain amount of kinetic energy, sufficient to bring the energy of
E\, the energy of the compound
nucleus will correspond to that of one of its quantum states.
When the neutron
is
has kinetic energy Ei
said to occur.
Eo, resonance absorption
Similarly,
there will be resonance absorption of neutrons with kinetic energy E2 E0,
so that the total energy E2 of the system is equivalent to another quantum level
of the compound nucleus, as seen in Fig. 2.32.
2.34. According to quantum mechanics, the only states of a system which
can be stable (or quasi-stable) are the definite quantum states.
The prob
a
in
will
a given reaction
be greatest
ability of the formation of compound nucleus
when its energy corresponds to that of one of its quantum states.
Thus, when
resonance absorption occurs the rate of the particular reaction will be markedly

the system of target nucleus plus neutron up to
increased.
2.35. Experimentally, at least, as was seen in 2.26, the energies of the quan
Each level has a certain level
tum levels of a nucleus are not sharply defined.
width ; and, more or less corresponding to this width, there is a spread of particle
If the conditions are such,
energies over which resonance absorption is observed.
for example at high energies, that the level width is greater than the separation
of the quantum levels, the spread will be so large that adjacent regions will over
In these circumstances, the concept of resonance absorption, like the com
lap.
pound nucleus model ( 2.30), becomes inapplicable.
2.36. It was mentioned in 2.25 that the separation
of the energy levels of a
nucleus of moderate or high mass number in the 8-Mev region is about
ev to
10 ev.
Hence, it is to be expected that resonance absorption will be observed
for neutrons having certain kinetic energies of this order of magnitude.
Further,
when there are two or more resonance absorption regions, they will be separated
by roughly similar energy values. If the neutron has a large amount of energy,
e.g., about 1 Mev or more, the compound nucleus will have some 9 Mev of energy
In this region the level widths are frequently
in excess of the ground state.
large enough, compared with the separations, to make the resonance concept
invalid.
2.37. For nuclei of low mass number the spacing of the energy levels in the
8-Mev region is larger than for species of moderate or high atomic weight.
Hence, resonance absorption should occur only if the neutron has energy of the
Resonance effects of this kind have been
order of 10,000 ev, i.e., 0.01 Mev.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
2.40]
observed,
27
but the increased absorption is not very marked because,
later, there is a general tendency for the rate of absorption

crease as their energy increases.
as will be seen
of neutrons to de
The Breit-Wigner Formula
By applying
the methods of wave mechanics to the compound nucleus

Breit and Wigner ( 2.11) derived an expression for the rates of nuclear
reactions, including resonance absorption.
The results are expressed in terms of
2.38.
concept,
quantity called the nuclear
represented by the symbol er, which

will be considered in some detail later ( 3.38).
For the present it is sufficient to
state that the cross section is a measure of the probability of the occurrence of a
particular nuclear reaction under prescribed conditions.
It is a specific property
of that
2.39.
cross section,
reaction for incident particles of a given energy.

Consider a nuclear reaction represented, in general, by
o
+ X
> [Compound
Nucleus]*
b,
is the incident particle, X the target nucleus, Ythêsidudjiucleus, and

b the ejected particle.
Let ro and T6 be the level widths representing the prob
abilities of the emission of the particles a and b, respectively, by the compound
nucleus in a specific quantum state ( 2.28) ; the total level width r is then the
sum of the partial widths, as stated in 2.27.
If E is the total energy, both in
ternal and kinetic, of the incident particle, and Er is the energy value which would
give exact resonance with the specified quantum level of the compound nucleus,
then the Breit-Wigner formula for the variation, with the energy of the incident
particle, of the nuclear cross section <r for the given reaction is represented (ap
proximately) by
X2
TTb
'
" ~
c'^c x *

where a
(E
- Ery + jr*'
<\2-39-!)
the equivalent wave length of the incident particle as derived from its
velocity by the de Broglie equation (2.8.1).* For simplicity, a factor
allowing for the angular momenta of the nuclei and the spins of the particles has
been omitted ; it is generally of the order of unity.
2.40. The Breit-Wigner equation (2.39.1) is frequently referred to as the "onelevel" formula. It applies to energies in the vicinity of any quantum level,
provided the latter is sufficiently widely separated from adjacent levels so that
the resonances do not interfere with one another.
A one-level Breit-Wigner
formula, with the appropriate values of r, r*, r, and Er, will then apply to each
resonance region or quantum state.
en the resonances overlap, because of
where X is
mass and
the small separation

used, but
*
of the quantum "levels, a more complex equation must be
for present purposes the one-level formula is adequate. i
In determining X from the de Broglie equation, the mass m should be the "reduced mass"
of the incident particle and the target nucleus.
For nuclei of modei-te or high mass number
this is essentially the same as the mass of the incident particle.
THE ELEMENTS
2S
[2.41
Applications of Breit-Wigner Equation

2.41.
In applying the Breit-Wigner equation to the resonance absorption
of
neutrons, a matter of particular interest in connection with nuclear reactors, the

Since this has no internal energy, E in (2.39.1) becomes
particle a is a neutron.
Further, by (2.8.2), the wave length
merely the kinetic energy of the neutron.
is proportional to 1/ v#, where E is the kinetic energy. Hence, when the incident
particle is a neutron,
X2
where k is a constant.
2.42. The level width
Tb,
representing
|-
(2.41.1)
the probability of the ejection
of the
particle b, is believed to be independent of the energy of the incident particle,

but ro, which is a measure of the probability of the re-emission of the latter,
can be shown to be proportional to its velocity. If a is a neutron, so that E is
merely the kinetic energy, it follows, therefore, that
ro =
r = k' VE,
(2.42.1)
Upon inserting (2.41.1) and (2.42.1) into the Breit(2.39.1), and combining the constants into A, it follows that
Wigner equation
(2-42-2)
This expression gives the variation of the cross section for neutron absorption
with the energy
of the neutron, in the vicinity of a particular resonance widely
The quantities A, r6, Er, and T are then constants.

An examination of (2.42.2) reveals a number of interesting qualitative
features.
When the neutron kinetic energy E is considerably less than the
value Er required for exact resonance, (E ErY is large and almost constant.
Since the kinetic energy E is proportional to
where
the neutron velocity,
then
reduces
to
the
form
(2.42.2)
separated from others.
-,
(2.43.1)
where
is
tr
is
v2,
2.43.
composite constant.
Thus, at neutron energies that are small com
pared to the first resonance energy, the neutron absorption cross section should
As expected from the Breitbe inversely proportional to the neutron velocity.
it
is
is
is
is
is
Wigner treatment, a low-energy range, in which the neutron absorption cross

proportional to l/v, generally called the "1/v region",
section
often observed
for slow neutrons
3.68).
2.44. As the neutron energy E
increased and approaches Er,
evident
becomes
smaller.
from (2.42.2) that a should increase rapidly, since
Er
maximum.
When
Subse
equal to E, the absorption cross section will be
exceeds Er, the cross section will decrease, at first sharply and
quently, when

where k' is a constant.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
2.46]
29
then more slowly, with increasing neutron energy.

This means that, if a is
plotted as a function of E, there will be a fairly sharp peak, the maximum of
which corresponds
Er (Fig. 2.44).
to the resonance energy
Such peaks, called
I
I

NEUTRON
Fig.
2.44.
Resonance
ENERGY
peak for neutron absorption
will be seen later.

It will be
does not vary greatly with energy, the maximum
noted from (2.42.2) that if
value of the absorption cross section, which is given by
resonance peaks, are of frequent
occurrence,
"m =
as
r~2,
(2.44.1)
is approximately inversely proportional to the square root of the energy. Thus,

the cross section at the resonance absorption maximum will tend to be small
when the resonance energy is large, and vice versa.
2.45. It can be readily shown from (2.42.2) and (2.44.1) that, when the neutron
absorption cross section a is equal to 50-max, the width in ev of the resonance
peak is equal to T, the total level width. For this reason, T is sometimes called
the half width of the resonance peak.
2.46. Another special case of interest arises when the total width r of a par
ticular level is large compared to E Er. Then (E Er)* in the denominator
of (2.42.2) may be neglected in comparison with \T2, and the expression for the
neutron absorption cross section becomes
(2.4G.1)
that the cross section is again inversely proportional to the neutron velocity.
ItTother words, the 1/v law for neutron absorption will apply either (a) when the
level width T is small and the neutron energy E is appreciably less than Er
so
THE ELEMENTS
30
[2.46
( 2.43), or (b) when the level width T is large compared to E Er. An example
of the latter type of behavior will be given in 3.77.
2.47. It should be noted that, when r is large compared to Er, there is no cross
section maximum and no resonance peak in the plot of a against E. The absorp
tion cross section decreases steadily with increasing neutron energy, in accord
ance with (2.46.1).
In these circumstances, it is not the practice to speak of
resonance capture of neutrons.
SCATTERING
OF NEUTRONS
The Nature of Scattering

A possibility that has not been considered
so far is that the particle

in
particle captured.
a
nuclear
reaction
is
identical
with
the
incident
expelled
In the course of the redistribution of energy among the nucleons in the com
pound nucleus there is always a possibility that a particle of the same type as the
incident particle will acquire enough energy to leave the nucleus.
In general,
the expelled particle will have less kinetic energy than the incident particle,
some or all of its energy having been transferred to the target nucleus. | A
process in which the overall result is merely the transfer of energy from one
particle (or nucleus) to another is called scattering. The scattering of neutrons
J
by atomic nuclei plays a highly important part in the operation of nuclear reac
tors.
Consequently, some general aspects of the subject will be considered here,
and a more extended treatment will be given in Chapter VI.
2.49. There are two types of scattering processes, namely, inelastic scattering
In inelastic collisions momentum is conserved, but
and elastic scattering.
kinetic energy is not, whereas in elastic collisions both momentum and kinetic
2.48.
energy are conserved.
Inelastic Scattering
2.50. When a neutron undergoes inelastic scattering, it is first captured by the
target to form a compound nucleus; a neutron of lower kinetic energy is then
Thus, in inelastic scat
expelled, leaving the target nucleus in an excited state.
tering some (or all) of the kinetic energy of the neutron is converted into internal
or excitation energy of the target nucleus.
This energy is subsequently emitted
in the form of gamma radiation, the target nucleus thereby returning to its
ground state.
2.51. It was noted in 2.25 that the spacing of nuclear energy levels near
the ground state is about 0.1 Mev for nuclei of moderate or high mass number,
but it is larger for nuclei of low mass number.

Consequently, a neutron must
in an inelastic collision
at
least
0.1
Mev
of
if
it
is
to
be
involved
possess
energy
If the scattering material has a low mass number, the required neu
process.
In nuclear reactors, the neutrons initially have high
tron energy is even higher.
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
2.54]
31
in the Mev range, and hence inelastic scattering then occurs to some
However, as will be seen later, the energy of the neutrons is soon reduced
values at which inelastic scattering is not possible.
energies
extent.
to
Elastic Scattering
The situation in regard to elastic scattering is quite different.
2.52.
In this
collision kinetic energy is conserved.

Some (or all) of the kinetic energy
neutron appears, after the collision, as kinetic energy of the initially sta
The process may be regarded as essentially a "billiard
tionary target nucleus.
ball" type of collision, which may be treated by the laws of classical mechanics,
based on the principles of the conservation of energy and momentum.
In each
collision with an essentially stationary nucleus, the neutron will transfer part of
its kinetic energy to the nucleus ; the amount of energy transferred will depend
upon the angle through which the neutron is scattered.
For a given scattering
angle, the fraction of the neutron energy transferred will be greater the smaller
the mass of the scattering nucleus (see Chapter VI).
2.53. From the theoretical standpoint, there are two aspects of elastic scatter
First, there is resonance scattering, when the
ing of neutrons to be considered.
energy of the capjtured neutron is such that the excited compound nucleus formed
is at, or close to, one of its quantum states.
Second, there is what is called po
tential scattering, which occurs for neutrons with energies on either side of the
In the language of wave mechanics, potential scattering is
resonance level.
treated as being due to the interaction of the neutron wave with the potential at
the nuclear surface.
Effectively, the incident neutron then does not enter the
target nucleus and there is no compound nucleus formation.
2.54. In resonance scattering of neutrons, a compound nucleus is formed which
can be treated by the Breit-Wigner method and an expression derived for the
As a rough indication of the behavior, it may be
corresponding cross section.
assumed that (2.39.1) is applicable, and since the particles a and b are both neu
type of

of the
trons, this becomes
=
where
(e
- M2 + w
is the kinetic energy of the incident neutrons.
(2-54-1)
In this
case, the level
r is essentially the same for the incident and outgoing neutrons, and each
proportional to Vfi, by (2.42.1); hence r2 is proportional to E. Further,
since X2 is inversely proportional to E, by (2.41.1), it is seen that X2r2 is approxi
mately constant; consequently, (2.54.1) becomes
width
is
ff
A is a constant.
When E is equal to Er, the resonance scattering cross sec
will be a maximum, but when E
Err, i.e., the neutron energy is appreciably
where
tion
(E - Ery + ir2'
32
less
THE ELEMENTS
[2.55
than the resonance value, it is evident that the cross section will be inde
pendent of the neutron energy.

2.55. Except near resonance, the resonance scattering
is usually much less
than the potential scattering, and the cross section for the latter does not vary
Although the resonance scattering at or near
greatly with the neutron energy.
resonance does depend on the neutron energy, the variations are not great and
the cross sections are of the same order of magnitude
as
for potential scattering.

Consequently, it is generally accepted that the total elastic scattering cross sec
This is es
tion is independent of the kinetic energy of the incident neutrons.
pecially true for neutrons with energies less than about 0.1 Mev when scattered
by nuclei of fairly low mass number, a situation of common occurrence in the
study of nuclear reactors.
III
Chapter
PRODUCTION AND REACTIONS OF NEUTRONS

PRODUCTION OF NEUTRONS
Alpha Particles and Light Nuclei
The neutron was first identified as a result of the interaction of alpha parti
emitted by radioactive material, with the light elements beryllium, boron,
and lithium.
Subsequently it was found that other elements of low atomic num
ber expel neutrons when bombarded by alpha particles.
In the case of beryllium,
for example, the reaction may be represented by
3.1.

cles,
iBe9
2He4
6C12
+ Bn\
where the subscript gives the atomic number, i.e., the nuclear charge, and the
superscript the mass number in each case.* Since a neutron has a mass of unity
but no charge, it is represented by the symbol on1.
The sum of the atomic
numbers, i.e., the total number of protons, must be the same on each side of the
equation.
Similarly the mass numbers, i.e., the total number of nucleons, must
balance.
of an alpha emitter, such as radium or polonium, and a

light element, such as beryllium or boron, makes a very simple, compact, and
useful source of neutrons for laboratory purposes. (A mixture of 5 grams of
beryllium and 1 gram of radium, for example, emits about 10 to 15 million neu
trons per seel Because of its long radioactive half life, about 1600 years, a
Its
radium-beryllium neutron source is virtually constant and permanent.
chief disadvantages are the high cost of the radium and the strong gamma radia
Polonium is frequently employed, with beryllium, in place
tion which it emits.
of radium ; the cost and gamma radiation are greatly reduced, but so also is the
3.2.
combination
life of the neutron source.
The reaction may be written in the abbreviated form Be*(a, 7i)C". In this method of
representation, the first symbol, i.e., Be', is the target nucleus; then, in the parentheses, are the
incident particle (a) and the ejected particle (n); and, finally, the symbol of the residual nucleus,
i.e., C", is given.
Reactions are frequently described in terms of the particles involved; thus,
an (n, 7) reaction is one in which a neutron is captured and gamma radiation emitted.
The
symbol p is used to indicate a proton, i.e., a hydrogen nucleus.
33
THE ELEMENTS
34
[3.3
3.3. The neutrons produced by the action of alpha particles on beryllium have
high energies, the minimum being about 5 Mev and the maximum
extending up to 12 Mev pr more, depending on the energy of the incident parti
moderately
The sources described above are thus polyenergetic, the energy spectrum
There may be, in addition,
covering the range from about 5 Mev to 12 Mev.
neutrons of energy lying outside this range which are produced by reactions due
to gamma rays from the alpha-particle emitter, as will be seen in the next
cles.
paragraph.
Photoneutron
Sources
3.4. If monoenergetic neutrons, i.e., neutrons of (approximately) the same

energy, are required, use may be made of certain photonuclear reactions. These
are reactions in which gamma rays interact with a nucleus, transferring energy
to the latter; the excited nucleus so formed may then eject a particle, such as a
Photoneutron sources, as they are called, involve reactions represented
by the symbol (7, n), since the gamma-ray photon ( 2.11) is the incident particle
and a neutron is expelled.
3.5. Two (7, n) processes which are possible with gamma radiation from
available radioactive substances are the following :

neutron.
4Be9
and
o7
-> 4Be8
on1
iB* + r'->iHI + o^.

In the former, the target element is beryllium* and in the latter it is deuterium,
the heavier (stable) isotope of hydrogen, having mass number 2. These reactions
are of special interest in connection with the operation of nuclear reactors, as will
be indicated later ( 4.80).
3.6. The minimum threshold
energy of the gamma rays necessary to bring
about these (7, n) reactions is 1.6 Mev for the beryllium reaction and 2.21 Mev
for the deuterium reaction.
Thus, gamma rays with energies less than these
Any
amounts will be unable to produce neutrons by the respective reactions.
mainly
of
the
in
will
ray
excess
of
the
gamma
appear
threshold energy
energy
as kinetic energy of the emitted neutron, some being carried off by the recoil
nucleus.
Since gamma rays from a given radioactive source usually have a
definite energy, so also will the emitted neutrons ; consequently, when the latter
are produced by the photonuclear (7, n) reaction, they are essentially monoenergetic.
3.7. Possible sources of gamma radiation for use with neutron sources are the
naturally occurring elements radium and mesothorium.

duced isotopes Nai4, Ga72, Sbm, and
La140
* The Be' nucleus,

indicated in the equation,
instantaneously, into two He4 nuclei.
The artificially pro

cheaper, although
are considerably
is highly unstable and breaks up, almost
3.12]
35
much shorter half lives. The target material can be beryllium metal
water, i.e., water enriched in the heavier isotope of hydrogen.
The
lowest energy of neutrons obtainable in this manner is 0.03 Mev from the Sbm-Bereaction, and the highest is 0.88 Mev from the MsTh-Be process.
3.8.
A simple and convenient source of approximately monoenergetic neu
trons is available from the Isotopes Division of the Atomic Energy Commission.
It consists of a rod of antimony, containing the radioactive Sb124 isotope, sur
rounded by a beryllium metal cup.
When newly prepared, the system emits
neutrons of roughly uniform energy, 0.03 Mev, at the rate of about 8 million per
Bee.
The Sbm has a half life of 60 days, and when the activity has decayed to
such an extent that the neutron source has become appreciably weakened, it can
be regenerated by exposure of the antimony rod to neutrons in a nuclear reactor.
they have
or heavy
Use
of Accelerators
In addition to
the relatively compact neutron source described above,

various methods for producing neutrons, especially of fairly uniform
energy, by using incident particles which have been accelerated by means of a
cyclotron or, better, by a Van de Graaff machine, since the latter more readily
(The action of accelerated protons, i.e., hydro
yields particles of uniform energy.
gen nuclei, on lithium, or of deuterons, i.e., deuterium nuclei, on targets of lith
ium, beryllium, or deuterium (as "heavy" ice or "heavy" paraffin) results in the
The actual energy de
formation of neutron beams of fairly uniform energy.
pends on that of the incident particles used, as well as on the particular process
3.9.

there are
employed.
SLOWING
DOWN
OF NEUTRONS
Scattering and Moderation

All the sources described above yield neutrons of fairly high kinetic
usually in the Mev range. Such neutrons are referred to as fast neutrons.
It was mentioned in 2.52 that, as a result of elastic scattering collisions, neu
trons can be deprived of some (or all) of their kinetic energy and are thereby
slowed down. [Slow neutrons, and particularly neutrons with energies in the
vicinity of 0.03 ev at ordinary temperatures, called thermal neutrons_i$ 3.13),
are of importance in connection with nuclear reactors. (
3.11. It will be seen in Chapter VI that, for a given scattering angle, the
fractional decrease in the kinetic energy of a neutron in an elastic collision is
greater the smaller the mass number of the scattering nucleus.
iThis means that
fast neutrons are slowed down most effectively by scattering in a medium con
taining nuclei of low mass number.
3.12. The slowing down of neutrons plays a significant part in most nuclear
The proc
reactors, and the material used for the purpose is called a moderator.
3.10.
energy,
THE ELEMENTS
36
[3.12
slowing down neutrons as a result of scattering collisions is sometimes re

A good moderator is consequently a material which
ferred to as moderation.
reduces the speed of fast neutrons in a small number of collisions; it will obvi
Thus, ordinary water (H20),
ously consist of atoms of low mass number.
heavy water (D20), beryllium, and carbon have been used as moderators in
various reactors.*
3.13. After a number of scattering collisions, the velocity of a neutron is re
duced to such an extent that it has approximately the same average kinetic
energy as the atoms, or molecules, of the medium in which it is undergoing
As will be seen below, the energy depends on the temperature
elastic scattering.
of the medium, and hence it is called thermal energy.
Neutrons whose energies
have been reduced to values in this region are designated thermal neutrons, and
the process of reducing the energy of a neutron to the thermal region is known as
thermalization.
Neutrons with energies above thermal values are sometimes
referred to as epithermal neutrons.
ess of

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
3.14. Thermal neutrons may strictly be defined as neutrons that are in thermal
equilibrium with the atoms (or molecules) of the medium in which they are
A particular thermal neutron undergoing collisions with the nuclei
present.
But, if a large num
of the medium may gain or lose energy in any one collision.
ber of neutrons diffusing in a nonabsorbing medium are considered, there is no
net energy change for all the neutrons.
The kinetic energies of the neutrons
will then be distributed statistically according to the Maxwell-Boltzmann dis
tribution law, as derived from the kinetic theory of gases ; thus,
dn
2ir
.1
ni
trE?
,n
dE,
* \
(3.14.1)
where dn is the number of neutrons with energies in the range from E to E + dE,
n is the total number of neutrons in the system, k is the Boltzmann constant,
and
T is the
temperature on the
Kelvin scale.
to some extent, and the absorption

with decreasing energy, the
apart
from
resonance
increase
cross sections,
peaks,
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution does not apply. The greater absorption of the
slow neutrons results in an increase in the average energy above that to be ex
pected from (3.14.1), the extent of the deviation increasing with the distance
from the neutron source. This phenomenon is called hardening.
However,
provided the medium is not too strongly absorbing, the Maxwellian distribution
may be assumed to be valid for thermal neutrons.
3.15. Since most media absorb neutrons
A good moderator must not absorb neutrons to any great extent; consequently, the light
elements lithium and boron, which absorb slow neutrons very strongly, are not used as modera
tors.
3.17]
37
In conformity with a symbolism to be used later (3.50), let n(E) be

number of neutrons of energy E per unit energy interval.* Then n(E) dE
is the number of neutrons having energies in the range from E to E + dE; thisls
equivalent to dn in (3.14.1), and hence the latter may be written as
3.16.
the
ME} dE =
n
or
ME)
n
2tt
vrE*dE,
(3.16.1)
where the left-hand side represents the fraction of the neutrons having energies
in the range from E to E + dE per unit energy interval. The right-hand side of
equation can be evaluated for various E's at a given temperature, and the
plot obtained in this manner of n(E)/n against the kinetic energy E of the neu
trons is represented in Fig3.16.

the
Fig. 3.16.
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of energy
In the
study of thermal neutrons, it has become the practice to state

kT for the particular temperature T. Actually, this represents
the kinetic energy corresponding to the most probable velocity per unit velocity, t
3.17.
the energy as
The average kinetic energy of thermal

equation, is ffcT.
neutrons,
according
to the Maxwell
-* The volume of the system is usually taken as 1 cm3, but for present purposes the volume is
immaterial.
mi?, where v is the velocity, the Maxwell equation (3.16.1) can be written as
t Since E =
m
, -!22l
,
n()
\i
If
V2t*77
this is differentiated with respect to v and the result set equal to zero, the most probable
The corresponding kinetic energy
velocity per unit velocity is found to be equal to (2kT/m)i.
is then kT.
THE ELEMENTS
38
[3.18
3.18. Expressing energy, as usual, in electron volts, the Boltzmann constant k
has the value 8.61
it is possible to write for
10-6 ev per degree; consequently,
thermal neutrons
"Energy of thermal neutrons" =
8.61
10~bT ev.
(3.18.1)
A number of values for a series of temperatures are recorded in Table 3.18 ; at or

dinary temperature, i.e., about 25C or 298K, the "energy of thermal neutrons"
is approximately 0.025 ev.
TABLE 3.18.
"ENERGIES"
AND
Temperature
"Energy"
"Speed"
(C)
(ev)
(era /sec)
27
0.026
2.2
400
127
0.034
2.6
600
327
0.052
3.1
800
527
0.069
3.6
1000
727
0.086
4.0
(K)

300
3.19. The speed

by the equation
106
AT VARIOUS
of a neutron in cm per sec is related to its kinetic energy

.
! v
where
"SPEEDS" OF THERMAL NEUTRONS

TEMPERATURES
= 13.8
is expressed in electron
X 106VE
volts.
cm per sec,
(3.19.1)
This result may be combined
with
(3.18.1) to give the "speed of thermal neutrons" as a function of the tempera

ture ; thus,
"Speed of thermal neutrons" = 1.28
X 104v/Tcm
per sec.
(At room temperature, T is about 295K and the "speed of thermal neutrons" is
then found to be 2.22 X 106cm per sec.| Values for several temperatures are
given in Table 3.18.
REACTIONS OF SLOW NEUTRONS

Types
3.20. Apart from scattering,
of Capture Reactions
slow neutrons undergo four types of capture

with atomic nuclei; these involve either (a) the emission of gamma
radiation, (n, 7) ; (b) the ejection of an alpha particle, (n, a) ; (c) the ejection of a
proton, (n, p) ; or (d) fission, (n,f). Of these, the radiative capture, i.e., (n, 7),
process is the most common, for it occurs with a wide variety of nuclides from
The (n, a) and (n, p) reactions with slow neutrons
low to high mass numbers.
are limited to a few elements of low mass number, whereas fission by slow neu
trons is restricted to certain nuclei with high mass number.
reactions
3.24]
39
Radiative Capture
3.21. In radiative capture reactions, the target nucleus captures a slow neu
tron and produces a compound nucleus in an excited state ( 2.14). The excess
energy is then emitted in the form of one or more gamma rays, leaving the com
pound nucleus in its normal or ground state.
by
sented
where
ZA+ni-*
[ZA+l]*
The process may thus

ZA+1
be repre
+ y,
A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number of the target nucleus
jiucleus in
The
the^ excited state.
[Z^1]* represents the compound
residual nucleus or product is ZA+1, i.e., a nucleus having the same atomic number
the symbol
target nucleus, but with a mass number one unit greater.

3.22. Since the capture of a neutron by a nucleus, followed by emission of
gamma radiation, must be associated with an increase in the neutron-to-proton
ratio, the product of an (n, y) reaction is likely to be radioactive, especially if the
ratio of neutrons to protons in the target nucleus is already near the upper limit of
stability for the .given atomic number .j As seen above, the latter remains un
changed in the radiative capture of a neutron, while the number of neutrons
If the product nucleus is unstable, it will usually be a negaincreases by unity.
tivejjeta enritter^ since this modeof decay means that the extra neutron is re
In cases of this kind, the occurrence of the neutron
placed by a proton ( 1.16).
capture reaction can be detected experimentally by the resulting radioactivity.
The procedure is frequently used in various measurements with slow neutrons

as the
(3.60,
3.23.
et
seq.).
The simplest (n, y) reaction occurs with hydrogen
as the target nucleus
thus,
xH1
the product
being deuterium.
on1
It
UW]*
will be
,H2
seen
+ 7,
that this process is exactly the
that given in 3.5, for the action of gamma rays on deuterium as a

neutrons. Since the minimum or threshold energy in that case is
known to be 2.21 Mev, it follows that the energy of the gamma radiation result
The
ing from the (n, y) reaction with hydrogen will have at least this value.
emission of such radiation, of relatively high energy and penetrating power,
when neutrons pass through materials containing
hydrogen, has been con
firmed experimentally.
Cognizance must be taken of this fact when such sub
stances, e.g., concrete, water, etc., are used in connection with nuclear reactors,
either as a means for slowing down neutrons, as a coolant, or as a shield to prevent
the escape of neutrons.
3.24. When a slow neutron is absorbed in an (n, y) reaction, the excitation
energy of the compound nucleus above its ground state is approximately equal
to the binding energy of the neutron in the compound nucleus, as was seen in
Consequently, if the excited compound nucleus passes directly to the
2.14.
reverse of
source of
THE ELEMENTS
40
[3.24
ground state by the emission of gamma radiation, the energy of the latter should
For example, in the case of the
be equal to the binding energy of the neutron.
(n, 7) reaction with hydrogen referred to above, the binding energy of the neutron
in the compound nucleus, i.e., in deuterium, is known to be about 2.21 Mev from
the nuclear masses. This is in complete agreement with the measured energy of
Hl(n, 7)H* reaction, and with the threshold energy for the
heavier target nuclei the slow-neutron (n, 7) reaction
With
|
the radiation in the

reverse process.
leads to the formation of compound
nuclei with higher excitation energies, and
the so-called capture gamma rays may have energies of about 8 to 9 Mev.
3.25. The radiative capture of neutrons has been used extensively for the
production of isotopes by exposing stable nuclides to the action of slow neutrons

in a reactor.
Over a hundred (n, 7) reactions leading to beta-emitting isotopes
have been reported.
Two of these, in which rhodium-103 and indium-115,
respectively,
are the target nuclei, i.e.,

uRh10'
In116
+
+
on1
on1
-> isRh104 (44 sec) + 7

-> 49ln118 (54 min) + 7,

are of particular interest since the beta activities of the products are used for the
of neutrons of more or less specific energies, as will be described in

The half life of the radioisotope formed as product is given in each case.
3.84.
3.26. Perhaps the most notable of all (n, 7) reactions with slow neutrons is
that undergone by uranium-238 ; thus,
detection
MU*
The product, uranium-239,

particles
(electrons),
thus,
+ 0n1->UM0 + 7.
has a half life of 23 min, emitting negative betaby _i/3 (charge 1, mass essentially zero) ;
represented
U9->MNp*M
_iJ30,
the daughter being an isotope of an element of atomic number 93, called nep
Neptunium (Np), which does not exist in nature to any detectable extent.
tunium-239,
with a half life of 2.3 days, is itself beta active, decaying by the
process
9sNp239 _> 94pu239
_lj90
to form the isotope PuM9 of the element of atomic number
94, called
plutonium
(Pu).
3.27. The element plutonium occurs naturally in the merest, almost
unde
plutonium-239, which is in a sense an isotope of

an artificial element, is being produced in appreciable quantities in nuclear retectable, traces.*
Nevertheless,
* Such amounts of plutonium-239
as do exist in nature are believed to be formed as a result

of the capture of neutrons by uranium-238 and subsequent two-stage decay of the product, as
described in 3.26.
3.30]
41
actors, as the result of the radiative capture of neutrons by ; uraniunt238.

The
immediate product then undergoes two relatively rapid stages of beta decay,
as stated above, forming the alpha emitter plutonium-239.
The latter has a half
life of 24,000 years and is consequently
relatively stable.
It
is an important
substance from] the standpoint of the release of nuclear energy, being used in
atomic bombs.
3.28.
(n, 7)
series of processes similar to those just described is initiated by the
reaction with thorium-232

90Th232
the isotope
thorium-233
thus,
0n'
being formed.
->
90Th233
+ 7
This is known to have
half life of
23
min, and the product resulting from negative beta decay is protactinium-233, i.e.,
wTh233 -> 9iPa233
The
Pa233
-i/3.
is also a beta emitter, with a half life of 27.4 days, the decay process
being
9IPa233
->
MU233
+
.
the daughter element is a new isotope of uranium which does not occur
in nature, at least to any appreciable extent. \It is radioactive, emitting alpha
particles and having a half life of 1.63 X 106 yearsj Thus, bombardment of
thorium-232 by neutrons, and allowing time for the product to decay through
two stages of beta activity, leads to the formation of the relatively stable uraThis isotope, like the artificially produced plutonium-239 described
nium-233.
in the preceding paragraph, is of significance in connection with the release of
so that
nuclear energy.
Emission
of Alpha Particles and Protons
Slow-neutron reactions accompanied by the emission of a charged parti

The reason is that before a
cle, e.g., an alpha particle or a proton, are rare.
positively charged particle can be expelled from a nucleus it must acquire suf
ficient energy to overcome an electrostatic potential barrier, in addition to the
Part of the
energy needed for its detachment from the compound nucleus.
of
is
the
addition
the
neutron
to
the
requisite energy
provided by
target nucleus;
the remainder must be supplied by the kinetic energy of the neutron.
3.30. Since the kinetic energy of a slow neutron is very small, it is apparent
that (n, a) and (n, p) reactions, with slow neutrons, can occur only when the
This
electrostatic repulsion which the charged particle must overcome is small.
is the case for elements of low atomic number, and hence it is with a few species
of this kind that (n, a) and (n, p) reactions with slow neutrons have been ob
3.29.
served.
THE ELEMENTS
42
[3.31
3.31. The (n, a) reactions may be written in the general form

ZA
[ZA+l]* ->
n1
(Z
2)A~3
*He4,
where 2He4 represents an alpha particle, i.e., a helium nucleus, with a mass number
of 4 and an atomic number of 2. The recoil nucleus now has a mass number
three units less and an atomic number two units less than the target nucleus,
pfhe absorption
of slow neutrons by lithium-6 (Li6), the rarer, naturally occurring
isotope of lithium, and by boron-10 (B10), the less common isotope of boron, leads
to the emission of alpha
Both of these reactions have a special interest
particles?^
in the present connection.
3.32. The (n, a) reaction of boron-10 with slow neutrons may be represented
by
sB10
on1
-+ 3Li7
*-
2He<,
<.
"
This reaction is accom

the recoil nucleus being the stable isotope lithium-7.
panied by the liberation of 2.5 Mev of energy, which is shared between the alpha
particle and the nucleus. Both particles are therefore ejected, in opposite direc
tions, with high velocities, so that they produce considerable ionization in their
It will
be seen later that the (n, a) process with boron-10

is significant in several respects.
It is utilized, for example, in an important
passage through a gas.
method for the detection and counting of slow neutrons ( 3.80), and also in the
control of nuclear reactors ( 4.73).
3.33. The other (n, a) reaction, which takes place readily with slow neutrons,
is
3Li8
on1
-> iH3
2He4.
The residual (recoil) nucleus is here H3, a hydrogen isotope of mass number 3
called tritium, The isotope is radioactive, having a half life of about 12 years,
Tritium has attracted attention because
and emitting a negative beta particle.
of its possible use in connection with the so-called "'hydrogen bomb," as well as
for other reasons.
3.34. The general representation of (n, p) reactions is given by
ZA
so
n1
-> [ZA+1]*
-*(Z
that the product has the same mass number
atomic number is one unit less.

nitrogen-14,
sulfur-32,
1)A
+ iH1,
as the target
nucleus, but its
A few isotopes of low atomic number, notably
and chlorine-35,
undergo (n, p) reactions with slow neu
trons; thus,
7N14
lsSM
17C136
+ on1
6CU + iH1
on1->,6P32
+ 1H1
+
->
I6S36
iH1.
on1
+
+
These processes can be carried out by exposing the respective elements to slow
The products are all radioactive, emitting beta
neutrons in a nuclear reactor.
3.38]
43
they have found many applications in investigations which make use

radioactive isotopes as tracers.
particles
of
Nuclear Fission
Another type of reaction caused by neutrons, which will be considered in
more detail in Chapter IV, is nuclear fission.
In the fission process the nucleus
absorbs a neutron and the resulting compound nucleus is so unstable that it im
mediately breaks up into two more or less equal parts.
Some nuclei, such as
uranium-233, uranium-235, and plutonium-239, will readily undergo fission with
slow neutrons, but others require fast neutrons.
There are many different
ways in which fission of a particular nucleus takes place, but in only a small pro
portion of the fissions does the nucleus break up in a symmetrical manner.
This
and other aspects of fission will be treated more fully below.
3.35.
REACTIONS WITH FAST NEUTRONS

Capture and Fission Reactions

Reactions of fast neutrons with matter, other than scattering and
not of major importance for the study of nuclear reactors ; hence, they
will be referred to only briefly here. Provided the energy is available, the expul
sion of a charged particle from the excited compound nucleus is more probable
than the emission of radiation.
Thus, (n, a) and (n, p) reactions of nuclei with
fast neutrons, with energies of 1 Mev or more, frequently occur more readily
than the (n, y) reaction.
If neutrons of sufficiently high energy are used as
projectiles, two or more nucleons may be expelled from the compound nucleus.
For incident neutrons of energy of about 10 Mev, it is possible for two neutrons
or a neutron and a proton to be emitted.
Such reactions, which are not uncom
mon, are designated (n, 2n) and (n, np), respectively.
If the neutron energy is
3.36.
fission, are
still higher, processes such as (n, Zn), (n, 2np), etc., are possible.
3.37. Several nuclei which do not undergo fission by slow neutrons suffer this
reaction as a result of the capture of fast neutrons.
Thus, uranium-238 and
thorium-232 require neutrons of about 1 Mev energy to cause fission at an ap
preciable rate.
By the use of neutrons of very high energy, e.g., 100 Mev or
more, the fission of a number of normally stable nuclei, such as bismuth, lead,
thallium, mercury, gold, etc., has been achieved.
Such fission, however,
not appear to have any immediate practical interest.
does
NEUTRON CROSS SECTIONS

Significance of Cross Section
The description of the interaction of neutrons with atomic nuclei can
made quantitative by introducing the concept of cross section, defined in
3.38.
be
44
[3.38
general terms in 2.38. If a given material is exposed to the action of neutrons,

the rate at which any particular nuclear reaction occurs depends on the number
of neutrons, their velocity, and the number and type of nuclei in the given ma
terial.
The cross section of a target nucleus for any given reaction is a property
of the nucleus and of the energy of the incident neutron.
3.39. Suppose a uniform beam of neutrons per cm2 impinges perpendicularly,
in a given time, on a layer one atom thick of target material containing Nn atoms
per cm2, and let C be the number of individual nuclear processes, e.g., neutron
captures,
occurring
per cm2, in that time.
The nuclear cross section <r for a

the average number of individual processes
specific reaction is then defined as

occurring per incident neutron in the beam per nucleus
<r
= vpy
thus,
cm2 per nucleus.
(3.39.1)
Because nuclear cross sections are frequently in the range of

Thus, a cross section of 1.8

per nucleus, called a barn.
would be written as 0.18 barn.
3.40. The significance
(3.39.1)
10-22
to
10-26 cm2 per
it is the general practice to express them in terms of a unit of
nucleus,
of the cross section
may be
10-24
cnr
10-26 cm2 per nucleus

seen
by rearranging
thus, consider the form

(3.40.1)
If every neutron falling on the target reacted, then would be equal to the num
ber of nuclei taking part in the reaction; hence the right-hand side of (3.40.1)
would represent the fraction of the incident neutrons which succeed in interact
Consequently, N<r may be regarded as the fraction
ing with the target nucleus.
of the surface which is capable of undergoing the given reaction ; hence, of 1 cm2
N nuclei,
It is this
the quantity <r cm2 is the elective area per single nucleus for the reaction.
interpretation of <r that leads to the use of the term "cross section," although, as
will shortly be apparent, it is related to the geometrical nuclear cross section
only in certain special cases.
3.41. In the foregoing treatment, for purposes of defining the cross section, only
In order to determine cross
the surface of the target material was considered.
sections experimentally, the attenuation of the neutron beam through a target
of surface,
N<r cm2
is effective.
of finite thickness is measured.

neglected.
Consider
Since the
cm2 of surface contains
For the present, the effect of scattering will
If N
70 be
the number of incident neutrons striking
is the number of target nuclei per cm3 of material,
then the number present in a thin layer dx, parallel to the surface, will be
dx
This is equivalent to the quantity designated by the symbol N

Hence, by (3.40.1), N dx<r is the fraction of the neutrons falling on this
nuclei per cm2.

above.
be
cm2 area, enclosed by the dotted lines in Fig. 3.41, of a
slab of material x cm thick, and let

this area from the left.
3.42]
45
layer which react ; this may be set equal to dl/I, where dl is the decrease in
the neutrons per cm2 as a result of passing through the thickness dx of target
material.
Consequently,
-j
Nadx
(3.41.1)

I-dl
dx
Fig.
3.41.
Neutron attenuation in passage through a slab
and integration over the thickness x of the material gives
/* = Ioe-s'",
(3.41.2)
where I0 is the number of incident neutrons falling on a given area and Ix is the
number which succeed in passing through x cm of the material over the same
area.
The experimental method for determining cross sections for nuclear
reactions involving neutrons makes use of (3.41.2), as will be seen in 3.58.
Macroscopic Cross Sections

The cross section
a for a particular process, which applies to a single

called
the microscopic cross section to distinguish it from
nucleus, is frequently
3.42.
Na, called the macroscopic cross section of the material for that process.
representing the latter by 2, the definition is
2 = No-
cm~1,
Thus,
(3.42.1)
N is the number of nuclei per cm'; it is consequently the total cross section
It will be noted that the macroscopic
of the nuclei in 1 cm3 of the material.
cross section has the dimensions of a reciprocal length.
where
46
3.43. Replacing
N<r
in (3.41.1) by 2, in accordance with (3.42.1),
[3.43
it is
seen
that
dl/I is the fraction of neutrons absorbed in the path dx, it is evident tha
2 dx is the probability that neutrons will be absorbed in the path dx.
3.44. If p is the density of the absorbing material in grams per cm3, and A is
its atomic weight, if an element, then p/ A is the number of gram atoms per cm3.
The number of atomic nuclei per cm3 is then obtained upon multiplying by JVo,
the Avogadro number (6.02 X 1023), which gives the number of individual atoms
Since
(or nuclei) per gram atom
thus,
jN0
(3.44.1)
and hence
(3.44.2)

If
the material under consideration
several nuclear species, then
contains
the
macroscopic cross section is given by
2 =
where, in general,
cn
Nm + Nn +
. . .
+ NiVi +
Nt is the number of nuclei per
...
(3.44.3)
ith kind present and

For a compound, A in
cm3 of the
is the microscopic cross section for the given process.
(3.44.1) must be replaced by the molecular weight M, and the result multiplied
by the number Vi of the absorbing atoms of the ith kind per molecule, to obtain
Ni.
The value of 2 is then given by (3.44.3)

2 =
(vm +
vxr%
. . .
thus,
+ v&i
+...).
Mean Free Path and Relaxation Length

3.45. By introducing (3.42.1) into (3.41.2)
or
it follows that
Ix = Ioe-*1
(3.45.1)
(3.45.2)
-to
e~Xz-
The quantity Ix/Iq is the fraction of incident neutrons which succeed in pene
trating the thickness x of material without undergoing the reaction being con
sidered.
Hence e~Sx may be regarded as the probability that a neutron will
Since the proba
penetrate to a point x without being involved in the reaction.
bility that reaction will occur between x and x + dx is given by 2 dx ( 3.43),
the average distance X a neutron will travel before being absorbed is given by
3.49]
are_Zl2 dx
47
--cm,
1
(3.45.3)
e~Zl2 dx
the
integrals in numerator and denominator
3.46.
The average distance
being standard forms.
X calculated
above is called the mean free path for

the given nuclear reaction.
It has, of course, the dimensions of length, since 2
is a reciprocal length.
Replacing 2 in (3.45.2) by 1/X, the result is
(3.46.1)
If x
is set equal to X, then Ix/h = erl, so that X may also be regarded as the dis
tance in which all but a fraction 1/e of the incident neutrons are absorbed.
3.47. When a neutron can take part in several different processes with a given
target nucleus, there will be a different cross section and mean free path for each
process.
The equations derived above are quite general and will apply to all the
in which neutrons are absorbed. It is then possible to define a total
section for neutron absorption which is the sum of the individual cross
An, equation of the form of (3.46.1) will give the total attenuation of
neutrons due to absorption in a thickness x of medium through which they pass.
In this case, the quantity X, which is equal to the reciprocal of the total macro
scopic absorption cross section, is sometimes called the relaxation length of the
It is the distance in which the intensity of the
neutrons in the given medium.
neutron beam is reduced to a fraction 1/e of its initial value due to absorption of
cross
sections.
neutrons
in the medium if there were no scattering.
Rates of Neutron Reactions

3.48. Suppose a neutron moves with a velocity v cm per sec, and X cm is the
mean free path for a given reaction ; then, on the average, v/\ is the probability
If the neutron density, i.e., the number

that a neutron will interact per second.
of neutrons per cm3, of the beam is n, then the number of neutron interactions
is
nv/\ per
cm3 per sec.
Since
"Zrw, where 2 is the macroscopic

words, it follows that
is equal to 1/2, this number can be written as

In other
cross section for a given process.
Number of neutrons involved in a given process =
2nt>
per cm3 per sec,
(3.48.1)
of considerable importance. In the study of nuclear reactors, for example,

it is frequently necessary to know the number of neutrons of velocity v absorbed
per cm3 per sec ; this is equal to 2Qrw, where 2 is the total macroscopic absorp
tion cross section for these neutrons.
3.49. The product nv, expressed as neutrons per cm2 per sec, is a significant
It the
quantity called the neutron flux and represented by the symbol
is
a result
<.

reactions
THE ELEMENTS
48
[3.49
sum of the distances traveled by all the neutrons in one cubic centimeter
second and is therefore
for
sometimes called the track length.
in (3.48.1), it follows that
nv
Number of neutrons involved in a given process =
In
general,
then
Xa4>
Z<
per cm3 per sec.
(3.49.1)
if 2 is the macroscopic absorption cross section for all processes,
is the total number of neutrons absorbed by all nuclear processes per
cm3 per sec.
This result will find frequent

Polyenergetic

in one
Upon substituting
use
in later sections.
Neutron Systems
3.50. In the derivations given above, it has been assumed, for simplicity, that
all the neutrons have the same velocity, but this is not true in many nuclear reac
As brought out in the preceding chapter, and considered further
tor problems.
below, the cross section for a particular reaction varies with the energy, or speed,
This introduces a complication for which due allowance must be
of the neutron.
If n(E) is the number of neutrons of energy E per cm3 per unit energy
made.
interval, then n(E) dE is the number of neutrons in the energy range from E to
E + dE. The total neutron flux for neutrons of all energies (or velocities), is
then given by
(3.50.1)
where the integration limits of zero and infinity are meant to be formal only, the
implication being that integration is carried over the whole range of neutron
The velocity v corresponding to the kinetic energy E is defined by
energies.
v
v2E/m,
3.51.
where m is the mass of the neutron.
(E) repre
(E) dE is the
An alternative form of (3.50.1) may be obtained by letting
sent the flux per unit energy of neutrons having energy

flux of neutrons in the energy range from E to E + dE.
E;
then
The total neutron flux
is then
(3.51.1)
Similarly, the corresponding
form of (3.48.1) for a polyenergetic
neutron system
is
Number of neutrons involved

in a given process
'X
^(E)n(E)v dE
(3.51.2)
(3.51.3)
where 2(i?) is the macroscopic

energy E.
cross section
for the process for neutrons of
3.53]
49
3.52. When the neutrons
have a range of energies, an average macroscopic

cross section 2 for a particular process may be denned so that, by analogy with
(3.49.1),
Number of neutrons involved

in a given process
= .
2<6
per cm33 per sec,
where
is the total neutron flux given by (3.50.1).
It follows, therefore, upon
introducing (3.50.1) and (3.51.2), or (3.51.1) and (3.51.3), that
Z,(E)n(E)vdE
=-
J
=
n(E)vdE
dE
2(E)4>(E)
~z
Jo
\(E)(E)
J[
4>(E)
(3.52.1)
is expressed by
dE
dE
cm,
(3.52.2)
\(E), the mean free path for neutrons of energy E, is equal to 1/2 (E) foi
the given process.
It may be noted that, in general, X will not be equal to 1/2.
3.53. For thermal neutrons having a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, n(E)
in the foregoing equations would be defined by (3.16.1), with n equal to the total
where
number of neutrons per
cm3.
Because of absorption,
however,
the actual dis
tribution of thermal neutrons is not strictly in accordance with the MaxwellBoltzmann equation, as indicated in 3.15. Nevertheless, for a weak absorber,
the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution would represent a very good approximation.
The same would be true if the absorption cross section were essentially independ
ent of the neutron energy. If the absorber obeys the 1 /v law ( 2.43), the absorp
tion cross section may be expressed by oa(E) = (a/&), and the average cross
section is then
aa(E)n(E)v
n(E)v dE
it
that
is
The ratio of the integrals is

is,

The corresponding average mean free path
X =
cm~1-
dE
4>(E)
dE
a n(E)
n(E)& dE
seen to be the reciprocal
equal to l/E^, and so
dE
of the average value of E^
50
THE ELEMENTS
The approximate
average absorption cross section for polyenergetic
the case of a
absorber is thus the value at the velocity
1/t<
[3.53
neutrons in
For a thermal
neutron distribution satisfying the Maxwell equation (3.16.1), it is found that
Consequently,
the average absorption cross section for thermal neutrons having
Maxwellian distribution, if the absorber obeys the 1/v law, is precisely the value
If aa(kT) is the absorption
of the cross section at the energy equal to AkT/ir.
cross section for neutrons of energy kT ( 3.17), then it is readily seen that
a
provided the 1/v law holds.
SCATTERING
PROPERTIES

Cross Sections and Mean Free Path

3.54. The results obtained above ( 3.38, et seq.) are quite general, being ap
plicable both to the absorption of neutrons and to scattering, in which the inci
dent neutron is not lost, as in absorption reactions, but is only deprived of some,
or all, of its energy. The cross section a, for scattering is defined by an expression
similar to (3.39.1), where C is now the number of neutrons scattered out of the
The macroscopic scattering cross
beam of / neutrons per cms by the Na nuclei.
section 2, is equal to Na where, as before, N is the number of nuclei per cm3 of
the scattering material.
In applying the arguments of
to the scattering of neutrons, there

is a change in the significance of the term Ix ; it is now the number of neutrons
which have escaped scattering, and not merely the number which succeed in
Actually, the number of neutrons passing
passing through the material.
through in the x-direction is greater than Iz, since many neutrons will be scat
tered in this direction. However, bearing in mind the correct interpretation of
The quantity Ix/I0 is
/, equations (3.41.2) and (3.45.2) apply to scattering.
the fraction of the neutrons which have escaped scattering, so that e-2** is the
probability that a neutron will penetrate to a point x without being scattered,
and 2, dx is the probability that scattering will occur in the interval between x
and x + dx. The scattering mean free path X which is the average distance a
neutron travels before being involved in a scattering collision, can then be ob
i
tained from (3.45.3) as
X. =
(3.55.1)
3.55.
For a neutron of velocity
3.41
cm per sec, the number of scattering collisions

will be, on the average, v/\, per sec, and the total number of neutrons scattered
per cm3 per sec is nv/\ or niI2 where n is the number of neutrons per cm3.
3.56.
3.57]
51
3.49, it follows that the number of neutrons scattered per em3 per sec is
2,0, where
is the neutron flux. The scattering cross sections do not vary so
greatly with energy* as do absorption cross sections ; nevertheless, when a beam
of polyenergetic neutrons is being considered, the total number of scattering
As in
collisions per cm3 per sec will be given by an expression analogous to (3.51.3).
Average values of the macroscopic scattering cross section and of the mean free
path are given by (3.52.1) and (3.52.2).
DETERMINATION OF CROSS SECTIONS

Transmission Method
The most direct procedure for the measurement of cross sections, which
total of absorption and scattering cross sections, is the transmission
method.
The experimental arrangement consists of a neutron source S and a
detector D, between which is placed a slab A of the material being investigated
(Fig. 3.57) . By means of a suitable collimating shield, the neutron beam passing
3.57.
gives the

Fia.
3.57.
Transmission method for determination of cross sections
through to the detector is restricted to a relatively small solid angle. The pur
pose of the shield is to prevent, as far as possible, neutrons which have been
scattered in the material from reaching the detector.
This will be evident from a
consideration of the dotted lines showing possible paths of scattered neutrons.
If the aperture in the shield is small, the neutrons in general will not be scattered
into the detector, as shown at a. However, if the aperture had been larger, there
is a possibility that scattered neutrons would reach the detector, as indicated
at&.f
*
to
The potential scattering cross section a, for neutrons ( 2.53) should theoretically
ivR*, where R is the "effective" radius of the scattering nucleus.
be equal
t It is assumed here that the slab is not too thick, so that the neutrons are not scattered more
than once within the slab; otherwise, neutrons such as a might be scattered into the detector.
It is on account of the scattering of neutrons that the exponential equation (3.41.2) for the
attenuation of neutrons ib not altogether valid.
THE ELEMENTS
52
[3.58
3.58. With the arrangement suggested above, the neutrons reaching D will
If Jo is
be those which have escaped absorption and have not been scattered.
the neutron intensity measured at D with the slab of material removed, and 7* is
the value when the slab of thickness x is interposed
between the source and the
detector, then insertion of these results in (3.41.2) will permit the total (micro
Alter
scopic) cross section for absorption and scattering to be calculated.
natively, (3.45.1) may be used to give the total macroscopic cross section.
3.59. The scattering
cross section can be determined
by having the neutron
it can be reached by scattered neutrons only.

This may be achieved by placing the detector at an angle approaching 90 from
the incident beam ; then only those neutrons which have been scattered through
From the result obtained the total number of neu
this angle will be counted.
trons scattered through all angles by a known thickness of material can be calcu
The difference between the
lated and hence the cross section can be evaluated.
total cross section obtained in 3.58 and the scattering cross section gives the
absorption cross section for all processes.* The method just described for ob
taining scattering cross sections requires a strong neutron source, since the pro
portion of neutrons scattered is small, and only a fraction of these enter the de
tector placed at a selected angle.

detector in such a position that
Activation Method
If
a particular neutron absorption
reaction leads to the formation of a

(3.22), the amount of which can be estimated from its radio
activity, it may be possible to determine the cross section for that reaction by
A thin foil of the material under investi
what is known as the activation method.
gation is exposed to the neutrons for a known time ; it is then removed from the
If the target material is thin, the neu
neutron flux and its activity is measured.
tron density or flux may be regarded as constant throughout, and this simplifies
3.60.
radioisotope
of the results.
the treatment
3.61. According to (3.49.1), the number
of neutrons
sec, in a given process, is 20, where Z is the macroscopic
process and
is the neutron flux.
the rate of absorption
is
VZa4>
If V
absorbed
cm3 is the volume of the
neutrons per sec.
per cm3 per
cross section for that
absorbing foil,
Since each neutron absorbed
results in the production of a radioactive nucleus, the rate of formation of the

active species is V20 nuclei per sec.
However, the decay of the radioactive
If X is the radioactive
nuclide occurs to some extent while it is being produced.
decay constant
( 1.20), the net rate of increase of the active species at any
instant is given by
It
VZa
- \N,
(3.61.1)
should be noted that for neutrons of sufficiently high energy, where absorption i8 of the
order as, or smaller than, scattering, this method is inapplicable, since it involves the
difference of two almost equal numbers containing experimental inaccuracies.
same

where
is the number of active nuclei present after
53
T sec of exposure of the foil to
the neutron flux 0.

3.62. The solution of the linear differential equation
N = 0 when T = 0, is
Vy .
= (1
N =
e-xr).
(3.61.1),
noting that
(3.62.1)
The activity A of the foil measured by a counter is equal to N\, which is the rate
of emission of charged particles (or photons),
A = 7Z.*(1
so
that
- e-xr).
If exposure
to neutrons is continued for some time,

small compared with unity, (3.62.2) becomes
(3.62.2)
so
Ax = V2a.
that T is large, and
e~XT
is
(3.62.3)
The quantity designated Ax is called the saturation activity, and for a given
neutron flux and foil it is directly proportional to the absorption cross section.
It
is the maximum or limiting activity the foil can acquire in the specified neu
tron flux.
After removal of the activated foil from the neutron flux, it continues to
decay, and at any subsequent time I the activity is

3.63.
- e-XT)e~u
VZJle-" -
At = F2a(1
=
By determining
e-MT+t>].
(3.63.1)
the activity of the foil in a counter, after a period T of exposure

to neutrons and a delay t before counting, and making allowance for decay dur
ing the process of counting, it is possible to evaluate the saturation activity
from (3.63.1). If the neutron flux 4> to which the foil is exposed and the
VZ
volume of the foil are known, it is possible to determine the macroscopic cross
section 2 for the process leading to the species whose activity was measured.
The neutron flux may be determined directly by means of a suitable counter
( 3.84). Alternatively, the procedure just described, using a foil with a known
absorption cross section, may be employed for the measurement of neutron
flux. Once the latter, from a given source, is known, it may be utilized for the
determination of absorption cross sections of other materials.
3.64. It should be noted that the cross section obtained by use of the activa
tion method not only refers to a particular process, but also to a specific isotopic
For example, if silver is exposed to the ac
constituent of the target material.
tion of slow neutrons, an active species, with a half life of 2.3 min, is formed.
This has been identified as Ag108 formed by the (n, 7) reaction of slow neutrons
with the stable isotope Ag107. Hence, if the activity having a half life of 2.3 min
is studied, the results will give the cross section for the (n, 7) reaction of the silMeasurements made by the transmission procedure, described
ver-107 isotope.
et
an average value for both stable isotopes, of mass numbers
3.57,
give
seq.,
in
107 and 109.
THE ELEMENTS
54
[3.65
RESULTS OF CROSS SECTION MEASUREMENTS

Variation of Cross Section with Neutron Energy
3.65. The problem of a complete determination of cross sections for neutron
reactions is a very complex one ; not only do the values vary from one isotope to
another of the same element, and change with the nature of the reaction, but
they are also markedly dependent on the velocity, or energy, of the incident neu
Although the energy dependence of neutron absorption cross sections has
trons.
been determined in many cases, the data have been obtained with the naturally
occurring
form of the target material,
often consisting of two or more isotopes.

sec
tion than another, the former has been identified and its contribution estimated.
The fact that the absorption cross sections are generally the total for all possible
processes is not serious, because for nearly all elements, other than those of low
atomic weight, the (n, y) reaction takes place almost exclusively for neutrons of
A few exceptional cases ( 3.32 to 3.34) are
energy less than several Mev.
known, and then appropriate allowance can be made.
3.66. In order to study the effect of neutron energy on the cross section, it is
Some of these were described
necessary to have monoenergetic neutron sources.
earlier, but they mostly refer to neutrons with energies of several thousand elec
tron volts, at least. In the low-energy range, neutrons of specific energies can
be obtained from polyenergetic beams by the use of devices called velocity selectors.
With their aid, neutrons of any desired velocity, in the range from a fraction of
an ev to about 1000 ev, can be studied.
3.67. With the exception of hydrogen in the unbound state, for which the
value is as high as 20 X 10-24 cm2, i.e., 20 barns,* the scattering cross sections of
nearly all elements lie in the range from about 1 to 10 barns for neutrons of low
With increasing energy, the cross sections decrease somewhat, and for
energy.
high-energy (40 to 100 Mev) neutrons they approach the geometrical cross sec
tion, irR2, where R is the radius of the nucleus.
The value of R is given, with a
fair degree of accuracy, especially for the elements of higher atomic number,
by the expression 1.5.4* X 10-13 cm, where A is the mass number ( 1.34).
Hence, for an element of mass number 125, for example, the limiting value of the
scattering cross section is about 2 barns.
For many nuclides, especially those of mass number exceeding 100, an

examination of the variation of the absorption (or total) cross sections with thf
energy of the neutrons reveals the existence of three regions, in agreement with
3.68.
reached from the Breit-Wigner formula ( 2.39, et seq.).

first, a low-energy region where the cross section decreases steadily
is,
the general conclusions
There
with increasing neutron energy.
The absorption cross section
aa
in this slow-
In the bound state, as in solid paraffin, the scattering cross section increases to 80 barns for
neutrons of very low energy
3.80).
(

In certain instances, where one isotope has a much larger absorption cross
3.71]
55
neutron region is inversely proportional to the square root of the neutron energy,
as indicated by (2.43.1).
Since the energy is kinetic in nature, <r is inversely
proportional to the neutron velocity; this is the l/v region referred to in 2.43.
The Resonance Region

3.69. Following the l/v region for slow neutrons, the elements under consid
eration exhibit a resonance region ( 2.44). This is characterized by the occur
rence of peaks where the absorption cross section rises fairly sharply to high val
Some elements, cadmium
ues for certain neutron energies, and then falls again.
and rhodium, for example, have only one resonance peak in the electron volt
region, whereas others, such as indium, silver, iridium, and gold, have two or
more peaks. The cross sections of cadmium and indium, as functions of the neu
tron energy, are shown in Fig. 3.69. The scales are logarithmic in both direciopoo=-
sty
1 1
|ini|
1 1
linil
nrrrra
1 1

0=1000
m
1
o
100
<5
in
io U-
4
O
i i
001
linii
i i
0.1
NEUTRON
Fig. 3.69.
The
1.0
ENERGY, EV
10
Inn
100
Cross sections of cadmium and indium as functions of neutron energy
region, at the left side of the figure, appears as a straight

resonance peak for cadmium occurs at 0.18 ev and the absorption
tions, and so the

line.
liml
l/v
cross section is then about 7200 barns.

The main peak for indium is for neu
trons of 1.44 ev energy, with a cross section exceeding 20,000 barns. There are
also two lower resonance peaks at somewhat higher energies, about 4 and 10 ev.
3.70. Since the resonance peaks are found in regions of relatively low neutron
energies and with elements of higher mass number, the reactions taking place
must be of the (n, y) type. As pointed out earlier, for other processes, such ele
ments would require neutrons having energies in the Mev range. The behavior
of certain nuclides of low mass number undergoing (n, a) reactions with slow
neutrons will be referred to below ( 3.76).
3.71. The resonance peaks for (n, 7) reactions at low energies are usually
sharp and narrow. This is in agreement with the Breit-Wigner treatment of
56
THE ELEMENTS

resonance absorption.
The partial level width
TT
for gamma-ray
[3.71
emission
is
apparently small, of the order of 0.1 ev, and since other reactions of the com
pound nucleus are not very probable for slow neutrons, the total level width r
will also be small. It was shown in 2.45 that the so-called half-width of the
resonance peak should be equal to the total level width. The resonance peaks
should thus be relatively narrow, as they are in Fig. 3.69.
3.72. Another point of interest is the high values of the resonance absorption
These are frequently of the order of 10,000 barns, i.e., 10-20 cm2,
cross sections.
compared with an actual ("geometrical") nuclear cross section of about 2 barns,
i.e., 2 X 10-24 cm2. Since the cross section may be thought of as the effective
area of the nucleus as far as a given reaction is concerned ( 3.40), it is apparent
that the effective area can be much larger than the actual area.
3.73. An interpretation of this result can be found in the wave theory of
Thus, according to (2.9.1), a neutron with energy of 1 ev has a wave
matter.
length of 2.9 X 10-9 cm. The neutron can consequently be regarded as a wave
which can engulf many nuclei if the required energy conditions, namely, those for
resonance, are fulfilled. The effective area of the nucleus for absorption of a
neutron may then well approach a value of (10-9)2, i.e., 10-18 cm2.
3.74. The same general conclusion may be reached from the Breit-Wigner
equation (2.39.1) by setting E equal to Er; the corresponding value of the cross
section, i.e., the maximum of the resonance peak, is then
<7max
fS~.
(3./ 4.1)
If I^rVr2
is taken to be about 0.1, then since the wave length X is 2.9 X 10-9 cm
for a neutron of 1 ev energy, the value of amax might be roughly 10-19 cm2, i.e.,
about 106 barns.*
Fast-Neutron Region
3.75. Beyond the resonance region the nuclear cross sections decrease steadily
with increasing neutron energy. This represents what may be called the fasineiUron region.
The cross sections are usually low, being less than 10 barns in
most cases and becoming even smaller at energies in the Mev range.
For a
neutron of 1-Mev energy the equivalent wave length is 2.9 X 10-12 cm, by (2.9.1),
and hence the absorption cross sections are likely to be of the same order as the
scattering
cross sections.
Large Level Widths

A type of variation of cross section with neutron energy, different from
described
above, has been observed with a few nuclei of low mass number for
that
3.76.
Because of accepted conventional usage, the symbol X is employed in this chapter to rep
resent mean free path, radioactive constant, and neutron wave length.
However, the proper
significance should be clear from the context, in each case.
3.78]
57
reactions in which a charged particle is expelled. Examples of this behavior are

The de
to be found in the (n, a) reactions with B10 and Li6, referred to earlier.
pendence on neutron energy of the cross section for the (n, a) reaction with boron,
mainly due to the boron-10 isotope, is shown in Fig. 3.76.

.01
ilmil
0.1
1 1 ml
NEUTRON
Fig.
3.76.
1 1 mil
lllllll I
10
1.0
ENERGY,
The logarithmic plot
100
lllllll
1000
EV
Cross section of boron as function of neutron energy
of a against E is essentially linear from about 0.01 ev*to 0.1 Mev, although the
data in the figure go only to 1000 ev. This means that the 1/v law holds at en
ergies well beyond those found for (n, y) reactions, in fact beyond the usual reso
nance region.
3.77. The interpretation of this result may also be found in the Breit-Wigner
formula. When the excited compound nucleus has sufficient excess energy to
make emission of a charged particle possible, the probability that the process will
occur is large. In other words, the partial level width ra is large and, conse
quently, so also will be T, the total width. In these circumstances, the quantity
(E Er)2 in the Breit-Wigner equation may be neglected in comparison with Jr2
over a considerable energy range. The cross section will then vary inversely as
the square root of the neutron energy, or inversely as its velocity, as shown in
2.46. The extension of the 1/v region over such a large range of energies in
the (n, a) reaction with boron (and lithium) may thus be explained by the large
level width.
Elements of Low Mass Number

3.78. It is important to point out that not all elements exhibit the types of
behavior described above. Most nuclides of low mass number, as well as several
of high mass number, do not exhibit resonance absorption, at least not to any
The total neutron cross sections, including both absorption
appreciable extent.
and scattering, are small, of the order of a few barns, over the whole energy range,
THE ELEMENTS
58
[3.78
Were it not for this fact the construction

of nuclear reactors would be a virtual impossibility.
from thermal values to several Mev.*
Thermal Neutron Cross Sections

of their special
in connection
with the design and

and absorption cross sec
tions of a number of substances for thermal neutrons are given in Table 3.79.|
3.79. Because
operation
of thermal
nuclear reactors, the scattering
TABLE 3.79.
Element or
Compound
H
D,0

Total
Absorption
c (barns)
20-80
0.32
20-80
0.00092
15.3
Scattering
<r.
(barns)
1.56
0.008
1.55
Be
6.9
0.009
6.9
722
4.8
12.7
718
0.0045
1.5
3.8
4.8
11.2
4.0
<0.0009
<0.01
4.0
4.2
4.2
Na
4.5
0.46
4.0
Al
1.6
0.22
1.35
1.6
0.47
1.1
Ca
4.4
0.4
4.0
Fe
13.5
2.5
11.0
Ni
22
4.5
17.5
0.4
8.0
Zr
8.4
Cd
In
Pb
Bi
will
CROSS SECTIONS
a (barns)
15.3
It
THERMAL NEUTRON
Ho
3.80.
interest
3500
3500
6.5
193
191
2.2
0.2
<0.01
8.3
8.5
9
that the scattering cross section for hydrogen is quoted

the value depends upon whether the atom is in the free state
be noted
as 20 to 80 barns
In
or is bound in a molecule, and also upon the precise thermal neutron energy.
the bound state, as in paraffin, for example, the scattering cross section of hydro
rapidly with the neutron energy at low energies, as is indicated by
curve in Fig. 3.80. At neutron energies of the order of 10 ev,
the scattering cross section is about 20 barns, which is probably close to the
thermal value for free atoms, but the observed cross section increases to about
80 barns for very slow neutrons.
gen changes
the experimental
The most notable exceptions are, of course, Li' and B10.

t The results are taken mainly from "Nuclear Data," NBS Circular 499, National Bureau of
Standards, U. S. Department, of Commerce, 1950; see also, R. K. Adair, Rev. Mod. Phys., 22,
249 (1950); H. Pomerance, Phys. Rev., 83, 641 (1951).
*
32]
10
NEUTRON
Fig.

3.81.
3.80.
10'
10J
ENERGY, EV
Cross section of hydrogen in paraffin
as
I06
107
function of neutron energy
At low neutron energies, when E is small in comparison with the reso
nance energy Er, the Breit-Wigner

reduces to
equation
\-
i'
4tt
E?
(2.54.1) for resonance scattering
(3.81.1)
provided the total level width T is also small in comparison with Er. The neu
tron wave length X is here proportional to l/pv (cf. 2.39, footnote), where n is
the reduced mass of the scattering system and v is the velocity of the neutron.
It can be shown * that Tn is proportional to ph, and so it follows from (3.81.1)
that for any atomic species, the scattering cross section for low neutron energies
should be proportional to p*.
3.82. If the energy of the incident neutron is larger than the binding energy of
the hydrogen atom in a molecule, i.e., about 3 or 4 ev, the proton will behave
The reduced mass of the scattering
essentially as if it were free in the collision.
defined
by
system,
1
where
4.1
R + n'
(3.82.1)
represents the effective mass of the proton and n is the mass of the neu
On the other hand, if the neutron

tron, is then equal to \ in atomic mass units.
small
with
the
compared
binding
is
energy of the hydrogen atom in a
energy
relatively large molecule, such as paraffin, the effective mass of the hydrogen is
large and the reduced mass, as given by (3.82.1), is then approximately unity.
Since the scattering cross section for neutrons of low energy is proportional to
n2, it follows that for bound hydrogen the cross section should increase fourfold
*Cf. H. A. Bethe,
Physics," AECD-2664,
Rev.
Mod. Phys., 9, 69 (1937); see also
pages 14, 36.
J.
G. Beckcrlcy,
"Neutron
THE ELEMENTS OF NCULEAR REACTOR THEORY
60
as the neutron
energy decreases,
[3.82
(Fig. 3.80).
for neutrons of
as has been found experimentally
According to this argument, the lower value of
20 barns, i.e.,
about 10 ev, represents the scattering cross section for free hydrogen atoms.
DETECTION
AND COUNTING OF NEUTRONS
Secondary
Ionization Counters
3.83. Neutrons produce very little direct ionization in their passage through a
and so they cannot be detected directly in such instruments as a Geiger
The operation of these and similar devices depends
counter or a cloud chamber.
p;as,
on the presence of ions produced by the entry of a particle ; hence they will not
respond to neutrons directly. Nevertheless, instruments of this kind can be
adapted to detect and count neutrons by utilizing certain secondary effects of
these neutral particles.
3.84. The most common method for counting slow neutrons makes use of the

As seen in 3.32,
(ra, a) reaction with B10, for which the cross section is large.
a Li7 nucleus and an alpha particle are formed ; both have relatively high energies
ionization in their paths. In order to take ad
vantage of this process, a counter containing boron or a compound of boron is
A proportional counter, for example, may contain boron trifluoride
employed.
as part of the filling gas, or the walls may be lined with a thin coating of elemental
Since it is really the
boron or of a solid compound, such as boron carbide.
B10 isotope which is effective in the (n, a) reaction, better results are obtained if
the boron compound used contains a larger than normal proportion of this
and they produce considerable
isotope.
In a counter tube of proper design each neutron entering will produce

sufficient secondary ionization to permit it to be counted without difficulty.
If
3.85.
the area of the surface covered with boron is known, the slow neutron flux can be
determined.
3.86. Another type of neutron detector and counter makes use of the fission
Slow neutrons cause fission of the uranium-235 nucleus, and
reaction ( 3.35).
the nuclear fragments which result have considerable ionizing effect. A simple
device for observing slow neutrons thus consists of an ionization chamber of which
one electrode is coated with uranium oxide, preferably
somewhat enriched
in
Again, each neutron entering the chamber and strik

the uranium-235 isotope.
ing the coated electrode can be counted.
3.87. When fast neutrons are being studied, it is the general practice to make
use of the ioniaation in the track of a light nucleus, e.g., a proton, recoiling after
For this purpose a proportional counter
being struck by a high-energy neutron.
may be filled with hydrogen.
Preferably, argon or one of the heavier inert gases
is used as the filling gas and a thin sheet of a hydrogenous material, such as par
Fast neutrons striking the paraffin
affin, is placed at one end of the chamber.
3.89]
61
protons to be ejected with relatively high energy ; the latter produce ioniza
tion in their paths through the counter and so can be detected.
Instruments of
this type have been developed for determining the energy of the fast neutrons as
cause
well as
counting them.
Activation
Detectors
3.88. As indicated in 3.63, the activation method can be applied to the

determination of neutron flux.
This procedure is often very convement because
thin foils, which cause little disturbance of the neutron density, can be placed in
regions not accessible to counters.
Further, the use of cadmium in combination
with indium provides
An
energies.
a means of distinguishing between neutrons
examination
of different
of Fig. 3.69 shows that indium, with a resonance peak
neutron energy, has a high absorption cross section, 100 barns or more,
for neutrons of energy less than about 2 ev. On the other hand, cadmium has a
resonance peak at 0.18 ev, and the cross sections are high for energies less than
at 1.44 ev
about 0.5 ev.
When indium is exposed to neutrons it becomes radioactive,
but

cadmium does not.
The foregoing facts are utilized in the following manner.
First, an in
dium foil is exposed to neutrons for a known time and the activity measured in
the usual manner; this is then used to calculate the saturation activity ( 3.63),
and from the known average absorption cross section, the flux of neutrons with
The indium foil is then completely
energy less than about 2 ev can be evaluated.
surrounded by cadmium foil and once more exposed to the neutrons.
Because of
the strong absorption by cadmium of neutrons with energies below about 0.5 ev,
essentially the only neutrons reaching the indium will be those with energies in
excess of this amount.
Consequently, the indium foil will now be sensitive to
neutrons in the range of 0.5 to 2 ev, approximately, and their flux can be deter
mined from the saturation activity of the foil.
The difference between the
results obtained without a cadmium shield and with cadmium gives the flux of
neutrons of energy less than about 0.5 ev.
3.89.
Chapter
IV
THE FISSION PROCESS*

CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE FISSION REACTION

Introduction

4.1. Although many nuclear reactions were known prior to 1939, they were all
of the type in which a relatively light particle or a gamma-ray photon was ex
pelled, so that the atomic and mass numbers of the product nucleus were not very
In that year, however, there was discovered
different from those of the target.
the process of fission, mentioned in 2.22 and 3.35, whereby a uranium nu
cleus, after capture of a neutron, splits into two parts which differ considerably
from the target element. From the standpoint of the utilization of atomic en
First, the process

ergy, the importance of the fission reaction lies in two facts.
is associated with the liberation of relatively large amounts of energy and, sec
ond, the reaction initiated by neutrons is also accompanied by the liberation of
neutrons.
Consequently,
it is possible under suitable conditions, which will
discussed in this book, for the process to be self-sustaining,
be
and for energy to be
generated continuously.
4.2. The theoretical interpretation of fission and its application in nuclear
reactors will be considered later; but first the essential phenomena will be de
Uranium-235, which is present to the extent of 0.712 per cent in natural

uranium, undergoes fission with thermal neutrons, as well as with those of higher
The same is true for the artificially produced isotopes plutonium-239
energy.
On the other hand, uranium-238 and thorium-232,
and uranium-233 ( 3.35).
which are the most abundant isotopes of these elements as found in nature, re
quire fast neutrons, of at least 1 Mev energy, to induce fission to an appreciable
It is of interest to note that natural uranium apparently undergoes
extent.
scribed.
*
A detailed history of the discovery of fission and the development of the first chain reactor
by E. Fermi and his collaborators is given by H. D. Smyth, "Atomic Energy for Military
Purposes," U. S. Government Printing Office, 1945; see also L. A. Turner, Rev. Mod. Phys.,
12, 1 (1940); S. Glasstone, "Sourcebook on Atomic Energy," D. Van Nostrand
Co., Inc.,
and XIV.
1950, Chapters
XIII
62
THE FISSION
.1.(1]
fission spontaneously,
at a definite rate.
PROCESS
63
Thus, in a gram of ordinary uranium,
nuclei suffer spontaneous fission per hour, on the average.*

In addition to uranium and thorium, other common elements of high, and
even of moderate, atomic number exhibit fission, but only by the use of incident
Fission processes of this kind, although of con
particles of very high energy.
siderable general interest, do not appear to have any application in the field of
nuclear energy, since these high-energy particles are not produced by the reac
about 23
4.3.
tion, and hence the process cannot be self-sustaining.
Emission
of Neutrons
When a nucleus of high atomic number undergoes fission, splitting into

more or less equal parts, called fission fragments, the neutron-to-proton ra
This is a straight
of these fragments fall near the dotted line in Fig. 1.15.
origin
points
to
the
nuclides
of
representing
high atomic number,
joining the
4.4.
two
tios
line
such as those which are capable of undergoing
fission.
Because the fission frag
roughly similar in size, it follows that their neutron-to-proton

ratios must he somewhere near the middle of the dotted line.
Nuclei of this
kind obviously contain too many neutrons for them to be stable ; they can ap
proach stability, however, either by ejecting one or more neutrons, or by con
version of a neutron into a proton with the simultaneous emission of a negative

ment nuclei are
beta particle.
of the foregoing considerations, the possibility that neutrons

might be expelled in the fission of uranium was soon realized and verified ex
It has been found that, in the fission of uranium-235 by slow neu
perimentally.
trons, an average of 2.5 0.1 neutrons are emitted for each nucleus suffering
The number is not
fission, i.e., for each neutron absorbed in a fission reaction.
an integer because, as will be seen below, the uranium nucleus splits in many
different ways, and although the number of neutrons expelled in any individual
act of fission must obviously be zero or integral, the average may well not be an
4.5. On account
exact whole number.

4.6.
The neutrons emitted
neutrons,
as a result
of the fission process can be divided into
prompt neutrons and delayed neutrons. The prompt

which are over 99 per cent of the total fission neutrons, are released
two categories,
namely,
within an extremely short interval of time, about 10-14 sec, of the fission process.
The evidence indicates that they are not released directly from the compound
which results when a uranium-235 nucleus, for example, captures a slow

neutron.
It appears that the compound nucleus first breaks up into two nuclear
fragments, each of which has too many neutrons for stability, as well as the excess
(excitation) energy, at least 6 Mev or so, required for the expulsion of a neutron.
The excited, unstable nucleus consequently expels one or more neutrons within a
nucleus
The apparent spontaneous fission of uranium may be due, at least in part, to interaction
with neutrons from cosmic radiation and from other sources.
G4
(4.6

The instantaneous gamma rays accompan3*very short time after its formation.
ing fission are apparently emitted at the same time.
4.7. The energies of the prompt neutrons cover a considerable range, probably
from over 10 Mev down to thermal values ; the majority, however, have energies
The energy distribution, represented schematically in
of about 1 or 2 Mev.
Fig. 4.7, is referred to as the fission neutron spectrum or, in brief, as the fission
E, MEV
Fig.
4.7.
Fission neutron energy spectrum
spectrum. Within the energy range from 0.1 to 10 Mev, which includes practi
cally all fission neutrons, the fission spectrum is given, to a fair degree of accu
racy, by
s(E)
= 0.484c-* sinh
V2E,
where s(E) is the number of fission neutrons per unit energy normalized to one
In the center-of-mass system
fission neutron ; E is the neutron energy in Mev.
and the prompt neutron, the fission spectrum would
probably be approximated by a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution (3.14), but
in the laboratory system this is disturbed by the motion of the fission fragments,
of the fission fragment
and by the fact that the neutron emission probability is a function of its energy.
4.8. Whereas the expulsion of the prompt neutrons ceases within a very short
time, the delayed neutrons are emitted, with gradually decreasing intensity, over
The delayed neutrons accompanying fission fall into five,
a period of minutes.
The rate of decay of the neutron intensity in each
and possibly more, groups.
By
group is exponential in nature, as it is for radioactive change in general.
observing the decay of the delayed neutrons after fission has ceased, it has been
The character
found possible to associate a specific half life with each group.
istic properties of the five definitely established groups of delayed neutrons are
i.e., 7\/0.693,
given in Table 4.8 ;* these include the half life 7\, the mean life
D.
J.
Hughes,
J.
Dabbs, A. Cahn, and D. Hall, Phys. Rev., 73,
111
(1948).
THE FISSION
4.10]
PROCESS
65
constant X<, i.e., 1/< the fraction & which the group constitutes of the
total (prompt and delayed) fission neutrons, and the neutron energy, in each
case.
The last two columns apply only to the slow-neutron fission of uraniumThe
235; the total fraction of delayed neutrons is seen to be roughly 0.0075.
same five groups of delayed neutrons are also formed when plutonium-239
suffers fission, but the proportions and energies are different from those recorded
the decay
here.
TABLE 4.8.
PROPERTIES OF DELAYED
NEUTRONS
IN SLOW-NEUTRON
FISSION
OF
URANIUM-235
Half Life

Ti
4.9.
(sec)
Mean Life
Decay Constant
U (sec)
X< (sec-1)
'
Fraction
Energy
(Mev)
0.43
0.62
1.61
0.00084
0.42
1.52
2.19
0.456
0.0024
0.62
4.51
6.50
0.151
0.0021
0.43
22.0
31.7
0.0315
0.0017
0.56
55.6
80.2
0.0124
0.00026
0.25
The properties of the delayed neutrons have an important bearing on the
time-dependent behavior of nuclear reactors, and hence an explanation of their

By making rapid chemical separations of the fission frag
origin is of interest.
ments and their radioactive decay products, it has been found that neutrons de
caying
with the 55.6-sec half life follow the chemistry of bromine, whereas those
of 22.5-sec
half life follow that of iodine.
It
does not appear probable that the
neutrons are expelled directly from the nuclei of isotopes of bromine or iodine, for
if sufficient energy, about 6 to 8 Mev, were available to permit the removal of a
neutron, the process would be virtually instantaneous, with a half life of the
The conclusion to be drawn, therefore, is that the emission

order of 10-14 sec.
of delayed neutrons occurs in an indirect manner from the bromine or iodine
isotopes, as follows.
4.10. One of the products of fission is a bromine isotope of high mass number,
probably Br87 ; the nucleus contains too many neutrons for stability and is con
The half life of the Br87 is 55.6 sec, which is
sequently a negative beta emitter.
half life of one of the groups of delayed neutrons, and its decay
The latter can evidently be formed in a highly excited state,
product is Kr87.
with sufficient energy to permit it immediately to eject a neutron and leave a
Any excess energy available, after removal of
stable Kr86 nucleus (Fig. 4.10).
the neutron, appears as kinetic energy of the latter (see last column of Table 4.8).
The observed rate of emission of neutrons is thus determined by the rate of
formation of the neutron emitter Kr87, and this is dependent on the decay of the
precursor Br87. Like all radioactive species, the latter decays in an exponential
the same as the
66
THE ELEMENTS
manner, the half life in this

falls off at the same rate.
case being 55.6 sec, and hence the
[4.10
neutron emission

Br87(55.6 SEC)
Fig.
4.10.
Interpretation of delayed neutron emission
4.11. The precursor of the group of delayed neutrons with a half life of 22.5
apparently I137. It is known to have a half life of this magnitude and when
sec is
it decays, by the emission of a negative beta particle, the product is Xe137. The
latter can presumably be in a state of high internal energy, so that it instantane
Here again the emission of the neu
ously expels a neutron to form stable Xe138.
tron is delayed because the rate of formation of the Xe137 from which it originates
The other three groups of
depends on the rate of decay of the precursor I137.
delayed neutrons are undoubtedly produced in an analogous manner, although
the precursors in these cases have not yet been definitely identified.
The Fission Products

4.12. The discovery of fission was made as a result of the detection of elements
of moderate atomic weight, such as barium and lanthanum, when slow neutrons
interact with uranium. Since lanthanum has an atomic number of 57, whereas
that of uranium is
92, the other fission fragments*
must presumably be bromine,
*
The term fission fragments or primary fission products is used here to refer to the nuclei
formed directly in fission or after emission of the prompt neutrons. The expression fission
products, without qualification, is intended to include the fission fragments and the products
of their radioactive decay.
THE FISSION
4.131
PROCESS
atomic number 35.
The fission process in this
the equation
nym +
67Lau7
orti
67
might then
case
3<.Br87
be represented
by
2onl,
using plausible mass numbers and assuming two neutrons to be emitted per fis
It will be noted that the two fragments, although considerably lighter than
the uranium nucleus, have mass numbers which are appreciably different from
each other.
That the uranium nucleus tends to break up in an unsymmetrical
manner was first indicated by the fact that the fission fragments were observed
to fall into two groups with different ionizing powers and presumably different
The ratio of the kinetic energies was found to be about 1.45, and con
energies.
sequently, if momentum is conserved, the masses of the respective fragments
must be inversely related to this ratio.
4.13. A more detailed investigation of slow-neutron fission has shown that
uranium-235 splits up in more than 30 different ways, for more than 60 primary
The range of mass numbers is from 72, probably
products have been identified.
an isotope of zinc (atomic number 30), to 158, possibly an isotope of samarium
(atomic number 62). In Fig. 4.13, the mass numbers of the products are plotted
sion.

(0
70
BO
90
<00
110
MASS
Fig.
4.13.
120
130
140
150
160
170
NUMBER
Fission yields of products of various mass numbers
THE ELEMENTS
68
[4.13
against the corresponding fission yields, the fission yield being defined as the pro
portion (or percentage) of the total nuclear fissions yielding products of a given
Since the observed fission yields range from I0rs to over 6 per
mass number.*
cent, they are plotted on a logarithmic scale. It should be noted that as two
nuclei result from each act of fission, the total fission yield for all mass numbers
Incidentally, the reason why mass numbers, rather

adds up to 200 per cent.
considered
is because the fission fragments are prob
are
numbers,
atomic
than
The
ably all radioactive, decaying by the loss of a negative beta particle.
atomic
numbers,
consequently,
change with time, but the mass numbers
are
unaffected by the beta decay.

4.14. An examination of Fig. 4.13 shows that, in accordance with the conclu
sions drawn from the energies of the fission fragments, the masses of nearly all
There are some products in the intermediate range, from 110 to 125, but alto
The most
gether these represent no more than a per cent or so of the fissions.
6.4
cent
nearly
prod
of
the
fission,
comprising
per
gives
total,
of
probable type
It is apparent from these results that the
ucts with mass numbers 95 and 139.
of
is far from symmetrical.
If the com
fission
uranium-235
thermal-neutron
pound nucleus had split into two equal fragments, the mat.3 of each would be
117 or 118; only 0.01 per cent of the nuclei undergoing fission break up in this
manner.
4.15. One of the most significant properties of the fission products is their
radioactivity. As seen in 4.4, the fragments formed, when a uranium nucleus
splits up into two nuclei of somewhat similar mass, have neutron-to-proton ratios
that are too high for stability. Even if a prompt neutron is expelled, the ratio
of neutrons to protons will, in most cases, still be outside the stability range for
Consequently, all or nearly all the fission frag
the particular mass number.
emitting
radioactive,
negative beta particles.
The immediate decay
are
ments
products are also frequently radioactive, and, although some decay chains are
longer and some shorter, each fragment is followed, on the average, by three
An important decay chain,
stages of decay before a stable species is formed.
and
also
because
it contains the barium
per
yield
its
of
high
because
cent)
(6.3
and lanthanum which led to the recognition of the fission of uranium, is the fol
lowing :
wBa"0
67La"0
MCs"0
MCe" (stable).
64Xe140
is
Although
it
is,
4.16. Since there are probably some 60 different radioactive nuclides produced
on the average, the precursor of two others, there are about
in fission and each
present among the fission products after a short time.
species
180 radioactive
possible theoretically to express the rate of decay of this complex
Similar curves, but with the maxima and minima displaced somewhat from Fig. 4.13,
have been obtained for the slow-neutron fission of plutonium-239 and uranium-233.
*

the products fall into two broad groups, a "light" group, with mass numbers
from 80 to 110, and a "heavy" group, with mass numbers from 125 to 155.
THE FISSION PROCESS
4.17]
69
in terms of the fission yields and the radioactive decay constants, it is
mixture
is
is,
quite impractical.
The rate of decay of the fission products
therefore,
represented by an empirical equation, which
probably accurate within a fac
tor of two or less.*
From about 10 sec after fission has taken place, the rates
follows
of beta particles
and of gamma-ray
photons per fission are as
of
the emission
10-**-1-2 per sec
(4.16.1)
Rate of emission of beta particles ~ 3.8 X
10-6*-1-2 per sec,
(4.16.2)
Rate of emission of gamma-ray
photons = 1.9
and
Rate of dissipation of beta and gamma energy = 1.1
103<~1-2
watts per gram,

(4.16.3)
days after fission.
of
is
is
released
is
It will be seen below that about per cent of the energy

in the fission of uranium-235
initially present as latent beta and gamma
The rate at which this released
energy of the fission products.
consequently
some significance during the steady-state operation of a nuclear reactor, and
also after shut-down.
at
Energy of Fission
remarkable for the magnitude of the energy re
The fission process
this
about 200 Mev for each nucleus reacting, compared with a maxi
of 20 Mev or so for other nuclear reactions,
The magnitude of the fission
is
mum
is
4.17.
leased
in several ways, perhaps the most direct being to use

the masses of the reacting species and of the fragments formed.
The isotopic
235.124 amu and the mass of
weight of uranium-235
neutron, on the same
scale,
1.00897, making sum of 236.133 amu for the total mass of the interact
As stated in 4.14, the fission products obtained in greatest yield
ing particles.
have mass numbers of 95 and 139, which add up to 234
may be assumed, there
An exam
fore, that in this case two neutrons are liberated in the fission process.
ination of the masses of stable nuclides shows that the isotopic weights cor
responding to the mass numbers 95 and 139 are 94.945 and 138.955, respectively.
;
it
a is
is
energy can be calculated
K. Way and E. P. Wigner, Phys. Rev., 73, 1318 (1948).

never greater
chemical reactions, the energy released
atom or molecule reacting.
Cf.
tin
each
is

is
is
it
is
is
the time after fission in days. Taking the mean energy of the gamma
rays as 0.7 Mev, and that of the beta particles as 0.4 Mev, the total rate of energy
emission for both beta and gamma radiation
about 2.7 X 10-6*-1-2 Mev per
sec per fission, with each type of radiation contributing an approximately equal
amount.
For practical purposes
useful to express the result in terms of
watts per gram of uranium-235 undergoing fission this
found to be
where
than a few electron volts for
70
THE ELEMENTS
[4.17
with 2 X 1.00897 for the masses, of the two fission neutrons,

add up to a total mass, after fission, of 235.918. The difference between this
and the mass of the interacting particles is converted into energy of the fission
These,
together
process; thus,
Mass converted into energy = 236.133
- 235.918
= 0.215 amu.
From (1.28.2) it is
seen
that
amu is equivalent to 931
Mev; consequently,
Energy released per fission =

931 X 0.215
= 198 Mev.
4.18. The energy calculation made above was for a particular mode of fission,
and the actual energy will be the weighted mean for the 30 or more different
ways in which the uranium-235 nucleus splits.
However, as seen earlier, the
great majority of the fissions yield products with mass numbers in a fairly
limited region, and for all these the mass converted into energy, and hence the
energy released, is approximately the same. It may be accepted, therefore,
that 195 to 200 Mev of energy are released for every uranium-235 nucleus suffer
ing fission.
4.19. The reason for the large magnitude of the fission energy will be apparent
from an examination of Fig. 1.30, which shows that the binding energy curve
In the mass number range from about 80 to 150, which
has a broad maximum.
is that of the majority of the fission products, the binding energy per nucleon has
For higher mass numbers the value decreases
an average value of 8.4 Mev.
and has fallen to 7.5 Mev per nucleon for uranium. This means that in the
products formed by fission the binding energy is about 0.9 Mev per nucleon
Since the latter contains some 230
greater than in the original uranium nucleus.
nucleons, the total difference in binding energy is about 200 Mev and this is the
energy released in the fission process.
4.20. The large energy of fission is thus to be ascribed to the fact that in the
fission products the nucleons are more firmly bound than they are in the nucleus
which suffers fission. That is to say, more energy would be released in assembling
the fission product nuclei from their constituent protons and neutrons than would
Consequently, when the latter breaks up
be the case for the uranium nucleus.
into two parts, with mass numbers in the range from 80 to 150, there will be a
liberation of energy. It can be seen from (1.29.1) that a smaller isotopic mass M
would mean a higher binding energy. This is reflected in the total mass of the
uranium nucleus and a neutron being greater than the total mass of the fission
The differences in mass and in the binding energy
products, as noted in 4.17.
are thus equivalent; they are, in fact, both consequences of the same funda
mental factor, namely, the forces acting between the nucleons in the different
nuclei.

THE FISSION
PROCESS
71
4.21. Consideration of the various energy terms in Table 1.44 shows that the
decreased binding energy per nucleon for elements of high atomic number, which
is related to the large value of the fission energy, is due mainly to the marked
This, ultimately, is also
increase in the electrostatic repulsion of the protons.
the reason why fission has been observed to take place most readily with the ele
ments of highest atomic number, as will be apparent from the discussion given
below.
4.22. The energy data will shortly be expressed in terms of more practical
In the meantime something must be said about the experimental
quantities.
determinations of the fission energy. From the extent of the ionization produced
by the fission fragments it has been estimated that this energy is 162 Mev. On
the other hand, direct calorimetric measurement of the energy liberated as heat
gave a value of 175 Mev.
The explanation of the apparent disagreement be
tween these figures and the difference from the calculated 195 Mev of energy is
that the ionization measurement gives only the kinetic energy of the fission frag
ments.
But the heat liberated includes also some other forms of energy which
are associated with the fission process.*
4.23. According to the latest estimates, the total amount of energy released by
the fission products when they have decayed completely is about 21 Mev. Of
this, about 5 Mev is beta energy, 5 Mev is gamma energy, and the remainder is
carried off by the neutrinos which accompany the beta emission (1.16). In
addition, some 6 Mev of the fission energy are associated with the neutrons which
are released, and 6 Mev appear in the form of the so-called instantaneous gamma
radiation produced within an extremely short period ( 4.6). A complete
energy balance, indicating the approximate distribution of the energy per fission,
is given in Table 4.23. The kinetic energy of the fission products appears immeTABLE 4.23.
DISTRIBUTION OF FISSION
Kinetic energy of fission fragments

Beta decay energy
Gamma decay energy
Neutrino energy
Energy of fission neutrons
Instantaneous gamma-ray energy
Total fission energy
ENERGY
162
Mev
5
5
11
6
6
195
Mev
diately as heat, and the neutron energy and instantaneous gamma-ray energy
are degraded in a very short time.
The beta and gamma energies of the fission
are released gradually as these radioactive nuclides decay.
Consequently, in the early stages of the operation of a nuclear reactor only about
products,
174
however,
Mev of energy are produced per fission, but this will increase gradually, and,
For review of energy distribution of fission fragments, see J.

Phy. Bee., 72, 926 (1947); D. C. Brunton and G. C. Hanna, Canad.
*
L.
Fowler and L. Rosen,
J. Res., A, 28,
190 (1950).
THE ELEMENTS
72
[4.23
when the fission products decay as fast as they are being formed, it will attain a
maximum of 184 Mev, i.e., 195 Mev minus the energy carried off by the neutrinos.
4.24. Making use of the conversion units, 1 Mev = 1.60 X 10-6 erg = 1.60 X
10-13 watt sec, it is seen that the fission of a single uranium-235 nucleus is ac
companied by the liberation of about 3.2
10~n
watt
sec.
In other words, it
requires 3.1 X 1010 fissions to release 1 watt sec of energy, so that fissions at the
Since 1 gram of uranium
rate of 3.1 X 1010 per sec would yield 1 watt of power.
contains 6.02 X 1023/235 = 2.6 X 1021 atoms, the energy produced by its com
plete fission would be 8.3 X 1010 watt sec, which is 2.3 X 104 kilowatt hours or
nearly
megawatt day.
Thus, the fission of all the atoms in 1 gram of uraniumSimilar values apply to the fission
megawatt of power.
would yield 1
of uranium-233 and plutonium-239.
235 per day

Mechanism
of Nuclear Fission
4.25. Whenever the mass of a nucleus exceeds that of the fragments into
which it can be divided, the former will tend to be unstable with respect to the
latter, since the process of subdivision would be accompanied by a loss of mass
This condition certainly applies to all
and a consequent liberation of energy.
elements of mass number exceeding about 100, and hence for such elements spon
The reason why it is not observed is
taneous fission is theoretically possible.
that the nucleus must acquire a certain critical energy or activation energy before
it can break up. For species with mass numbers below about 210, this energy is
so high that fission can occur only by bombardment with neutrons or other parti
cles having energies exceeding 50 Mev.
4.26. Some understanding of the problem of critical energy may be obtained
by considering the liquid-drop model of the atomic nucleus, referred to in Chap
ter I.
Consider a drop of liquid to which a force is applied so that it is set into
oscillation ; the system passes through a series of stages, some of which are de
picted in Fig. 4.26. The drop is at first spherical as at A ; it is then elongated
oo
Oocooo
ABC
D
into an ellipsoid
as
Fig.
4.26.
at B.
If
Liquid-drop model of fission
insufficient
energy is available
to overcome the
force of surface tension, the drop will return to its original form, but if the
deforming force is sufficiently large, the liquid acquires a shape similar to a
Once it has reached this stage it is unlikely to return to
dumbbell, as at C.
These will, at
form, but it will rather split into two droplets.
first, be somewhat deformed, as at D, but finally they will become spherical,
the spherical
as shown at
E.
THE FISSION PROCESS
4.29]
The situation in nuclear fission is believed to be analogous

considered. A target nucleus combines with a neutron to form
4.27.
73
to that just
a compound
the excitation energy of the latter is then equal to the binding energy of
the neutron plus any kinetic energy the neutron may have had before capture
As a result of this excess energy, it may be said that the compound
(2.16).
nucleus undergoes a series of oscillations, in the course of which it passes through
If the energy is insufficient to cause further de
a phase similar to Fig. 4.26B.
formation beyond B., the intranuclear forces will compel the nucleus to return
to its original spherical form, and the excess energy will be removed by the expul
sion of a particle from the excited compound nucleus.
4.28. However, if the nucleus has gained enough energy, as a result of absorbing
the neutron, to permit it to form the dumbbell shape (Fig. 4.26C), the restoration
nucleus
This is because the electrostatic re

the
two ends of C can now overcome the
pulsion between the positive charges on
relatively small portion of the nuclear binding force operating in the constricted
of the
initial state A becomes improbable.
Consequently, from C the system passes rapidly to D and then to E,

representing fission into two separate nuclei which are propelled in opposite
The critical energy or activation energy requisite for fission to occur
directions.
is thus the energy that must be added to the original nucleus in order to deform
it to the state C, after which fission inevitably occurs, provided, of course, the
mass requirements mentioned in 4.25 are satisfied.

region.
.CRITICAL ENERGY
DISTANCE
Fig. 4.29.
BETWEEN
FRAGMENTS
Potential energy as function of distance between fission fragments
The critical fission energy may be considered also with the aid of a po
tential energy curve, as in Fig. 4.29. At the extreme right, at E, two fission frag
4.29.
supposed to be far apart, so that the potential energy is virtually zero.

fragments are brought closer together, there is an increase in potential
When
due to the electrostatic repulsion of the positively charged nuclei.
ments are
As the
energy
74
THE ELEMENTS
[4.29
the fragments reach the point C, where they are roughly in contact, the attractive
forces become dominant and the potential energy decreases toward A.
The
latter point may be regarded
as corresponding
to the ground state of the com

pound nucleus, formed when the target nucleus captures a neutron (cf. 2.15);
that is to say, it represents the energy of the compound nucleus without the ex
citation energy resulting from the neutron capture.
(The letters A, C, and E in
Fig. 4.29 correspond to the states of the liquid drop in Fig. 4.26.) In order for
fission to occur at a reasonably rapid rate the system must pass from A to E, and
it can only do so, in general, if the compound nucleus gains sufficient energy to
raise it to the level of C. Thus, the energy difference between the states A and
C represents the critical energy for fission.
4.30. A qualitative idea of the magnitude of this critical energy may be ob
tained by considering the factors which determine the energies corresponding to
the points A and C. The energy at A is the energy of the ground state of the
compound nucleus with respect to the separated fragments at E ; it is thus deter
mined by the difference in mass of the target nucleus plus a neutron, on the one
~260
~90
MASS
Fig.
4.30.
Dependence
NUMBER
of critical fission energy on mass number
hand, and the sum of the masses of the two fission fragments, on the other hand.
In view of the decrease of the binding energy per nucleon with mass number, for
nuclides of mass number exceeding about 50 (see Fig. 1.30), this mass difference
This conclusion
evidently increases with the mass number of the target nucleus.
is indicated by the curve EA in Fig. 4.30. The energy at C is determined, essen
tially, by the electrostatic repulsion of the fission fragments, and this is pro
portional to ZiZi/iA^ + A), where Z\, Zz and Ai, A are the atomic numbers
Assuming for simplicity that Zi = Z2 and
^nd mass numbers, respectively.
THE FISSION PROCESS
4.33]
76
is
it
is
is
is
it
it
is
of
0.117
j^)>
^5.24*
(4.33.1)
the change in the surface tension effect

first term in the parentheses
When the deforma
that in the electrostatic repulsion energy.*
zero, or negative, the spherical nucleus will deform and, conseenergy
is
and the second
is
is
where the
tion
e2
is
is
is
I,
in
Deformation energy =

is
is
if
is
is,
Ai = A, so that fission is symmetrical, the variation of Ec, i.e., the energy at C,

with increasing mass number will be somewhat like that shown in Fig. 4.30.
4.31. It is evident from the vertical distance between the curves for Ec and EA
that the critical energy for fission is at first very large, but it decreases with in
Thus, although fission by neutrons
creasing mass number (and atomic number).
is theoretically possible for nuclei of mass numbers of about 90 or more, the
critical energy required for the process to take place at an observable rate is
When
greater than the largest neutron energies attainable at the present time.
the mass number is in the vicinity of 235 or so, the critical energy, as will be seen
shortly, is down to about 6 Mev, so that fission by neutrons becomes an observ
able phenomenon.
For nuclei of still higher mass number the Ea and Ec curves
for mass numbers
In these circumstances, that
cross, so that EA is above Ecrequired for fission in fact, such nuclei
exceeding about 260, no critical energy
are so unstable that
they could be produced in any way they would undergo
spontaneous fission within an interval of about 10~20 sec.
4.32. It
of interest to note that the critical energy for fission decreases with
increasing mass number because the curve for EA in Fig. 4.30 rises more rapidly
than does that for Ec- This
due to the decrease in binding energy per nucleon
at the higher mass numbers.
The main factor contributing to this decrease
repulsion energy of the protons.
Consequently,
the increasing electrostatic
the large magnitude of the mutual repulsion of the protons contributes to the
decrease in the critical energy, thus making fission at an observable rate possible.
As stated above,
also plays an important part in determining the large amount
in fission.
liberated
energy
provided by the
4.33. Another quantitative aspect of the fission problem
If
assumed
that
the
sphere does not
model
discussed
earlier.
liquid-drop
reasonable
deformed into an ellipsoid
4.26), as
change its volume when
1.34), the
view of the proportionality between the nuclear volume and mass
change in energy will be due to only two of the five factors considered in Chap
ter
namely, the surface tension effect and the electrostatic repulsion energy.
deformed, because of
The former will increase in magnitude when the nucleus
the increased surface area, but the latter will decrease, since the charges are
If
a parameter representing the degree of deforma
separated to some extent.
deformation
to
produce
given by
the
energy
required
tion,
X. Bohr and
J.
A. Wheeler, Phys.
Rev., 56, 426 (1939).
THE ELEMENTS
76

The condition for spontaneous
quently, undergo fission spontaneously.
fission
therefore,
0.117
is,
[4.33
> 5.2 A*
or
45.
(4.33.2)
was seen that a nucleus with mass number exceeding 260 would be
to undergo instantaneous
If this result
fission.
combined with
4.31
it
In
>
is
expected
it
is
would appear that the maximum atomic number for stability against
(4.33.2)
fission
about 110. These figures are, of course, approximate only.
Critical energy
(s.2
equivalent to the critical energy for fission.

A$
oc
above may be regarded as being

Thus, (4.33.1) may be written as
- 0.117
^j-
4.34. The deformation energy considered
is
36.4, for uranium-235 the value

36.0, and
The critical energy for fission should thus increase
is
37.0, for uranium-233
it
is
Zy
is
it
is
is
is
it
35.5.
for uranium-238
in this order.
Calculations* based on the liquid-drop model indicate that the
critical energy
about 6.5 Mev for the compound nucleus formed as a result of
neutron capture by uranium-235, and about 7.0 Mev for uranium-238.
4.35. The reference to spontaneous fission made above applies to cases in
which none of the nuclei could exist for any appreciable time. It important to
certain probability that apparently
always
point out, however, that there
stable or quasi-stable nuclei will undergo spontaneous fission.
Even though the
nucleus in its normal state does not have enough energy to permit
to pass
through the critical deformation stage, the principles of wave mechanics require
that there should be
definite, although small, probability for fission to take
place.
Fast- and Slow-Neutron
Fission
is is
4.36. It will be recalled that the fission of uranium-235 can be brought about by
slow (thermal) neutrons, with 0.025 ev energy, whereas uranium-238 requires
The difference
partly accounted for by
neutrons of at least 1.1 Mev energy.
probably no more than
the smaller critical energy in the former case, but this
Mev
still
4.34), and so there
is
discrepancy that requires explana

Similarly, although thermal neutrons cause fission of uranium-233 and
plutonium-239, fast neutrons are required for thorium-232, protactinium-231,
about 0.5
Bohr and Wheeler,
(1947).
loc. cit.; see also,
S.
tion.

is
For a group of elements of high mass number A$ almost constant, and so the
critical energy will decrease as Z2/ 'A increases. For plutonium-239 the value of
Frankel and N. Metropolis,
Phys. Rev., 72, 914
THE FISSION
4.40]
PROCESS
77
The explanation of the difference, as will be shown below,

lies in the fact that when fission occurs a large proportion of the critical deforma
tion energy is provided by the binding energy of the captured neutron, and this
and neptunium-237.
energy varies appreciably from one nucleus to another.
It
consequently,
tween the target nucleus plus
It
the energy equivalent of the mass difference be

neutron, on the one hand, and the compound nu
( 2.14).
is,
4.37. The excitation energy of the compound nucleus formed by the capture
of a neutron of zero kinetic energy is equal to the binding energy of a neutron
is
can be readily shown from (1.29.1) that this

the
same as the total binding energy of the compound nucleus minus the total
binding energy of the target nucleus. These binding energies can be deter
cleus on the other hand.
is
is
is
is
is
is,
Upon repeating the calculations for uranium-238,
for which
238 and
equal to 239 and

compound nucleus with
the excitation energy of the compound nucleus (U239)
given by
B.E.
(U238)
= 5.5 Mev.
4.34, calculations indicate that the critical deformation

acquired
about 7.0 Mev, but evidently only 5.5 Mev
is
energy of uranium-238
- B.E.
92,
4.39. As mentioned in
(U239)
to
is
92, and the corresponding
is
= 6.8 Mev.
(U286)
- B.E.
is
(U236)
B.E.
is
is,
is
when the nucleus takes up a neutron of zero kinetic energy. It would appear,
therefore, that the incident neutron would need to have at least 7.0 5.5 = 1.5
Mev of kinetic energy to make fission of uranium-238 possible. Experiments
show that the minimum neutron energy
about 1.1 Mev. The discrepancy
as seen above, 6.8
Mev becomes available
as the result of the capture of
it
between the observed (1.1 Mev) and the calculated (1.5 Mev) energies
no
doubt, due partly to the inexact nature of the calculations.
4.40. Turning now to uranium-235,
will be seen that the conditions are quite
different.
The critical energy for fission has been estimated to be 6.5 Mev, but,
neutron
It evident, therefore, that slow neutrons should be

capable of causing fission of the uranium-235 nucleus, as indeed they are.
with zero kinetic energy.
is

is
is
it
if
if
mined from (1.29.1)

the respective isotopic masses are known, or from (1.44.1)
they are not. Since the two masses are generally not known,
preferable,
for consistency, to use the latter equation to calculate the binding energies of
both target and compound nuclei.
4.38. To determine the excitation energy of the compound nucleus in the case
of uranium-235 as target nucleus, for example, the total binding energy
first
Then the correspond
calculated for this nucleus, for which
235 and
92.
ing quantity
determined for the compound nucleus formed by the addition of
neutron, that
with
to 92. The difference between these
equal to 236 and
two binding energies represents the excitation energy of the compound nucleus
taken up by uranium-235
(U236) formed when a neutron of zero kinetic energy
nucleus.
Using (1.44.1), the result found to be
THE ELEMENTS
78
4.41.
If
REACTOR THEORY
OF NUCLEAR
a detailed examination
[4.41
is made of the calculations which lead to the
is
is
is
it
it
is
is
is

is
it a
it
is,
appreciably different binding energies, given in 4.38, for the two isotopes of
It is due almost
uranium, the cause of the discrepancy becomes apparent.
entirely to the effect of the odd-even or spin term in (1.44.1). Since the com
pound nucleus uranium-236 is of even-even character, this term makes a positive
contribution of about 0.55 Mev to the binding energy; it is zero, however, in
With the 238-isotope of uranium,
uranium-235, which is an odd-even nucleus.
the situation is reversed ; the compound nucleus uranium-239 has an odd-even
character and the spin effect is zero, but uranium-238 is even-even and the spin
This effect alone
consequently,
effect term is again about 0.55 Mev positive.
=
difference of
1.1 Mev in the excitation energies of
0.55
responsible for
the compound nuclei formed by uranium-235 and uranium-238, respectively,
neutron.
upon the addition of
4.42. From the foregoing considerations
may be concluded, in general, that
an odd-even nucleus, i.e., one with an odd number of neutrons and an even
compound nucleus with
relatively large
number of protons, will produce
absorbs
slow neutron.
Hence, provided
amount of excitation energy when
will
sufficiently
for
the
nucleus
such
neutron
be
able to induce
high,
Z-/
Instances of this type, in addition to uranium-235, are uranium-233 and
fission.
With
plutonium-239 (94PU239), both of which are fissionable by slow neutrons.
like
uranium-238 and thorium-232 (9oTh232), the excitation en
even-even nuclei,
relatively smaller,
ergy when a neutron of zero kinetic energy
captured
and hence high-energy neutrons are required to cause fission.
4.43. If nucleus has an even number of neutrons and an odd number of pro
tons, e.g., neptunium-237 (93NP237), the compound nucleus (93NP238), formed by
the absorption of a neutron, will be of the odd-odd type, with
negative spin
contribution of about 0.55 Mev. In this event, the quantity B.E. (Np238)
the excitation energy of the compound nucleus, will be
B.E. (Np237), which
similar to that for nuclei of the even-even type.
For fission to be possible
would therefore be necessary to employ neutrons of high energy.
4.44. Finally, consideration may be given to the fission of an odd-odd nucleus
the compound nucleus formed by the capture of a neutron would then be of the
even-odd type, which has similar binding energy to the odd-even type.
The spin
term will be zero in the compound nucleus and negative in the target nucleus, so
that the excitation energy will be relatively large. Thus,
to be expected
that odd-odd nuclei will undergo fission by slow neutrons.
Since such species are
relatively unstable in any event, the fact that they are fissionable by slow neu
of no practical value.
trons
4.45. The results of the preceding paragraphs are summarized in Table 4.45
the signs of the spin terms for the compound nucleus and the target nucleus for
The relative magnitude of the excitation
each of the different cases are given.
neutron of zero
energy of the compound nucleus resulting from the capture of
the difference between the total binding energies of the
kinetic energy, which
THE FISSION
4.47]
PROCESS
79
nucleus and the target nucleus, is indicated in the last column.

In
view of the natural instability of the odd-odd species, the only substances of
interest for the release of nuclear energy by slow neutrons are consequently the
compound
nuclides with odd numbers of neutrons and even numbers of protons, i.e., with
odd mass numbers and even atomic numbers.
TABLE 4.45.
SPIN TERMS AND EXCITATION ENERGIES
Target Nucleus
Spin Terms

Excitation
Neutron
Proton
Odd
Even
Even
Odd
Even
Even
Odd
Odd
Compound
Nucleus
Target
Nucleus
Energy
large
small
small
0
0
large
THE FISSION CHAIN REACTION

Conditions for a Self-Sustaining
Chain Reaction
4.46. With the information already given, it is now possible to consider the
feasibility of applying the fission reaction to the practical utilization of nuclear
The essential condition is that a self-sustaining chain reaction should be
energy.
maintained; in other words, once the fission process has been initiated in a few
nuclei, it should be able to continue throughout the remainder of the material
without external influence.
Since at least two neutrons are released in each act
of fission (4.5), and these neutrons are capable of inducing the fission of other
nuclei, and so on, it would appear that the requirements of a self-sustaining chain
reaction can be met. However, account must be taken of the fact that the neu
trons produced in the fission process can take part in other (nonfission) reactions.
In addition to this competition for neutrons, there is the inevitable loss of neu
trons from the system by leakage.
4.47. If a chain reaction is to be maintained, the minimum condition is that
for each nucleus capturing a neutron and undergoing fission there shall be pro
duced, on the average, at least one neutron which causes the fission of another
nucleus.
This condition can conveniently be expressed in terms of a multiplica
tion factor or reproduction factor, defined as the ratio of the number of neutrons
of any one generation to the number of corresponding neutrons of the imme
diately preceding generation.
If the multiplication factor, represented by k,
is exactly equal to, or slightly greater than, unity a chain reaction will be possible.
But if A; is less than unity, even by a very small amount, the chain cannot be
maintained.
THE ELEMENTS
80
if
[4.48
4.48. Suppose, for example, a particular generation starts with 100 neutrons;
the multiplication factor is unity, there will be 100 corresponding neutrons at
the beginning of the second generation, 100 at the third, and so on. Once it has
started, the fission will continue at the same rate as at the commencement.
For practical purposes, however, it is necessary that A; be capable of exceeding

As seen in 4.24, fissions must
unity, if power production is to be appreciable.
sec
to produce 1 watt of power.
The
take place at the rate of 3.1 X 1010 per
simplest way in which a required power level can be attained is for the multipli
cation factor to exceed unity
; the number of neutrons present, and hence, the

fission rate will then increase until the desired rate is reached.*
4.49. The multiplication factor k is effectively the number of neutrons present

at the end of a neutron generation for each neutron present at the beginning of
that generation.
Since one neutron is required to maintain the chain reaction,
in one generation.
Thus, if there
are n neutrons present initially, the rate of increase will be n(k

1) per genera
If I is the average time between successive neutron generations in the sys
tion.
tem under consideration, then
1
dn _ n(k 1)
~
(4.49.1)
dt
is defined by
where
Upon integration of (4.49.1), it is
seen
that
(4.49.2)
where
time
t.
n0
is the initial number of neutrons and n is the number after the lapse of
is seen, therefore, that, if the multiplication factor is greater than
It
is
1,
is
is
is
e6,
unity, the number of neutrons will increase exponentially with time.

4.50. Suppose, in a particular case, k is 1.005, so that kei is 0.005. Taking the
average neutron lifetime to have the reasonable value of 0.001 sec, it follows from
(4.49.2) that after the lapse of a second the number of neutrons will have increased
An increase in the number of neutrons will
i.e., roughly 150-fold.
by a factor
mean an increase in the fission rate and
consequent increase in the power out
attained, the multiplication factor should be
When the desired output
put.
reduced exactly to unity, either by introducing
nonfissionable neutron absorber
The number of neutrons present in
or by allowing some neutrons to escape.
and
the
level
will then remain constant.
the
fission
rate,
power
the system,
less than unity, the maintenance of a self4.51. If the multiplication factor
chain
reaction
becomes
The rate of change in the number
impossible.
sustaining
of neutrons
now negaagain represented by (4.49.2), but
equal to
is
is
is
is
The number of nuclei undergoing fission per sec

the thermal neutron
</2/F, where
the macroscopic cross section for fission, and Vcm3
flux per cm2 per sec, 2/ cm-1
the vol
ume of the reactor. Since 3.1 X 1010 fissions per sec are required to produce
watt, the power
output will be 02/7/(3.1
1010) watte.
*

the number of neutrons will increase by k
THE FISSION
4.53]
As
81
decreases continuously in an exponential

long as the multiplication factor is less than unity, by no matter
tive, and the neutron

manner.
PROCESS
concentration
how small an amount, the number of neutrons must inevitably decrease with time,
and the maintenance of a self-sustaining reaction is not possible.*
Neutron Balance in a Chain Reaction

4.52. The value of the multiplication factor in any system consisting of fission
able material, e.g., uranium, and a moderator for slowing down the neutrons
( 3.12) depends on the relative extents to which the neutrons take part in four
main processes. pDhese are: (a) complete loss or escape of neutrons from the
system, generally referred to as leakage; (b) nonfission capture, by uranium-235
and uranium-238, frequently designated resonance capture, since it is likely to
occur mainly at resonance energies ( 2.31) ; (c) nonfission capture, sometimes
called parasitic capture, by the moderator and by various extraneous substances
("poisons"), such as structural materials, coolant, fission products, and impurities
in the uranium and in the moderator; and, finally, (d) fission capture of slow
neutrons by uranium-235, or of fast neutrons by both uranium-235 and uraniumIn 'each of these four processes neutrons are removed from the system,
238.
but in the fourth process, i.e., in the fission reaction, other neutrons are generated
to replace them.
Hence, if the number of neutrons produced in the latter process
is just equal to (or exceeds) the total number lost by escape and by fission and
nonfission capture, the multiplication factor will equal (or exceed) unity and a
chain reaction should be possible.
4.53. An illustration of the type of neutron balance that might exist in a sys
tem for which the multiplication factor is exactly unity is depicted below.
It
is assumed that fission results only from the capture of slow neutrons, and it
is supposed, for simplicity, that exactly two neutrons are produced, on the aver
Since 100 slow neutrons are absorbed in fission
age, in each fission process.
processes at the beginning, and 100 are available for similar absorption at the
end of the generation, the conditions for a self-sustaining chain are satisfied.
100 slow neutrons
absorbed by
200 fission neutrons

I 40 leak out during
U236
to cause fission
slowing down
J,> 20 absorbed by U238 during slowing down

140 neutrons slowed down
10 leak out as slow neutrons
available for absorption

by moderator, U238, poisons, etc.
slow neutrons (absorbed by U236 to cause fission)
130 slow neutrons

J, >30 absorbed
100
If an extraneous
limiting value.
*
source of neutrons is present, the neutron concentration will approach a
THE ELEMENTS
82
OF NUCLEAR
REACTOR THEORY
[4.54
Reactor Types
4.54. A nuclear reactor is a system usually consisting of a moderator and a
fuel containing fissionable material, together with coolant and structure, in which
In such a reactor fast neu
a self-sustaining chain reaction can be maintained.
in the fission process; these neutrons may suffer scattering

collisions, mainly elastic, as a result of which their energy is decreased ; they
may be absorbed by the various materials present in the system ; or they may
Depending on the relative amounts and nature of the moderator, fuel
escape.
and other substances, their geometrical arrangement, and the dimensions of the
system, which largely determine the leakage, the main portion of the neutron
captures leading to fission will take place in a certain energy range.
4.55. If most of the fissions result from the capture of thermal neutrons, the
system is referred to as a thermal reactor. When most of the fission processes are
due to the absorption of neutrons of higher energy, sometimes called epithermal
neutrons ( 3.13) or intermediate neutrons, the term intermediate reactor is used.
An important type of intermediate reactor is one in which most of the fissions
are induced by neutrons with energies from thermal values up to about 1000 ev.
Finally, if the main source of fissions is the capture of fast neutrons by the fuel,
the system is &fasl reactor*
4.56. ~l)ue to the relatively low cross sections for fission with neutrons of high
energy, especially compared with the cross sections for nonfission reactions, it is
impossible to maintain a nuclear chain reaction with fast neutrons in natural
uranium, consisting of nearly 99.3 per cent of uranium-238 and 0.7 per cent of
uranium-235 (Table 1.10). By using fuel material enriched in the latter isotope,
a chain reaction with
or containing a sufficient proportion of plutonium-239,
fast neutrons can be achieved. t With natural uranium, a chain reaction is
possible only if fission is mainly due to slow, i.e., thermal, neutrons; this is be
cause the fission cross section of uranium-235 for thermal neutrons is sufficiently
In order to slow down the
large to compensate for the nonfission absorption.
neutrons a moderator must be used, and this may be heavy water, beryllium
(or beryllium oxide), carbon (graphite), or even ordinary water if an enriched

trons are produced
fuel is used.
Multiplication Factor for Thermal Reactors!

4.57. Because of their importance,
and incidentally because they are mast
treatment, some consideration will now be given to the

which determine the value of the multiplication factor for thermal
susceptible to theoretical
conditions
For security reasons, the treatment in this book is restricted to thermal reactors,
t The atomic bomb is a reactor in which fast neutrons maintain an uncontrolled
chain reaction in uranium-235 or plutonium-239.
J See E. Fermi, Science, 107, 28 (1947).
*
nuclear
THE FISSION
4.59]
PROCESS
83
In order to avoid, for

reactors, especially those using natural uranium as fuel.
the present, the problem of the loss of neutrons by leakage, it will be postulated
multiplying system is infinite in extent.
Suppose that, at a given instant

representing the initiation of a generation, there are available n thermal neutrons
which are captured in fuel.
Let v be the average number of fast fission neutrons
that the
emitted as a result of the capture of one thermal neutron in fuel material, i.e.,
in both uranium-235 and uranium-238.
Then, due to the absorption of the n
neutrons nrj fast neutrons will be produced.

It should be noted that]
the neutrons captured in fuel do not all necessarily lead to fission, the value
of jj differs, in general, from the average number (2.5 0.1) of fast neutrons re-i
leased per slow neutron fission ( 4.5).
If the latter number is represented byj
thermal
since
v,
then
(4.57.1)
where
2/ is the macroscopic cross section ( 3.42) for slow-neutron
fission, and

of thermal neutrons, by fission and

2IUei is the total cross section for absorption
nonfission processes, in the fuel material (see Table 4.57).
TABLE 4.57.
THERMAL NEUTRON
Fission
IP"
U*
Natural
549
barns
CROSS SECTIONS
Radiative
Capture
101
barns
FOR URANIUM
Scattering
8.2 barns
2.8
8.2
3.92
3.5
8.2
4.58. Before the nr\ fast neutrons have slowed down appreciably some will be
captured by, and cause fission of, uranium-235 and uranium-238 nuclei, mainly
Since more than one neutron is produced, on the average, in each
of the latter.
fission, there will be an increase in the number of fast neutrons available.
Allow- \
ance for this effect may. be made by introducing the fast fission factor, denoted by \
and defined as the ratio of the total number of fast neutrons produced by fissions
I
due to neutrons of all energies to the number resulting from thermal-neutron
Consequently, as a result of the capture of n thermal neutrons in fuel, )
fissions.
For natural uranium fuel the value of e |
njje fast neutrons will be formed.
has been found to be about 1.03, with either graphite or heavy water as the
moderator.
4.59. As a result of collisions, mainly elastic, with the moderator, the fast
However, during the slowing down
neutrons will ultimately be ihermalized.
process some of the neutrons are captured in nonfission processes, so that not all
of the njje fast neutrons reach thermal energies.
The fraction of the fast (fission)
neutrons which escape capture while being slowed down is called the resonance
escape probability, and is represented by p.
Consequently, the number of neu
trons which become thermalized is nnep.
THE ELEMENTS
84
[4.60
4.60. When the energy of the neutrons has been reduced to the thermal region,
they will diffuse for some time, the energy distribution remaining essentially con
stant, until they are ultimately absorbed by fuel, by moderator, or by such
Of the thermal neutrons, therefore, a fraction /,

poisons as may be present.
called the thermal utilization, will be absorbed in fuel material ; the value of is
represented by
Thermal neutrons absorbed in fuel

Total thermal neutrons absorbed
'
where the denominator is the total number of thermal neutrons absorbed by fuel,
The number of thermal
moderator, and other materials present in the reactor.
neutrons captured in fuel is consequently
nijepf.
4.61. Since, for the present purpose, the multiplication factor ( 4.47) may be
defined as the ratio of the total number of thermal neutrons absorbed, on the
average, in one generation to the number of thermal neutrons absorbed in the
preceding generation, on the average, in an infinite medium,
This result is sometimes referred to
(4.61.1)
the/our factor formula. As seen above, the

condition for a self-sustaining chain reaction in a system of infinite size is that the
multiplication factor should be unity ; the criterion for a natural uranium system
therefore, that rjepf =
4.62. In the special case of
reactor in which the fuel material contains only
uranium-235 and no uranium-238, both the fast fission factor and the resonance
reactor can be made critical
escape probability will be virtually unity. Such
with
small proportion of fuel relative to moderator.
The probability of
small
in
capture while slowing down
consequently
comparison with scatter
In these circumstances (4.61.1) would reduce to
ing.
as
is
1.
is,
= vfe
77
and are more or less fixed by

4.63. Of the four factors involved in (4.61.1),
and can be varied to some extent.
the character of the fuel, but
In order to
and /should be as large as
insure the propagation of the nuclear fission chain,
If
possible, although they are, of course, always less than unity.

Unfortunately,
such changes in the relative proportions of fuel and moderator as cause
to
the system contains
relatively small amount of
increase cause to decrease.
p
thermal utilization will be increased [cf. equation (4.60.1)], but the

decrease in the resonance escape
larger proportion of uranium-238 means
the proportion of moderator
probability. The reverse will be true
large.
In
if
is
moderator,
is
necessary to find the composition and arrangement

actual practice, therefore,
order to maintain the chain
which gives the maximum value for the product pf,
in
it

k =
it follows that
reaction.
THE FISSION
PROCESS
85
4.64. In a system consisting of natural uranium and graphite, an increase in

the value of the product pf can be achieved by a heterogeneous lattice arrange
ment consisting of fairly large lumps of uranium imbedded in a mass of graphite.

For reasons which will be considered in Chapter IX, the resonance escape prob-x
ability is greater than for a homogeneous mixture of uranium and graphite of the
same composition.
However, there is some decrease in the thermal utilization, ,
but by a proper design of the lattice and proper choice of the proportion of fuel
to moderator, an overall increase in the product pf is achieved as compared with
that for a uniform mixture.
4.65. One way in which the multiplication factor of a reactor can be increased
is by the use of enriched fuel material, containing a larger proportion than normal
of the fissionable isotope, uranium-235.
If the isotopic ratio of Um to U238 is in
creased, t] becomes larger (cf. 4.57) and the resulting multiplication factor is
Another, but smaller, effect is a decrease in
increased.
for a given ratio of
Ui,s atoms to moderator atoms.

Leakage
of Neutrons
It should
be emphasized that (4.61.1) was derived for an infinite system,

for which there is no leakage of neutrons ; for this reason the factor k is sometimes
written as kx, and is called the infinite multiplication factor. In a finite multi
4.66.
plying system, a factor k can be defined as above, by the right-hand side of

It will, however, not be the same as kK for an infinite medium, for the
(4.61.1).
following reasons. In calculating the resonance escape probability and the fast
fission factor, the neutron energy distribution is important, since both quantities
are functions of the energy.
When, as in a reactor of finite size, there is neutron
leakage, the energy distribution will not be the same everywhere in the system,
as is true for an infinite (homogeneous) system, but will depend on the position
in the reactor.
Consequently, p and /, and hence the multiplication factor with
for
no leakage,
the finite reactor, will differ from the values for the infinite sys
However, for most practical purposes, k (finite size but no leakage) can be
tem.
as defined above.
considered equal to
4.67. For a reactor of finite size the condition that the multiplication factor
It is
should be unity is no longer adequate for a self-sustaining chain reaction.
required, now, that for every thermal neutron absorbed in fuel there shall be pro
duced, on the average, one thermal neutron in addition to the loss by leakage
If P is the total nonleakage probability, i.e., the probability
from the reactor.
that a neutron will not escape either during the slowing down process or while it
diffuses as a thermal neutron, then the condition for a chain reaction to be main
tained is
kP
= 1,
(4.67.1)
Only for the infinite system is the nonleakage

where k is defined by (4.61.1).
=
probability unity, and then k
1, satisfying the condition for the chain reaction.
THE ELEMENTS
86
[4.67
For a finite reactor, P is less than unity, and hence the multiplication factor must
if the nuclear chain reaction is to be maintained.
exceed unity
4.68. As indicated above, the value of ft is determined by the composition of

the system, that is, by the nature of the fuel and the proportion of moderator,
Hence, if these are specified, a
if P is large enough to make kP equal to or
In other words, if the chain reaction is to be self-sustaining
and also by the arrangement
of the material.
chain reaction will be possible only

greater than unity.
for any given fuel-moderator system, the nonleakage probability must exceed a
minimum value ; thus, the permissible leakage of neutrons relative to the number
being produced must be less than a certain amount.
Critical
Size op Reactor
4.69. The proportion of neutrons lost by escape from a finite reactor can be
The escape of neutrons occurs
diminished by increasing the size of the system.

at the exterior, but absorption, leading to fission and neutron production, occurs
The number of neutrons

throughout the whole of the interior of the reactor.
lost by escape thus depends on the external surface area, while the number formed
To minimize the loss of neutrons, and thereby
is determined by the volume.
increase the nonleakage probability, it is necessary to decrease the ratio of area
The critical
to volume ; this can be done by increasing the size of the reactor.
size is that for which the nonleakage probability P is such that kP is just equal to
unity. Since the area-to-volume ratio depends on the geometrical shape, the
nonleakage probability will be determined by the shape of the reactor.
For a
given volume, a sphere has the smallest ratio of area to volume; hence, leakage
from a spherical reactor will be less than for any other shape. The critical vol
ume of such a reactor will consequently also be less.
Leakage of neutrons can
be diminished by surrounding the reactor with a suitable reflector, that is, a
material, generally itself a moderator, which returns a proportion of the escaped
neutrons to the reactor.
4.70. Since the value of k depends on the fuel-moderator composition and
it is apparent that the maximum permissible neutron leakage for a
structure,
chain reaction will also be determined by these factors.

The
critical size, even for a reactor of specified geometry, will thus not be a constant,
but will vary with the nature and structure of the fuel-moderator system.
For
example, if k is increased, by the use of enriched fuel, then it will be permissible
for the nonleakage probability P to decrease, and hence the neutron leakage to
increase, and still satisfy the condition that kP is equal to or greater than unity.
Consequently, the critical size of the enriched reactor will be less than that of a
reactor of the same geometrical shape and structure using natural uranium as
self-sustaining
fuel.
4.71. The product
finite size.
It
kP
is called the effective multiplication factor of a reactor of

is the average number of thermal neutrons remaining in the re
THE FISSION PROCESS
4.74]
87
in one generation for each thermal neutron

The critical condition is that the effective multi
absorbed in that generation.
The chain reac
plication factor shall be exactly unity [cf. equation (4.67.1)].
tion will then be maintained at a constant rate of fission and power level ; this is
Up to a point, a given re
sometimes referred to as a steady state of the reactor.
actor can have an indefinite number of such states corresponding to different
If the effective multiplication factor of a reactor
fission rates and power levels.
In such a reactor the rate
exceeds unity, the system is said to be supercritical.
of fission and hence the neutron density (or flux) and the power level increase
When the effective multiplication factor is less than unity, i.e., in a
steadily.
actor and available for absorption
subcritical reactor, the neutron density (or flux) and power level decrease steadily.
Reactor Control
For practical
operation, a reactor must be constructed so that it is actu

ally appreciably greater than the critical size. One reason is that having an
effective multiplication factor exceeding unity provides the only feasible means
4.72.
of increasing the number of neutrons, and hence the fission rate, up to the point
Once this has been reached,
where the required power level is attained ( 4.48).
it is necessary to decrease the effective multiplication factor to unity, and then
the reactor will remain in a steady state, neutrons being produced just as fast as
they are used up by leakage and capture.
4.73. The adjustment of the multiplication of neutrons in a thermal reactor
by the insertion of control rods of cadmium or boron steel. Both

cadmium and boron have large capture cross sections for slow neutrons (see
3.69, 3.76) ; hence, by varying the positions of the control rods the effective
In order to
multiplication factor can be made to vary over a suitable range.
the
the
control
rods
are
inserted
to
an
extent
that
shut down
reactor,
permits
them to absorb additional neutrons.
The system now loses neutrons faster than
they are formed by fission ; the effective multiplication factor sinks below unity,
and the chain reaction dies out.
is achieved
Effect of Delayed Neutrons

In
the calculation in 4.49 of the rate of neutron increase in a reactor

with a multiplication factor exceeding unity, the mean lifetime of a neutron was
This is actually the average value of the time elapsing
taken to be 0.001 sec.
between the birth of a neutron and its ultimate capture in a thermal reactor
But it gives the correct rate of neutron increase
using natural uranium as fuel.
only if all the fission neutrons are released promptly, i.e., essentially at the in
It was seen in 4.8, however, that about 0.75 per cent of the
stant of fission.
are
fission neutrons
delayed, and this affects the calculation of the rate of neutron
4.74.
increase (or decrease).
THE ELEMENTS
88
[4.75
4.75. The mean lives of the five groups of delayed neutrons range from about
By weighting the values appropriately, according
0.6 sec to 80 sec (Table 4.8).
in
each group, the mean delay time, averaged over all the fission
to the fraction
is
is,
neutrons, is about 0.1 sec ( 10.14). The average time between the fission cap
ture of a neutron in two successive generations
consequently, about 0.1
the average time elapsing between fission and the com
0.001 sec the first term
is
is
that between release and cap

plete release of the neutron, whereas the second
In other words, the effective lifetime of a neutron
ture in a fission process.
0.1 sec.
to
be 1.005,
factor
of
in equation (4.49.2), and taking
found that the number of neutrons actually increases by
is
as before,
it
4.76. Using the value 0.1 sec for
roughly
if
than
it
when the multiplication factor exceeds unity,

crease much slower
to make the rate of neutron in

would have been had all the neutrons been released
is
os,
factor of 150 per sec

all the
i.e., about 1.05, per sec, as compared with
neutrons were prompt.* Clearly, the effect of the delayed fission neutrons,
promptly.
fuel
(1
'
is
/3)i7
are emitted instantaneously,
whereas
/3i?
in
/3
the total number of fast neutrons produced for each thermal neutron absorbed
are delayed and expelled
is
/3
is
/3)
gradually over a period of time. Consequently, the multiplication factor may

be considered as consisting of two parts; one, equal to k(l 0), representing the
prompt neutron multiplication factor, and the other, equal to kfi, being due to
the delayed neutrons.
If, in the operation of a reactor, the quantity fc(l
adjusted so as to be just less than, or equal to, unity, then the rate of increase
in the number of neutrons from one generation to the next will be determined
Since
about 0.0075 for thermal fission
essentially by the delayed neutrons.
4.8), this condition can be realized by having the effective multiplication
factor between unity and 1.0075.
When such
the case, the neutron flux (or
density) and power level of the reactor will increase relatively slowly and ade
quate control
possible.
4.78. When the effective multiplication factor
equal to 1.0075, the condi
tion of a reactor
described as prompt critical, since the nuclear fission chain can
be maintained by means of the prompt neutrons alone.
exceeds this value,
multiplication will occur due to the prompt neutrons, irrespective of those
delayed, and the neutron density will increase rapidly right from the commence
ment.
In this condition, reactor
difficult to control and hence
should be
avoided in practice.
4.79. Just as the delayed fission neutrons affect the rate of increase of neutrons
when the effective multiplication factor exceeds unity, so they influence the
The calculations given
it
is
If
is
is
is
is
here are approximate only and are intended mainly to provide a

indication of the effect of delayed neutrons. The subject will be treated more com
pletely in Chapter X.
*

/3
4.77. Suppose that, in general,

the fraction of the fission neutrons which
are delayed, so that

represents the fraction of the prompt neutrons.
Of
general
THE FISSION
decay
in the
PROCESS
neutron density when the reactor is made subcritical, i.e., when
89
it
being shut down. The delayed neutrons continue to be emitted for some time,
this maintains a fission rate that is considerably higher than would be the
case if all the fission neutrons were prompt.
The ultimate rate at which the
neutron flux in a thermal reactor decreases after shut-down is determined essen
tially by the most delayed group of neutrons, i.e., by those with a mean life of
is
and
80 sec (see Table 4.8).

4.80. In reactors using heavy water or beryllium as moderator,

shut-down is
further delayed by the photoneutrons formed as a result of the interaction of
gamma radiation from the fission products with deuterium or beryllium, respec
tively ( 3.5).
Chapter
THE DIFFUSION OF NEUTRONS*

ELEMENTARY DIFFUSION THEORY
The Transport and Diffusion Equations
5.1. The purpose of reactor theory is to determine the behavior of neutrons
in scattering, absorbing, and multiplying media. In view of the complex varia
tion, with the neutron energy, of the cross sections for various processes, a precise
of the fate of fission neutrons, as they are scattered and lose energy,
are absorbed or escape from the system, would be a formidable problem without

description
resort to simplifying assumptions.

5.2. The underlying principle for any theory of nuclear chain reactors is what
may be called the conservation or balance of neutrons; thus, in a given volume, the
time rate of change of neutron density is equal to the rate of production minus
the rate of leakage and the rate of absorption.
ing this balance may then be written as
Production
Leakage
The general equation represent
Absorption =
at
(5.2.1)
When the system

where dn/dl is the time rate of change of the neutron density.
is in an equilibrium state, sometimes called a steady state, the time rate of change
of neutron density is zero, and the steady state equation becomes
Production = Leakage + Absorption.
(5.2.2)
5.3. The fundamental equation expressing the principle of conservation of

neutrons is called the Boltzmann transport equation, because it is similar to that
In this
used by Boltzmann in his studies of gas diffusion (see Chapter XIV).
treatment, the dependent variable is the angular distribution of neutron velocity
vectors, n(r, v, i), which is defined as the number of neutrons at r per unit
*
The application of elementary diffusion theory to the diffusion of slow neutrons was first
E. Fermi and his collaborators [cf. E. Amaldi and E. Fermi, Phys. Rev., SO, 899 (1936)].
An extensive compilation of solutions to diffusion problems will be found in P. R. Wallace and
J. Le Caine, "Elementary Approximations in the Theory of Neutron Diffusion," N. R. C.
1480, National Research Council of Canada; see also, Nucleonics, 4, No. 2, 30 (1949), 4, No. 3,
made by
48 (1949).
90
THE DIFFUSION OF NEUTRONS
5.6]
91
that are traveling with speed v per unit velocity in the direction a per
unit solid angle.
Thus, n(r, v, Qi) di dv dQ is the number of neutrons at r in the
volume element dr, with speeds lying in the range between v and v + dv, moving
volume
direction lying in the element of solid angle dQ about Q. The usual neutron
unit velocity, analogous to that considered in 3.51, is independent of
angle and is related to the vector flux density by
in a
flux per
4>(?,
v) =
v,
Q)v dQ.
directions
n(r, v,Q)v is called the vector flux and is merely the number of
neutrons traveling in the direction Q which cross a unit area normal to this direc
The quantity
tion per
5.4.
If
unit time.
the angular distribution of the neutron velocity vectors is isotropic, or
nearly isotropic, or is independent
of energy and position, the mathematical

treatment of the problem may be simplified, since the equation expressing the
conservation of neutrons no longer includes the direction of neutron velocity
In this event the dependent variable may be reduced to

neutron flux as defined in 3.49, and the conservation of neutrons can
then be expressed by the diffusion equation ( 5.7).
5.5. Neutrons diffuse through matter as a result of being scattered by atomic
nuclei. A typical neutron trajectory would be a zigzag pattern of straight line
elements of varying lengths joining the points of collision.
Because of neutron
capture by the medium, the lengths of the trajectories of individual neutrons
will be distributed from zero to infinity for an unbounded region.
Some insight
into neutron diffusion can be gained by considering a point source of neutrons
in an infinite medium.
Suppose that the problem is to calculate the mean crowflight distance that neutrons travel from the source before being captured.
^Sihce the probability of capture is given as 2 dx in the path length dx ( 3.43),
the probability that neutrons are captured at a certain distance from the source
is not related to the crow-flight distance, r, in a simple way, but instead depends
on the length of the actual zigzag trajectory.
Further, since any particular
zigzag path to a given point from the source is only one of infinitely many
possible paths, the mean crow-flight distance depends on the distribution of
zigzag path lengths.^
5.6. Although the neutron diffusion problem is statistical in nature, it is pos
sible, as in the kinetic theory of gases, to develop a macroscopic theory which
In diffusion phenomena,
deals with the behavior of large numbers of neutrons.
such as the diffusion of gas molecules or of heat, it is found that the diffusing
substance tends to move from regions of high density toward those of low density.
Neutrons behave similarly, since there are more collisions per unit volume in
regions of high density, and after colliding the neutrons move away from the colli

vectors as a variable.
the scalar
sion centers.
THE ELEMENTS
92
[5.7
It is
found that, under certain conditions ( 14.27), the diffusion of monoenergetic neutrons may be represented by Kick's law of diffusion, according to
which the net number
of neutrons flowing in unit time through a unit area
normal to the direction of flow is given by
. .
5.7.
J=-D0gradn,
(5.7.1)
where n is the number of neutrons per unit volume, and D0 is the conventional
diffusion coefficient.
For present purposes, Fick's law is used in the form
J=-Z)grad0,
I
(5.7.2)
is the ordinary neutron flux, and D is the diffusion coefficient for flux,
having the dimensions of length. Since for monoenergetic neutrons
is equal to
nv, where v is the neutron velocity, it follows from (5.7.1) and (5.7.2) that D is
Fick's law is the basic assumption of elementary diffusion
equal to Do/v.
theory, and its consequences will be developed here from relatively simple
where
physical considerations.
5.8. The major part of the material in this and ensuing chapters is based on
The diffusion of monoenergetic neutrons, for which
equation.
scattering occurs without energy loss, is considered first, since this is directly

the diffusion
first approximation, to the diffusion of thermal neutrons.

The
slowing down of neutrons is then treated by extending the results of the onevelocity diffusion treatment.
applicable,
as a
Neutron Current Density

5.9. Consider a small area dS lying in the x, y-plane in the coordinate system
In a small volume element dV at a point whose spherical
represented in Fig. 5.9.

coordinates
are r, 0, <p, the number of scattering collisions per sec is 2^ dV,

is the flux in neutrons per cm2 per sec, and 2, cm-1 is the macroscopic
cross section (3.54).
Since the neutrons are taken to be monoenergetic, the
where
cross section will have a constant
value.
If
the collisions are spherically sym
that is to say, if the scattering is isotropic in the laboratory system

a neutron may leave the collision center in any direction with equal
5.20),
(
probability. Assuming, for the present, that this is the case, the probability
that a neutron in dV will be scattered in the appropriate direction, so as to pass
metric,
through the area dS, is given by the fractional solid angle subtended by dS at the
scattering point, i.e., by cos d dS/Airr2.
5.10. The probability that the neutrons which have their direction of motion
within this solid angle will reach the area dS without further collision is e-2r,
where 2 is the macroscopic total cross section, which includes both absorption
Since the subsequent treatment is strictly
(2) and scattering (2) contributions.
applicable to the diffusion of neutrons in media which are poor absorbers, the
approximation will be made here of taking 2 to be small, so that 2 can be re

5.11]
Fig.
5.9.
93
Calculation of neutron current density
by 2,.
The number of neutrons scattered from the volume element dV

which actually reach dS per sec is thus given by
placed
./
Jir
dS cos
4irr2
Replacing dV by its equivalent r2 sin 0 dr

rearranging, this number is found to be
7^
5.11.
0S,e 2,r cos
d<p
sin
dd
dr
in spherical coordinates,
d<p
and
do.
The total number of neutrons scattered into the area dS per
sec from
above, i.e., in the negative z-direction, is obtained by integrating the number

coming from dV over the whole of the space lying above the x, y-plane, i.e., for
all values of r between zero and infinity, for
J-
<p
between zero and 2ir, and for
0s
If
between zero and ir/2.
is the neutron current density, i.e., the number of
neutrons crossing unit surface per second, in the negative z-direction, the number passing through the area dS, in this direction, will be
equal to the number of neutrons just calculated,
J-dS
^2.J
J J
so
0e-2"- cos
J- dS.
This is exactly
that
sin dddd<pdr.
(5.11.1)
THE ELEMENTS
94
[5.12
In order to evaluate this integral, it is necessary to express the flux as a

function of the space coordinates, and for this purpose a Taylor series expansion
5.12.
may be used.
Thus, restricting the expansion to first order terms,
*(!),
(g),
<(!)
-'
WW
where the subscript zero means that the derivatives are to be evaluated
at
origin, i.e., at the element of area dS.
z may
The independent variables x, y, and

be expressed in terms of spherical coordinates by
x = r sin
y = r sin
z = r cos
cos
- .
.{
-V
(S). <w
for the value of the total neutron current density through dS from above.
5.13. The neutron current density J+ in the positive z-direction may be ob
tained in an exactly analogous manner, except that the integration over 0 is
The
from 7r/2 to ir, so as to include only the space lying below the x, y-plane.
value of /+ is thus found to be
J-,
Jz in
the positive z-direction is the difference between
si;
The net current density

so that
J+ and
5.14. It should be pointed out that in the foregoing derivation

steady state
in which the neutron flux does not vary with time has been tacitly assumed.
If had been dependent on this variable, then because of the appreciable time
r/v taken for the neutron to travel from the point in dV to the area dS, the
time r/v prior to the
neutron flux at this point would have to be known at
instant of determination of the neutron current at dS.
5.15. Although no terms were used beyond those of the first order in the Tayloi
actually correct through the second order
series for the flux, the treatment
is

<p is between the limits of zero and 27r,

x
will
make
and
no
y
containing
contribution, and hence these terms in
the terms
Thus, replacing z by r cos 0, and introducing (5.12.1)
(5.12.1) may be eliminated.
after
canceling dS from both sides, is
the
result,
into (5.11.1)
5.17]
95
This is because the contribution to the integral made by the second order terms
are either zero, or else they are identical in both J+ and
so that they cancel
one another in the net current density.
The condition for the validity of (5.13.2)
therefore, that the flux can be expressed with sufficient accuracy by three
terms, i.e., of zero, first, and second orders, in the series expansion.
Because the
e~x,T
factor
in the integral falls off rapidly with increasing
and becomes quite
small beyond two or three mean free paths,* the major contribution to the
neutron current density comes from scattering centers that are closer than this
distance.
The approximation considered above therefore will be justifiable,
provided the change in d/dz over a distance of about two or three mean free
paths
negligible.
fairly concentrated neutron source or to
5.16. In regions close to
strong
boundary between two media with dissimilar neutron dif
absorber, or near
fusion characteristics, the rate of change of the flux with distance will be consid
erable.
In such regions d/dz will not be small and the approximations leading
However, at
to (5.13.2) will not be valid.
distance of two or three mean
boundary, because of the
free paths from
strong source or absorber or from
e
s,r
term, the flux can be expressed with quite sufficient
marked decrease in the
accuracy for the present purpose by three terms of the expansion, and (5.13.2)
can then be used to give the neutron current density.
replaced by 1/X the scattering mean free path, equations
5.17. If 2,
J+, and the
(5.12.2), (5.13.1), and (5.13.2) for the neutron current densities
in the z-direction become, respectively,
net current density
a
is
J,
J,
(5.17.1)
(5.17.2)
(5.17.3)
Similarly, for an element of area lying in the

density in the x-direction will be given by
y, z-plane, the net neutron
current
(5.17.4)
current density in the
is
while the corresponding expression for the neutron

y-direction at an area in the x, z-plane
the scattering mean free path

3.55). e~x>' decreases
distance of three mean free paths.
(
equal to 1/X., where X.

0.05, of its value at
about
a is
Since 2,
to e~*, Le.,
is
(5.17.5)

is
is,
J-
THE ELEMENTS
96
5.18.
If
[5.1S
of having its normal in the direction of
the element of area, instead
one of the axes, is oriented so that its normal makes angles of a, 0, and y with
the x, y, and z axes, respectively, the net current density
be given by the projection of three components, viz.,
through this area will
-+(g).*'+(i).H-
(5-18-"
is
it
/3
/3,
This expression reduces to either (5.17.3), (5.17.4), or (5.17.5) when the proper
are 90 and
and
are inserted; for example, when a and
values of a,
becomes equivalent to (5.17.3) for an element of area lying in the
0,
x, y-plane.
It will
is
it
represents the scalar product of two

Actually, as written above,
the unit vector normal to the element of area under
the former
N and
is
cos
are unit vectors along the x, y, and
j,
i,
and
cos
axes.
Employing the
can be written as
where grad
rent density
is is
the gradient of
|*
usual vector notation, the net current density
grad
(5.19.2)
at the element of area where the neutron cur
determined.
Transport Corrections to Elementary Diffusion Theory

is
of
5.20. Two frames of references are used in the study of scattering collisions
The subject
treated in some detail in Chap
neutrons with atomic nuclei.
VI, but for
bination of neutron
is
is
system, on the other hand, the center of mass of the com

and nucleus
taken to be at rest.
The scattering angle,
is
mass system, or
it
the present purpose
brief introduction will be adequate.

In the
or
the
nucleus
considered
be
to
at rest be
laboratory system,
system,
target
In the center
fore the collision, and
approached by the incident neutron.
ter
of
shown later
It
relatively simple manner,
These angles are related to one another in
\p
is
i.e., the angle between the directions of motion of a neutron before and after
in the
in the
represented by
system and by
system.
single collision,
(
as
will
be
6.20).
is
it
was postulated that the neutrons are

will be recalled that in 5.9
no preferred direc
scattered isotropically in the laboratory system, and there
5.21.

where
a +
cos
N =
while
/3
i.e.,
consideration,
quantity.
vectors
from (5.18.1) that the net flow of neutrons through a unit

a vector
on its orientation, so that the neutron current
be seen
dependent
is
5.19.
area
5.23]
97
tion in which a neutron will tend to travel after collision with a nucleus.
It
will be seen in 6.20 that this is approximately true for collisions with heavy
nuclei, but in general there will be a preferential scattering of the neutrons in the
forward direction. In other words, the scattering is actually anisotropic in the
L system.
5.22. Since diffusion theory deals only with the neutron density and neutron
current, it cannot give the proper corrections for the anisotropic scattering in the
L system. It can be shown from transport theory, however, that the diffusion
approximation is satisfactory in regions which are more than two or three
mean free paths away from boundaries and neutron sources, provided that the
diffusion coefficient D, correct to first order terms in 20/2, is represented by
*
D =
r,
(5.22.1)
32(1
where
2 and
fio
= cos
Mo
\p.
system, i.e.,
The diffusion approximation holds in regions away from boundaries and sources,
cos
i//
J"4r
Mo
dl
is
is
because the angular distribution of neutron velocity vectors does not then de
pend strongly on position.
isotropic in the
system,* the average cosine of the
5.23. If the scattering
system
given by
scattering angle in the
f**d0
Jo
0,
>
VA2 + 2A cos +
.
.
= sin a0,
is
(5.23.1)
+
COS
2A cos
VA2
JoI
6.20), the result
Mo
\p ,
which will be derived later
cos
cos
\p
0,
is
Transforming the variable

an element of solid angle.
to
the
system, i.e., dQ = 2-k sin do, and sub
latter being the scattering angle in the
in terms of cos
namely,
stituting the expression for cos
where
Experimental observations indicate that scattering of neutrons with energies less than a
isotropic, i.e., spherically symmetric, in the
system. The treatment here and
Mev
therefore, based on the postulate of this type of scattering.
later
6.17)
is,
is
few

tively, and
total and absorption macroscopic cross sections, respec

is the average cosine of the scattering angle per collision in the L
20 are the
THE ELEMENTS
98
A is the mass number of the scattering nucleus.

integration, it is found that
[5.23
Upon performing
where
the
(5.23.2)
and so
fio
decreases with increasing mass of the scattering nucleus.
The Transport Mean Free Path

5.24.
If
the medium is a weak absorber, so that
2/2
1,
equation (5.22.1)
for the diffusion coefficient reduces to
D =
^yJ
32.(1
-v.
mo)
(5-24.1)
cross section 2 having been replaced by the macroscopic

Further, as 2, may be replaced by
scattering cross section 2 since 20 is small.
form
is
alternative
an
1/X
X'
.
D =
(5.24.2)
3(1
Mo)

the total macroscopic
The quantity 1/2,(1 mo) or

and is denoted by X; thus,
X,/(l
X,
so that in this case
mo)
2,(1
1
is called the transport mean free path,
Mo
D =
mo)
(5.24.3)
(5.24.4)
(5.24.5)
It
can be seen from (5.23.1) that for finite values of the mass number A ,
the scattering angle ^ in the L system is always less than 0 in the C system, the
difference decreasing with increasing mass number of the scattering nucleus.
5.25.
In other words, if scattering is isotropic in the C system, there will be preferred
scattering in the forward direction in the L system for media of low and moder
Only when the mass number is large is the scattering iso
ate mass number.
tropic in the L system if it is so in the C system.
5.26. According to transport theory, the scattering mean free path of the
diffusion treatment should be replaced by the transport mean free path. Con
sequently,
(5.19.2) becomes
J = - | grad *
(5.26.1)
5.30]
99
It should be noted that if the scattering nucleus has a large mass num
then o, equal to 2/3 A, is negligible in comparison with unity, and so X< is j
approximately equal to X,. In this case, the diffusion coefficient derived from j
transport theory, for a weak absorber, becomes identical with that obtained
from simple diffusion theory.
This is to be expected since isotropic scattering
in the L system, assumed in the derivation of the latter, is approached with in
5.27.
ber,
creasing mass of the scattering nucleus.
Diffusion Coefficient and Neutron Current Density

5.28. Summarizing the results of the preceding discussion, it is seen that if
Fick's law is applicable, the net neutron current density can be represented by
Then for a weak absorber
J = -D grad .

D =
T
3
(5.28.1)
ST// -V
32,(1
<5-28
mo)
where fi0 = 2/3A, if the scattering is isotropic in the center of mass system.
The corresponding expressions for the components of the neutron current density
in the z-direction are then
5.29.
For carbon (graphite) the mass number A is
i.e., 0.055; consequently,
X'
so
U0
that Xt is about
is f ; so that
12, and hence
jZ0
is 2/(3
X 12),
by (5.28.2),
=
2. X 0.945
5 per cent greater than X..
**
0.945'
For hydrogen, on the other hand,
Xf = 3X,,
correction for anisotropic scattering becomes important. If the medium

but 2 is such that (2a/2)2 may be neglected, the diffusion
coefficient in (5.28.1) will then be expressed by (5.22.1).
and the
is a moderate absorber,
Calculation of Neutron Leakage

The rate at which neutrons leak out of a specified volume element can
calculated from the expressions for the current density derived above provided
the neutron flux, (x, y, z), is known as a function of the spatial coordinates.
5.30.
be
100
[5.30
Let a rectangular volume element dV, with dimensions dx, dy, dz be located at a
point whose coordinates are x, y, z (Fig. 5.30). Consider the two faces of area
Jzdz
dy
-dz
x,y,z-

-dx
Fig.
5.30.
Calculation of neutron leakage
dx dy which lie parallel to the x, y-plane.

The number of neutrons entering the
dx dy, where Jz is the net neutron current density in the
lower face per sec is
dx dy.
z-direction ; similarly, the number of neutrons leaving the upper face is
J,
J,^
Using (5.28.5) to express the neutron current densities, the net rate of flow of
neutrons out of the given volume element through the faces parallel to the
x, y-plane is
(&--**--[j(gL-(g)]**
=
D^~dxdydz
(5.30.1)
5.31. Similarly, the net rates of loss from the faces parallel to the y, z- and
x, 2-planes are
and the total rate at which neutrons leak out of the volume element dV is given
by the sum of these three terms.
The leakage rate per unit volume may then be
obtained by dividing through by dV, so that

Neutron leakage per unit
volume per second
101
/624>
d_V
d2<\
\dx2
= -DV*4>,
6y2
6z2)
(5.31.1)
where V2 is the symbol used for the Laplacian operator.

5.32. The leakage rate as given by (5.31.1) is quite general, within the limits
of diffusion theory to neutrons, the Laplacian operator V2
of applicability
being expressed in the particular coordinates that are most convenient for each
individual problem.
Thus, in rectangular coordinates it is defined by
d2
d2
whereas in spherical coordinates
H- + ^jU
r
dr
dr2
62
it is
r2
1*^,^
r 1^
\
sin
60
sin2 8
68)
(5.32.2)
6</r
6r2 r
6r
r2
dd2^
l*AMJ
6z*
5.33. It may be mentioned that (5.31.1) could have been derived directly from
(5.28.1), or the equivalent (5.19.1), by means of simple vector algebra.
The
net rate of outflow of neutrons per unit volume is equal to the divergence of the
vector J, i.e., div J, and hence from (5.28.1),
Neutron leakage per unit =

.
.
volume per second
in agreement with (5.31.1)
- div
Z)
,
V4>
-DV2,
(5.33.1)
if D is independent of position.
J r
'
THE DIFFUSION EQUATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The Diffusion Equation
The leakage term in the general neutron balance equation (5.2.1), that
the rate of loss expressed in neutrons per cm3 per sec,
given by (5.31.1).
Because of the negative signs in both of these equations, the first term in (5.2.1)
is
is,
5.34.
term in (5.2.1) will be 2</,.

given above, and representing
cm3 per sec
equal to
2<,
where
3.49), and hence the absorption

Inserting this result, and the one for the leakage
the rate of neutron production as

the balance equation becomes
>r>-2o*
sec,
cross section
at
<S
the macroscopic absorption
+
5
V2<t).
The number of neutrons absorbed per
is
5.35.
becomes
is

and in cylindrical coordinates
per cm3 per
(5.35.1)
102
THE ELEMENTS
[5.35
This expression, generally referred to as the diffusion equation, is widely used in

reactor theory.
It is applicable only to monoenergetic neutrons, and then only
at distances greater than two or three mean free paths from strong sources, ab
As will be seen through
sorbers, or boundaries between dissimilar materials.
out the course of this book, it will be used to determine the distribution of neutron
flux under a variety of conditions.
Boundary Conditions
5.36. The diffusion equation (5.35.1) is a differential equation and such an
does not provide a complete representation of a physical situation,
equation
since the general solution of a differential equation includes arbitrary constants

of integration.
In order to determine the proper values for these constants,
re
strictions, in the form of boundary conditions obtained from the physical nature of
the problem, are placed on the solutions.
The number of these boundary condi
tions must be sufficient to provide a unique solution, with no arbitrary constants.
Some of the boundary conditions which are frequently used in the solution of
neutron distribution problems by means of (5.35.1) are considered in the follow
ing paragraphs.
5.37. The neutron
flux must
be
finite and non-negative in
the region where the
diffusion equation applies.

This condition is self-evident since the neutron flux cannot be infinite or nega
tive.
It can, however, be zero, and it is for this reason that the particular word
ing given above has been employed.

5.38.
At a plane interface
between two media, with different diffusion
the net neutron current densities
in a direction normal
properties,
to the interface are equal and
the neutron fluxes are also equal.
Imagine an interface between two different media, and consider two small
A and B in Fig. 5.38, one on each side of, and very close
All neutrons passing through the area A in the positive
to, the interface.
i-direction must enter the area B in the same direction; hence, the neutron
current density at A in the positive x-direction, i.e., J\+, must equal the current
density at B, i.e., Jb+, in the same direction.
Similarly, the current densities
a- and Jb- in the negative x-direction must be equal, so that
equal areas, indicated by
Ja+ = Jb+
Consequently,
J A- = J
and
using the appropriate forms of (5.28.4) and (5.28.3),
that
'
dx
Xa
d*t>A
"
dx
and
<a
A
Xb
dx
'
dB '
dx
(5.38.1)
that the net current densities in the x-direction [cf. equation (5.28.5)], i.e.,
Further, upon addition of the equations,
normal to the interface, are equal.
so

-INTERFACE
Fig.
5.38.
Diffusion at a plane interface
it is seen that
B,
(5.38.2)
The boundary condi

that the neutron fluxes also are equal at the interface.
by (5.38.1) and (5.38.2) also apply to spherical surfaces where
the flux is independent of angle, i.e., concentric homogeneous spheres and infinite
so
tions represented
cylinders.
Near the boundary between a diffusion medium and a vacuum the neutron
in such a manner that linear extrapolation would require the flux to
varies
flux
vanish at a definite (extrapolation) distance beyond the boundary.
Suppose the y, z-plane represents a boundary between a diffusion medium, to
Since there is no scattering back of neutrons
the left, and a vacuum, to the right.
5.39.
from the vacuum into the diffusion medium, there is no neutron current in the
Hence, from (5.28.3),
negative i-direction at the boundary, i.e., where x = 0.
J-t ~_
<o
X(
6
'
do
dx
_~
'
(5.39.1)
is used to indicate that the values apply at x = 0.

The flux <o at the boundary is positive, and so it follows from this equation that
the slope do/dx of the flux distribution must be negative at the boundary, as
where the zero subscript
THE ELEMENTS
104
OF NUCLEAR EEACTOR THEORY
15.39
If the neutron flux is extrapolated into the

indicated schematically in Fig. 5.39.
a
line
straight
with
the
same slope, do/dx, as at the boundary,
vacuum, using
the flux would vanish at a distance d given by
d
using (5.39.1).
thus given by
The magnitude of
do
6>0
dx
4X,'
d, called the
d =
(5.39.2)
linear extrapolation distance*
X<,
is
(5.39.3)

for a plane boundary between a diffusion medium and a vacuum.
MEDIUM
FiQ. 5.39.
VACUUM
Extrapolation of neutron flux at a plane interface
5.40. On the basis of linear extrapolation, therefore, the neutron flux should
vanish at a distance equal to Xt beyond a plane separating a diffusion medium
from a vacuum. This boundary condition is sometimes stated in the following
form : the neutron flux vanishes at the extrapolated boundary, the latter being a dis
tance X< beyond the physical boundary, in the case of a plane surface.
As
seen earlier, diffusion theory for neutrons, upon which (5.39.3) is based, breaks
down at a distance closer than two or three scattering mean free paths from a
boundary. It is to be expected, therefore, that the linear extrapolation distance
According to the more exact transport theory, the
obtained above is incorrect.
linear extrapolation distance at a plane surface of a weakly absorbing medium
is 0.7104Xt, rather than X<. In order to make the results more nearly correct,
therefore, the extrapolated boundary, when using diffusion theory, is taken to
be 0.71Xt beyond the actual plane boundary between a diffusion medium and a
vacuum.
*
It
is sometimes referred to as the "augmentation
distance."
5.421

S.41. It is important to realize, in postulating that the neutron flux vanishes at

the extrapolated boundary, there is no implication that the neutron flux is actu
ally zero at that distance.
The concept of the hypothetical boundary where the
flux vanishes, as a result of linear extrapolation, is merely a convenient mathe
matical device which is used to obtain a simple boundary condition. It should
be pointed out that even transport theory does not state that the neutron flux
actually becomes zero at an extrapolation distance of 0.71X<.
According to this
theory, the plot of the neutron flux against the distance undergoes a marked
change of direction within a mean free path or so from the interface (Fig. 5.41).
Fig.
5.41.
Transport theory and diffusion theory extrapolations
Consequently, in order that the boundary condition under consideration may be

used in conjunction with diffusion theory to determine neutron flux distribution
at reasonable distances from the interface, a so-called asymptotic linear extrapola
tion of the transport theory is made from the curve not too near the physical
boundary. The use of the resulting extrapolation distance of 0.71X<, together
with diffusion theory, provides a satisfactory approximation in many cases.*
5.42. A method for experimental determination of the transport mean free
path of (thermal) neutrons in a given medium is based on the assumption that
the neutron flux extrapolates to zero at a distance of 0.71X< from the physical
boundary. The neutron flux (or density) is measured at several points in the
medium not too far from the boundary, but further than two or three mean free
The values are then extrapolated in a linear manner to obtain the posi
paths.
tion at which the flux would apparently become zero.f
*
The extrapolation distance is greater for curved surfaces; for a boundary of infinite curva
ture, i.e., zero radius, it is ^X<.
t For experimental values of D, equal to \/3, see Table 5.91.
106
THE ELEMENTS
[5.43
Solution of Diffusion Equation: The Wave Equation

5.43. The diffusion equation (5.35.1) will be solved here for the special case in
which the system is in a steady state and the time rate of change of the neutron
density is zero ; the diffusion equation then becomes
DPV
- 2 + S =
0.
(5.43.1)
5.44. When the neutron source is either a point, a line, or a plane, the produc
tion term <S or source term, as it is frequently called, is zero except at the particu
lar source position. To solve the problem of the flux distribution in these cases,
the differential equation is first solved with S = 0 outside the source region, and
then the proper boundary conditions, to be considered below, are applied at the
If <S is set equal to zero, (5.43.1) reduces to the homogeneous form,
source.
applicable everywhere except at the source,
- 2 = 0
- k2 =
or
(5.44.1)
0,

where
k2
(5.44.2)
- |-
Since 2 has the dimension of reciprocal length and

length squared.
(5.44.3)
D of length,
is a reciprocal
5.45. Expressions of the form of (5.44.2) are often referred to as the wave equa
tion because they are analogous to that which represents the propagation of
waves in space.
General solutions of the wave equation for various geometries

can be obtained by standard methods.
The particular solution of the problem
of interest can then be derived by applying the appropriate boundary conditions.
Point Source in Infinite Medium

per sec in an infinite
A coordinate system is then chosen with its
homogeneous diffusion medium.
origin at the point source, with the result that in this system the neutron dis
It is now convenient to express the
tribution will have spherical symmetry.
5.46. Consider a point source releasing
one neutron
Laplacian operator (72) in (5.44.2) in spherical coordinates, as given by (5.32.2).

Since the flux distribution is spherically symmetric, it is independent of angle,
and the terms involving d0 or d<p will be zero.
Consequently, the source-free
equation (5.44.2) becomes
^ + 7-^-^
where
= 0,
(5.46.1)
r is the distance from the point source ; this equation does not apply,
course, at the source where r is zero.
of
5.49]
5.47. The boundary conditions for the problem are as follows
107
:
is finite everywhere except at the source, i.e., for r > 0.

(i) The flux
(ii) The total number of neutrons passing through the surface of a sphere (4UT2)
must equal the source strength when the radius r approaches zero.
If is the
neutron current density at the surface of the sphere, this condition, called the
source condition, can be expressed as
lim Airr2J =
1,
r->0
it has been postulated that the source emits one neutron per second.
5.48. In order to solve (5.46.1), let 4> = u/1", the equation then reduces to
since
is
defined by (5.44.3),
= 0.
(5.48.1)
positive quantity, the general solution of (5.48.1)
u = Ae~"
+ C-,
(5.48.2)
4>
Cff,
has been obtained
lim 4xr2/ = lim ^DAe-"r(icr
r->0
By boundary condition (ii),
r->0
>
is
r is
by differentiation of (5.48.2) with
equal to
1).
i.e., the source condition, this must be equal to
1,
Hence,
d/dr
zero.
where
it
(i)
where
and
are arbitrary constants,* which are to be evaluated by means of
the boundary conditions.
From condition
must be zero,
apparent that
oo
for otherwise the flux would become infinite as
so that only
remains
to be determined.
point
5.49. The neutron current density at
given by
so
that
4*D
follows that
Because
avoided.
has
iirDr'
special significance in reactor theory, its use as an arbitrary
(5.49.1)
constant
is
into (5.48.2),
it
Upon inserting the value for

and hence
is
Since
thus
k2,
fl - A
108
THE ELEMENTS
[5.49
This expression gives the neutron flux distribution around a

1 neutron per sec in an infinite medium in the steady state.
emitting
point source
It will be noted that the flux at any position in a given medium, i.e., D and k
Consequently if two
constant, depends only on the distance r from the source.
or more point sources are present, the flux at any position can be obtained by
In general, any
adding the contributions from each of the individual sources.
source can be treated as being made up of a number of point sources, and the
solution is given by the superposition of the point source solutions.
since C is zero.
Infinite Plane Source

S.50. Imagine an infinite plane source, emitting neutrons
(5.50.1)
is
0.
The boundary conditions are :

The flux shall be finite everywhere except at =
(ii) At the source plane the current density 0.5 neutron per
(i)
cm2 per sec, i.e.,
= 0.5.
(5.50.2)
This source condition may be clarified by considering

in Fig. 5.50, very close to the source plane.
-SOURCE
small area designated
The net current density through
PLANE
DIFFUSION
FROM
FROM
SOURCE
SOURCE
DIFFUSION
Fig.
5.50.
I->0
lim

uniformly at the
rate of 1 per cm2 per sec, in an infinite homogeneous medium.
The coordinate
system is now chosen so that the source plane coincides with the plane for which
x = 0 at all points.
Since the source is infinite in extent, it is evident that for a
given value of x, the flux will be independent of y and z. The Laplacian operator
in rectangular coordinates is now merely (P/dx* so that the homogeneous diffusion
equation (5.44.2) in the present case is
Neutron current density at source plane
5.52]
109
this area is made up of the neutrons coming directly from the source which
travel in the positive x-direction, plus the neutrons diffusing through the area in
both positive and negative x-directions.
For an area very close to the source
plane, the diffusion will be virtually the same in the two opposite directions, so
that this makes no contribution to the neutron current density through the area
A. Consequently, the net current very near the source plane and, hence, at
the source plane itself, is determined directly by the neutrons coming from the
source in the positive x-direction. Since neutrons from the source plane will
proceed equally in both positive and negative x-directions, as indicated in the
figure, it is evident that if <S is the source strength in neutrons per cm2 per sec,
the net current density at the source plane will be %S. \
5.51.
The general solution of (5.50.1) is
4>
= Ae~a
+ Cff,
(5.51.1)
would become infinite as x

lim
->0
+ oo .
J = l-*0
lim - D ^ = lim DAkC'1
a;
=
so
that
From the source condition (ii) it follows that
DAk = 0.5,
i->0
,
A ~
-_i_.
2kD
Introducing this value for A into (5.51.1), with C equal to zero, the result is
g~7
(5.51.2)
for the steady state flux distribution in the x-direction from an infinite plane
As indicated above, x is here the
source, emitting 1 neutron per cm2 per sec.
absolute value of the x-coordinate.
It
was stated in 5.49 that any neutron source may be treated as a

number of point sources and the flux distribution determined by superposing the
This may be illustrated by using the procedure to calcu
individual solutions.
5.52.
flux distribution for an infinite plane source. Since the results can be
for any function having this property of superposition, the general case
will be treated first.
Consider an annulus of radius a and thickness da lying in
a plane, as in Fig. 5.52 ; the area of this annulus is 2ira da, so that it may be re
garded as being made up of 2*a da point sources.
At a field point P on the x-axis,
normal to the source plane, and at a distance r from
let the value of function,
having the superposition property indicated above, be GptO').
Then at the same
late the
used
it,

and this may be regarded as applying to absolute values of x, i.e., | x |, since the
flux is symmetrical with respect to the x = 0 plane.
In this event, the constant
C in (5.51.1) must be zero by boundary condition (i), for otherwise the flux
THE ELEMENTS
110
[5.52
point the corresponding function due to the annulus under consideration will be
To obtain the value at P of the function Gpi due to the whole of an
Opt(r)2ira da.
infinite plane source, this result is integrated over all values of a from zero to
infinity ; thus,
=
G>i
GPt(r)2xa da.
(5.52.1)

Fig.
5.53.
In the
5.52.
Plane source solution as superposition of point sources

GPt(r) is the flux due to a point source at
the flux due to infinite plane the source is then,
case under consideration,
a distance r, as given by (5.49.1)

by (5.52.1),
tr"
*=Jo ^2*ada
If x
represents the coordinate of the point
that
r
and hence
rdr
= a*
2Dj0
ada-
P, then it can be
+
seen from
Fig. 5.52,
x*
= ada.
Making use of this relationship to change the variable,
(5.53.2)
(5.53.1) becomes
the limits of integration over r being now x and oo , corresponding

respectively, for a. The result of this integration is
2Kb'
in agreement with (5.51.2) for an infinite plane source.
to
and
oo ,
Infinite Plane Source in
Medium
111
of Finite Thickness

5.54. If the neutrons from an infinite plane source diffuse in a slab of infinite
extent but finite thickness, the flux distribution is somewhat different from the
case considered above, where the thickness of the diffusion medium was taken to
be infinite.
In order to make the results comparable, it will be supposed that
the source is at a plane of symmetry.
The same arguments as were used above,
in the case of the infinite plane source, lead to the source condition (ii) in 5.50.
EXTRAPOLATED
BOUNDARY
Fig.
5.54.
Flux distribution for
plane source in finite medium
The general solution given by (5.51.1) then applies to the present problem.
However, since the diffusion medium has a finite thickness, it is now not possible
to eliminate the second term. In order to evaluate the arbitrary constants A
and C it is necessary to introduce a boundary_condition additional to those for
the plane source in an infinite medium. (The extra condition is that the flux
shall vanish at the hypothetical extrapolated boundary ( 5.39). If a is the
thickness of the slab including the extrapolation distance 0.71X< (Fig. 5.54),
then substitution
of this value for x in (5.51.1) should give zero flux; thus,

<
= Ae-"n + Ce" = 0,
C =-Ae~2".
Inserting this value of C in (5.51.1), the general expression for the flux distribu
tion now becomes
4>
5.55.
= A[e-*x
To determine A, use is made,
- e-"2"-^].
(5.54.1)
as before, of the boundary condition that at
the source plane the neutron current density in the positive x-direction is 0.5
112
thus,
lim
z 0
= lim
i0
- D ^ = lim DAê~"
= DAk(1
A =
i *o
CUE
+ e-2") = 0.5,
.'
[5.55
+ c~'^-1']
2kD(l +
e-2*)
Hence, from (5.54.1), the flux distribution in the steady state is given by
Jt
(5.55.1)
for an infinite medium, e~"(2n~z) and e'2"" approach

should, with (5.51.2).
zero, and (5.55.1) becomes identical, as
5.56. Equation (5.55.1) may be written in an alternative form by introducing
the hyperbolic functions, viz.,
it
When a is very large, that
is,
2kD(1 + e~U)
*
20
40
e~").
of (5.55.1) are multiplied by
_
=
60
sinh k(q
2kD cosh
80
is
cosh u = |(eu
and
it
e~")
x)
the numerator and denominator

If
sinh u = (e"
seen that
(5.56.1)
kcl
100
120
140
x, CM
Fig.
5.57.
Flux distribution for
plane source in medium of finite thickness
160
5.59]
113

5.57. Some idea of the effect of the finite thickness of the diffusion medium
may be obtained from Fig. 5.57, in which the ratio of the flux to the source
strength S, expressed in neutrons per cm2 per sec, is plotted as a functon of the
distance x from a plane source in an infinite medium, and also in media of three
different thicknesses, such that kcl is 1, 2, and 3 respectively.*
The value of k
is taken as 0.02 cm-1, which is that for graphite, and D is 0.90 cm. It is seen
that when na is 3, the flux distribution is not greatly different from that for an
infinite medium, except near the boundary. This result is quite general, for na
is the important property in determining how the neutron flux falls off with dis
tance from the infinite plane source. Thus, when the thickness of the medium,
including the extrapolation distance, is about 3/k, or more, the behavior within a
distance of 1/k from the source, is essentially that of an infinite medium.
It will
be seen in 5.64 that 1/k is called the diffusion length of the neutrons in the given<
medium, and it is generally true that if the thickness is at least three times the
diffusion length, it may be treated as an infinite medium at distances greater
than one diffusion length from the boundary.
5.58. Attention may be called to the physical significance of the results de
picted in Fig. 5.57.
In the infinite medium there is no loss of neutrons, but in
slabs of finite thickness neutrons will leak out. If the thickness is three or more
times the diffusion length, most of the neutrons are scattered back before they
reach the boundary and the leakage is very small.
For slabs of lesser thickness,
there is a greater loss of neutrons and this results in a more rapid falling off of
the flux toward the boundary.
This
is very marked when the extrapolated
thickness is equal to the diffusion
length, i.e., ca = 1. Only a relatively
small proportion of the neutrons are
scattered back before they reach the
boundary and there is a marked de
crease of the flux, even near the source
plane.
Plane Source
and Two Slabs
Finite Thickness
of
5.59. The case of an infinite plane

source of neutrons diffusing into two
adjacent slabs of different materials

having infinite extent but finite thick
ness is of interest because it illustrates
the use of the boundary condition in
5.38, generally referred to as the
*
Fia.
5.59. Flux distribution for plane source

in two media of finite thickness
Since (5.56.1) does not apply at the Bource itself, the curves arc not extended to
= 0.
THE ELEMENTS
114
[5.59
continuity of flux and current density at the interface between two media.
The subscripts 1 and 2 will be used to distinguish the two materials (Fig. 5.59)
so that ki and Di refer to the slab nearest to the source, and k2 and D2 to the
other slab.
Let a be the thickness of slab 1, and b the total thickness of the two
slabs including the extrapolation distance of 0.71X<(2).
As before, the flux distri
bution in the positive rc-direction only will be considered ; with an infinite plane
source this is independent of y and z. The source will be taken to have such a
value that the neutron current density in the positive x-direction at the
source plane is S neutrons per cm2 per sec*
5.60. A wave equation of the form of (5.50.1) will apply to each slab, and the
general solutions, of the form of (5.51.1), will then be
0i = Aie~nx + de"1
(5.60.1)
and
<h
A*~"* +
(5.60.2)
Cse"*.
is
(i)
There are, thus, four arbitrary constants, which can be evaluated by means of
an equal number of boundary conditions.
These are as follows :
lim /+ = S.
The source condition
x->0
boundary of the outer slab, i.e.,
b.
(iii) The neutron fluxes in the two slabs are equal at the interface, i.e.,
when x = a.
(iv) The net neutron currents are equal at the interface, i.e.,
Ji
tt>\
<h
J2 when
5.61. From condition (i),
From (5.60.2) and boundary condition (ii)
follows that
Ctff* =
A2 =-C2e2"".
0
A*-"* +
it
-Mx+j)-c'(^'-i)-s-
Aie-"a +
Cie"a
= Ate-
it
Since, by condition (iii), the fluxes are equal at the interface between the slabs,
follows from (5.60.1) and (5.60.2) that
i.e., when x = a,
Cje"0.
is
It should be noted that this somewhat different from the rase considered in 5.52, for
in the latter the source plane was assumed to be placed in the medium so that at or near the
source plane there was
balance between the neutrons diffusing in both directions.
*
/~
when
fa =
(ii) The flux vanishes at the extrapolated

5.63]
115
Finally, condition (iv) requires the net current densities to be equal at the bound
= J2, or
ary, i.e.,
Ji
when x = a.
Hence, from (5.60.1) and (5.60.2),
ZVi(Aie-"a
- Cie"a)
DiK2iAtf-""
C2e").
The relationships derived above from the four boundary conditions thus repre
sent four equations in the four unknowns, A\, A2) Ci, and C2, and so a complete
solution of (5.60.1) and (5.60.2) is possible.
THE DIFFUSION
LENGTH
Significance of Diffusion Length

5.62. The treatment in this chapter
getic neutrons.
has referred specifically
to monoener-
In a thermal reactor there are present, of course, neutrons with
Even thermal neutrons do not all have the same energy, but, as stated in 3.53,
in weakly absorbing media they behave approximately like monoenergetic neu
is
is
r2,
trons with properly averaged absorption cross section and mean free path.
Since it is the behavior of thermal neutrons that is of immediate interest, the
subsequent discussion will refer in particular to such neutrons, employing the
results derived earlier for monoenergetic neutrons.
5.63. As the flux distribution about a point source is given by (5.49.1), it is
possible to derive an expression for the mean distance traveled by a thermal neu
tron from the point of its formation to that at which it is absorbed. However,
instead of treating the first spatial moment of the flux, as would be required in
this case, it is preferable, in view of later developments, to consider the second
This gives the mean square distance traveled by a thermal
spatial moment.
formation
to capture.
be the
neutron from
Consider a point source, and let
flux in neutrons per cm' per seiLat a distance r. The rate at which neutrons are
absorbed is then equal to 2</ per cm3 per sec, where 2 is the macroscopic ab
In a spherical shell element of radius r
sorption cross section of the medium.
4xr2
dr,
i.e., volume
dr, surrounding the point source, the number
and thickness
of neutrons captured per second will be 4wr2 dr 2<. This is a measure of the
probability that a neutron will be absorbed within the element dr at a distance r
which
neutron travels
from the source; hence the mean square distance,
where
absorbed
given by
from its source to
it

energies ranging from several million down to small fractions of an electron volt.
fV^Tir^)
dr
(5.63.1)
116
Since
[5.64
here represents the flux about a point source, it is given by (5.49.1), and
hence (5.63.1) becomes
fa
r3g-r
= ^
dr
rre~"
5.64.
As indicated above, the diffusion
is defined as the reciprocal of
\
since, by (5.44.3),
k2
k,
length,
|-
tf-63-2)
L, of the neutrons in a medium
J~
\ cm,
It
is defined as 20/D.
thus,
follows, therefore, from (5.63.2) that
p,
(5.64.1)
2,
it has the dimensions of length
and so
=
T
-z
(5.64.2)
that the diffusion length squared is one-sixth of the mean square distance^ as
thecrow flies, that a (thermal) neutron would travel from the point at which it
just becomes thermal to capture.
5.65. If k in (5.51.2) for diffusion from a plane source in an infinite medium is
replaced by 1/L, the result may be written in the form
case the diffusion
is
is
decreased by
K2
= 3S2(1
coefficient
-M+
k2
^V1
correct to first order terms in 2/Z. For
introduced,
'
it
(5.22.1) for the diffusion
If
(5.64.1) that
follows from
I^ft)'
weak absorber, this becomes
= 32,2(1
mo)
diffusion material of high mass number, this reduces to
since, by (5.23.2),
Ji0
is
k2
and for
to the relaxation
e.
is
5.66.
(5.65.1)
*>
length
factor of
in this
= Ae~x/L.
length
equivalent
3.47), i.e., the distance in which the neutron flux
Consequently,
ss
32,2,
then small in comparison with unity.
Measurement op Diffusion Length

5.67. If
were feasible to construct an essentially infinite uniform plane
source of thermal neutrons in an infinite medium, the diffusion length could be
determined from measurements of the variation of the flux with distance from
the source.
It follows from (5.65.1) that
it

so
5.G9]
117
(5.67.1)
that a plot of experimental values of In

against x, the distance from the
source, should be a straight line with a slope of l/L.
However, actual experi
ments must be made with finite sources in finite media, and the results cannot be
analyzed on the basis of the simple expression given above for a plane source in
an infinite medium.
In an infinite medium there is no net loss of neutrons due
to leakage, but in a finite medium leakage occurs, and allowance must be made
for this in the treatment of experimental data, as described below.
5.68. Consider a long rectangular parallelepiped
of moderator material in
which the diffusion length is to be measured, with a small source of fast neu
trons, e.g., polonium or radium and beryllium ( 3.2) at one end. If the material
is a reasonably good moderator, then at a relatively short distance from the source
a large fraction of the neutrons have been slowed down into the thermal region
Thus, at a not too great distance from the
(see 5.86, footnote, and 6.154).
source the neutron flux behaves as though it came from a distributed plane
source of essentially thermal neutrons.
For purposes of the following analysis,
therefore, it will be permissible to postulate a point source of fast neutrons giving
rise to a distributed plane source of thermal neutrons.
5.69. Let this planar source of thermal neutrons be situated at z = 0, across
The x- and y-dimensions of the block,
the long block of material (Fig. 5.69).
plus twice the extrapolation distance in each case, are taken to be a and b ; in
the positive z-direction the length of the block is c, which includes the extra
polation distance.
j

so
Fio. 5.69.
Rectangular parallelepiped
for determination of diffusion length
THE ELEMENTS
118
[5.70
5.70. The wave equation for positive values of z is
V2
and the boundary conditions are
- k2 =
0,
The flux is everywhere finite and non-negative.

(ii) The flux is zero at the extrapolated boundaries
j(i)
|,
a?-*"-
X(x)Y(y)Z(z),
is
possible to write
(5.71.2)
alone, and Z(z) of
.** + A. Î + 1.^_k2
(5-711)
is
are separable, so that
function of alone, Y(y) of

this substitution, (5.71.1) becomes
X(x)
is
In rectangular coordinates, the wave equation
Assume that the variables x, y,
alone.
Making
(5713)
(5.71.3)
thus,
5.73. The signs preceding
shortly be apparent.
(5-72-3)
In
and
=
0.
k2
are positive real quantities,
-a2
("2.2)
(5.72.4)
and
have been chosen for good reason, as will
the differential equation of the general form
a2
/32
and
(PY
/32
a2, /32,
72
ffr
rf?-*
where
in
if
is
constant
k2
is
function of one independent

5.72. Each of the first three terms of (5.71.3)
will
be
of the values of the other
independent
and
so
its
value
variable only,
terms.
Since
each term
constant, this condition can be satisfied only
is
a

= c.
|>
source condition, which will be considered later.
&?+V +
where
when
i.e.,
when
=
<
0,
i.e.,
0,
|i
it
5.71.
?/,
= 0 when x =
2/
(iii)
<(:r,
= 0, i.e.,
(c)
zj
zj
(b)
y,
|,
c)
(x,
(a)
thus,
(5.73.1)
5.74]
119
the solutions depend upon whether k2 is a positive or a negative quantity.

In
A;!
the former case, i.e.,
is positive, the solution is the sum of imaginary exponen
tials which may be expressed as the sum of sine and cosine terms ; thus,
A cos kx + C sin kx.
(5.73.2)
On the other hand, if k2 is a negative quantity, the solution is the sum of real
exponentials or hyperbolic sine and cosine terms ; thus,
A cosh kx + C sinh kx
(5.73.3)
Fig.
5.74.
Symmetrical flux distribution in x- (and y-) directions
is,
terms, since they are not symmetric, and so the C's must be zero. Further, the
requirement that the flux shall be zero at the extrapolated boundary eliminates
the cosh term, sincg. cosh kx increases monotonically with increasing x. The
therefore,
only permissible solution
cos kx,
k2 must be positive to satisfy the conditions of the prob

a2 and
are positive, as postulated, they
evident, therefore, that
In these
be preceded by minus signs, as written, in (5.72.1) and (5.72.2).
must
/32
lem.
It
if
and this means that

is

where the A's and C's are arbitrary constants.

5.74. The proper solution in the present problem can be derived from the
The flux is supposed to be everywhere finite and nonboundary conditions.
negative and to vanish at the extrapolated boundaries; in addition, the distribu
tion must be symmetrical in the x- and ^-coordinates, because the source is at
The flux will consequently vary somewhat in the^
the center of an x, y-plane.
The symmetry condition rules out the sin and sinh
manner shown in Fig. 5.74.
THE ELEMENTS
120
[5.74
circumstances, if y2 is positive it must appear with a positive sign in (5.72.3)

because k2 is a real number greater than zero.
5.75.
In view of the foregoing discussion, it follows that the solution of
v
X
must be of the form
A cos ax,
(i)
X^)
mir
^cosT
equal to a/2, i.e., at the
0,
v/a\
(o.75.2)
is
In this event, when x
with m equal to an odd integer.

extrapolated boundary, then
How
is
it
. . .
5,
1,
m =
3,
.>
(o.7o.l)
and (ii).
the sine term being eliminated by the boundary conditions
necessary that
ever, in order to satisfy condition (iia) more exactly,
a =
, _,
(5.72.1)
since the cosines of odd values of ir/2 are zero.

5.76. The general solution of (5.72.1), which satisfies the boundary conditions
then
and (iia),
5,
. . . .
>
and (iifr) are satisfied by
1,
m =
(i)
Similarly,
(5.76.1)
5,
is
a
. . .
real positive quantity,
thus,
+ Ci sinh yz,
(5.77.1)
= Ci cosh yc
it
=-C
and hence,
C2
yc
cosn 7C
sinh yc
into (5.77.1), the result
cosn >yc
gjnh yZ
= Ci cosh yz Ci
sinh yc
=
Upon introducing this value for
d sinh
is
c,
where C\ and C2 are constants.

Since the boundary condition (iic) requires
=
follows that
to be zero where
= Ci cosh yz
72
apparent that, since
the solutions must be of the form of (5.73.3)
3,
n =
it
the solution of (5.72.2).

5.77. Turning to (5.72.3),
is
Yn = Bn cos
1,
so that
is

Xm = Am cos
3,
is
(i)
as required,
s-im
(sinh yc cosh 72
= C3 sinh y(c
cosh yc sinh 72)
2),
where the constant quantity sinh yc has been included in Cj.
(5.77.2)
5.81]
5.78.
it
If
is seen
121
sinh y(c z) is now expressed as the difference of two exponentials,
that
- e-w-*],
Ce-"[1
(5.78.1)
where the constant eyc has been included in C. If the z-dimension of the paral
lelepiped is very long, as postulated above, the quantity in the brackets in
(5.78.1) is not very different from unity, and then this equation becomes
Z = Ce~T.
5.79. According to (5.72.4),
y2
is equal to
(5.78.2)
k2
a2
/32,
and since a and
/3
can
take on a series of values, of the form of (5.75.2) and (5.76.1), for the different
and ri, it follows that for each m and n, there will be a 7 given by
=
(==)'
(f
(5.79.1)
)',
Zmn
Cme-w.
(5.79.2)
and
be a solution.
but since the equation
linear, any sum of the
Consequently,
cos
=2^2Âmn
m=l n-1
cos
-~
e~
w,
(5.80.
1)
products will
is
will be a product of X,
Z,
In accordance with (5.71.2) the simplest solution of the wave equation

Y,
5.80.
is
0
y)
0,
it
0,
is
y)
it
is
where the three arbitrary constants have been combined in Amn. This equation
satisfies the boundary conditions (i), (iia), and (ii&), but in order to determine the
necessary to introduce the
coefficients Amn for various values of m and n,
source condition.
neutrons per
thermal point source, at the origin, emitting
5.81. Consider
=
be
written
as
at
where
S5(x,
S(x,
source of this kind may
sec.
defined to be zero eveiywhere except at x =
the Dirac delta junction. This
=
=
has such a value that
and
and at x =
and
y)dxdy=l,
(5.81.1)
/
As
8(x,
y)
dxdy =
S5(x,
y)
and then

and the general solution of (5.72.3) will then be
dx dy = S.
(5.81.2)
consequence of this definition of the delta function
f J(x)6(x)
dx = /(0),
(5.81.3)
THE ELEMENTS
122
which is the value of
If f(x)
f(x) at the origin.
(5.81.3) is equivalent to
i:
S(x)5(x) dx
since
[5.81
represents the neutron source,
5(0) = S,
S is the value of the source at the origin.
This result may be generalized
give (5.81.2) for the variables x and y.

5.82. In order to determine Amn, the first step is to expand the source
series of orthogonal functions that satisfy the boundary condition that
S8(x, y) at z = 0 ; thus,
S5(x,
y)=22
m-l n-1
Smn cos
cos
to
in
it
is
(5.82.1)
where the Smn's are coefficients related to the source strength.

To determine the
each side of (5.82.1) is multiplied by cos (kicx/a) cos (lity/b) and inte
Since the func
grated from x = a/2 to x = a/2, and y = 6/2 to y = 6/2.
<Smn's,
tions are orthogonal in the intervals a/2 to a/2 and 6/2 to 6/2, all terms hav
ing m ^ k and n ^ I will be zero. Consequently,
Si
J JI
-ali
ii
-<>
S(x, y) cos
rairx
a
cos
n
b
=
dx dy
9
Smn
f"f2
J-a/a
cos2
mir
a
"6/2
C'
dx I
J-,
cos2 p^ dy.
6/2
The integrals on the right-hand side are equal to a/2 and 6/2, respectively,
and
it follows from (5.81.1) that the integral on the left-hand side is equal to unity;
hence,
Smn
40
|-
(5.82.2)
5.83. The source condition to be satisfied is that the number of neutrons

flowing out of the plane z = 0 per cm2 per sec, in each mode, i.e., for each value
Since
of m and n, must equal the number produced in that mode by the source.
the solution of the problem has formally been restricted to positive values of z,
then, by the arguments presented in 5.50, the current density at z = 0, in any
The net
mode, is equal to half the number of neutrons produced in that mode.*
=
0 is given by (5.28.5),
current density in the mn-mode in the z-direction at z
for
in
the
the
is
case;
result
present
using (5.80.1)
mn
mn COS
nnrx
COS
mry
This is equal to half the number of neutrons emitted by the source in the winmode; equation (5.82.1) gives this as
1
mirx
/4<S\
niry
2{ab)C0S^TC0Sb'
making use of (5.82.2) for the value of Sm.
shows that
2S
*
The general results are unchanged
mn
Comparison of the two results
abDymn
for lack of symmetry, the fraction
is
if,

ra/2 rb/2
not one half.
5.85]
123
expression consists of
cos
fundamental
^ ^3
term, with m =
(5.83.1)
and n =
1,
cos
-tfj
This
5.84.
y,
z)
tlx,
The complete equation for the flux is consequently
and a series of harmonic terms, with other odd values of m and n.

Each term
falls off exponentially from the source with a different relaxation length, equal
It
to l/ymn.
and so
the
is
evident from (5.79.1) that ymn increases with increasing m and n,

harmonics fall off more rapidly than does the fundamental term, and
at an appreciable distance from the source the latter makes virtually the sole
contribution to the neutron flux.
To
i,
Fig. 5.85.
z,

illustrate the manner in which the contributions from the various

modes behave as a function of
calculations have been made for graphite with
5.85.
CM
Relative contributions of higher harmonics as function of distance from source
> 1,
THE ELEMENTS
124
n =
1 ;
m =
1,
n =
3 (same as ra = 3, n = 1)
[5.S5
and m = 3, n = 3.
The
diffusion length is taken as 50 cm, so that k2, equal to 1/L2, is 4 X 10-4 cm2, and
it is supposed that a = b = 222 cm, which is a reasonable value for an actual
U.siug these data 7n, yi3, and 733 are calculated, by the aid of
The variation of the flux along the z-axis is then obtained by setting
(5.79.1).
The ratios
and 33/4>u are plotted as
x = 0 and y = 0 in (5.83.1).
It is seen that beyond two diffusion lengths (about
functions of z in Fig. 5.85.
experiment.
u/ii
contributions of the harmonics become very small.

The same will be found to be true for calculations made along any line parallel
In view of the foregoing arguments, it follows that for measure
to the z-axis.
ments made beyond about two diffusion lengths from the thermal source, the
Hence, the
flux consists essentially of the fundamental (m = 1, n = 1) term.
flux variation along any line parallel to the z-axis, i.e., for 'any constant x and y,
is given by (5.83.1) in the simplified form
100 cm) from the source the
<>(z)
X e-T"J,
(5.85.1)
that
^^=-7u.
(5.85.2)
In the experimental study of diffusion lengths, therefore, the neutron
5.86.
flux at various distances z from the source, along a line parallel to the z-axis, is
determined by irradiating indium foils and measuring their induced beta ac
tivities.* The logarithms of the saturation activities ( 3.62), which are pro
portional to In (z), are then plotted against z, and the slope of the linear portion,
for values of z that are neither too near the source nor too near the end of the
block,
to (5.85.2).
Some actual experimental results
obtained with graphite are plotted in Fig. 5.86 ; the value of 711 is 0.0325 cm-1.
711,
according
Knowing 7U it is possible to calculate

*2
7112
from (5.79.1) in the form
{$
(iJ'
gives
(5-8(U)
L,
is
It
of interest to note that the terms (w/a)2 and (ir/b)2 allow for leakage
with finite dimensions a and
If these had
the x- and y-directions.
of neutrons from the sides of the parallelepiped
been infinite, the correction terms would
in
5.87.
49.3 cm.
is
1/k,
is
k2
in
since m and n are both unity.

In the experiment from which the results
= 175.7 cm, including the extrapolation distance;
Fig. 5.86 were derived, a =
hence
found to be 4.108 X 10-4 cm-2, and the diffusion length
equal to
be
measurement of the cadmium ratio, i.e., the ratio of the activity of the foil without and
with a covering of cadmium
If this constant, the
3.80), should be made at each point.
fast source neutrons have become completely thermalized in the region of the moderator
which the diffusion length
being determined (cf.
5.68).
is
in
is

so
= const.
5.S7]
100,000
50,000
20,000
125
10,000
<
5000
h-
2000
<
or
Z>
1000
r-
500
200

50
<
V)
100
40
60
80
OISTANCE
Fig.
5.86.
100
120
FROM SOURCE,
Experimental data for determination
140
160
200
CM
of diffusion
length in graphite
zero; there would then be no leakage and the solution would reduce to k =
1/L =7u. The thermal neutron flux in the 2-direction, as given by (5.85.1),
would then fall off according to the relationship (z) = constant X e~'/L, which
is identical in form with (5.65.1) for diffusion from a plane source of thermal neu
trons in an infinite medium.
THE ELEMENTS
126
[5.88
Harmonic and End Corrections

5.88.
If
mal flux,
and fan harmonics make a significant contribution to the ther

is necessary to apply a correction to the measured activities of the
the
it
4>n
indium foils along the z-axis. The values will be proportional to the flux which,
by (5.83.1), will now be represented approximately by
4>(z)
= const.
X e~w
711C
733
where the quantity in the square brackets is the "harmonic correction factor."
A preliminary value of the diffusion length is obtained by neglecting the higher
The experi
and 713, 731, and 733 can be calculated from (5.79.1).
mental activities of the indium foil are then divided by the correction factor and
the results are plotted, as in 5.86, to give a new value of 711 and hence of the

harmonics,
If necessary, the process may be repeated until the values of

diffusion length.
the diffusion length converge to the required accuracy.
5.89. The exponential decrease of the (corrected) flux in the z-direction,
which enters through (5.78.2), will not be applicable near the end of the finite
The plot of In <(z) against z will
block, i.e., when z approaches c in magnitude.
deviate from a straight line, for points near the top of the block, because the term
in the brackets in (5.78.1) was neglected.
This is called the "end correction
term," and if the measured fluxes are divided by 1 e~2T<c-z), the logaritlims of
the corrected values will fall on a straight line for all values of 2, except the very
In order to apply the correction, it is necessary to know 7 and c ; a
lowest.
provisional value of the former is obtainable from the linear slope of the In (z)
against z curve for points not too near the top or bottom.
The method of least
squares can then be applied to the logarithms of the corrected fluxes to yield a
better value for 7. By successive approximations the 7 used in the end correc
tion becomes identical with that derived by the method of least squares from the
slope of In
4>(z)
against
z.
5.90. The extrapolated
height
of the block can be obtained in several ways.
One is to find the value of c, slightly greater than the measured (geometrical)
height, which provides the best fit of the data to a straight line.
Another is to
make flux measurements near the top of the experimental structure and from
the results to find where the flux extrapolates to zero. A third method is to
measure the flux at three equally spaced points along a vertical axis; if the
coordinates are z, z + e, and z + 2e, and the observed neutron fluxes are fa, fa,
and fa, respectively, then it can be shown by means of (5.78.2) that
cosh 7
fa 4'
03
2fa
(5.90.1)
and
tanh 7(0
e)
fa
~t
fa
tanh 7e.
fa fa
(5.90.2)
5.93]
127
As 0i,
02, and 03 are known, the value of cosh ye can be determined from (5.90.1),
Hence tanh y(c z e) can be calculated
and then tanh ye will be known.
Since z and e are known, the use of a provisional value for y per
from (5.90.2).
The result can be improved using increasingly more
mits c to be estimated.
accurate values for y obtained as described above. It is now possible to apply
the end correction term and, from the best linear plot of the corrected values
of In 0(z) against the vertical distance z, the slope, equal to yn, is obtained.
Finally,
k2
is determined,
as described above.
Experimental
In Table
Results
for the diffusion length (L), the ma

croscopic absorption cross section (2), and the diffusion constant (D) for thermal
neutrons in four important moderating materials.
It will be recalled from
=
Since the values depend on the densities, these are
D/2.
(5.G4.1) that L*
5.91.
5.91 are collected values
also recorded.

TABLE 5.91.
THERMAL DIFFUSION PROPERTIES OF MODERATORS
Moderator
Density
Water (H20)
Heavy Water (D20)
1.00 g/cm3
Beryllium
1.84
23.6
Carbon (Graphite)
1.62
50.2
2.88 cm
100
1.1
DIFFUSION
Z.
0.017 cm~1
0.142 cm
0.000080
0.80
0.0013
0.70
0.00036
0.903
KERNELS
Integral Form of the Diffusion Equation:

Diffusion Kernels in Infinite Media
5.92.
per sec
The neutron flux at a distance r from a point source emitting one neutron
in an infinite medium is given by (5.49.1) as
AtDt
This result can be put in a more general form so as to express the flux at
point denoted by the vector r due to a point source at the vector r0 ; thus,
a field
- I r-rl
AtD I r
(5.92.1)
To
5.93. In order to derive the flux distribution from a distributed source of

neutrons at r0, represented by <S(r0) neutrons per cm3 per sec, the following pro
In the volume element dr0 about the point r0, there are
cedure can be used.
S(r0) dr0 neutrons emitted per second. These source neutrons contribute
neutrons per cm2 per sec to the flux at r, and hence, from (5.92.1),
d4>
4wD
r-r. |
- io
S(r0)
rfr0.
d4>
THE ELEMENTS
128
[5.93
Since the diffusion equation is linear, the flux at r due to the distributed source
is a superposition of the fluxes due to point sources.
The total flux at r resulting
from the distributed sources S(r0) is obtained by integrating the expression
over all space ; thus,
*(ro) =
Jj S(r0) ^JT^j *o.
for
(5.93.1)
all space
In this volume integral the kernel, represented by
g*
(5'93-2)
U~|r-"rr
is called the point diffusion kernel. Comparison with (5.92.1) shows that, physi
cally, it is the flux at r from a point source of one neutron per sec at r0.
5.94. The form of the diffusion kernel will depend on the geometry of the
In the case of plane sources in an infinite medium, the diffusion kernel
source.
can be obtained directly from the solution of the diffusion
source in an infinite medium [equation (5.51.2)].
equation for a plane

The plane diffusion kernel for a

source of one neutron per cm2 per sec from a plane at

Gpl =
p-K | Z-H,
x0
is
-SB~
(5-94-1)
and the flux at x due to the plane source distribution S(x0) at x0 is given by
4>(x)
*
It
f
J
S(x0)
all space
it*
<
|s-* I
2kD
dx0.
(5.94.2)
should be noted that since k has the dimensions of reciprocal length and D has
of length, the plane diffusion kernel is dimensionless.
Hence,
the dimensions
it is
seen
from (5.94.2) that S(xo) must here
of neu
to this plane per
in the same units as the flux,
be expressed as the number
trons per
cm2 of source plane per cm of distance perpendicular
second.
Then
<S(a,-o)
dx0 is given,
as required,
namely, neutrons per cm2 per second.

5.95. Just as the flux distribution for a plane source can be derived from that
of a point source by integration, as shown in 5.52, so the plane diffusion kernel
can be obtained, in an exactly analogous manner, from the point diffusion kernel.
In fact, this is the general method used to determine diffusion kernels for sources
of different geometries, e.g., spherical shell, cylindrical shell, etc. The results
for a number of cases are summarized in Table 5.95.* Rome applications of

diffusion kernels to problems concerned with nuclear reactors will be given
later.
*
The symbols I0 and A'0, in the line and cylindrical shell kernels, refer to modified Be?s?I
functions of the first and second kinds of zero order (see Fig. 7.55).
5.98]
TABLE 5.95.
Source
Geometry
Point
Notation
Gpt(r, r')
DIFFUSION KERNELS IN INFINITE
Gpi(x, x')
Line
Kernel
(per second)
1
neutron
neutron per cm'
neutron per unit

length
p = r2
Spherical
shell
0.(r, r')
neutron per shell of

radius r'
Cylindrical
G.(r, r')
neutron per shell of ra

dius r' and unit length

shell
MEDIA
Source Normalization
4*-D |
Plane
129
2wD
r7 |
r"
- 2rr' cos
X(r)/o(r')
I Ko(Kr')I0(Kr)
- v)
r >
r>
r < r'
5.96. Attention may be called to the fact that the diffusion kernels derived
above apply to infinite media.
They are consequently
displacement
kernels,
that is to say, they depend only on the distance from the source to the field point.
In a medium of finite dimensions, the kernels are no longer displacement kernels
but are more complicated since they include the effect of the boundaries of the
medium on the neutron flux.
THE ALBEDO CONCEPT*

The Albedo in Diffusion Theory
5.97. In the study of nuclear reactors with reflectors, the situation arises in
Neutrons are
which two different media, indicated by A and B, are in contact.
produced in the former, eg., the reactor core, but not in the latter, e.g., the
reflector; however, not all the neutrons diffusing from the source medium A
into the medium B stay there, for some of the neutrons are scattered back from
B into A. Within the approximations of the simple diffusion theory treated
above, it is possible to define the reflection coefficient or albedo of the medium B
as a quantity dependent only on the properties of the latter and independent of
the source medium A with which it is in contact.
of the medium B will be defined as
5.98. The albedo
0 ^
* See
â,
J
In
(5.98.1)
E. Amaldi and E. Fermi, Phys. Rev., 50, 899 (1936); G. Placzek, in "The Science and
Engineering of Nuclear Power" (edited by C. Goodman), Vol. II, Chapter 7, Addison-Wesley
Press, 1949.
THE ELEMENTS
130
where /0ut is the neutron current density out of the medium

into this medium, at the interface with the source medium A.
[5.98
B and Jm is that
Thus, the albedo
is the fraction of the neutrons entering the medium B which are reflected (or
The current out of the medium B'across

scattered) back to the source medium.
a
source
to
the left (Fig. 5.98), i.e., /out, is equivathe surface of separation from
(SOURCE)
(REFLECTOR)
'IN

JOUt*~
Fig.
5.98.
Albedo at plane source-reflector
interface
J-
as given by (5.28.3) ; similarly, /, will be expressed by /+, with ap

lent to
propriate modification. The albedo, according to simple diffusion theory, is thus
./_
P =
'
4>
dx
dx
I _
2D
' <j4
dx
?i2
d4
dx
(5.98.2)
and d^/dx are measured at the interface between the source and the
If the albedo is to be expressed in terms of the properties
reflecting medium.
Where
D and
and d/dx at the interface may be regarded as
it can be readily shown that because of the
However,
that
medium.
referring to
continuity of neutron flux and neutron current density at the interface ( 5.38),
and D(d/dx) may refer to either A or B.
of the medium B, then
Calculation of Albedo
Case
I.
Infinite Slab Medium
5.99. Since both
d/dx
depend on the geometry of the system, the al

A few simple cases will be solved here
bedo will also vary with the geometry.
for purposes of illustration. If the reflecting medium is an infinitely thick slab,
4>
and
the neutron flux falls off as e~'z [cf. (5.51.2)];

and (5.98.2) becomes
j
+ 2kD
hence
d/dx
varies as fee-",
(5.99.1)
5.102]
If kD
is small in comparison with unity,

0 =
as is
frequently the
131
case,
this reduces to
4kZ>.
The albedo for the infinite slab may thus be calculated from the diffusion coeffi
cient and k, the latter being the reciprocal of the diffusion length.
Some of the
results for thermal neutrons will be found in Table 5.102.
Case
II.
5.100.
Slab of Finite Thickness
If
a is the thickness of the slab, including the extrapolation distance,
then the falling off of the flux with distance from the interface is given by (5.56.1).
This may be written as
= C sinh k(cl x),
<
where
C is equal to the constant denominator of (5.56.1),
-j-
= kC cosh (a
so
that
i).

Hence, using (5.98.2), the albedo is given by
? =
;~^co?ko+ 2kD coth
(5.100.D
(<o
As a * oo , then kg > oo and coth z > 1 ; consequently, for a slab of infinite

thickness (5.100.1) reduces, as it should, to (5.99.1).
5.101. Since coth ko is a positive quantity, varying from oo (for a = 0) to 1
(for Ka = oo ), the albedo for a finite slab, as given by (5.100.1), is smaller than
that for a slab of infinite thickness, the difference becoming less with increasing
thickness a of the former.
The physical significance of this result is that neutrons
leak out of the finite slab and so there are fewer available to be scattered back.
The leakage decreases with increasing thickness of the finite slab. However,
when ka is only 1.5, the value of coth Ka is already down to 1.105, and for Ka
equal to 2.0, coth na is 1.037, so that the albedo for the finite slab will differ from
the infinite slab value by no more than a few per cent. Thus, when the thickness
of the slab is about twice the diffusion length, i.e., when a/L = a 2; 2, the re
flective properties are essentially those of an infinite slab.
5.102. Some values of the albedo for an infinite slab and for a slab of 40 cm
thickness, calculated by means of (5.99.1) and (5.100.1), respectively, using the
data in Table 5.91, are recorded in Table 5.102. From the values of a/L in the
TABLE 5.102.
ALBEDO
FOB
INFINITE
AND FINITE
SLABS
Material
Infinite Slab
Water
Heavy water
Beryllium
Graphite
0.821
0.821
0.968
0.919
0.889
0.881
1.7
0.030
0.892
0.80
^(Ôcn^
14
0.40
THE ELEMENTS
132
[5.102

last column, it is seen that the albedo in the finite slab does in fact approach that
for an infinite medium when the thickness of the former is about twice the diffu
Incidentally, the high values of the albedo for these moderators are
sion length.
of interest ; nearly 90 per cent of the thermal neutrons impinging on a graphite
slab of 40 cm thickness will be reflected back.
Fig.
Case
5.103.
III.
Albedo at surface between spherical source and infinite medium
Infinite Medium Surrounding a Sphere
If
region A, a sphere of radius R, containing a symmetric source of

neutrons at its center, is surrounded by an infinitely thick reflector B (Fig. 5.103),
5.103.
the flux in region B, taking the origin at the center of the sphere, is
provided r is greater than R, i.e., for points in the medium B.

i.e., when r = R,
At
the interface,
so that from (5.98.2),
(5.103.1)
5.107]
As is to
133
be expected, (5.103.1) becomes identical with (5.99.1) for an infinite
slab when the radius R of the sphere becomes infinite.

5.104. A comparison of (5.103.1) and (5.99.1) shows that the albedo at an
interior spherical surface is less than for an infinite flat surface. The physical
reason for this is that the probability of
a neutron
being scattered back, after it
has gone an appreciable distance into the diffusion medium, depends on the solid
angle subtended by the source region. In the case of an infinite flat surface this
angle approaches 2t, but it will obviously be much less for a sphere, to an extent
dependent on the radius of the latter.
Albedo and Diffusion Properties

It
will be apparent from an examination of (5.99.1) (5.100.1), and

(5.103.1) that, in general, the albedo will be large when kD is small. Since k is
equal to 1/L, this condition is that D/L should be small or, in other words, that
the diffusion coefficient (or the transport mean free path) should be small in
comparison with the diffusion length.
For a medium in which this situation
occurs, the albedo will approach unity, and most of the neutrons reaching the
surface will be reflected back to the source. As will be seen in Chapter X, this
fact is important in connection with the choice of a reflector for a nuclear reactor.
5.105.
Albedo as a Boundary Condition

5.106.
One application of the albedo is to replace the boundary condition

a source medium A and a finite diffusion medium B not
at an interface between
containing a source,
as
in Case
II
2D
According to (5.98.2)
above.
2D
d*\
where 0 is the albedo, and upon rearrangement this gives
where
4> and
5.107.
d/dx
If B
are taken at the interface between the media.
is in the form of a finite slab, as shown in Fig. 5.107, then, from
(5.100.1)
where
P =
is the thickness
- 2kD coth kT
+ 2kD coth kT'
of the slab B, including the extrapolation distance.
Upon introducing this value for
/3
into (5.106.1), it is found that

ax
or
-^=-kD
ax
4>
coth kT,
(5.107.1)
THE ELEMENTS
134
[5.107
which may be used as a boundary condi

tion. However, by combining (5.38.1) and
(5.38.2) it is seen that, at the boundary,
Da
dtt>K
4>\
dx
Db
dB
dx
and hence (5.107.1) may be written in the
form
.
4>\
#a
dx
cQth
(-
1072)
where the subscripts
refer to the media A
and B, respectively.
By using this bound

ary condition in the problem in 5.59.

with T equal to 6 a, it can be shown to
Fio. 5.107. Albedo as boundary con
be equivalent to the boundary condition
dition
(iv), together with (iii).
5.108. The linear extrapolation distance at an interface is given by [cf. (5.39.2)]
d =
d/dx
where d is the distance from the interface at which the neutron flux would extra
polate (linearly) to zero.
Hence, using (5.106.1),

(5.108.1)
where the diffusion coefficient
D has been replaced by
X</3 [cf. (5.24.5)].
In
terms of the more accurate transport theory (cf. 5.40), this would become
d = 0.71X,
(5.108.2)
This boundary condition is useful when the finite medium B is so thin that diffu
In this case, the diffusion coefficient and
sion theory cannot be used ( 5.16).
In the event that B is a
the transport mean free path refer to the medium A.
vacuum, the albedo
gives the result in
is zero, and then (5.108.1) reduces to (5.39.3), while (5.98.2)

5.40.
/3
Albedo and Number of Boundary Crossings
In the
passage of neutrons from a medium A to a medium B, the albedo

B is the probability that neutrons incident on B from A will be re
Similarly the albedo of A is then the probability that neutrons incident
flected.
The albedo of each medium is related to the
on A from B will be reflected.
5.109.
of medium
average number of times that a neutron crosses the boundary between the two
THE DIFFUSION OF NEUTROxNS
5.112]
135
to
is
neutron
is
is
The average number n of crossings that
an odd integer.
in going from
makes
- 0),
a
(a^C1
p(n) =
where n
is
is
/3
/3.
media. Let a be the albedo of A for neutrons incident on A from B, and /3 be

the albedo of B for neutrons incident from A. The average number of crossings
made by neutrons in going from medium A to medium B will now be calculated.
5.110. The probability that a neutron from A will be reflected from B is /3
and the probability that it will make only one crossing is 1
The probability
that the fraction
of neutrons reflected back to
will be reflected back to
ap and, correspondingly, the probability that neutrons will make two and only
two crossings
/3(1
a). In general, the probability that neutron will make
just n crossings in going from
to
n-
1,3,5. ' -
(a/3)2
+
+ .
7(a|8)
(a/3)8
(5.110.1)
imaginary plane
considered in
If an
is
5.111.
(a/8)
W+
f*f
ap
3(a/3)
region of infinite extent, a be
the medium
is
if
For example,
r^-
graphite of infinite size,
/3
n =
<3*
thus, in this particular case

1
other side
/3,
and (5.110.1) gives the average number of crossings that a

neutron makes in going from one side of an imaginary plane in the medium to the
comes equal to
= 0.93 and n = 14.
Experimental Determination of Albedo

a
it
dium
method for the experimental determination of the albedo of

me
to place in
source of slow neutrons; then at a convenient position,
5.112.
is
to insert a thin foil of metal which becomes radio

absorbs slow neutrons but, at the same time, does not have too
active when
If slow neutrons per sec strike each side of
high an absorption cross section.
Actually,
the foil and none pass through, 2v neutrons will strike per second.
some of these will pass through the foil and then will return and strike
again
the
from the original direction; the probability of this occurring
equal to
albedo of the medium.
portion of these will pass through once more, return
away from the boundaries,
0,
is
it
it

= 1,3,4,
THE ELEMENTS
136
and strike again, the probability being now fP.

the foil per second will be given by
2,(1
+0 +
. .
[5.112
The total number of impacts on

=
j^-p-
follows that
From measurements of the activity of the thin foil in the two
/3
_
1
2v
Activity of foil without cadmium

Activity of foil with cadmium
strike
it,
it
5.113. Suppose now that a sheet of cadmium is placed on one side of the foil
so that it absorbs virtually all the neutrons which strike the foil from that side.
Slow neutrons will now strike the foil from one side only, and those passing
through will not return.
The number of impacts is now v per second and, since
the activation of the foil will be proportional to the number of neutrons which
cases, the
albedo of
the medium can be determined.
in
is is
a (i)
is
is
0.
is 0,
6.
y if
is
is
it
if
is
is
is
3.
4.
7o
2.
if
t!
e
is
is
is is
R,
is
1.
An isotropic point source of thermal neutrons

p'aced at the center of a uniform
spherical medium of radius
scattering cross section 2 and absorption cross section Za.
in
The sphere
vacuum.
the probability that source neutrons will escape from the
zero, what
(a) If 2.
sphere?
not zero in practical cases, what
probability that neutrons will
(6) Since 2,
2, ^ 0? Physically, why
the leakage probability different
escape from the sphere
the two cases? Calculate the leakage probability for giaphite for the two cases.
Find the neutron flux in an infinite medium from an infinitely long line source emit
ting one neutron per cm per sec by (a) using the point diffusion kernel, and (6) solving
the boundary value problem directly.
thermal neutrons are produced per cm3 per sec uniformly in an infinite medium.
the thermal neutron flux?
(a) What
plane indium foil that may be considered infinite in extent in two dimensions and
(b)
Calculate the depression of the neutron flux
0.0025 cm thick
placed in the medium.
the medium
and the rate of activation of the foil per cm2
HsO and (ii) graphite.
neutrons per cm2 are incident upon the plane face of
large block of graphite.
extends over all space where x
What
the neutron flux in the block, assuming that
and that neutrons are incident from x < 0? What fraction of the neutrons
reflected?
Derive
harmonic correction factor for data taken along the z-axis in the diffusion
the single source on the axis
replaced by two identical sources
lsngth measurement
=
=
=
that
the
cross section of the assembly
\a,
Assume
at
x
placed
=
the advantage of this arrangement?
What
square, i.e.,
5.

PROBLEMS
Chapter
VI
THE SLOWING DOWN OF NEUTRONS*

THE SCATTERING
OF NEUTRONS
Introduction
In
the preceding discussion of the diffusion of neutrons, it has been as

sumed that thu. latter all have the same energy, e.g., thermal energy.
As stated
6.1.

in Chapter
IV,
however, neutrons produced in fission are fast, and they are sub
sequently slowed down by collisions with the nuclei of a moderator.
This
matter is of importance in connection with the theory of thermal reactors be
cause the average crow-flight distance a neutron travels, between its birth as a
fast neutron and its attainment of thermal energy, determines the neutron
It consequently has a direct bearing on the critical

size of the reactor ( 4.69).
6.2. After a general outline of the mechanics of elastic collisions, the treatment
of the problem of slowing down in a medium in which fast neutrons are being
leakage while slowing down.
continuously will be divided into two parts. First, consideration will

given to the distribution of neutrons as a function of energy, irrespective of
their position. Subsequently, the spatial distribution of the neutrons, as a re
sult of diffusion during slowing down, will be investigated.
It is this latter
aspect of the subject which is closely related to neutron leakage and the critical
size of a nuclear reactor.
produced
be
The Mechanics of Elastic Scattering

6.3.
As
seen
in Chapter
III,
entirely to elastic scattering

of the moderator.
mechanics,
the slowing down of fast neutrons is due almost

suffered by the neutrons upon collision with nuclei
Such collisions
can be treated by the methods
assuming the neutron and the scattering
fectly elastic spheres.
of classical
nucleus to behave as per
By applying the principles of conservation of momentum
*
A large part of the theory presented in this chapter was originally developed by E. Fermi;
the theory of resonance capture was first worked out by E. P. Wigner.
Solutions to many slow
ing down problems are given by P. R. Wallace and J. Le Came in the references cited at the
beginning of Chapter V.
137
138
and of energy,
[6.3
it is possible to derive a relationship between the scattering
angle and the energy of the neutron before and after a collision with a nucleus.
Upon introduction of an empirical scattering law, various useful results can be
obtained.
6.4.
It was indicated briefly in
neutrons
with atomic
nuclei,
5.20
two
that, when considering elastic collisions of
convenient
frames
of reference are used.
(L) system and the center of mass (C) system. In the

former, the target nucleus is assumed to be at rest, whereas in the latter it is the
center of mass of the neutron-nucleus system which is taken to be stationary.
These are the laboratory
the L system, the viewpoint is essentially that of an external observer, but in

the C system it is that of an observer who travels with the center of mass of the
In
neutron and nucleus taken together.

For purposes of theoretical treatment
the latter frame of reference is simpler, although actual measurements are made
in the former.
6.5. The conditions before and after a collision in the two systems are shown
in Fig. 6.5. Suppose that in the L system the neutron, having a mass of unity*

L SYSTEM
C SYSTEM
NUCLEUS\
NEUTRON
BEFORE
BEFORE
NEUTRON
BEFORE
%N
Fig.
6.5.
a/
^NEUTRON
AFTER
,ONEUTR0N
AFTER
//
NUCLEUS
BEFORE
*NUC
Neutron scattering in laboratory (L) and center of mass (C) systems
on the conventional atomic mass scale ( 1.4), moves with a speed vi toward a
stationary nucleus with a mass number A . The speed of the neutron is thus v i,
with respect to the target nucleus, and, since its mass is unity, the momentum is
also Pi. As the target nucleus is stationary, this represents the total momentum
in the L system. The total mass of the colliding particles is A + 1, and conse
quently the speed vm of the center of mass in the L system, i.e., with respect
to the stationary nucleus, is given by
vm
-~ri-
(6.5.1)
6.6. In the C system the center of mass is assumed to be at rest ; hence, in this
system, the nucleus must approach the center of mass with the speed vm, defined
by (6.5.1). Since the speed of the neutron relative to the nucleus before colli*
The actual mass of the neutron is 1.00897 amu ( 1.5), but the discrepancy between this
value and unity, as postulated here, is negligible.
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
THE SLOWING
6.101
139
the neutron must approach the center of mass with a speed of

The speed of the neutron before collision in the C system is thus

sion is
Vi,
vi
vm.
using (6.5.1) for vm.

6.7. It is seen, therefore, that in the C system the neutron and the scattering
nucleus are apparently moving toward one another with velocities of Avi/ (A + 1)
and vi/(A + 1), respectively.
The momentum of the neutron (mass unity) is
consequently Avi/(A + 1), in its initial direction of motion, while that of the
nucleus (mass A) is Avi/(A + 1) in the opposite direction. The total momen
tum before collision, with respect to the center of mass, is then zero, and by the
principle of the conservation of momentum it must also be zero after the collision.
6.8. Following the collision, a neutron in the C system leaves in a direction
making an angle 6 with its original direction ; this is the scattering angle in the
C system. The recoil nucleus must then move in the opposite direction, since
If v is the
the center of mass is always on the line joining the two particles.
speed of the neutron and vb that of the nucleus after collision, in the C system,
then the requirement that the total momentum shall be zero is expressed by
vn
= Avi,.
(6.8.1)
6.9. The speeds of the neutron and nucleus before collision,

are given by (6.6.1) and (6.5.1), respectively, as seen above.
the conservation of energy condition may be written as
in the C system,
Consequently,
where the left-hand side gives the total kinetic energy before collision and the
Upon solving (6.8.1) and (6.9.1) for
right-hand side is that after collision.
v and vb, it is found that
,
vi
Avi
=
=
ITT
and
vi
T+T
Comparison of these results with (6.6.1) and (6.5.1) shows that the speeds of the
neutron and the nucleus, in the C system, after the collision are the same as
Therefore an observer situated at the
the respective values before the collision.
center of mass of the colliding particles would, before impact, see the neutron
and nucleus moving toward him from opposite directions with velocities inversely
proportional to their masses. After the collision the particles would appear
to move away from him in opposite directions, usually different from the initial
directions, with their speeds unchanged.
6.10. In order to determine the loss of kinetic energy of the neutron upon colli
sion, it is necessary to transform the results obtained in the C system back to
the L system. To carry out this transformation, use is made of the fact that the
140
THE ELEMENTS
[6.10
two systems must always move relative to one another with the velocity of the
center of mass in the L system, i.e., vm = v\l (A + 1), as derived in 6.5. Hence,
the final velocity of the neutron, after collision, in the L system is obtained by
adding the vector (vm) representing the motion of the center of mass in the
L system to the vector v indicating the velocity of the neutron after collision in
the C system, as shown in Fig. 6.10.
The angle between the vectors, as may be
seen from Fig. 6.5, is 0, the scattering angle in the C system.

/ INITIAL DIRECTION
OF NEUTflON
Fig.
6.11.
If f2
6.10.
Transformation from C system to
system
is the velocity of the neutron after collision in the
the law of cosines
vi2
Introducing the values for
vm
system, then
by
vm2
va2
and
va
given by (6.5.1) and (6.6.1), respectively,
2vmva
the result is
cos
0.
2Av\2
vSU2 + 2A cos 0+1)

U + iy
(A +
cos
1)2
(6.11.1)
Energy Change in Scattering
Ei of the neutron before scattering is nM<i*, and the

is \mv? ; hence, the ratio of the neutron energy after
the
collision
energy Ei after
collision to that before collision is given by (6.11.1) as
6.12. The kinetic energy
Ei
Bi
=
v,2
A2
+ 2A cos 0 +
(A + I)2
(6.12.1)
This result may be expressed in an alternative form which is useful for certain
purposes ; thus, if a is defined by
(6.12.2)
(6.12.1) becomes
fj - i [(1
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
+ a) +
(1
a) cos
141
$].
THE SLOWING
6.16]
(6.12.3)
El
Ema =
or
Ex
is
0,
6.13. The maximum value of the ratio Ei/Eu i.e., the minimum loss of energy,
=
occurs when
unity, and (6.12.3)
i.e., for
glancing collision; then cos
becomes
(6.13.1)
In this event, the energies of the neutron before and after scattering are equal,
oEl
Ei
J7
Ei
Emtn
Ei
a,
1,
neutron
the energy
collision
is
aEii, where
The maximum fractional loss of energy in
before the collision.

given by
and
(6.14.1)
a is
collision
is
can be reduced in an elastic scattering
is
now
seen, therefore, that the minimum value of the energy to which
(6.14.2)
a
1,
is
it
is
is
is
it
is
is
where the actual maximum possible energy loss in collision

Ei(l a).
of
6.15.
related to the mass number
Since, by (6.12.2), the quantity a
evident that the loss of energy suffered by neutron in
the target nucleus,
It of interest to see, therefore,
collision will also depend on this mass number.
=
For hydrogen,
how a varies with the mass number of the target nucleus.
neutron to lose all of its kinetic
and so a =
consequently possible for
This arises, of course, because
energy in one collision with hydrogen nucleus.
(proton) are essentially
masses
of
the
and
nucleus
the
neutron
the hydrogen
= 12 and a = 0.716; hence, the maximum possible frac
For carbon,
equal.
of
tional loss
energy of a neutron in a collision with a carbon nucleus
;
0.716 = 0.284.
about
a
50, there
- -A
no serious error in writing
(6-16
2)
excess of
4'
in
and for values of
is
6.16. Upon expansion, (6.12.2) for a can be written as

It
Emla =
or
Ei
the value of cos
is
head-on collision
for
ir, i.e,
is
occurs when
from (6.12.3)
and the neutron suffers no energy loss in the collision.

6.14. The minimum value of E2/E1, or the maximum possible energy transfer,
142
THE ELEMENTS
[6.16
The maximum fractional loss of energy per collision is then
1-o=2'
(6.16.3)
Consequently, for a target nucleus of mass number 100, the maximum fractional
loss of energy a neutron can suffer in a collision is about 4 per cent ; for a mass
number of 200 it is 2 per cent.
Scattering Law
6.17. The ratio of the neutron energy after collision to that before collision has
been obtained, in the form of (6.12.3), as a function of the mass A of the scatter
in the center of mass system, on the

If an empirical scattering law is specified
basis of perfectly elastic collisions.
in terms of a probability distribution for scattering as a function of the scattering
angle, a corresponding distribution of neutron energy can be obtained by means
of this equation.
6.18. Experiments indicate that the scattering of neutrons with energies less
than a few Mev is spherically symmetric, i.e., isotropic, in the center of mass
This is the empirical scattering law which will be postulated in the
system.
0
whole of the subsequent discussion.

6.19. Assuming spherically symmetric scattering, the probability that a neu
tron will be scattered into an element of solid angle dQ, corresponding to a
conical element lying between the scattering angles 0 and 0 + dd in the C sys
tem, is
2ir sin 0 dO
d&
| sin
ddd.
(6.19.1)
The probability that after scattering a neutron with initial energy

an energy in the interval E2 to Ei + dE2 is
= p(0)
V{E2) dE2
From (6.12.3), which relates
Ei
to
dd
dEi
J|
dE2.
Ei will have
(6.19.2)
0,
and hence
p(E,) dE2 =
Ei(l -
- ^
a) sin
(6.19.3)
a)
is
is,
Thus, the probability that after scattering the energy of a neutron will lie in a
in fact, equal to
specified interval AE is independent of the final energy and
a), the latter quantity being the maximum possible energy

AE divided by 2?i(1
Since dE (or AE)
negative, because the
decrement per collision
6.14).
(

ing nucleus and of the angle of scattering
THE SLOWING
6.21]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
143
neutron loses energy in a collision, the probability p(E2) dE2 is actually positive,
The integral of p(E2) dE2 over the complete range from Ei to aEi
as expected.
of
must,
course, be equal to unity; thus,
- ^ttt
p(E2) dE2 =
dE2 =
1.
(6.19.4)
6.20. Although scattering is spherically symmetric in the C system, it is not so

in the L system unless the mass of the scattering nucleus is large compared to
the mass of the neutron.
In the latter case, the center of mass of the system is
located virtually at the nucleus and the L system becomes identical with the
C system. The same conclusion may be reached in another manner. It is seen
from Fig. 6.10 that
l>2 cos
where
yp

A"_j_
that
~,
cos ^/ =
f0 cos 0
is the scattering angle in the

v2
so
f=
VA* + 2A
VA2 +
For a heavy scattering nucleus, A
Further, from (6.11.1)
system.
A cos
vm
9
,
2A
cos
cos
(6.20.2)
1,
=.
fa on <n
(6.20.3)
and hence, from (6.20.3), cos \p > cos 6;

in other words, the scattering angle in the L system then approaches that in the
C system. Consequently, if scattering for relatively heavy nuclei is spherically
1
symmetric in the latter system, it will also be
so
in the former.
Average Logarithmic Energy Decrement

6.21.
useful quantity in the study of the slowing down of neutrons is the
average value of the decrease

single collision, or the average
average for all collisions of
energy of the neutron before
represented by the symbol ,
in the natural logarithm of the neutron energy in a

logarithmic energy decrement per collision.
In Ei In E%, i.e., of ln(Ei/E2), where
and E2 that after a collision.
then
lnf J* Lfi
=
If
It is the
Ei is the
this quantity is
p(E2) dE2
,
(6.21.1)
p(E2)dE:
where p(E) dE2 is the probability defined in 6.19. The integration is over all
possible values of the energy after collision, from the minimum, equal to aEi, to
the maximum,
Ei.
THE ELEMENTS
144
[6.22
6.22. The denominator of (6.21.1) is equal to unity, as may be seen from

(6.19.4), and if the expression for p(E2) dE2 as given by (6.19.3) is introduced, it
follows that
- a)
dE2
,(1
(6.22.1)
The integration may be readily performed by changing the variable to x,
where
x~e;
so
that
,
1
In
t-2
1 a
a.
(6.22.2)

Recalling the definition of a from (6.12.2), it follows that
-1
For values of A in
fSrJ?,ajff
excess of about 10, a good
approximation is
e-jÊven for A =
6.23.
It will
2, the
(6-223)
(6-22.4)
error of (6.22.4) is only 3.3 per cent.

that the value of
be noted
of the initial energy of

in the center of mass system.*
Incidentally, since , which is
is independent
the neutron, provided scattering is symmetrical

It is this fact which makes a useful quantity.
the average value of In (Ei/E2), depends only on the mass number of the scattering
nucleus, and is independent of the initial energy, so also must be the average
value of the fraction
ing nuclei,
energy
it
E\/E2.
a neutron
always
In other words, in collisions with specified

loses,
had before collision.
scatter
on the average, the same fraction of
This fraction decreases with increasing
the
mass of
the nucleus.
for a number of elements, especially those of low mass

The average number of collisions with nuclei
of a particular moderator ( 3.12) required to decrease the energy of a fission
neutron, with initial energy of, say, 2 Mev, to the thermal value of 0.025 ev is
6.24. The values of
number, are given in Table 6.24.
Strictly speaking, this is true, provided the vibrational or thermal energy of the scatteri0g
nucleus is small compared with the energy of the neutrons, so that the nucleus may be regarded
as being at rest before a collision.
THE SLOWING
TABLE 6.24.
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
SCATTERING
OF NUCLEI
PROPERTIES
Mass No.
Element
145
to
Collisions
Thermalize
Hydrogen
Deuterium
Helium
1.000
18
0.725
25
0.425
43
Lithium
0.268
67
Beryllium
Carbon
Oxygen
Uranium
0.209
86
12
0.158
114
16
0.120
obtained upon dividing In
238
(2
150
0.00838
106/0.025) by
for the given nuclear species;
thus,
.
Average number of collisions to

thermalize (2 Mev to 0.025 ev)
2172
106
0.025
18.2
(6.24.1)

Some values obtained from this equation are included in Table 6.24.*
Slowing Down Power and Moderating Ratio

According to (6.24.1), is inversely proportional to the number of scat
tering collisions required to slow down a neutron from fission energy to thermal
energy. Consequently, it is a partial measure of the moderating capacity of the
A good moderator is one in which there is a considerable
scattering material.
decrease in energy per collision on the average, and hence it is desirable that
should be as large as possible. However, a large is of little value unless the
probability of scattering, as indicated by the scattering cross section, is also
The product 2 where 2, is the macroscopic cross section for scattering,
large.
is called the macroscopic slowing down power; it is a better measure of the effi
ciency of a moderator, for it represents the slowing down capacity of all the nuclei
Since 2, is equal to N0o<r,/ A, where N0 is the Avogadro
in 1 cm3 of material.
number, p is the density of the moderator, <r, its microscopic cross section and A
the atomic (or molecular) weight, the slowing down power is expressed by
Nofxr/ A . The values for a number of materials consisting of, or containing,
elements of low atomic weight are recorded in Table 6.25; the scattering cross
sections (Table 3.79) are assumed to be constant in the energy range from 1 to
6.25.
106
*
ev.
The use of in (6.24.1) implies that the proper

This view
calculation is the geometric average.
the subject of some controversy [cf., H. A. Bethe,
average value of E\/Ei to be employed in the

is generally accepted, although it has been
Rev. Mod. Phys., 9, 120 (1937), footnote 27].

the arithmetic average of Ei/Et is used, the results are somewhat different, especially for
elements of low mass number. The average number of collisions required to reduce the neutron
energy from 2 Mev to 0.025 ev is then 26 for H, 31 for D, and 119 for C.
If
THE ELEMENTS
146
TABLE 6.25.
SLOWING
DOWN PROPERTIES OF MODERATORS
Moderator
Slowing Down. Power
Water
Heavy water
Helium
Beryllium
Carbon
*
At
[6.25
1.53 cm~1
72
0.170
12,000
1.6
.. .
Moderating Ratio
10~'
83
0.176
159
0.064
170
atmospheric pressure and temperature.
is
is
is
is,
The slow
possibility that the material may be a strong absorber of neutrons.
is
better
than
that
of
example,
of
for
but
boron,
carbon,
boron
ing down power
would be useless as a moderating material because of its high cross section for
It is for this reason that boron is omitted from the
neutron absorption ( 3.76).
tables given above ; its slowing down power for neutrons is of no practical interest.
In fact, any substance with appreciable absorption would be useless as a moder
The ratio of the slowing down power, as defined in 6.25, to the macro
ator.
2,/2, called the moderating ratio,
scopic absorption cross section 2a, that
the more important quantity, from the theoretical standpoint, in expressing
moderator.
Some approximate values of this ratio, using
the effectiveness of
It seen
thermal absorption cross sections, are given in Table 6.25 above.
Where
that heavy water (deuterium oxide) should be an excellent moderator.
not convenient, beryllium and carbon
liquid moderator
the employment of
Ordinary
are evidently possible, but less efficient, alternatives to heavy water.
water could be used in certain circumstances, but lithium, like boron, would not
be satisfactory, because of its high absorption cross section.
Lethargy
For many purposes,
is
n I
it
convenient to express the energy

of neutron
quantity u, called the lethargy
logarithmic, dimensionless form by defining
,r logarithmic energy decrement thus,
6.27.
u = In
(6.27.1)
the initial energy of the source neutrons produced by fission.

For
where E0
the
lethargy
obviously zero, and the value
the source neutrons themselves
increases as the neutrons are slowed down.
is
is
If
the lethargy corresponding to Ei, the energy of a neutron before

the lethargy equivalent to E2, the energy after
a scattering collision, and Uj
given by
Ui
collision, then the lethargy change %h
is
Mi
is
6.28.
is

6.26. Although the slowing down power gives a satisfactory indication of the
ability of a material to slow down neutrons, it does not take into account the
Ui ui = In
-=-
'2
THE SLOWING
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
147
Since the quantity denned in 6.21 is the average value of In (Ei/Ej), it is evi
dent that may also be regarded as the average change in lethargy of a neutron
collision. For spherically symmetric scattering, this is independent of the

neutron energy ( 6.23).
Thus, regardless of its energy, a neutron must, on the
average, suffer the same number of collisions to increase its lethargy by a given
amount.
This fact represents one of the advantages of the use of the lethargy
per
variable.
6.29. According to equation
(6.27.1),
= E0er,
that the plot of E against u, as in Fig. 6.29, is exponential in nature.

If a
of vertical lines are drawn at distances apart, then, in view of the result
derived in the preceding paragraph, the heights will represent the average values
It is seen, therefore, that a neuof the neutron energy for successive collisions.
so

series
Fig.
6.29.
Relationship between energy and lethargy
tron loses, on the average, considerably

it does in the later ones.
more energy in earlier scattering
colli
sions than
SLOWING DOWN IN INFINITE
NONABSORBING MEDIA
Introduction
6.30. Suppose that fast neutrons
fission,
are being produced
at a definite rate, by
for example, uniformly throughout the volume of a particular moderator.
As the neutrons collide with the nuclei of the moderator they steadily lose energy,
but since fast neutrons are continuously being generated, a steady state dis
This energy distribution
tribution of neutron energies will soon be attained.
THE ELEMENTS
148
[6.30
will, of course, depend on the extent to which neutrons are absorbed in the
For the present it
system, and on their escape from it while being slowed down.
will be postulated that the moderator system is infinite in extent, so that there is no
Further, consideration will first be given to the
loss of neutrons by leakage.
case in which there is no absorption of neutrons during the slowing down process.
Subsequently, it will be shown what modification must be made to allow for
neutron capture.
6.31.
In the following treatment the steady state energy distribution will
be
developed for spherically symmetric scattering in the center of mass system, as

The results are not applicable to low neutron ener
postulated earlier ( 6.18).
gies comparable to the vibration quanta of atoms forming part of a crystalline
structure, e.g., about 0.3 ev for a hydrogen-containing compound and 0.2 ev for
carbon (graphite).* At these low energies the scattering nuclei cannot be re
garded as stationary with respect to the neutrons in the laboratory system.
Slowing Down in Hydrogen

6.32. Because the solution of the equations is relatively simple,
it is convenient
The
to consider first the slowing down of neutrons in a hydrogen moderator.
energy distribution of neutrons in the steady state will then approximate that in
water, where most of the slowing down results from scattering by hydrogen
The special point about slowing down in hydrogen, as compared with
nuclei.
that in moderators consisting of heavier nuclei, is that a neutron may lose the
whole of its energy in a single collision with a hydrogen nucleus, but this is not
possible with heavier nuclei ( 6.15).
6.33. Let (E') be the neutron flux per unit energy at energy E', and 2,(2?')
Then the number
be the corresponding macroscopic scattering cross section.
of scattering collisions per cm3 per sec experienced by those neutrons within an
This may be written in the form
energy element dE' is ~L,(E')4>(E') dE'.
the
collision
F(E'),
called
density
per unit energy, is defined by
dE',
where
F(E')
F(E')
= 2.(E')4>(E').
(6.33.1)
6.34. After collision with hydrogen nuclei, the energy of the neutrons, initially
E', will lie between E' and zero. The fraction of the neutrons scattered into
Hence, the number of neutrons scattered
an energy element dE is thus dE/E'.
into the energy element dE, per cm3 per sec, from scattering collisions in dE', is
equal to F(E') dE' X dE/E'. The total number of neutrons scattered into dE,
after previous scattering, from E0 down
to E, where E0 is the energy of the source neutrons, is thus given by
as a result of all collisions
of this
type, i.e.,
Number of neutrons scattered into dE
F(E') dE'
after previous scattering

*
For monatomic metals and
gases, e.g., helium, the vibrational
dE.
(6.34.1)
quanta are much smaller.
6.37]
THE SLOWING
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
149
6.35. In the foregoing calculation it is assumed that neutrons have already

been scattered into the energy element dE' and then into dE. However, since a
single collision with a hydrogen nucleus may decrease the energy of a neutron
from its initial value E0 to zero, some neutrons will be scattered into the element
dE as a result of their first collision. If Q is the number of source neutrons enter
ing the system, per cm3 per sec, at energy Eo, the number of first collisions is Q.
Of these, the fraction dE/E0 is scattered into the element dE, and hence,
Q ,
= r=-aE.
.
. .
in first collisions
E0
(o.oo.l)
quantities in (6.34.1) and (6.35.1).

6.36. Since it has been postulated that there is no absorption of neutrons,
the condition for a steady state of neutron energy distribution is that the number
of neutrons scattered out of each energy element is equal to the total number
scattered into it per cm3 per sec. By the definition in 6.33, the number of neu
trons scattered, per cm3 per sec, out of the element dE is F(E) dE. Conse
quently, the steady state condition is
F(E) =
+f*
dE^
-7
(6.36.1)
the dE, which is common to each term, being cancelled out.

6.37. As the integral equation (6.36.1) is a function only of the lower limit, it
can be differentiated, and the resulting differential equation can then be solved
Thus, differentiation of (6.36.1) with
with the appropriate boundary condition.
E
to
the
differential
gives
equation,
respect
mm
f(e) '
E
dE
(6-37-1}
of which the general solution, obtained on integration, is
F(E) =
SfS:.
and, hence, the solution of (6.37.1)
->
The boundary condition, derived from (6.36.1), is
is
F(E) = E'
%,

The total number of neutrons scattered, per cm3 per sec, into the energy element
dE, as a result of first or subsequent collisions, is then given by the sum of the
(6.37.2)
150
as given
THE ELEMENTS
by E. Amaldi and E. Fermi.*
From the definition of
[6.37
F(E),
accord
ing to (6.33.1), the neutron flux per unit energy is then

=
(6.37.3)
where 2, is a function of the neutron energy, although the argument has been
omitted for simplicity. The results obtained above may be expressed in terms of
lethargy as the variable in place of energy.

6.38. The neutron flux per unit lethargy, i.e.,
flux per unit energy, i.e., (E), by
4>(u)
du =
-(E)
(u),
is related to the neutron
dE,
(6.38.1)
the negative sign being introduced since an increase in energy is equivalent to a
Upon differentiation of (6.27.1), it is
decrease in lethargy.
seen
that
du=-jjr,
(6.38.1) becomes
*(m) =
E(E).
(6.38.3)
Similarly, it can be readily shown that the collision density per unit lethargy, i.e.,
F(u), can
be expressed as
F(u) = 0(u)2.(u) = EF(E).
(6.38.4)
6.39. The foregoing relationships
involving lethargy are completely general,

When applied to scattering in hy
irrespective of the nature of the moderator.
drogen, the neutron flux per unit lethargy is obtained from (6.37.3) and (6.38.3)
as
*(u) =
^,
(6.39.1)
The collision density per unit
Q.
is,
where 2, is a function of the energy (or lethargy).

lethargy
then,
F(u) =
(6.39.2)
is
is
constant at all values

Thus, the collision density per unit lethargy in hydrogen
of the lethargy (or energy) and
equal to the source strength.
An important quantity in the study of neutron scattering

down density.
This represented by the symbol and defined
6.40.
is
Slowing Down Density in Hydrogen

the slowing
per cm3 per sec,
E. Amaldi and E. Fermi, Phys.
Rev., SO, 899 (1936).
is
is
as the number
that slow down past a given energy E. The frac
tion of collisions in hydrogen taking place in the energy element dE' which scatter
of neutrons,

and consequently
(6.38.2)
THE SLOWING DOWN OF NEUTRONS
6.44]
151
neutrons past energy E is E/E'.* Hence, the number of neutrons, per cm3 per
sec, slowed down past energy E after scattering in the element dE' is F(E') dE X
E/E'. The total number slowed down past E, after previous scattering in the
energy range from E0 to E, is obtained, as before, by integration between these
limits; thus,
Number of neutrons slowed down past

energy
6.41.
after previous scattering
E /
^
JE ^P-dE'.
(6.40.1)
To obtain the slowing down density, there must be added the number of
neutrons, per
cm3 per sec, slowed down past
as a result of
first collisions of
The fraction of such collisions which lead to scattering past

energy E is E/Eo, and since the number of first collisions is equal to Q, the num
ber of source neutrons ( 6.35), it follows that
source neutrons.
Consequently, the slowing down density q, in the

with no absorption of neutrons, is given by
6.42.
In the steady state condition,
(6.37.2), and hence (6.41.2) becomes
F(E')
QE
is equal to
E0
case of hydrogen
Q/E', according to
^ - 9C
moderator
t-dW
QE
("dW
q-E0+QE.L
Je E>2
^
(6.42.1)
Q.
is,
6.43. Thus, in an infinite hydrogen medium in which there is no absorption of

neutrons, the slowing down density is constant, independent of the energy, and
This
of course, to be expected physically.
is equal to the source strength.
If there are no losses, by leakage or absorption, during the slowing down process,
the same number of neutrons will slow down past all energies in the steady state.
Further, this number must be equal to the number of source neutrons entering
the system.
Slowing Down in Media of Mass Number Greater than Unity

In the general
in media containing single

not possible to express
type of nucleus of mass number greater than unity,
the collision density, or the slowing down density, over the whole range of enis
case of neutron moderation
it
6.44.
* This
derived from the result obtained in 6.19. Neutrons scattered past E must have
to zero, while the maximum possible energy decrement of neutrons
energies in the range from
from E' to zero.
scattered in the element dE'
is
is

Number of neutrons slowed down past

energy E in first collisions
THE ELEMENTS
152
[6.44
ergies in terms of a single integral, as was done for scattering in hydrogen [cf.,
For heavier nuclei the minimum possible en
equations (6.36.1) and (6.41.2)].
ergy of neutrons after first collisions is aE0 ( 6.14), where, as before, E0 is the
In evaluating the collision (or slowing down)
energy of the source neutrons.
density, neutrons in the energy interval from E0 to aE<, must therefore be treated
separately from those of energies less than aE0.
6.45. Slowing down of neutrons into the interval from E0 to aE0 will result
from both first-collision scattering of source neutrons as well as from multiple
scattering of neutrons with energies between E0 and E. At neutron energies less
than aE0, however, the first-collision scattering of source neutrons can no longer
contribute to the collision (or slowing down) density.
The steady state energy
distribution will thus be expressed differently in the intervals from E0 to aE0

and from aE0 to zero, respectively.
The cases will thus be considered separately.
Case
I.
Neutron Energies
in
the
Interval from E0
to aE0 (aE0 <
< E0)
in hydrogen, the number of scattering collisions, per

The fraction
cm3 per sec, of neutrons in the energy element dE' is F(E') dE'.
of the neutrons scattered into the element dE is dE/(E' aE'), since E' aE'
is the energy interval into which scattering is possible.
The number of neu
trons scattered into dE, from collisions in dE' , is thus F(E') dE' X dE/E'(l a).
The total number of neutrons scattered into dE, after previous scattering in the
range from E0 to E, is then obtained by integration between E and E0, as in

6.46. As for scattering
6.34.
6.47. Of the source neutrons having energy E0, the fraction dE/(E0 aEo)
is scattered into the energy element dE. Hence, if Q is the number of source
neutrons entering the system, per cm3 per sec, the number of neutrons scattered
into dE in first collisions is Q dE/E0(l a).
6.48. The number of neutrons, per cm3 per sec, scattered out of the energy
element dE is F(E) dE; hence in the steady state, when the number of neutrons
scattered into the element is equal to the number scattered out,
s*fco + r^rh dE'=
6.49.
The integral equation can be solved,

E, giving
respect to
dim=_
as before,
m)
it follows that
<6-481)
by differentiating with
(6491)
the general solution of which, obtained by integration, is
F(E)
(6.49.2)
THE SLOWING
6.53]
6.50.
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
153
The boundary condition of the problem, from (6.48.1), is

F(Eo) =
2?,(1
- )'
(6.50.1)
and hence the solution for the present case is
F(E)
(6.50.2)
This expression gives the collision density per unit energy, in the steady state,
for neutrons with energy E, when aEo < E < E0, i.e., in the energy interval
from E0 to aE0.
6.51. The corresponding value of F(u), the collision density per unit lethargy,
can be obtained by using (6.38.4) ; thus,

w-^ ar
(6.51.D
It will
be noted that, since a is zero for hydrogen moderator, (6.50.2) and (6.51.1)
reduce to (6.37.2) and (6.39.2), respectively, when a is set equal to zero.
6.52. Some actual plots of F(u) will be given below, after the behavior in the
lower energy interval has been considered.
In the meantime, it can be seen
from (6.51.1) that F(u) increases monotonically as E decreases within the inter
val E0 to aE0.
The minimum value of F(u), for neutron energy E0, is
F(u)mln =
while the maximum
-a
^
value, for neutron energy aEo, is
a1 ~a
Case
II.
6.53.
Neutron Energies Less than aEo (E < aEo)
As in
6.34, the number
of neutrons scattered into the energy element
in dE', is F(E') dE' X dE/E'(l

a). The maximum
energy of a neutron, wliich could have energy E after such scattering, is E/a.
Hence the total number of neutrons scattered into dE is obtained by integrating
the foregoing expression over the limits from E to E/a.
Since there are now no
first collisions to be included,
dE,
from collisions
THE ELEMENTS
154
16.51
If F(E)
is the collision density per unit energy, the number of neutrons

scattered out of the element dE is F(E) dE.
Hence, in the steady state, when the
6.54.
number of neutrons scattered into
dE must equal the number scatteied out,
(6.54.1)
for all values of E less than aEo has been

obtained,* but it will not be given here. The general nature of the results will be
described, and then a simple solution will be derived for the so-called asymptotic
case, when E is much less than aE0.
6.55. The collision density per unit lethargy, i.e., F(u), as derived from the
complete solution of (6.54.1), is plotted in Figs. 6.55a and 6.55b as a function of
The
the neutron energy for scattering in hydrogen, deuterium, and carbon.
source neutrons are assumed to have an energy of 2 Mev, and the results are
normalized to 1 source neutron per cm3 per sec.
It will be shown below ( 6.66)
that the asymptotic value of F(u), approached when the neutron energy is appre
ciably less than E0, is Q/{ in the general case. Since Q is here assumed to be
unity, the asymptotic value of F(u) in Figs. 6.55a and 6.55b is 1/. For hydro
gen as moderator, this result, with = 1, applies at all values of the neutron

complete solution of this equation,
energy.
An examination of the curves shows that in the energy interval from E<,
to aEo the collision density F(u), for nuclei of mass number greater than unity,
6.56.
increases monotonically with decreasing energy, as expected ( 6.52).

In this
interval, the first collisions of the source neutrons contribute equally to F(u)
for all values of the energy, and the multiple scattering tends to increase F(u)
with decreasing neutron energy.

6.57.
At E
= aE0, the value of
by an amount equal to
aQ/(l
F(u) exhibits a sharp discontinuity, decreasing

a). That this is so may be seen by setting E
equal to aEo in the integration limits of (6.48.1) and (6.54.1), which hold in the
If
energy intervals from E0 to aEo and from aEo down to zero, respectively.
the respective values of F(aE0) are distinguished by the subscripts
seen
that
and
Upon subtraction, it follows that
Fi(aE*)
*
G. Placzek, Phys.
- Fi(aE0)
Rev., 69, 423 (1946).
E0(l
- a)'
and 2,
it is
THE SLOWING
0.01
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
0.1
1.0
155
zo
E (MEV)

6.55a.
Collision density as function of neutron energy for scattering in carbon
1.4
1.3
S. 1.2
1.1
HYDROGEN
1.0
0.01
0.1
E (MEV)
Fig.
6.55b.
Collision density as function of neutron energy for scattering

and deuterium
F(E) at E
= aE0.
The corresponding
is obtained, according to (6.38.4), upon multiplying by the
and this represents the discontinuity in
discontinuity in F(u)
in hydrogen
Its value is thus aQ/(1 a), as stated above.

energy value at aE0.
6.58. Physically, the discontinuity arises from the fact that in the energy
interval a/?o to aE0 + dE the source neutrons contribute to the flux after a
THE ELEMENTS
156
[6.58
single scattering collision, but they do not do so in the interval from aE0 to aE0
dE. The collision density at an energy just larger than aE0 will thus be consid
erably greater than at an energy just smaller than aE0.
6.59. As the energy falls below aE0, the collision density per unit lethargy at
first increases with decreasing energy ; it then oscillates about the asymptotic
value 1/ (orQ/|, in general) and finally dampens out to the latter.
The maxima
and minima are a consequence of the discontinuous behavior of F(u) when the
The effect of collisions with neutrons of energy aE0 will

neutron energy is aE0appear down to an energy of oPEo, and collisions at the latter energy will have an
effect down to a3E0, and so on. However, because multiple collisions tend to
produce a more uniform energy distribution, the maxima and minima in F(u)

become less and less marked with decreasing neutron energy, and have virtually
disappeared completely at energies less than about a3E0.
6.60. At lower energies the contributions to F(u) come entirely from neutrons
that have been scattered several times. The number of scattering collisions per
unit lethargy is then expected to be constant, since {, the average logarithmic
energy decrement per collision, is independent of energy ( 6.23).
Consequently,
when the energy is below a3E0, approximately, F(u) attains its asymptotic value
of 1/ (or Q/, in general) .
6.61. Since a increases with increasing mass number, a3E0 will also increase
the mass of the scattering nucleus,
higher the neutron energy at which F(u) approaches its asymptotic value.
correspondingly.
Hence,
the larger
is seen to be the case in Figs. 6.55a and 6.55b
the
This
for carbon the collision density is

equal to 1/{ for neutron energies of less than about 0.7 Mev, but for deuterium
this is not so until the neutron energy is down to about 0.02 Mev. The maximum
deviation from asymptotic behavior, which is determined by the magnitude of
the discontinuity at energy aE0, also increases with a and hence with the mass
number.
However, as just shown, the oscillations do not extend as far down the
;
energy scale.
6.62.
It
will be
seen below
that the foregoing results have a particular signifi
cance in the case of slowing down in an absorbing medium, through a series of

Each line acts as a negative source and introduces oscillations
resonance lines.
in the collision density which persist down to an energy interval of about a3Er
below the resonance line at energy Er. Consequently, it is only when the spacing
between resonance lines is at least a3Er that the resonance lines can be treated as
independent.
Case
III.
Asymptotic
Case
(E
aE0)
6.63. As stated earlier, (6.54.1) can be solved fairly simply in the asymptotic
A solution is then of the form
case.
(6.63.1)
THE SLOWING
6.66]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
157
may be verified by substituting const./!?' for F(E') in equation (6.54.1) and

Since F(u) is equal to EF(E), by (6.38.4), it is inde
performing the integration.
pendent of the neutron energy. The problem now is to determine the value of
the constant in (6.63.1).
6.64. The first step is to derive an expression for the slowing down density for
neutrons of energy less than aE0. The fraction of collisions taking place in the
energy element dE' which scatter neutrons past energy E is (E aE')/E'(l a).
The numerator is the interval below E into which scattering from dE' (or energy
E') is possible, and the denominator E'(l a) is the maximum energy range of
neutrons scattered in the element dE'. Since F(E') dE' is the total number
of scattering collisions, per cm3 per sec, in the energy element dE', the number of
these collisions which lead to scattering past energy E is F(E') dE' X (E aE')/
E'(l a). The total number of neutrons scattered past energy E, which is the
slowing down density q, as defined in 6.40, is then obtained by integration
between E and E/a as in 6.53 ; thus,

as
provided
6.65.
for
E is less
By
=rîF^c
(6-64i)
than aE0.
(6.63.1),
F(E') may be replaced by const./2J',
q becomes
const,
= const.
so
that the expression
r'" E - aE' jm
(l
YZT^
111
(6.65.1)
Upon introducing (6.22.2) into (6.65.1), it follows that

q
= const.
(6.65.2)
If
there is no leakage or absorption, as postulated in 6.30, the same

number of neutrons must slow down past each energy; hence, for all energies,
the slowing down density must be a constant equal to Q, the source strength.
It follows, therefore, that in these circumstances
6.66.
and, hence,
it can be
= Q,
seen from (6.65.2)
that the constant is Q/.
If this value
is
substituted into (6.63.1), the result is
F(E)
Using (6.38.4) to relate
F(E)
to
(6.66.1)
F(u), then
F(u) =
(6.66.2)
THE ELEMENTS
158
[6.67
and F(u) and the general definitions of

these quantities given by (6.33.1) and (6.38.4), respectively, it follows that
6.67. From the expressions for
F(E)
=
*(u)
'h'h
and
since
*W
(6-67.1)
(667-2)
An alternative form of (6.67.2) is
is equal to Q.
= f2W(u),
(6.67.3)
thus giving an expression for the asymptotic slowing down density which will be
used later.
It
6.68.
is of interest to note that, when
tained in the two foregoing paragraphs
is set equal to unity, the results ob
become identical with the corresponding
at all energies. The various

equations may thus be regarded as quite general, although for moderators hav
ing mass numbers greater than unity they should be restricted to neutrons with
energies appreciably less than the source energy.
expressions

to hydrogen
applicable
moderator
Slowing Down in System of Several Nuclides

6.69. In an infinite, nonabsorbing system containing two or more nuclides of
different mass, an expression for the collision (and slowing down) density can be
readily obtained for the asymptotic case, i.e., when E <5C aE0. Let F<(2?') be the
collision density per unit energy, at neutron energy E', for scattering from nuclei
of the t'th kind
cm8 per sec
dE/E'(l
then
by the
a<)
F ,(.E') dE'
is the total number of neutrons scattered per

in the energy interval dE'. Of these, a fraction
scattered into the interval dE, as shown in 6.19; hence,
t'th nuclei
will
be
Number of neutrons scattered into dE _

~
from dE' by the t'th nuclei
6.70.
If
the energy
the limits of
E and
energy element
2?/a<
E'(l
a<)
integration of this expression between

will give the total number of neutrons scattered into the
is less than
a<J?o,
dE ; thus,

by the tth nuclei
If
Fj(E') dE'
_~
CE,ai
JB
Fj(E') dE' ,
E'(1
,R 7n
a<)
different nuclides present in the moderator, and F(E) is

the total collision density for scattering from all the different nuclei, then the
steady state condition is
6.71.
there are
THE SLOWING
6.74]
6.72.
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
159
The collision density per unit energy is proportional to the scattering
cross section ( 6.33), and hence
FiCaO-frW)i
(6.72.1)
where F(E') is the total collision density per unit energy at E' for all the N kinds
of scattering nuclei; Xti is the macroscopic scattering cross section of the ith
nuclear species, and 2, is the total macroscopic scattering cross section, equal to
the sum of the 2,,'s for all the nuclear species present.
It is to be understood
that the cross sections refer to neutrons of energy E', although the argument has
Upon making the appropriate substitution for
been omitted for simplicity.
F i(E'),
(6.71.1) becomes
F(E)^J^'f/E^)dE'
If
the scattering cross sections are constant, or vary with energy in the
same way, so that 2-/2, is constant, a solution is possible for the asymptotic case,
6.73.
when
for all the moderator nuclei.

The procedure is similar to that
The total slowing down density is given by
used above ( 6.63, et seq.).
<K oaEo
and using the solution
z/Ê'il-a)'
iSJ.
F(JJ)=^
for (6.72.2), it is found that

? = const.
In
E-aiE'
r^-2.,-
X2 f-'fc
^ X2
2.<f,
(6.73.1)
the asymptotic region the total slowing down density is equal to the source
strength Q, and
so
it follows that
F(E)
6.74.
sion
by
(6.73.2)
The mean value of the average logarithmic energy decrement per colli
for neutrons slowing down in a system of several nuclear species is defined

If
If
THE ELEMENTS
160
since 2, is the sum of the separate 2,,'s.
[(174
Upon substituting this result into
(6.73.2), it is found that
F(E)
(6.74.1)
and by (6.38.4)
F(u) =
(6.74.2)
|-
These results are seen to be analogous to (6.66.1) and (6.66.2) for the asymptotic
case of a single nuclear species as moderator, with replaced by the mean value {.
The corresponding expressions for the neutron flux, per unit energy and per
unit lethargy, respectively, are
4>(E) =
and since Q =
q,
^-
(u)
(6.74.3)
the slowing down density may be written as

q
= ?2.*(u),
(6.74.4)
in 6.67.
It may be repeated, for emphasis, that these equations apply to
the asymptotic case, when the neutron energies are less than onEo for all the nu
clear species present in the moderator, and when their scattering cross sections
are either independent of, or vary in the same way with, the energy.
6.75. In a system containing hydrogen and a heavier nuclear species, the colli
sion density at energies near the source energy is determined essentially by the
At lower energies, however, the scattering by hydrogen nuclei
heavier nuclei.
This occurs because first collisions with hydrogen result in a
becomes important.
uniform distribution of neutron energies essentially down to zero, neglecting the
First collisions with heavier nuclei, on
thermal energy of the scattering atoms.
the other hand, are accompanied by relatively small changes in the neutron en
ergies and thus they influence the collision density at energies near the source
as
energy.
Determination of Slowing Down Density

6.76.
mined
In
if
the slowing down density for any energy could be deter

there were available a material with a sharp resonance peak at this
principle,
energy, with negligible cross sections at other energies.

is,
Such an ideal substance
of course, unknown, but a fair approximation can be realized by means of
by cadmium foil, as described in

3.89.
From the saturation activity of the indium foil placed in the scattering medium,
i.e., in the moderator, the flux in the resonance region can be derived by means
of (3.62.3).
The corresponding slowing down density can then be obtained
from (6.74.4), provided the absorption in the medium
small.
an indium foil completely surrounded
is

and
THE SLOWING
6.801
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
161
In
order to allow for the variation of the absorption cross section of in

dium with neutron energy in the resonance region, the following procedure is
employed.
First, (3.62.3) is written in the form
6.77.
(6.77.1)
where 2In(2?) is the macroscopic absorption cross section of indium for neutrons
of energy E, and $(E) is the neutron flux per unit energy interval at this energy.
The integration is carried over all energies down to the cadmium cut off ; as indi
cated in 3.89, this is effectively the range from 0.5 to 2 ev, with the main
contribution around
1.44 ev.
6.78. If the measurement is made in a moderator in which the absorption is

small compared with the scattering, 4>(E) is related to the slowing down density
by (6.74.3), and hence (6.77.1) becomes

(6.78.1)
where ~2.(E) is the macroscopic scattering cross section of the moderator for
neutrons of energy E. In the asymptotic region, the slowing down density in a
nonabsorbing, or weakly absorbing, material is independent of the energy and so
it is taken out of the integral. In the resonance region of indium, 2, for the
moderator is essentially constant, and hence (6.78.1) may be written as
(6.78.2)
so
that the slowing down density is proportional to the experimentally
deter
mined saturation activity of the indium foil.
The integral in (6.78.2) can be

evaluated by graphical integration of the known cross sections in the resonance
region (Fig. 3.69). Since the volume V of the foil is known, and the properties
| and 2, of the moderator may be assumed to be available, the slowing down
density of neutrons in the indium resonance energy region can be calculated.
6.79. For certain practical purposes it is not necessary to know the actual
slowing down density, and a quantity which is proportional to this density is
In cases of this kind, the saturation activity of the cadmium-covered
adequate.
indium foil, of constant volume, as determined in a given moderator, provides a
direct measure of the slowing down density of neutrons in the indium resonance
Some examples of the application of this procedure will be given later.
region.
SLOWING DOWN IN INFINITE
MEDIA WITH CAPTURE
Slowing Down with Capture in Hydrogen Moderator

The treatment of the slowing down of neutrons in media in which neu
i.e., capture, occurs is more difficult than that given above for
absorption,
tron
nonabsorbing media. The only case which can be exactly solved at all easily
6.80.
THE ELEMENTS
162
is that of moderation
in a homogeneous mixture of hydrogen
[6.80
and a heavy ab
As stated earlier, uranium-238 has fairly sharp reso

Neutrons slowed down into the resonance
region, as a result of scattering by the moderator, are likely to be captured by
The presence of a neutron
the uranium, and are thus removed from the system.
absorber, especially one with one or more resonances, will thus affect the steady
state energy distribution of neutrons in slowing down.
6.81. In the analysis of the behavior of neutrons in a mixture of hydrogen and
uranium given here, it will be postulated, as before, that the system is infinite in
extent, so that there is no loss of neutrons by leakage.
Scattering will also be
In addition,
supposed to be spherically symmetric in the center of mass system.
it will be assumed that scattering by uranium nuclei does not change the energy
of the neutrons.
In other words, the mass of the uranium nucleus will be taken
to be infinite, i.e., = 0, so that the moderator is effectively a single nuclear
species, namely, hydrogen, rather than a mixture.
6.82. The collision density, that
the total number of scattering and absorp
tion collisions suffered by
neutrons
cm3 per sec per unit energy,
per
"
*' for neutrons
sorber, such as uranium.
W.
jytfj),
(6.82.1)
E,
now
E,
neutrons of energy
6.83.
equal to
2,(E)
F(E),
is
while that for scattering

is
2(E),
is
is
is
where 2
the macroscopic cross section for absorption of neutrons of energy
2,
and
The collision density per unit energy for absorption
that for scattering.
the sum of these two quantities for
the total collision density.
In the steady state, the number of neutrons scattered into an energy
element dE, as a result of collisions with hydrogen nuclei,
is
equal to the number

of neutrons scattered out from this element, plus the number absorbed (or cap
is
it
if
be the number of source neutrons of energy E0, produced uni

tured). Let
formly throughout the system, per cm3 per sec. Then,
there
no appreciable
can be shown, by
absorption of source neutrons,
method similar to that in
6.34, 6.35, that for scattering in hydrogen mixed with
heavy absorber, the
steady state condition
F(E)
|-
is
dE'.
+JTA_. Hp.
.
(6.83.D
is
6.84. If the absorption of source neutrons

not negligible, the first term on
the right-hand side of (6.83.1) should be multiplied by 2,/(2
2,), where the
cross sections apply to neutrons having the source energy E0. For the present
treatment this factor will be regarded as essentially equal to unity since, usually,
absorption
appreciable only for energies much less than source energies in
is
nuclear reactors.
is
To solve the integral equation (6.83.1)

specttotf.togive
6.85.
first differentiated with re-
_z^F(E)
,RR_
it

of energy
is
is,
nance peaks for slow neutrons.
The quantity 2,/(2 + 2.)
is,
THE SLOWING
6.87]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
163
is
function of the energy, but the argu

ment (E)
omitted here in order to simplify the notation. Upon rearrangement
and integration, (6.85.1) becomes
of course,
or
dF(E') = CB' 2.
F(E') ~JM 2 + 2.
Jrw
'
d&
E'
o)-J.27+Y/^rF
(Eo) =
this combined with (6.85.2) gives
the solution of (6.83.1).
as
Since
20
+ 2.
s
20
+ 2.'
equation (6.86.1) can be rewritten in the form
F(E)
is
is
the resonance escape probability, j>(E),

The exponential term in this equation
referred to in 4.59, as can be shown in the following manner.
6.87. For slowing down in hydrogen, the slowing down density q(E)* at energy
in the steady state
given by
q(E) =
*j[\Hh;
dE'>
(6-87-1}
It
may be shown by the procedure in 6.40,
seg. [cf. equation (6.41.2)].
from
in
will be noted
equal to F(E)
Q/E0,
(6.83.1) that the integral
(6.87.1)
and so equation (6.87.1) becomes
is
et
as
q(E) =
Using the expression for
EF (E).
F(E) given by (6.86.2), the result
(6.87.3)
it
was omitted earlier, because the slowing down

a function of the neutron energy.
used here, although
density in the resonance region
is
The argument (E)
is
^)=Qexp(-^^--.f).
(6.87.2)
is
or

2-
and
is
The boundary condition derived from (6.83.1)

f->
6.86.
(6-85-2)
THE ELEMENTS
164
(6.8.S
6.88. The probability that a neutron will escape capture
in slowing down
for neutrons of
i.e.,
probability
p(E)
the
resonance
E,
escape
to
E0
energy E, is equal to the ratio of the slowing down density at E with absorption
The slowing down density q(E) with absorption is
to that without absorption.
given by (6.87.3) whereas, according to 6.42, if there is no capture of neutrons the
Hence, it follows that
slowing down density in hydrogen is equal merely to Q.
from
(6.88.1)
so that the exponential
term represents the resonance escape probability in a

This is seen to be identical with
mixture of hydrogen with a heavy absorber.

the exponential in (6.86.2).

Slowing Down with Capture in Media of Mass Number

Greater than Unity
6.89. In absorbing media consisting of nuclei of mass number greater than
unity, the calculation of the collision density and of the resonance escape proba
bility cannot be performed analytically for the general case in which no restriction
As seen
is placed on the variation of the absorption cross section with energy.
above, in a moderator of mass number exceeding unity, a neutron of any energy
E can be scattered only to aE, and two different energy regions should be dis
tinguished.
6.90.
In considering the resonance capture of neutrons in a reactor as
they
slow down, in a mixture of uranium with beryllium or carbon, for example,
the
energy of the source (fission) neutrons is large compared to that of the region
which resonance capture becomes important. Hence, it is necessary only
in
to
determine the steady state condition for the neutron energy E

aE0, where Et
is the energy above which effectively all fission neutrons are emitted.
6.91. For the general case of a system containing N types of scattering nuclei,
some or all of which may also be absorbers, the steady state equation is then
(6.91.1)
This is equivalent to (6.72.2), modified by the introduction of the absorption

cross section.
Since (6.91.1) is a function both of E and of E/on, it is not pos
sible to differentiate it and obtain a simple differential equation, which can then
be solved with the aid of the boundary condition at E0, as in the preceding
instances.
6.92.
An exact solution of (6.91.1) for E
case of constant
aE0 can be obtained for the trivial

cross sections; this would imply no resonance absorption and
hence is of little practical value.
Asymptotic solutions can be obtained
for
THE SLOWING
6.96]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
165
other special cases, such as, slowly varying capture, 1/v capture,* and widely
spaced resonances; in addition, various numerical methods can be used to solve
particular problems.
6.93. Instead of evaluating the collision density, it is of greater practical
interest to derive expressions for the resonance escape probability. Three cases
of importance will be considered here: these are (a) a series of widely spaced
resonances, (6) slowly varying capture, and (c) very weak capture.
Resonance
Escape
Probability for Widely Spaced Resonances
It was seen
in 6.59, in the treatment of slowing down without absorption

a moderator with mass number greater than unity, that in the energy region
from E0, i.e., the source energy, down to about a3E0 the neutron collision density
6.94.
in
F(u)
energy region from Er, the resonance energy, down to about a3Er.
6.95. The same conclusion may be expressed in terms of lethargy units.
ur is the lethargy corresponding to the resonance energy En and u is that
equivalent to a3Er, where the oscillations have damped out, then,
If
ur = In
^
Ejt
and
u = In
a Hjt
Consequently, the lethargy range over which the oscillations

given by
x
u uT = 3 In .
a
in F(u) occur is
Damping out of the fluctuations in the collision density due to resonance absorp
tion will thus have occurred when the neutron lethargy is 3 In
that of the resonance.
- units greater
than
6.96. If a second resonance occurs at a lower energy, the number of neutrons

captured in this resonance region depends on the spacing between the two
resonances.
If
they are separated by about 4 In
lethargy units, or more, the
capture in the second resonance will be independent
of the spacing, since
will then have reached a constant value over a lethargy range of In

the second
resonance.
F(u)
preceding
a
The number of neutrons scattered into this resonance
element Au depends entirely on the behavior of F(u) in the interval u

G. Placzek,
Phys. Rev., 69, 430 (1946).
ln^
region will be constant, independent of the energy of the second resonance. In

general, it may be stated that the number of neutrons scattered into a lethargy

oscillates, damping out to a constant value for neutron energies less than
As indicated in 6.62, a narrow absorption resonance acts very much
a3E0.
like a negative source; it produces fluctuations in the collision density in an
THE ELEMENTS
166
[6.96
to u. The foregoing conclusions are applicable only for a narrow (line) resonance,
so that resonance absorption occurs essentially at a definite energy and not over
a range of energies.
6.97. Provided the resonances are sufficiently spaced, so that the collision
density per unit lethargy is constant over a lethargy interval of at least In
preceding each resonance, an expression for the resonance escape probability

may be developed in a simplified, nonrigorous manner, as follows.* The treat
widths of the resonances, in terms of

the
average
to
change in lethargy per collision
{,
lethargy, are small compared
Further, it is assumed that the resonances are in the asymptotic
( 6.28).
region of the energy, i.e., Er <C o<E0, so that the fluctuations in the collision
to the
case where the
S.<*,(,)
AEl = (2.
it
is
is,
density due to the source have damped out.

6.98. In the case postulated above, the collision density F(u) is constant for
energies greater than Ei, up to Ei/a at least, where Ei is the energy of the first
resonance, t If AEi is the width of the resonance, the number of neutrons cap
tured in the element AEi is 2<(2?1) AEi, where 4>(Ei) is the depleted neutron
If there were no absorption of neutrons, the
flux, of energy Ei, per unit energy.
number scattered into an energy interval AEi would be equal to the number
scattered out, i.e., to 2,<n(.E1) AEi, where n(Ei) is the neutron flux per unit
When absorption occurs, the number of neutrons
energy without capture.
scattered into AEi must be equal to the total number lost from that energy
to the number scattered out, 2,0(2?i) AEi, plus the number
element, that
absorbed, 2a(Ei) AEi. Since the number of neutrons scattered into the interval
the same with capture and without capture,
follows that
AEi
2)<K#i) AEt.
(6.98.1)
6.99. From (6.74.3)
4>M
(6.99.1)
is
the mean value of the average logarithmic energy decrement per col
lision for neutrons slowing down in the mixture.
Substitution for 4>n in (6.98.1)
where
then gives
The probability that neutrons will be captured in AEi

Aflt =
{(2.
'
2)
AEt
El
The derivation was originally given by E. P. Wigner, unpublished.

constant in the lethargy interval for ui
This is, of course, the same as saying that F(u)
is
ZoK-gQ
is
^.
'
A\ = ^
4>(El)

ment is restricted
to Ui In
(l/o).
THE SLOWING
6.102]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
167
Hence, the probability pi that neutrons will escape capture in the first resonance
"-'-iswf-
***
6.100. Consider next the second resonance,
which occurs for neutrons of

the
width
of
energy 2?2;
the resonance is AE2. As postulated above, the spacing
between the resonances is such that the collision density F(u) has become con
stant some distance above the second resonance.
The neutron flux per unit
energy without capture at the second resonance, i.e.,
is equal to the as
ymptotic form without capture multiplied by pi; thus,

Using (6.99.2), the probability p that source neutrons will escape capture in the
first two resonances is consequently found to be
f(2. + 2.)
6.101.
In
AEi]
Bl
|(2. + 2.)
general, for n resonances, the resonance escape probability is
pn=n[i_^TZ)-f}
Upon taking logarithms of each side, the result is
^-M'-fciTy-f}
If the
(610U)
second term in the brackets is very small in comparison with unity, which
is the case
if
AEt
lEi,
for narrow resonances, the logarithmic expression of (6.101.1) can be ex

panded in a series and higher order terms omitted.
Consequently,
i.e.,
(6-10L2)
The resonance escape probability can be written in the usual integral
form ( 6.88) if the entire resonance region is imagined to be divided into m
contiguous energy bands of width AE,-. In the regions between the resonances
2 is understood to be zero; then,
6.102.
J.
ffl
2
1(2.
+ 2.)
'
AEj
Et
J.
2{ |(2. + 2.)
'
AE,-
E,
'
THE ELEMENTS
168
so
[6.102
that, from (6.101.2)
or
P^-expf-^-p^.f].
(6.102.1)

/This is the form in which the resonance escape probability is frequently expressed;
except for hydrogen moderator and a heavy absorber, it is strictly applicable
only to widely spaced, narrow resonances. For a mixture of hydrogen and a
heavy absorber, | is equal to unity, and (6.102.1) then reduces to the exact
The resonance escape probability as defined by (6.102.1) will be used
(6.88.1).
in the discussion of heterogeneous reactors consisting of natural uranium in a
graphite moderator (Chapter IX).
6.103. It may be noted that, even if the absorption cross section becomes
infinitely large over a finite energy interval, the integral in (6.102.1) and the
resonance escape probability remain finite.
Consider, for example, the case
where 2 > oo in an energy region from Ei to E2, where E0 > 2?i > E2, and is
zero elsewhere.
Since 2/(2, + 2) may now be set equal to unity, (6.102.1)
if)
6.104. The resonance escape probability is thus finite, in spite of the absorp
tion cross section being infinite.
For hydrogen as moderator, this result is a
direct consequence of the fact that a certain proportion of the scattered neutrons
will jump across the resonance. It can be seen on general grounds that, with
heavier moderators, scattered neutrons will be able to cross the resonance region
only if the latter is narrow, and if the resonances are widely separated.
These
are, of course, the postulates upon which (6.102.1) is based. If the width of the
"infinite" resonance is equal to or greater than the maximum energy decrease in
I a scattering collision, no neutrons will slow down past the resonance.
The rescInance escape probability will then be zero for all energies less than or equal to
Ei, the lower limit of the resonance region.
Resonance Escape Probability for Slowly Varying Capture
If
the absorption cross section in the resonance region does not vary
rapidly with the neutron energy, it is possible to derive an approximate expression
6.105.
In the case of a nonabsorbing moderator,

for the resonance escape probability.*
F(u), i.e., 2,*(u), is constant in the asymptotic region. If, however, an absorber
*
The derivation given here is essentially that of G. Goertzel and E. Greuling, unpublished.
THE SLOWING
6.10S]
is present,
2,<(m)
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
109
will decrease depending on the absorption cross section.
If
2 does not vary much over a lethargy interval In (1/a), the scattering collision
density 2,(u), which may be represented by F,(u), will not vary rapidly in that
interval.
["fAE')
fa)
q(E) =
j(1
6.106. Assuming, as before, that neutrons are produced uniformly in an

infinite medium, and the source energy is E0, then the slowing down density for
energies less than aE0 is given by
dE'
(0.106.1)
with an absorber of infinite mass. This equation

identical in form with (6.64.1), for nonabsorbing medium, except that F(E)
given here more explicitly as the scattering collision density and not the total
collision density defined by (6.82.1). Upon transforming the variable from
can be readily shown that, for lethargies greater than
energy to lethargy,
(1/a), (6.106.1) becomes

1
where
J-t
If
(if
du',
(6.106.2)
= In (1/a).
e,
F,(u) varies slowly in
lethargy interval
i.e., In (1/a), then F,(u')
given adequately by the first two terms of a Taylor series expansion about u,
and (6.106.2) can be written as
6.107.
[F"iu)
+ (u'
îr](e"~"
Upon integrating with respect to u', the result
du'-
q(u) = ZF,(u) + a
(6.107.2)
5<*2
ae
where
a =
F,(u)-^\
- a Ju-, F,(u')eu'-du'.
1
dq
that
is
found
(6.108.1)
- F-(u) -
ih.[FM
(u>
u)
F.(w') by the first two terms of a Taylor series, this becomes

+
fu
Again, representing
it
has the same significance as before.

6.108. Returning to (6.106.2) and differentiating with respect to u,
and
(61071)
is
Y-~aju
w)
q(u) =
a)
is

q(u) =
In
a)
it
is is
for a single moderator,
^]e"-"du'
((uo8-2)
THE ELEMENTS
170
[6.108
and upon integration the result is
3 -1^4.
If
(6.107.2) is now multiplied

tracted, it follows that
by
(6.108,,
and (6.108.3) by a, and the expressions sub
exMu),
(6.108.4)
where F,(u) is replaced by its equivalent 2,<(u).

6.109. In the lethargy interval from u to u + du the slowing down density
will decrease from q to q dq, because of the absorption of neutrons of lethargy

u in the interval du. If 2 is the macroscopic absorption cross section for
neutrons of lethargy u, and (u) is the flux per unit lethargy, then
dq
2<(u)
du,
since the decrease in the slowing down density must be equal to the number of
neutrons absorbed per cm3 per sec in the lethargy interval du.
be expressed as
This result may
g=-2*(M).
(6.109.1)
6.110. Upon substituting (6.109.1) into (6.108.4), the flux per unit lethargy
in terms of the slowing down density by
is given
*(M)
where
- W+iZ
1
(61101)
a ae
Some values of y for a few moderators are given in Table 6.110; the corresponding
values for
from Table 6.24, are also included.
TABLE 6.110.
FUNCTIONS
USED
IN CALCULATION
Element
Hydrogen
Deuterium
Beryllium
Carbon
OF RESONANCE
1.000
1.000
0.583
0.725
0.149
0.209
0.110
0.158
ESCAPE
PROBABILITY
6.111. The resonance escape probability can be obtained by substituting the

value of
(u)
given by (6.110.1) into the differential equation (6.109.1);

dq
du
Sq
2. + 72.
thus,
THE SLOWING
6.114]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
171
or
dq
2n
$2. + y2
du.
Upon integration between the lethargy limits of u and zero, where the latter is
the lethargy of the source neutrons, the result is
(6.111.1)
The left-hand side of this equation is the ratio of the slowing down density (q)
at lethargy u to that (q0) at the source.
If there had been no capture of neutrons,
the slowing down density would, in the asymptotic region, have been equal to q0,
Hence q/qo, as given by (6.111.1),
which is identical with the source strength.
must be equal to the resonance escape probability at the lethargy u. Trans
forming this equation back to E as the variable, it is found that

(6.111.2)
+ >20) is a function of the energy.

is of interest to point out that, for hydrogen, y and
where 20/(2,
6.112.
It
are both unity,
(6.111.2) becomes identical with the rigorous (6.88.1)

for the resonance escape probability in a hydrogen moderator with an absorber
of infinite mass.
and then the approximate
Resonance Escape Probability for Weak Resonance
Capture
6.113. If the macroscopic absorption cross section is much less than the macro
scopic scattering cross section in a given absorbing system, i.e., 20 <C 2 the
neutron flux in the asymptotic region will not be very different from the value to
if there were no absorption.
An expression for the resonance escape

probability, similar in form to (6.88.1), can then be derived in a simple manner.
6.114. The decrease dq in the slowing down density in an energy interval
dE is equal to the number of neutrons absorbed per cm3 per sec in dE (cf . 6. 109) ;
be expected
hence
where
-dq
(E)
2n(E) dE,
(6.114.1)
is the neutron flux per unit energy at energy
consideration,
4>(E) may be regarded as essentially
E.
In the
the same as
under
for the nonabcase
sorbing case, so that by (6.74.3)

(6.114.2)
THE ELEMENTS
172
[6.114
Hence, combining (6.114.1) and (6.114.2),

dq
and upon integration
'
$2.
dE
it follows that
The resonance escape probability p(E) is thus given by

(6.114.3)
from (6.102.1) by postulating that

It is evident that (6.102.1) should reduce to (6.114.3) for this condition
2.
since, if 2 is very small compared to 2 the collision density does not oscillate
appreciably due to resonance absorption and the restriction of wide spacing as
applied to strong resonance lines may be removed.
72, equation (6.111.2) also reduces to the same
6.116. Similarly, if {2,
form as (6.114.3). In this case absorption is small, in any event, so that the
condition of slowly varying absorption cross section is no longer significant.
6.115. The same result can be obtained

2,
THE FERMI AGE TREATMENT

The Continuous Slowing Down Model
6.117.
A general discussion of energy relations in scattering has been given in
the preceding parts of this chapter; now the spatial distribution of the neutrons
energies, resulting from diffusion during the slowing down process,
As stated earlier ( 6.1), the average crow-flight distance a
will be considered.
of various
travels while slowing down has a direct bearing on the critical

If this average distance is large, then the reactor will have to
size of a reactor.
be large, so as to reduce the probability of escape of the neutrons before they
fission neutron
have been slowed down to thermal energies.
Thus, the distribution of neutrons
in space as a result of diffusion during the slowing down process determines the
probability of loss by leakage from the thermal reactor during the course of this
process.
6.118. A relatively simple approach to the problem, which is applicable
to slowing down in media other than those containing very light nuclei, e.g.,
Consider a neutron
hydrogen and deuterium, is based on the following model.
produced at the fission energy E0; it will travel for a certain time with this energy
After the collision its energy will be decreased,
before it collides with a nucleus.
and it will then travel with this constant
lower energy until it meets another
THE SLOWING
6.120]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
173
it
Fig.
6.119.
Continuous slowing down approximation
is
it
represent
is
but of gradually increasing length.

The horizontal lines
the constant energy of the neutron while
diffusing between col
lisions, and the lengths of these lines give the time elapsing between successive
for single neutron, and so there
collisions. It should be noted that the plot
mately equal height
is
is
it
is
t,
if
is
will be some fluctuations from the average behavior to which the discussion
indicated below.
refers, as
6.120. Because individual neutrons behave differently, even
originating with
the same energy, they will not all have the same energy after the lapse of
In other words, the plot of In E against
certain time from birth.
as in Fig.
6.119, will vary from one neutron to another, although they all start with the
same fission energy E0 and diffuse in the same medium.
If the latter consists of
nuclei of moderate or high mass, the spread of energies among the neutrons
possible to represent the behavior of
relatively small, and
large number of
individual neutrons by means of an average behavior.
With carbon, for ex
ample, the maximum fractional energy change suffered by neutron in collision
It evident, therefore,
0.27, compared with an average value of about 0.17.
is
that even in a carbon (graphite) medium the neutron energy spread at any speci
fied time after leaving the source will not be large.
The spread
still less for
is

is
is
is
is
is,
nucleus. Since the neutron is now moving with a smaller speed, the time be
tween collisions
on the average, increased.
This process of movement at
constant energy followed by a collision in which the energy
lowered will con
tinue until the neutron
thermalized.
6.119. Since the average change in the logarithm of the neutron energy per
collision, i.e.,
independent of the energy
6.22),
follows that a time plot
of In E of a neutron, from fission energy (E0) down to thermal energy (Etb) will
be of the form of Fig. 6.119. This
seen to consist of
series of steps of approxi-
media containing heavier nuclei.
174
[6.121
Further, under such conditions that the behavior of the neutrons

can be reasonably represented by an average, the logarithmic change of energy
That is to say, the height of the steps in Fig. 6.119 will
per collision is small.
As
series of steps may be replaced, without serious error,
result,
a
the
be small.
In other words, it
by a continuous curve, such as that shown in the diagram.
is assumed, as an approximation, that during slowing down the neutrons lose
Thus,
energy continuously, rather than discontinuously as is actually the case.
the subsequent treatment is based on the postulate that the over-all, discontin
6.121.
uous, slowing down behavior of a large number of neutrons can be represented,

to a satisfactory approximation, by a single continuous curve.
is
it
is
The Age Equation Without Capture

6.123. The subsequent treatment will be restricted to the diffusion of neutrons
in media other than those containing elements of the lowest atomic weight.
The first problem
to develop
t,
X,
t,
slowing down behavior
is
differential equation which will represent the

in
It will be as
nonabsorbing medium.
that
all
that
have
a
sumed
neutrons
diffused for time
after leaving their source,
have the same lethargy u, and the relationship between dt and du will be used
to derive an expression for the spatial distribution of the slowing down density.
6.124. Suppose that, after diffusing for
time
all the neutrons have velocity
and let
be the scattering mean free path, i.e., the average distance the neutron
travels between collisions with nuclei.
The number of collisions
neutron suffers
in the subsequent time interval dt then dt/\,. Since
the average logarith
mic energy change per collision,
follows that the decrease in In
equal to
times the number of collisions in the time dt; hence,
continuous
-d\nE
^dt,
is
it
is
is
v,
(6.124.1)
crease
dt.
(cf.
Upon replacing
6.27),
it
interval
din
follows that
2?
where the left-hand side represents the logarithmic energy loss during the time

is,
6.122. It is important to point out that the foregoing approximation is valid

only for moderators consisting of elements of fairly high mass number; it does
not apply to media containing hydrogen, deuterium, or other light nuclei.
It
is possible, for example, for a neutron to lose all its energy, from E0 to thermal,
in a single collision with hydrogen.
When neutrons are slowed down by light
nuclei there
not
consequently, a considerable spread of energies and
justifiable to represent the slowing down characteristics of a large number of
Further, because of the large changes in
neutrons by an average behavior.
neutron energy per collision, and hence the small number of collisions required
to reduce the energy to thermal values, the representation of the slowing down
by continuous curve, as described above,
completely invalid.
by du, the corresponding
lethargy in
THE SLOWING
6.127]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
du =
175
^dl.
(6.124.2)
This is the differential equation, referred to above, which relates u to t, on the

basis of the continuous slowing down model. In this treatment it is assumed,
Dv V2n(r,
t)
is
MLJ),
(6.125.1)
at
+ is
u)
is
is
t)
t)
is
it
v,
and itself are functions of the energy.

where D, which depends on the velocity
For the present purpose
convenient to define n(r,
on both sides of (6.125.1)
dt
as the neutron density per unit time interval, so that n(r,
the number of
dt
neutrons per cm3 which have diffused for time between and
after leaving
the source.
6.126. The next step in the treatment to transform the independent variable
the number of neutrons per cm3 per
from to u, as defined above. If n(r,
unit lethargy, the number of neutrons per cm3 with lethargy between u and
u + du
n(r,
du. If this lethargy interval du corresponds to the time interval
n(r,
du = n(r,
t)
above, then
u)
dt considered
u)
is
dt,
n(r, u),
= n(r,
u)
n(r,
t)
and hence,
dt
and then, from (6.126.1),
dt'
dn(r,
t)
du
du
follows that
'
dn(t,
du
t)
_~
$w
_
dn(t,
j)
with (6.124.2) for du/dt, the result
=
~
is
dt
X,
dn(r,
t)
making use of (6.124.2) to give du/dt.

6.127. By combining the general relationship
it

If
is
t).
is
t)
(r,
is
t),
of course, that there is no loss of neutrons by absorption.

6.125. Consider now, at a field point represented by the vector r, the neutrons
which have diffused for a time t. During the subsequent interval dt they will
leak away from a volume element at r at a rate given by D T20(r,
in accord
ance with (5.33.1), where
the flux of the specified neutrons at the given
point.
Since
may be replaced by vn, where n
the corresponding neutron
density, the rate of leakage
expressed by Dv 72n(r,
there
no absorp
of
tion
neutrons, this will give the rate of decrease of neutron density with time;
hence, eliminating the negative signs,
(6.126.1)
THE ELEMENTS
176
OF NUCLEAR
REACTOR THEORY
16.127
(6.126.1) into the left-hand side and (6.127.1) into the righthand side, (6.125.1) becomes
Upon inserting
In view of the definition of n(t, u) given above, vn(r, u) will be equivalent to

4>(t,
u), the neutron flux per unit lethargy interval; further, since X, is equal to
1/2 the macroscopic scattering cross section for the material, (6.127.2) may be
,
written as
72 [f2W.(r, u)] = 2.
[*2.</,(r, ,)].
(6.127.3)
The quantity in the brackets on each side of (6.127.3) is the slowing down density,
as may be seen from (6.67.3); representing this by q, equation (6.127.3), after
slight rearrangement,
becomes
.gA new variable t(u) is now .introduced, defined by

T(u) =
CUD
I 7=rdu.
Jo
(6.128.1)
Upon making the transformation which replaces u by t(u), equation
(6.127.4)
7J? =
(6.128.2)
is
is
it
is
it
It
is
known as the Fermi age equation. The quantity t(u)

called the
Fermi age or the symbolic age, frequently abbreviated to age, of the neutrons.
not a unit of time, but rather of length
must be emphasized, however, that
This can be readily understood from (6.128.2) when
realized that
squared.
the Laplacian operator implies differentiation twice with respect to
distance.
It of interest to note that the age equation identical in form with the standard
is
and this
f2,
reduces to
is
heat diffusion equation.

is
6.129. The quantity

in (6.128.2)
related to the chronological age of the
neutrons, as can be shown in the following manner. The chronological age may
be defined as the time required by the neutron to slow down, on the average, from
its original (fission) energy Er, to the energy E, i.e., the time between its leaving
t
the source and its attainment of the lethargy u.
Hence, by using (6.124.2) to
change the variable in (6.128.1), which defines t, the result

=
is

6.128.
(6.127.4)
j^Dvdt
=J^D0
dt,
(6.129.1)
THE SLOWING
6.132]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
177
where Dv has been replaced by D0, the conventional diffusion coefficient ( 5.7).
If an average diffusion coefficient D0 during the slowing down time t is defined by
then (6.129.1) becomes
t = Dd.
(6.129.2)
Consequently, the Fermi age r is equal to the slowing down time (or chronological
age) of the neutrons multiplied by the average diffusion coefficient over the time t.
Thus, immediately after leaving the source the value of r is zero, but it increases
as the slowing down time of the neutrons increases and their energy decreases.
6.130. In the foregoing treatment, the slowing down has been stated in terms
of the lethargy u, so that q and r in (6.128.1) and (6.128.2) are functions of u.
However, they may equally well be expressed as functions of the energy, by
According to 6.27, du = dE/E, and so the
transforming the variables.
definition of the neutron age, as given by (6.128.1), now becomes
m

T(m
nf
.
(6i3oi)
'
and the age equation (6.128.2) is applicable, with the slowing down density q(E)
evaluated at energy E.
Solution of the Fermi Age Equation

Case
I.
Plane Source of Fast (Monoenergetic)
Neutrons
in Region of Infinite
Extent
Consider a source of fast neutrons, consisting of an infinite plane

emitting <S neutrons per cm2 per sec with energy E0. Supposing the source to
lie in the y, z-plane passing through the origin, then the Fermi age equation is
6.131.
V2q(x,
At the source, the

written as
o(x)
t) =
3<?(f
age of the neutrons
r)
for x
0.
(6.131.1)
is zero, and the source condition may be
q(x, 0) =
5 5(x),
(6.131.2)
being the Dirac delta function ( 5.81).
6.132.
To solve (6.131.1) the variables are separated by letting

q(x, t) =
so
'
or
X(x)T(t),
that the age equation becomes

1
'
d2X
dT
dx2
dr
'
(6.132.1)
THE ELEMENTS
178
[6.132
Since the left-hand side of this equation is a function of x only, and the right-hand
a function of r only, each may be set equal to a constant a2, where a2 is a real
positive quantity;* thus,
cPX
.
V
X -rr
ax2
1
and
dT
7-=
dr
iT
a*T.
The general solutions of these differential equations are
A cos ax + C sin ax
and
= Fe_a,T.
Therefore, by (6.132.1),
q
e-*T(A cos ax + C sin ax),
F has been
where the constant
It
(6.132.2)
incorporated into the arbitrary constants A and
C.
is now convenient to write these solutions in an alternative form

making use of the Fourier integral.f For a function /(x) the appropriate expres
6.133.
sion is
fix)
By (6.131.2), when r
- [ daf f(x')
* Jo
J-x
cos
[a(x'
= 0, then q(x, 0) is equal to
- x)] dx'.
SS(x); hence, it is required
write the solutions for q in such a form that, when r =

Fourier integral of SS(x). These are given by
q
(6.133.1)
0, q(x,
to
t) reduces to the
- - S SWe-** cos [a(x' - x)],
(6.133.2)
of x and r, so that they represent constants of
where x' and a are independent

integration.
6.134. Since the age equation is linear, (6.133.2) may be multiplied by da dx'
and integrated over all values of a and x' to obtain a complete solution. Thus,
the formal solution is
q(x, t) =
since
q(x, 0)
*
This
lr
Jo
- Sa(x)
J-
daf
=
S b(x')e-fT cos [o(x'
/
Jo
da
J-x
- x)] dx',
SS(x') cos [(z'
(6.134.1)
- x)] dx'.
is neceiisary from physical considerations, since the slowing down density cannot
with increasing age of the neutrons.
t For a discussion of Fourier integrals, see R. V. Churchill, "Fourier Series and Boundary
Value Problems," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1949.
increase
THE SLOWING
6.137]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
179
jf e-* cos [a(x' - x)] da
yjfr
The integral with respect to a is

=
e-*^,
and so (6.134.1) becomes
g(XfT)=_L=
V4ttt
Further, since
/(x') 8(*') dx' = /(0),
x:
{"s5We-r-Wdaf.
J.x
the final solution of the Fermi age equation for the slowing down density becomes
(6.134.2)
II.
Point Source
-u_xoi/4r
.
^==
(6.135.1)
Fast (Monoenergetic) Neutrons in Region
of
Case
of
q(x,
unit plane source

r)
the distance between the source plane and the position or field plane; hence,
for
Infinite
Extent
analogous to that used in
procedure which
5.52.
supposed to be infinite, and no boundaries are present, the

slowing down density at any field point will depend only on the distance to that
is
Since the medium
is
derived above, by means of
6.136. The solution of the Fermi age equation for the case of
point source in
an infinite medium can be obtained directly from the solution of the plane source,
In the
is
is
it
seen
that
qPt(r, r)2wa da.
(6.136.1)
qp\
known,
is
da
by first replacing the

a
r2
gpi can be obtained

a2 =
and rdr =
gp<
readily
now the inverse of that considered previously, since
to be determined.
6.137. The value of gpt in terms of
variable
by r. From geometry, x2
given by
while
5.52,
is
The problem
is
gpi(*,
jT
at x, then by the arguments in

t)
as observed
r,
is
case of
plane source the result will then be the

sum of the slowing down densities due to an appropriate number of point sources.
point
the slowing down density for neutrons of a specific age from
?pt(r)
and gpi(x)
the value for plane source,
source, as determined at field point
If
point from the source.
5.53); then qpi
= 2tt
gpi(x,
r)
is

is
6.135. This result can be generalized to give the slowing down density at x
due to a plane source of neutrons at x0 by noting that x in the solution given above
gp<(r,
r)rdr.
(6.137.1)
THE ELEMENTS
180
[6.137
Upon differentiating with respect to x, it follows that

dqffx>
T) =
-2rqUx,
r)x
(6.137.2)
or
Finally, differentiation of (6.134.2), which expresses

dx
<Zpi(z,
r), gives
(6.137.4)
4TV/47n:
6.138. Since the distance x in qPt(x, t) now represents the distance between the
source and a field point, it can be replaced by the general symbol r, as usual.
Hence, by combining
(6.137.3) and (6.137.4) the slowing down density at a dis

tance r, from a point source of one neutron per sec, is

?(r' t) =
In the
c-r/4r
TTVi
(4jtt)*
(6.138.1)
general case of a unit point source at r0, with a field point at r, the result is
e-|r-r,|V4r
Distribution of Slowing Down Density about a Point Source

6.139. Assuming a point source to be at the origin of the coordinate system,
the slowing down density is given by (6.138.1) ; from this it is possible to calculate
q(r, t) as a function of r, i.e., the distance from the source, for any specified value
>Wt SMALL (E LAB0)
Fig.
of the age, r.
6.139.
>S,T ISBGE tE SMALL}
Slowing down density distribution about a point source
For each
age, the results
fall on
a Gauss error curve, as shown in
Fig. 6.139, the shape of which depends on whether t is small, i.e., the energy is near
the fission energy, or large, i.e., the energy is in the vicinity of the thermal value.
THE SLOWING
6.142]
If t
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
is small, the curve is high and narrow,
but for
181
t large, it is lower and more

spread out. That this must be so may be seen from a qualitative examination
of (6.138.1).
The magnitude of q(r, r) for r equal to zero, which gives the height
of the curve, is 1/ (4irt)*, and this is seen to be large for small values of t. Fur
ther, the "width" of the curve, i.e., the distance in which q(r, t) falls to 1/e
of its maximum value, is readily found to be equal to 2Vr, and this increases with
increasing r.
6.140. The fact that the Fermi age r is a measure of the width of the curve
means that it determines the distribution of the slowing down density about the
This is to be expected on physical grounds.
source.
A very small t means that
the neutrons have suffered little slowing down, and so they have not diffused
far from the source. Consequently, most of the neutrons will have high energies
and be in the neighborhood of the source; this corresponds to a high and narrow
distribution curve.
On the other hand, when t is large, the neutrons will have
undergone considerable slowing down and a large proportion will have diffused
an appreciable distance from the source.
The distribution curve of the slowing
down density will thus be low and broad.
Physical Significance of Age

6.141.
A more precise physical significance can be associated with the Fermi
by calculating the second spatial moment of the slowing down density,

denoted by r2(r), in a manner similar to that used in connection with diffusion.
Thus,
rx
age
>
Jq 47rrJ?(r, t) dr
where q(r, t) is the number of neutrons per cm3 per sec slowed down past a given
energy, corresponding to the age t, at the field point r. Using (6.138.1) to ex
press q(r,
t) for
point source,
*r)
JVe-^4'
~-
dr
I^TZ
PVe-,V4T
dr
= 6t-
(6-141.1)
Consequently, the age t is one-sixth of the mean square (crow-flight) distance

traveled by a neutron from the time of its emission, i.e., age zero, to the time at
which its age is t.
6.142. Although the result of (6.141.1) is quite general, that is to say, it ap
plies to neutrons of any energy and, hence, of any age, it is of special interest in
is referred to as the slowing downThus
connection with thermal neutrons.
It is an important quantity in determining the
length of the thermal neutron.
extent to which neutrons leak out of a finite thermal reactor while being slowed
down.
182
THE ELEMENTS
Experimental
[6.143
Determination of Age
6.143. In the experimental determination of the age of neutrons, the slowing

down density for neutrons of a specific energy is measured at various distances
For example, the
from a source of fast neutrons placed in the given medium.

<0,000
<00
Fig.
6.144.
400
1200
2800
r2. CM2
2000
3600
4400
Experimental data for determination of age in graphite
source may be a mixture of polonium or radium and beryllium located at the cen
ter of a large graphite structure, which is treated as an infinite medium.
A
quantity proportional to the slowing down density for indium resonance energy,
i.e., about 1.4 ev, for various locations is then given by the saturation activity
THE SLOWING
6.145]
DOWN
OF NEUTRONS
183
indium foils, as described in 6.76, et seq. The dis

tribution of the slowing down density about the point source will be represented
by (6.138.1), and upon taking logarithms, it is seen that for neutrons of a given
of cadmium-covered
energy, i.e.,
r is constant,

In q(r) = const.
The plot of the logarithm of the indium activity against the square of the distance
from the source should thus be a straight line of slope equal to 1/4t.
6.144. The results of an actual experiment for the determination of the age of
neutrons from a polonium-berylhum source in graphite are given in the semilogarithmic plot in Fig. 6.144. The slope of the central (linear) portion is
0.758 X 10-3 cm 2, and hence the age of the neutrons at indium resonance is
It will be seen that the plot deviates from linear both close to and far
330 cm2.
from the source. The observed slowing down density near the source is higher
than expected because a considerable portion of neutrons of energy greater than
1 .4 ev, the indium resonance peak, is still present.
Since indium has a reasonably
large cross section for absorption of such neutrons (Fig. 3.69), they are included
in the measurements made at short distances from the source; the results are
consequently too high. On the other hand, at considerable distances from the
source the slowing down is essentially complete and subsequently the virtually
monoenergetic (thermal) neutrons merely undergo diffusion. The flux distribu
tion then falls off with distance as e~*'r rather than as e-tr\
6.145. The method described above gives the age of neutrons having the
indium resonance energy as derived from a polonium-beryllium source; alterna
tively a uranium fission source could be used. In any case, since the source
neutrons are not monoenergetic, the observed age will be a mean value. Further,
the indium resonance energy of 1.4 ev is appreciably greater than the mean ther
mal energy of 0.025 ev; in fact, nearly one-third of the collisions made by a fission
neutron in graphite take place in this range. A correction must, therefore, be
In Table 6.145 are recorded
applied to the age measured at indium resonance.
TABLE 6.145.
AGE OP THERMAL NEUTRONS
Moderator
Water
Heavy Water
Beryllium
Graphite
FROM
FISSION
BOUBCE
Age
Slowing Down Length
(cm)
(cm)
33
6.7
120
11.0
98
9.9
350
18.7
the ages of thermal neutrons from fission for ordinary and heavy water, beryllium,
and graphite at 20C. The data for the first two substances are not really the
Fermi ages, since the continuous slowing down theory does not apply to them;
they are experimentally determined values of r2/6 for thermal neutrons, to which
the age is physically equivalent [cf. (6.141.1)].
THE ELEMENTS
184
[6.146
Diffusion and Slowing Down Times

6.146.
It
is of interest to determine
the average time spent by a neutron
slowing down from fission to thermal energies, i.e., the average chronological
as denned in 6.129.
Equation (6.124.1) may be written in the form
in
age
(61461)
where
dE is the energy loss suffered by a neutron in time

The total time
continuous slowing down model.
dt, according
to
the
required for the energy to
be
decreased from the fission energy E0 to the thermal energy Etb, i.e., the average
chronological age of fast neutrons when they become thermal neutrons, is ob
tained by rearrangement
and integration
Jo
6.147. Replacing
of (6.146.1); thus,
jB<b e
by V2E/m, where
jf-
(6.146.2)
m is the actual mass of a
neutron,
and

assuming an average value of X represented by X (6.146.2) becomes
t in sec, X, must be in cm, as usual, m in grams (1.66 X 10~"

The data and results
gram), and E0 and Eth in ergs (1 Mev = 1.60 X 10-s erg).
for the four common moderators are given in Table 6.147; the slowing down times
are from E0 = 2 Mev to Eth = 0.025 ev.
In order to evaluate
TABLE 6.147.
SLOWING
DOWN AND DIFFUSION TIMES FOB THERMAL NEUTRONS
Moderator
Water
Heavy water
Beryllium
Graphite
6.148.
X,
.
,
(cm)
Slowing Down Time

.
,
Diffusion Time
,
(sec)
(sec)
1.1
2.6
4.6
1.6
6.7
2.6
1.5
X
X
X
10~6
2.1
10~s
0.15
10~6
4.3
lO~*
1.2
X
X
X
10~
10~ 3
'
10~2
For purposes of comparison the average diffusion time or lifetime of
thermal neutron,
as
it is often called, i.e., the average time spent diffusing
as
a
a
thermal neutron before capture by the moderator at ordinary temperatures, is

given in the last column of Table 6.147. The average lifetime l0 of a thermal
neutron, in an infinite medium, is equal to the average distance traveled before
absorption, i.e., the absorption mean free path X( = l/20), divided by the mean
velocity
of the neutrons, i.e.,

(6.148.1)
THE SLOWING
6.151]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
185
The mean velocity of thermal neutrons at ordinary temperatures
It is seen
is taken as
from the results in Table 6.147 that the

X
average slowing down time in a moderator is usually much less than the so-called
lifetime or diffusion time of the thermal neutrons.
It should be noted that the
calculations made above are for infinite media, in which there is no leakage of
neutrons from the system, and there is no absorption other than that due to the
moderator itself.
2.2
106 cm per sec ( 3.19).
6.149. In 5.50, et seq., the flux distribution about an infinite plane source of
thermal neutrons was calculated from diffusion theory.
In the present section
it will be shown, by a separate consideration of slowing down and diffusion, how
the results for the distribution of thermal neutrons are modified when the source
is one of fast neutrons which suffer slowing down.
The procedure involves, first,
the solution of the age equation, as in 6.131, et seq., to satisfy the source condi
tion; then the slowing down density, evaluated from the thermal age, is used as
the source term in the thermal neutron diffusion equation.
6.150. The thermal neutron slowing down density for an infinite plane source
emitting one neutron per cm2 per sec is given by (6.134.2) as
Q(x)
(6.150.1)
where the x-axis is normal to the plane of the fast neutron source; in this expres
sion r is the age of the thermal neutrons from the given source.
Consequently,
in an element of volume, at the position x0, having a cross section of 1 cm2 and a
thickness dx0 cm, the source of thermal neutrons is
S(x0) dx0 = 7== dx0.
(6.150.2)
V47rr
Now, upon introducing the infinite plane diffusion kernel,

5.95, it follows that the thermal flux at x is given by
In
in Table
jC"P
* ~
(6150
3)
i^TTr
'
as recorded
c-K/4r
'
/to
g- z-x,
it
is
order to evaluate the integral in (6.150.3),

split into two parts,
=
=
to x0
x to x0 = oo in the former
x, and the other from Xo
one from xo
x0, while in the

> x#, so that x
x in the exponent may be replaced by
;
6.151.

Slowing Down and Diffusion of Fast Neutrons from Infinite Plane

Source in an Infinite Medium
THE ELEMENTS
186
latter,
Xo
> x and then
xo [
is equal to
xo
x.
[6.151
Consequently, (6.150.3)
may be written as
Zihz LXexp i~KX +
KXo
dXo
+l
exp
(KX
KXo
^)dXo]
(6.151.1)
These integrals are of the form
leading to the error functions, the values
fe~* du,
of which are tabulated.
exp
exp
dx0 = C1*
(kx0
J"
7i
6.152. Consider the first integral represented by
iC*/tJ
^~^=
dx0,
and let
that
du =
dxo
2Vr^rr
is
where the error function (erf)
erf
(6.152.1)
v^)]'
Vx Jofe-"
~=
du.
- erf
dx0
V7t <f*
"xo
|^
exp
\1
J"
it
can be shown that the second integral in (6.151.1)
I,
similar manner
^=
c--
defined by
erf (x) m
In
du+V*^-
'
is
V7t
du]
jfY
j**
V~T^
becomes
e-+du
[2
]l
Then the expression for the integral
2V~t
KV^
(6. 152.2)
(2^
rf]
* - erf fa +
erf
i*-
11
Using (6.152.1) and (6.152.2) for the solutions of the integrals, (6.151.1) becomes
>

so
(6.152.3)
THE SLOWING
6.154]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
187
which is the expression for the thermal flux distribution in the case of a plane
source of fast neutrons at the origin.
6.153. If the source had consisted of thermal neutrons, the age r would be zero.
The same will be true, in general, if the flux distribution applies to neutrons of
the same energy as the source. In other words, for the case of diffusion of monoenergetic neutrons, t would be zero and (6.152.3) should reduce to (5.51.2) for
the distribution of monoenergetic neutrons about an infinite plane source.
Setting t = 0, the error functions are both unity and e"^ is also unity; hence
1
+ 0) =
(6.153.1)
2kD'
which is identical with (5.51.2), as expected.

6.154. A comparison of the thermal flux distribution from a plane source of
fast neutrons, as given by (6.152.3), with that for a similar source of slow neu-

.T
= 0
DISTANCE
Fig. 6.154.
(THERMAL SOURCE)
K2T
0.25 (FAST SOURCE)
FROM
SOURCE IN UNITS
OF
Vr+TT
Thermal flux distribution for infinite plane source in infinite medium
trons, as obtained from (6.153.1), is made in Fig. 6.154. The relative flux is
plotted against the distance from the source in units of vV+L", where L is the
THE ELEMENTS
188
[6.154
One curve is for a thermal source (r = 0), and the other is for
with k2t (or t/L2) equal to 0.25. In this case, Vt + D,
fast
neutron
source
a
called the migration length ( 7.64), is not very different from the diffusion length
diffusion length.
It is seen that the flux distribution for a plane source of

in an infinite slowing down medium becomes virtually identical
with that for a similar source of thermal neutrons beyond about three migration
of the slow neutrons.
fast neutrons
lengths.
Fermi Age Equation with Weak Capture
In
the derivation of the Fermi age equation given above, it was postu
lated that there was no absorption of neutrons during the slowing down process.
6.155.
If the
capture is not great and the cross section does not vary rapidly with energy,
the Fermi age treatment may be modified to give results which are satisfactory
to a fair degree of approximation.
6.156. Consider an interval of lethargy du lying between u and u
+ du.
The

number of neutrons entering this interval per cm3 per sec, because they are slowed
down from higher energies, is the slowing down density at u, i.e., g(u) ; on the
other hand, the number leaving this interval, because they are degraded to lower
energies,
is q(u
+ du).*
The
excess neutrons
q(u) q(u
entering
over
those
leaving
+ du) which may be represented by

(dq/du) du, assuming that the slowing down density can be treated as a con
tinuous function of the energy (or lethargy). This excess number of neutrons is
balanced, in the steady state, by the leakage of neutrons, which is D(u) Vîu) du,
the lethargy interval is thus
(u)
is the flux per unit lethargy interval, and by the absorption 2<(u) du,
in the specified interval du. The steady-state equation is
where
2<Ku)
= 0,
the factor du having been cancelled out from each term.
(6.156.1)
It should
be noted that
cross section 2 refers only to absorption of neutrons during slow

ing down, and does not apply to capture that may take place subsequently, e.g.,
after the neutrons have become thermalized in a reactor.
the absorption
6.157. According to (6.110.1),
the relationship between
the flux per unit
lethargy interval and the slowing down density q'(u) with absorption, in the
of slowly varying capture cross section, is given by
*() =
<
q'(u)
2.
+ 72.
where 2, and 2 are the macroscopic cross sections for scattering and absorption,
respectively, of the neutrons of lethargy u. Hence, (6.156.1) may be written as
*
It
creases.
should be recalled that, in accordance with its definition, u increases as the energy de
THE SLOWING
6.159]
DOWN OF NEUTRONS
189
where the q's have been primed throughout to indicate that they refer to the
slowing down density with absorption.
The assumption is made that , 2 and
2 are independent of position, which is approximately true for a bare reactor.
6.158. As seen in 6.111, the slowing down density q' with absorption may
be related to that without absorption, i.e., q, in a system of infinite extent, by the
approximate relationship
q'(u) = q(u) exp
(- jT pt + yz
(6.158.1)
By making this substitution in (6.157.1) and noting that differentiation of q'(u)

cancels the second term on the
for slowing down with absorption,

T'(u) =
is
now the age
r',
If
one of which
defined by
(6-158-3)
w^hrndu>
7'g =
I2,-
(6.158.2) reduces to
(6.158.4)
OT
is
is
fairly small, so that {2,

not
the absorption during slowing down
720
very different from 2 equation (6.158.3) for the age with absorption approaches
(6.128.1) which defines the age without absorption, and (6.158.4) becomes
If
q'(u)
is
it
is
essentially the same as the Fermi equation (6.128.2).

the reso
6.159. It will be observed that the exponential term in (6.158.1)
6.111, so that
possible to write,
nance escape probability p(u), as given in
for the case of weak capture,
- q(u)p(u),
is
is
It follows, therefore,
the slowing down density without capture.
from the result of the preceding paragraph, that the slowing down density with
approximately equal to the slowing down density without cap
weak capture
solution of the Fermi equation, for the same energy, multiplied
ture that
where q(u)
is

with respect to u gives two terms,

left-hand side, the result is
by the resonance escape probability at that energy.
190
THE ELEMENTS
PROBLEMS
1. S fast neutrons per cm3 with energy Eo are being uniformly produced in an infinite
homogeneous scattering medium per sec and are slowing down without absorption to a
lower energy Ei, such that Ei
aEo, where a very high absorption resonance exists.
Assuming that all neutrons having energies in the interval E\ E2 are absorbed, cal
culate the fraction of source neutrons that slow down past E% if Ei < E\ and Ei > aE\,
where a is defined by (6.12.2).
2. In some experiments it is necessary to increase the neutron source strength above
This may
that available from a thermal column of a reactor or from a Po-Be source.
To illustrate, consider an
be done by means of a fission plate which contains U-235.
infinite plane source of thermal neutrons emitting S neutrons per cm2 per sec in an infinite
A very thin sheet containing U-235 is placed at a distance a from
graphite medium.
this thermal neutron source.
Neglect the scattering effects of the fission plate, depres
sion of the flux, and the absorption of fast neutrons.
(a) What is the slowing density at ru, as a function of position?
(6) What is the thermal neutron flux?
(c) What is the power of the fission plate per cm'?
3. Develop a rigorous formula for the resonance escape probability in an infinite
medium that has constant scattering and absorption
homogeneous non-hydrogeneous

cross sections.
Chapter
VII
THE BARE HOMOGENEOUS THERMAL REACTOR*

(Sources Determined
by Fermi Age Theory)
THE CRITICAL EQUATION

Introduction

7.1.
In the preceding chapters the diffusion and slowing down of neutrons from
various sources were considered without specific reference to the nature of these
sources or the detailed properties of the medium.
The results will now be applied
in particular to the bare, homogeneous,

specifically to a multiplying system
thermal reactor consisting of fuel material and moderator, as described in
Chapter IV. It will be recalled that in such a system slow neutrons are absorbed
by the fuel material and nuclear fission occurs. The fast neutrons produced in
this process are then slowed down, as a result of elastic collisions with the modera
tor nuclei. During the slowing down process some neutrons are lost by capture
and by leakage from the system, while the remainder reach thermal energies.
Some of these thermal neutrons leak from the reactor, whereas others are absorbed
by the fuel and cause fission, and so on.
If
a multiplying system of fuel and moderator is in a steady state, i.e.,

the time rate of change of the neutron density is zero, and there is no extraneous
7.2.
neutron source present, then a self-sustaining
Just
chain reaction must be proceeding.
by fission as are lost by absorption

and leakage. The system is then in the critical state, and the effective multiplica
tion factor is unity. A steady state is possible in a subcritical system if an ex
traneous source is present because the deficit between the neutron absorption
and leakage, on the one hand, and the production by fission, on the other hand,
However, such a sys
would be made up by the extraneous source of neutrons.
tem is not critical in the strict sense, since the chain reaction is not self-sustaining.
Upon removal of the extraneous source, the neutron density would steadily de
as many neutrons are being produced
crease.
* The subject matter of this chapter is due almost entirely to the work of E. Fermi and his
associates.
191
THE ELEMENTS
192
[7.3
7.3. The purpose of the present chapter is to find the conditions under which a
reactor will become critical and maintain a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
Suppose that an extraneous source of neutrons is placed in a subcritical assembly

Owing to the presence of fissionable material, the
of uranium and moderator.
source neutrons will be multiplied; that is to say, some of the source neutrons
captured by the fuel will cause fission which in turn will produce more neutrons,
and so on. Eventually a steady state will occur if the system is subcritical;
The first problem

in
with
is to calculate the neutron distribution
a simple assembly
an extraneous
source of neutrons.
As a result of this calculation, the conditions under which
a chain reaction becomes self-sustaining will be found.
7.4. In this book, the thermal neutron chain reaction only will be discussed.
Physically, this means that the ratio of moderator atoms to uranium atoms is
sufficiently large so that relatively few neutrons are captured during slowing
down.
Further, it will be assumed that the slowing down density and hence
the source of thermal neutrons in the system will be given by the Fermi age equa
To simplify the details of the treat
tion, as derived in the preceding chapter.
ment, without loss of generality, it will be supposed that both fission neutrons
and extraneous source neutrons are emitted at a single energy.
Source
7.5.
Neutrons ano Fermi Age Theory
The diffusion equation (5.35.1) for thermal neutrons may
form
D 7V(r,
t)
-So0(r, l) + pq(r, rft,
t)=y
be
written in the
.
,
(7.5.1)
where the thermal neutron flux at any point r and time t is represented by 4>(t, t)
and 2 is the macroscopic cross section for thermal neutrons.
The first term in
cm3
sec
in
a
volume
at r, due to
per
per
the
element
gives
algebraic
gain
(7.5.1)
of thermal neutrons;* the second term is the loss by absorption; and
the third term is the source term, which will be derived in the next paragraph.
Since
t) is equal to n(r, t)v, where v is the mean velocity of thermal neutrons,
diffusion
the right-hand side is equivalent

increase of neutrons
to dn(r, t)/dt, and
is,
(r,
of course, the net rate of
per cm3 per sec.
The number of fission and extraneous source neutrons reaching thermal

equal to the slowing down density at these energies.
energies per cm3 per sec
If there were no absorption during slowing down, this would be equal to q(r, rth,
the age of ther
which
the appropriate solution of the age equation, where m,
6.159, an approximate allowance for weak capture
As seen in
mal neutrons.
by the resonance
during slowing down can be made by multiplying q(T, rth,
escape probability, so that the required slowing down density, which
equal to
is
always negative for a reactor, the algebraic gain

Since V^,(r)
of neutrons, representing the leakage (cf.
5.34).
is
is
t)
is
is
<),
is
7.6.

othenvise the neutron density would increase without limit.
actually a numerical loss
THE BARE HOMOGENEOUS
7.9]
THERMAL
REACTOR
193
energies.
7.7. The slowing down density g(r, rth,
equation
P5(r,r,
with the proper conditions.
p
is
<),
the thermal neutron source term in (7.5.1), is given by pg(r, rth,

where
the resonance escape probability in slowing down from fission energies to thermal
can be obtained by solving the age

,
0=^^
(7.7.1)
where
is
there are produced fye fast (fission) neutrons,
absorbed,
el
is
t),
0,
is
is
One of these
given by consideration of the slow
ing down density of the neutrons having the source energy; this represented by
q(r,
since the age of these neutrons
It can be readily shown (see
zero.*
Fig. 7.33), from the definitions in 4.57,
seq., that for each thermal neutron
the thermal
i\
it
t).
is
t),
at the energy of the fission (and extraneous source) neutrons; thus,

g(r,0,/) =
(7.7.2)
^2^(r,0+S(r),
t)
is
a
which
coupling condition between the thermal diffusion equation and the age
equation.
7.8. The slowing down density depends on time also. However, slowing down
times are usually small compared to thermal diffusion times (see Table 6.147),
and hence the variation of g(r, t,
with time, for all values of t, may be consid
ered to arise entirely from the variation of the thermal flux, as expressed by
(7.5.1).
7.9. Further conditions
X<
it
is
on (7.7.1) arise from

consideration of the flux and
slowing down density at the boundary. If the system has no re-entrant surface,
the boundary condition on the thermal flux
that
shall vanish 0.71
beyond
the physical boundary
If
not
vary
does
with
the
energy,
X<
slowing
5.40).
down density will also vanish at the same surface. To simplify the treatment,
will be assumed that the extrapolation distance
independent of energy, so
that
Ql
(7.9.1)
_ gjat the extrapolated boundary.
,
is
it
it
is
*
Actually, as stated in 4.7, there an energy spectrum for fission neutrons, but
will be
assumed here that these neutrons are all produced with the same average energy, from which
they are slowed down continuously to an average thermal energy.
5

is
k is is
is
utilization,
the average number of fission neutrons for each neutron captured
by fuel, and
the fast fission factor.
Since, by definition, the infinite multipli
cation factor
equal to fop [cf. (4.61.1)],
follows that k/p represents the
number of fast neutrons, which are available for slowing down, for each thermal
neutron absorbed.
The total number of thermal neutrons absorbed per cm3
as
per sec
2<(r,
given by the second term in (7.5.1) hence the total number
of fast (fission) neutrons produced per cm3 per sec
This quan
(A;/p)Z<, t). This quan
tity, plus the extraneous source S(r), must be equal to the slowing down density
THE ELEMENTS
194
[7.9
It
r,
in general,
function of the space coordinates
of the
solution of (7.7.1) may be sought by separating these
variables, by writing
ff(r, r,
t,
rigorous treatment.
7.10. Since q(r, t, t)
age t, and of the time
is,
may be noted that, for large thermal reactors, the extrapolation distance
The results,
0.71X is small in comparison with the dimensions of the system.
obtained by assuming an extrapolation distance independent of energy, conse
quently do not differ appreciably from those which would be derived from a more
ft(r)e(r)r(0,
(7.10.1)
is
a
function of the space coordinates only, 6(t) of the age only, and
where R(r)
Making the substitution of (7.10.1) into (7.7.1) then gives
T(t) of time only.
{7.10.2)
or
6(r)
R(i)
7*fl(r) + BW(r)
and
(7.10.3)
-B\
(7.10.4)
is
The solution of (7.10.4)
dr
G(t)
o,
0,
is
(r)
or
6(t
(7.10.5)
t)
real positive number in order to satisfy the physical require

cannot increase with the neutron
ment that the slowing down density q(r, t,
where B* must be
The Approach to Critical
Suppose, for simplicity,

7.11. Consideration will now be given to (7.10.3).
assembly has the shape of parallel-sided, infinite slab, having
fuel-moderator
age.
An extraneous source
a, including the extrapolation distance.
the
placed at the plane of symmetry of the slab (Fig. 7.11).*
taken at the source plane, the spatial distribution of
origin of the coordinates
the slowing down density (and the flux) then depends on only one variable.
is
is
of neutrons
If
finite thickness
B*X(x) =
(7.11.1)
positive, real number, as stated above.
more general treatment, based on

givi in Chapter
source at the center,
is
where B2
is
^j^-
X(x), and (7.10.3) becomes

0,
be replaced by
Thus R(r) in (7.10.3) may

it
Since the left-hand side depends only on R(r) and the right-hand side only on
constant; thus,
6(t),
possible to set each side equal to
finite parallelepiped assembly, with an extraneous
XII.
7.14)
THERMAL REACTOR
PLANE
SOURCE
195
_
a
^x
M-0.7fA
1
Fig.
Infinite plane source in infinite slab of finite thickness
By the method used in
5.72, et seq. (see also, 7.38), it can be readily

a
solution
of
this
shown that
equation which satisfies both the requirements of
symmetry and the boundary condition on the slowing down density, namely,
q = 0 when x = \a, is
7.12.

7.11.
An cos
where n can be any odd integer.
The values of
B2
these being the eigenvalues
mrx
(7.12.1)
B2 are then
ffi,
given by
(7.12.2)
of the problem, each corresponding to an eigenfundion

It can be seen from (7.12.2) that the lowest (or funda
Xn defined by (7.12.1).
mental) eigenvalue is the one for which n is unity, i.e., BS; all the other possible
eigenvalues, namely, B82, Bs2, etc., must be larger.
7.13. The complete solution of (7.10.3) is given by summing the expressions
in (7.12.1) for all odd integers n from unity to infinity; if the result, which repre
sents R(r), together with (7.10.5) is inserted into (7.10.1), the equation for the
slowing down density becomes
q(T,
r, t)
-j? An cos
e-B"'rTn(t).
a
n-
(7.13.1)
The extraneous source at the plane of symmetry of the slab may

expanded in terms of a Fourier series (cf . 5.82) ; thus,
7.14.
5(r) = SS(x) =
5, Sn
iTi
cos
,
a
be
(7.14.1)
190
THE ELEMENTS
OF NUCLEAR REACTOR- THEORY
where, as above, n has odd integral values.
Then, from (7.13.1), (7.14.1), and
it follows that
the coupling condition (7.7.2),
*(r,
[7.14
t)~t [A*Tn(Q - SJ
cos
n1
2f
(7.14.2)
7.15. Equations (7.13.1) and (7.14.2) may now be substituted into the thermal
diffusion equation (7.5.1), and from the orthogonality of the Fourier cosine series,
each term corresponding
to a value of n is linearly independent; hence,
it is found
that
The diffusion length
+ vA.e-^T.m
of the thermal neutrons
denned by L2 =
"
r>(<)
+ vbs)sk
(7
iwn
16
Av4
by
~
1
+ L2BJ
kn and
Defining the quantities
(i
lo
rfa-*
D/2
in an
(7.16.2)
" ~
and
L2Bn2'
'
(7.16.1) becomes
r.(o
e(t-^
and the thermal flux, from (7.14.2),
is
7.17. The solution of (7.16.3)
is
(7.16.3)
- *)'
s"
a(i
then
Since the second term in the brackets contains
this evidently represents the

contribution to the thermal neutron flux due to the extraneous source. The
first term
then the contribution of the fuel-moderator system.
permits derivation
7.18. The importance of (7.17.1) lies in the fact that
It may be seen
to
become
critical.
the condition for given multiplying system
from (7.12.2) that, as the thickness a of slab increases, the value of Bn*, for
given n, decreases, and this means that kn, as defined by (7.16.2), increases cor
<Sn,
of
a
it
is

dt
dTn(t)
(i
is
of thermal neutrons
5.64), and 1/vSa
equal to the mean lifetime
to
Thus,
infinite medium
can
be
reduced
6.148).
(7.15.1)
x)
I".
f--
>]
is
7.16.
-I
7.22]
THERMAL
REACTOR
197
are such that kn is less than unity for

for all odd integral values of n, then fc will be nega
tive. The first term in the brackets in (7.17.1) will then decrease exponentially
steady state, in which the thermal
with time. The only way to maintain
neutron flux remains constant, would be to include an extraneous source. After
a short time, the exponential term would decay almost to zero, and the flux would
fuel-moderator system
be determined by the constant second term in (7.17.1).
not strictly self-sustaining.
of this kind subcritical and
7.19.
the assembly of fuel and moderator
increased in size, the Bn's will
decrease, and
point will be reached when the lowest Bn, namely B\, will be such
will be larger than
that
the lowest eigenvalue,
exactly unity. Since B\
all other possible values of kn. With fc =
the first term in (7.17.1) becomes
an extraneous source
constant, while the second term becomes infinite
a
state
to
this
be
source must be removed.
Hence,
realized,
present.
steady
Whenthis
done, the moderator-fuel system will obviously be self-sustaining;
the thermal neutron flux will remain constant in the absence of an extraneous
as the dimensions
is
is
if
is
if
is
1,
k\
is
ki
is
is
If
is
all possible Bn's, that
is,
As long
respondingly.
self-sustaining
This means that
- rhw -
fc
is
7.20. The critical equation which represents the condition for

thus, from (7.16.2),
chain reaction
The Critical Condition
(7-201)
given arrangement of fuel and moderator will become critical,

will be capable of maintaining a self-sustaining chain reaction, when its
dimensions are just large enough for the corresponding value of the lowest
eigenvalue Bi to satisfy the critical equation (7.20.1).
7.21. As stated above, ki, or n =
the largest kn; all others must conse
quently be less than unity. The corresponding values of the first term in the
nega
brackets in (7.17.1) must then decay exponentially in time, since fc
tive, and for a true steady state all must be zero. Therefore, when chain-react
critical, the series expansions for the flux, in (7.14.2) and (7.17.1),
ing system
and for the slowing down density, given by (7.13.1), both reduce to a single term,
in which n =
7.22. It
then, possible to write, for the steady (critical) state in the infinite
slab arrangement under consideration,
is
is,
1.
is
is
1,
i.e.,
it
*(r) =
rf-Acos^
and
q(r, rth) =

source.
cos
y e~***
(7-22.1)
(7.22.2)
THE ELEMENTS
198
where B2 has been written for
The
Bf,
the lowest, and only significant,
[722
eigenvalue.
variable has been omitted, since, in the steady state, the flux and slowing
of time.
Hence, from (7.22.1) and (7.22.2),
down density are independent
?(r,
rh)
- 2*(r)
e~*'*,'
(7.22.3)
that the slowing down density for thermal neutrons is everywhere proportional
to the thermal neutron flux, since k, p, 2, and e_fl,Tth are constants for neutrons
of a specified energy.*
Although this result has been derived here for an infinite
slab, it is independent of the shape of the assembly; it applies to any self-sustain
ing, chain-reacting, critical system in which the thermal neutron source is deter
mined by Fermi age theory, f
so
Material and Geometric Bucklings

Since the thermal neutron flux and the slowing down density are every
flux in the critical system also satisfies the
7.23.
where proportional, the thermal

wave equation (7.10.3), i.e.,
TV(r) + 520(r)
= 0,
(7.23.1)
where B2 is equal to Bi2 of (7.20.1).

Thus, B2, called the buckling, t is the lowest
eigenvalue of the wave equation for the critical reactor, subject to the condition
that the flux shall go to zero at the extrapolated boundary.

for a bare, homogeneous reactor may thus be written as
for**
1
+ UB2
1,
The critical equation
(7.23.2)
provided the continuous slowing down (Fermi age) model is applicable. It may
be noted that, since k is dimensionless, and the dimensions of both r and L5
are (length)2, the buckling has the dimensions of a reciprocal area.
It
has been found convenient to distinguish between two kinds of buck

The material buckling, Bm2, is the value of B2 that satisfies the critical,
7.24.
ling.
transcendental
equation
(7.23.2), so that in the critical reactor the spatial flux
distribution is given by
PV(r) + BV(r)
= 0.
(7.24.1)
It is assumed that fc and p are the same at all points in the system.
t The proportionality of g(r, t) and 0(r) is an important result, since then the steady state
equation, in conjunction with the zero flux boundary condition, becomes self-adjoint, i.e., the
*
eigenfunctions of the problem then form a complete orthogonal set over the reactor volume,
including the extrapolation distance. This simplifies considerably the perturbation theory for
bare, homogeneous reactors (Chapter XIII).
by J. A. Wheeler, originated from the fact that
t The name "buckling," suggested
V2</(r)/ = B* is a=measure
B* is ofa the
of buckling)
measure
the curvature
of the neutron flux at any
curvature (or
of the neutron
fluxbuckling)
at any
(or
in the critical reactor.
point
7.27]
THERMAL
REACTOR
199
It
is seen from (7.23.2) that the materiaXJ>ucklingJia specific property of the

multiplying medium; its value is dependent only on k, t, and L2, which are deter
mined by the material and composition of the medium.
The geometric buckling,
B2, on the other hand, is denned as the lowest eigenvalue
the wave equation
7V(r) +
with the boundary condition that
BMr)
= 0,
that results from solving

(7.24.2)
(i)
shall be zero at the extrapolated boundary

of the system. As will be evident from 7.11, 7.12, and as will be shown in
more detail later, the lowest eigenvalue Bg2 is a property only of the geometry,
i.e., the shape and size, of the system under consideration.
7.25. The distinction between the material and geometric bucklings will be ap
parent from an examination of (7.24.1) and (7.24.2). The solution of (7.24.1),
with a single value of Bm2 determined by (7.23.2), will give the thermal neutron
flux
at any point in a critical reactor.
However, (7.24.2) does not, in gen
eral, represent the flux distribution with a single value of Bg2. If the system is
not critical, the thermal flux is obtained as a sum of terms, as in (7.14.2) or
For a critical (or near critical)
(7.17.1), involving all the eigenvalues of (7.24.2).
the
terms
first
and
drop out,
then the flux distribution can
system,
beyond the
be expressed by means of the lowest eigenvalue of (7.24.2) only.
In these cir
cumstances (7.24.1) and (7.24.2) become identical, so that the critical condition
can be written as

(r)
In other words, the geometric buckling,

shape is equal to the material buckling,
It will
Bg2,
Bm2,
of the critical system of a specified

for the given multiplying medium.
that the geometric buckling is inversely related to the dimensions of the system [cf. (7.12.2)]. Hence, if Bg2 is less than Bm2, the reactor will
be larger than the critical size and the system will be supercritical; but if Bg2 is
greater than Bm2, the system will be subcritical.
7.26. If the geometry of a reactor is prescribed, the value of the geometric
If this is set equal to B2 in (7.23.2), it is possible
buckling is fixed ( 7.36, et seq.).
to determine the composition of fuel and moderator which will make the reactor
critical, since k, r, and L2 are properties of the materials and their proportions
( 7.65, et seq.). Alternatively, if the composition of the multiplying medium is
specified, so that k, t, and L2 are known, the material buckling can be obtained
from (7.23.2). If this is then identified with the geometric buckling, the size
of the critical reactor, for a required shape, can be calculated.
7.27. It was seen in 4.71 that the criticality condition is that the effective
multiplication factor shall be unity. In view of the critical equation (7.20.1),
where B\2 is the lowest eigenvalue and hence is equivalent to the geometric buck
ling, the effective multiplication factor may be defined by
be seen below
(7.27.1)
200
[7-27
When the reactor is critical, Bg2 is equal to Bm2, and the right-hand side of (7.27.1)
becomes identical with the left-hand side of (7.23.2) ; k*u is then equal to unity,
as required.
In a subcritical system, A;cff is less than unity; this arises because
the reactor is smaller than the critical size, i.e., Bg2 is larger than the critical
Similarly, as stated above, a reac
value Bm2 for the given multiplying medium.
tor will be supercritical when the geometry is such that Bg2 is smaller than Bm2; it
follows from (7.27.1) that kQu is then greater than unity.
Neutron Balance in a Thermal Reactor

proceeding to derive the connection between the geometric
buckling and the size and shape of a thermal reactor, it is of interest to consider
7.28. Before

If the reactor
the significance of the quantities in the critical equation (7.23.2).
were infinite in size, so that there were no leakage, the critical condition would be
that the infinite multiplication factor k should be unity ( 4.47). The use of
the continuous slowing down (Fermi) model evidently introduces two factors,
namely, e_B,r and (1 + UB*)-1, which take into account the fact that the reactor
has finite dimensions, so that leakage of neutrons from the system occurs.
7.29. As seen above, the number of thermal neutrons absorbed per cm3 per
sec is equal to 20(r).
By definition, k is the number of thermal neutrons pro
on
in
the average,
one generation for each thermal neutron absorbed, in
duced,
an infinite medium.
Hence, if the reactor were infinite, and there were no leak
age of neutrons during slowing down, the density of source neutrons would be
The actual number of neutrons becoming thermalized per cm3
(fc/p)2a<(r).
per sec is equal to pq(r, t) as shown in 7.6, and, from (7.22.3), this is seen to be
Thus the factor e_BV represents the probability that the
equal to A;2(r)e_B,r.
fast neutrons do not leak out of the finite reactor while being slowed down; in
other words, e~BV is the nonleakage probability of the neutrons during the slowing
down process.*
7.30. The algebraic gain of thermal neutrons per cm' per sec by diffusion in a
volume element at a point r in a reactor is given in (7.5.1) as D V2(j); hence,
the rate of loss, i.e., the number of neutrons leaking out per cm3 per sec, is
7V(r), in agreement with (5.31.2). Since
V2<P(t) is equal to Z>BV(r),
by (7.23.1), where D, B2, and <(r) are all positive quantities, it follows that the
actual number of thermal neutrons leaking out of a volume element of the reactor
is DB24>(r) per cm3 per sec.
The number of thermal neutrons absorbed per cm3
per sec is 2<(r); hence, the ratio of thermal leakage to thermal absorption at
any point, and consequently for the reactor as a whole, is given by
-D
-D
Thermal Leakage
Thermal Absorption
*
DB2
2
^2g2
This expression for the nonleakage probability was obtained by Fermi even before the dis
covery of fission [cf. E. Fermi and F. Itasetti, Ricerca Scient., 9, 472 (1938)].
7.33]
THERMAL
REACTOR
201
D/20 is equal to L2, as seen above. The fraction of the neutrons slowed
to thermal energies which are absorbed is now obtained by adding unity to
side of (7.30.1) and inverting; the result
+
Thermal Absorption
Thermal Leakage
Thermal Absorption
is
eacb^
since
(7.30.2)
L2B2
'
is
is
is
the fraction of the neutrons thermalized in the reactor

L2B2)
In other words, 1/(1
which are absorbed as thermal neutrons.
the
L2B2)
of
the
thermal
neutrons.
probability
nonleakage
7.31. It
of interest to examine the physical significance of the various
Thus, 1/(1
+ is
L,
is
is
if
is
is
is
is
is
is
is
is
a
is
it
is
is
it
et
is

r a
is
is
is
is
It was seen
quantities which appear in the nonleakage probability factors.
earlier that when the reactor system
small B2
large, and vice versa.
large
value of B2 will mean that both e'** and 1/(1
will
be
relatively small.
L2B2)
to be expected, the neutron leakage, both during slowing
Consequently, as
small reactor.
down and while thermal, will be large for
Next consider the
related to the average (crow-flight) distance
6.141, this
age, t; as shown in
It to be anticipated, therefore,
traveled by
neutron while slowing down.
will mean a small nonleakage probability, as
in fact the case,
that a large
then small.
Similar considerations apply to the diffusion length,
since e BlT
which
measure of the average distance traveled by the thermal neutrons
should mean
before capture.
large value of
large probability of leakage
in agreement with the thermal nonleakage probabil
from the reactor, and this
ity represented by 1/(1
L2B2).
7.32. The product of the two terms e'** and 1/(1 + L2B2)
thus the total
nonleakage probability of the neutrons in the finite reactor from their source as
This the quantity which
fission neutrons to their capture as thermal neutrons.
was represented by the symbol
in 4.67, and so fce B,T/(l
L2B2) must be
equal to the effective multiplication factor. Comparison with (7.27.1) shows
that B2 in the nonleakage probability terms
actually the geometric buckling
of the system.
If, for
too small,
given multiplying medium, the reactor
so that Bg2
larger than the critical value, the nonleakage probabilities will be
the
total neutron leakage will be larger, than permissible
chain
i.e.,
smaller,
to be maintained.
reaction
7.33. By combining the results obtained above, on the basis of the theory of
continuous slowing down of neutrons, with the discussion in 4.57,
seq., of the
significance of the quantities which make up the multiplication factor,
pos
sible to draw up the accompanying scheme (Fig. 7.33) for a single cycle or genera
tion of a thermal neutron chain in
finite reactor of critical size. The chain
started with one thermal neutron, on the right-hand side of the box at the top of
the page, and
then follows the path indicated by the arrows, down the righthand side and up the left-hand side. The zigzag lines imply fission processes,
and the arrows to right and left of the main path represent neutron losses due
to various causes. The number of neutrons produced in
thermal fission
THE ELEMENTS
202
[7.33
Critical condition
ke-'*
Thermal neutrons
absorbed in reactor
ke"T
TTUb'
Iron
kP,Pr
.z keB'T
Thermal neutrons
Neutrons thermalized in reactor
kP(U
absorbed in fuel
Pr)
f(l
Neutrons leaking
out between reso
nance

- a)
Nonproductive capture
of thermal neutrons by
fuel
and thermal|
energies
nftpP,
= kPi
Thermal neutrons
Neutrons which ei
cape resonance
capture
Df(l
Nonproductive capture
of thermal neutrons
in "poison," moder
ator, structure, etc.
Thermal neutrons
leaking
reactor
captured in fuel
leading to fissions]
- p)P,
Neutrons captured
Thermal fission
in-
region
art
uf*Pt
ijf
Fast neutrons pro
Neutrons which
enter resonance
region
duced by thermal]
fission
i)U(l-P|)
Neutrons leaking
out before reso
nance region
Fast fission
effect
ite
Total number of
fast neutrons pro
duced by fission
Fia.
7.33.
Neutron cycle in critical thermal reactor
7.36]
THERMAL REACTOR
203
represented by v, while a is the ratio of the fission cross section to the total cross
section for absorption in fuel of thermal neutrons.
The nonleakage probability
during slowing down has been divided into two parts: Pt is that from fission
energies to the resonance region, and Pr is from resonance to thermal energies.
The product PfPr is the total nonleakage probability during slowing down and
hence is equal toTP**^
For the reactor to be just critical, the quantities on the
two sides of the equation in the box at the top must be equal, and this is seen to
be in accord with (7.23.2).
Generation Time
7.34. The average time between successive generations of thermal fissions,
called the generation time, is equal to the sum of the slowing down time of the
fast fission neutrons and of the diffusion time, or lifetime, of the thermal neutrons.
The slowing down time in the reactor will be approximately the same
as
for the
moderator, as calculated in 6.146,

seq., but the lifetime of the thermal
neutrons will be decreased because of the larger absorption cross section [cf.
Further, allowance must be made for leakage from the reactor.
(6.148.1)].
The mean (or average) lifetime l0 of a thermal neutron in an infinite medium is
defined by
v.
1

et
-t-h
(7341)
based on the supposition that all the neutrons remain in the system and none
However, in a system of finite size only the fraction 1/ (1 + UB7) of
escape.
the thermal neutrons do not escape, as seen above. The average lifetime I of
a thermal neutron in a finite reactor is thus diminished by this fraction, so that
I =
Y+î-
(7.34.2)
For a graphite-uranium reactor, the mean value of 2 may be about

For a large
.005 cm-1, and v is 2 X 10s cm per sec, so that k is about 10-8 sec.
reactor 1 + ZAB* is not much greater than unity, so that I may be taken to be
7.35.
about 10~3 sec. The slowing down time, as seen in Table 6.147, is 1.5 X 10~4
sec, in graphite, so that in the uranium-graphite system the generation time is
For a reactor in which a
essentially equal to the lifetime of thermal neutrons.
neutrons
with energies above
by
of
the
fissions
are
caused
considerable proportion
thermal, the generation time is defined as the average time between successive
This is determined largely by the appropriately weighted
fissions of all types.
slowing down times to the various energies at which the fissions occur.
THE GEOMETRIC
BUCKLING
Reactors of Various Shapes

7.36. As stated earlier, the geometric buckling is the lowest eigenvalue of Be*
obtained from the solution of the wave equation (7.24.2) for a system of particu
THE ELEMENTS
204
lar size and shape, subject to the condition that (r) shall vanish at the extra
polated boundary. Expressions for the geometric buckling will now be derived
for reactors of various shapes. The treatment here will be restricted to the fol
lowing geometries: an infinite slab of finite thickness, a rectangular parallelepiped,
a sphere, and a finite cylinder. The method can, however, be extended to many
other geometrical shapes.
Case
I.
Infinite Slab Reactor of Finite Thickness
of finite thickness H; this thickness

includes the extrapolation distance ( 5.40) at each face, so that it is the actual
The origin
geometrical thickness plus twice the extrapolation distance of 0.7LV
0 of the coordinates is taken at the center of the slab (Fig. 7.37), and the problem
7.37. Consider an infinite slab reactor
I
I
I
I
I
0
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Fig.
involves only
7.37.
Infinite plane slab reactor of finite thickness
one variable,
namely,
i.
To relate the geometric buckling to
to solve the wave equation (7.24.2)

zero at the extrapolated boundary.
shall
become
the condition that (x)
therefore, that
boundary condition
thickness
of the slab, it is required
the
with
The
when
(x)
0,
is,
\H,
and \H are the coordinates of the extrapolated boundaries, to the

right and left of the origin, respectively.
merely cP/dx2, and conse
7.38. In the present case, the Laplacian operator
quently the wave equation (7.24.2) becomes
-\-\H
is
since
BMx)
0.

(7.38.1)
7.40]
The requirements that
4>(x)
THERMAL
REACTOR
shall be finite within the slab and become zero at the
extrapolated boundaries lead (cf.
to the permissible solution
5.74)
(x)
A cos Bx,
since Ba* is real and positive.

7.39. Upon applying to (7.38.2) the boundary condition that
zero when x = %H, the result is
.
BgH
(x)
would
A cos
Since A cannot
be zero,
205
for then
|-
(7.38.2)
(x)
shall be
= 0.
be zero everywhere,
it follows that
and hence
BjH
~2t'
2
In other words, BgH/2 must be equal to an odd num

if cos BgH/2 is to be zero. By definition, the
ber of half integral values of
geometric buckling is the lowest eigenvalue of the wave equation, so that n must
be unity, and hence
where n is an odd integer.
BQH
2
x
2
or
=
This equation gives the geometric buckling

its thickness.
The value of
()'
BB2
H which would
(7-391)
-
of the infinite slab in terms of
H,
make the geometric buckling equal
to the critical (or material) buckling, i.e., the value which would satisfy (7.23.2)
when B2 is replaced by (t/H)*, is the crilical thickness of the infinite slab reactor
for the given materials and composition.
7.40. Upon inserting the value for Bg given by (7.39.1) into (7.38.2), the spatial
distribution of the neutron flux, in the x-direction, in a bare, infinite slab (ther
mal) reactor in the critical state is found to be
<fr(x)
A cos^,
(7.40.1)
H is the critical thickness. The proportionality constant A is determined

by the power level of the reactor, since the power output is, in principle, inde
pendent of the size of the system, provided it is critical.
where
206
Case
II.
[7.41
Rectangular Parallelepiped Reactor
in the form of a parallelepiped with

edges of length a, b, c, which include the extrapolation distances; let the origin
of the coordinates be at the center of the reactor (Fig. 7.41). Since three rec-

7.41. Consider a bare nuclear reactor
Fig.
reactor
Rectangular parallelepiped
7.41.
tangular coordinates must be taken into consideration, the Laplacian operator

is given by (5.32.1), and hence the form of the wave equation (7.24.2) to be
80lved
where
**
represents
(x,
so that
(x,
y, z) = 0,
(x,
y, z).
when
av
(7.41.1)
The boundary condition is that
\ a,
x =
y = + 6,
or
y, z) shall go to zero at the extrapolated
or
z =
boundaries
\c,
in the three
directions.
7.42.
If
the variables are separable, so that
<K*,V,z)
- X(x)7(3f)Z(z),
(7.42.1)
dx2
'
dy*
'
dz2
~~
"
u'
where each of the first three terms is a function of one variable only.
possible to set each term equal to a constant quantity; thus,
'
^ = -*
dx*
(7.42.2)
It
is thus
(7.42.3)
7.45]
THERMAL REACTOR
207
,n
(PY
7.W~ *
1
a42-4)
S-S *
(7.42.5)
72
(S1
Consequently, from (7.42.2)

=
(7.42.6)
-Be2,
is
where, as will be seen shortly, a2, j34, and 72, are all positive quantities.
7.43. It will be noted that the problem here
similar in many respects to that
in 5.72, et seq., equations (7.42.3) and (7.42.4) being identical in form with
is
z)
The only
(5.72.1) and (5.72.2), respectively, with similar boundary conditions.
solution which satisfies the requirement of symmetry and that 4>(x, y,
shall
be zero at the extrapolated boundary [cf. (5.75.1)]
=
cos ax,
(7.43.1)
it
-a
is
-\
and so
a
(7.43.3)
dimensions,
can be found, by procedure exactly equivalent to that given above, that

and 7J must be real, positive quantities, and
/32
Acos
no essential difference between the x, y, and
a is
7.44. Since there
X
it
given by
thus simply related to the dimensions a,
b,
c
The geometric buckling
is
Hence, the lowest eigenvalue of B\ which must also be positive,
is
"-{if
of the
where, as before,
is
Z,
cos
cos
cos
>
-J*
V>
(x>
z)
is
Y,
z)
is
reactor.
obtained
in the critical reactor
7.45. The neutron flux distribution (x, y,
of
form
of
X,
for
and
all
of
which
are
the
(7.43.3),
the
solutions
by inserting
into (7.42.1); the result

is
which means that a2 must be

real, positive quantity.
This result
seen to
be identical in form with (7.38.2) for the infinite slab.
Hence, by introducing the
boundary condition that the thermal neutron flux shall become zero at the extra
= \a,
can be readily shown that the smallest value
polated boundary where
of a
a =
and
a =
(7.43.2)
dependent on the power output of the reactor.
(7.45.1)
THE ELEMENTS
208
[7.46
7.46. By using the method of Lagrange multipliers for constrained extremums,

it is readily found that for a specified value of B2, subject to the conditions of
(7.44.1), which is the constraint, a rectangular parallelepiped reactor will have a
minimum volume when its three dimensions are equal. The reactor is then a
cube of side o, and from (7.44.1)
so
that
The minimum volume, V, for a given value of BJ2, is equal to
hence,
If
a reactor is to be constructed in the form of a parallelepiped, it will have

minimum volume, and hence use the minimum amount of material, when
a
it
is cubic in shape. The actual critical volume can then be obtained by substitut
ing the value of Bm2 which satisfies (7.23.2), for the prescribed composition of the
medium, for 52 in (7.46.1).
Case
III.
7.47.
Spherical Reactor
In the treatment of a spherical reactor spherical coordinates are
used.
If the origin is chosen at the center of the sphere (Fig. 7.47), symmetry considera
tions rule out any dependence of the flux on the angles 6 and <p; hence, the La
Fig.
7.47.
Spherical reactor
placian operator is obtained from (5.32.2) by eliminating the terms in

The wave equation (7.24.2) thus reduces to
6 and
<t-

a%;
THERMAL
7.50]
with the usual boundary conditions that

comes zero at the extrapolated
REACTOR
209
is everywhere finite and that
boundary of the spherical reactor.
it
be
A solution
of
(7.47.1), with B2 positive, is

, , .
4>(f)
sin Br
cos Br
1
r
+ C
(r)
is finite at the origin eliminates

but the fact that the
Hence, a permissible solution of (7.47.1) is
*(r) = A 55^fT.
If R
7.48.
is the radius of the spherical
the cosine term.
(7.47.2)
reactor, including the extrapolation
distance for thermal neutrons, then the boundary condition requires that
shall be zero when r = R; hence, from (7.47.2)
a
sin ggg
,
_~a
n
A and R are not zero, this means that sin BR = 0, and consequently,
Since
BgR = nic,
In this case, the solution with n equal to zero

where n is zero or an integer.
is trivial, and hence the lowest eigenvalue is that for n = 1, which leads to the
(7.48.1)
The geometric buckling can be related to the volume,
B*
SBB*
is
If
set equal to Bm2 for the specified medium,

volume of the critical reactor.
B2
of the sphere by writing
this equation will give the

obtained by com
is
7.49. The flux distribution in the critical spherical reactor

bining (7.47.2) and (7.48.1); the result
is
V,
Bf
(!)2.
result
=4Sin,
r
*(r)
(7.49.1)
operator
is
cylindrical reactor of finite height, the Laplacian

If the z-axis made
expressed in cylindrical coordinates by (5.32.3).
In the treatment of
is
7.50.
Finite Cylindrical Reactor

a
IV.
is
Case
is
proportional to the power level at which the reactor

where, as in other cases,
critical
radius.
and
the
operating,
is

4>(r)
THE ELEMENTS
210
[7.50
to coincide with the vertical axis of the cylinder, only the z- and r-coordinates
need be considered (Fig. 7.50) and the wave equation becomes
r
dr2
dr
~l~
dz2
Bfr
= 0.
(7.50.1)
(r,

The boundary conditions of the problem are that

2) shall be finite and that it
shall go to zero at the extrapolated boundaries, i.e., when r = R or 2 = iH,
the origin being taken at midway up the cylinder of height H.
Fig.
Finite cyclindrical
7.50.
7.51. The solution of (7.50.1) is performed
r and
so
by writing
*(r,
z) =
reactor
by first separating the variables
e(r)Z(),
(7.51.1)
that (7.50.1) becomes, after dividing by 0Z,
in which the first term depends on 0 only, and the second term on Z
each of the terms can consequently be set equal to a constant.
Let
1
(<Pe
eVdr2
r'
_ a, '
de\
dr)
only;
(7.51.3)
is a constant, which may be a positive or a negative quantity, although

it will be shown later that it is positive.
Similarly, let
where
a2
dz2
p'
(7.51.4)
Conse
p.
(7.51.5)
By rearranging (7.51.3), and multiplying through by

=
211
actually positive.
Or2, the result
0,
(7.52.1)
which can be transformed into Bessel's equation in the following manner.

u be a new dependent variable defined by
u = or,
that
du
dQ
dr
= a
possible to write
dQ
du
du
dr
= a
dQ
du
(7
Then
is
a constant.
it
is
since a
52
52-4)
flaking the substitution
d&\du = rf.(PQ
du)
du
[a
dQ\
.,
de/dr, and (PQ/dr2, as given by (7.52.2),

in (7.52.1) for
the former becomes
r,
du)
(PQ
Tr d
/
[a
and hence,
+ utQ =
of zero order, provided

The general solution of (7.52.5)
u2,
and hence
is
(7.52.5)
Bessel equation
a positive quantity.
a2,
is
and hence (7.52.5)
is
7.53. The general Bessel equation of order n
is
"2
(7.52.3), and (7.52.4), respectively,
AJ0(u) + CFo(w)
(7.53.1)
Jo and F0 are Bessel functions of the first and second kinds, respectively,
of zero order.*
where

d7
(7.52.2)
(7
so
Let
3)
7.52.
REACTOR
is
B,2 = o
B2
and
/32
-a2
it
/32
may be positive or negative, although

where
quently, by (7.51.2)
is
THERMAL
7.53]
See
N. W. McLachlan, "Bessel Functions for Engineers," Clarendon Press, Oxford,
1934.
212
7.54.
If
a2
[7.54
is a negative quantity, then (7.52.1) is a form of the modified Bessel
equation
The solution will then
of order zero.
0 =
be of the form
A'h(u) + C'K(u),
(7.54.1)
where J0 and K0 are modified Bessel functions of the first and second kinds, of
zero order.
7.55. A choice between the two possible solutions, depending on whether or
is positive or negative, is made by using the boundary conditions.
The values
of the functions J0, Y0, J0, and K0 for various values of u are plotted against u
in Fig. 7.55, and an examination of the curves shows that
Y0, I0, and
K0 can
be

0 0.2
0.6
Fig.
1.0
7.55.
1.4
1.8
Zero-order
2.2
2.6
3.0
3.4
3.8
Bessel functions
since Y0 becomes oo and K0 becomes oo when u is zero, whereas

The only permissible solution of (7.52.1)
70 increases to infinity as u increases.
is therefore derived from (7.53.1), namely,
eliminated,
0(r) = AJ0(u) = AJ0(ar),
(7.55.1)
and consequently a2 is positive.

7.56. In order to evaluate a, use is made of the boundary condition that
to zero at the extrapolated boundary, i.e., when r = R. Since

z) which is dependent on r, it follows from (7.55.1)
0(r) represents the part of
that
0(r,
z) shall go
(r,
0(r) = AJo(aR) =
0,

and since the constant A cannot
where, it is apparent that
be zero,
THERMAL
REACTOR
213
for this would make 0(r) zero every
Jo(ctR) =
0.
This means that aR is equal to the value of u for which Jt>(u) is zero. It appears
from Fig. 7.43 that there is more than one value of u which will satisfy this condi
tion; however, the lowest eigenvalue of a2 corresponds to the solution for which
u has the smallest value.
This is the first zero of the Bessel function J0, namely,
Hence, aR is equal to 2.405, so that
2.405.
a =
2.405
and
a2
n
K ^
(7.56.1)
= I/2.405V
p 1
and (7.55.1) gives

G(r) =
A7(^p).
(7.56.2)
it now re
mains to solve the 2-dependent equation (7.51.4). Taking into account the sym
metrical distribution of the flux about the origin in the z-direction and utilizing
the usual boundary condition, it can be readily shown by a procedure similar to
that used for the infinite slab ( 7.38) that the solution of (7.51.4) is
By combining
(7.51.5),
(0-
(7.57.2)
buckling
(7.56.1), and (7.57.2), the geometric
for the finite, cylindrical reactor, in terms of its radius and height,
is
7.58.
(7.57.1)
is
and the lowest eigenvalue of
/32
Z(z) = C cos
given by
where
and
AJ0
(^j^) cos
(7.58.2)
(r,
z)
is
From (7.51.1), (7.56.2), and (7.57.1), the thermal neutron flux distribution in the
critical reactor seen to be
are the critical radius and height, respectively.
Minimum Volume
for Finite Cylinder

a
cylindrical reactor will have

specified
7.59. The smallest volume for which
the
by
be
method
for
directly
multiplier
determined
Lagrange
buckling can
minimum value of trR?H, subject to the constraint given by (7.58.1). Alter
a

7.57. The foregoing treatment has provided a solution for (7.51.3);
natively, (7.58.1) may
be rearranged
to yield
(2.405)W
THE ELEMENTS
214
and then the volume V of the cylinder, equal to nR2H, is
= T(2.405)2ff
BfH2
'
7r2
Upon differentiation with respect to H and setting the result equal to zero,
condition for the minimum volume is found to be
so
If
B2H2 =
that
3ir,
H=^wr^T'
this value for
the
(7-59-2)
is inserted into (7.59.1), it is seen that
The minimum volume of the cylindrical reactor for a given value of B, is thus
=
Summary
ir&H
148.2
(7.59.4)
and Review
7.60. The results obtained in the cases considered above are summarized in
Table 7.60. If it is required that a particular reactor shall be just critical, the
TABLE 7.60.
BUCKLING FOR VARIOUS
GEOMETRIES
Minimum
Buckling
Critical Volume
(2.J
Geometry
j^j
Rectangular Parallelepiped
^-J
Infinite Slab
161
B*
130
Sphere
148
j\
B*
Finite Cylinder
is (
geometric buckling, for specified shape, must be equal to the material buckling,
determined by the composition
For any given composition and shape,
7.25).
the minimum critical volume
indicated by the results in the last column,
the critical (or material) buckling.
It
seen that for a specified
less than for
composition the critical volume (and mass) of a spherical reactor
that, for any particular quantity of ma
any of the other shapes. The reason
is
is
is
where B2
is
As stated in the qualitative

discussion in Chapter IV, neutron production takes place throughout the volume
of the system, but leakage occurs only at the surface.
Hence, for
given com
position, the reactor with the smallest ratio of surface to volume will have the
smallest critical mass.
terial,
the sphere has the smallest surface area.

mi
7.61]
7.61.
An examination
of equations
THERMAL
(7.43.3),
(7.40.1),
REACTOR
215
(7.49.1), and (7.57.3)

cases con
shows that the thermal flux distributions in critical reactors, for the
sidered, can all be represented in terms of functions of u, namely, cos
and
J0
(2.405u), where u has the respective values given in Table 7.61.

TABLE 7.61.
Coordinate
Infinite Slab
Rectangular
'
Parallelepiped
Function
cos
mi
COS
ru
cos
iru
2
COS
ru
2
sin iru
Sphere
ru
Finite Cylinder
Jo(2.405w)
COS
Fig.
Sm
irU,
iru
These
THERMAL FLUX DISTRIBUTION IN CRITICAL BARE REACTORS
Geometry

~,
7.61.
x/lH
x/ia
v/V>
zl\c
r/R
r/R
Functions for determination of flux distribution
functions, for values of u from zero to unity, are shown in Fig. 7.61 ; it will be
noted from the last column of the table that u = 1 corresponds to the extra
polated boundary in each case, so that the flux is then zero. From the closeness
of the three curves it is apparent that the cosine function can be used in all cases,
as a first approximation, without incurring serious error.
THE ELEMENTS
216
(7.62
OF CRITICAL REACTORS
PROPERTIES
Large Reactors
7.62. In view of the inverse relationships between the geometric buckling and
the dimensions of a reactor, it follows that B2 is small for a large reactor.* Con
sequently, for such a reactor or, in general, when k is only slightly larger than
unity, e-fl,T may be expanded in series form and all terms beyond the second neg
lected; thus,
In
j _
these circumstances,
(j + B2r)-i
B2T
the critical equation
(7.23.2) becomes
k
(1
or
+ L2B2)(1 + &t)
(7.62.1)
(7"62/2)
+ B2(.L*+T)Sh
7.63. According to the arguments

in
of thermal neu
trons is equal, numerically, to one-sixth of the mean square distance traveled by
a neutron from the time of its emission from the source to its attainment of ther
If this distance is represented
mal energy, i.e^during the slowing down process.
by r,2, t#en t = gr,2, and (7.62.2) may be written as
6.141, the
Fermi
age
k
1
+ B2(L2 +
W)
The quantity L2 + |r.2 is referred to as the migration area and is indicated by

ie
Af2 = L2 +
(7.63.1)
Af2-
so
that when
B2 is small or,
in general, when k does not greatly exceed unity,
r+W2
or
^=r-
(7.63.3)
This expression may be regarded as denning the material buckling for a medium
having a multiplication factor not much greater than unity, so that the critical
Although (7.63.3) has been derived here from the con
system will be large.
tinuous slowing down model, it will be shown in Chapter XII that it is quite
The definition of Af2 in (7.63.1) is also
general and independent of any model.
general, although in continuous slowing down theory it is frequently represented
as
+ r.
*
In the remainder of this chapter, the treatment refers to critical reactors, and so the distinc
tion between B, and Bm2 is not necessary.
7.67]
7.64. Since L2 is one-sixth
travels as
THERMAL
REACTOR
of the mean square distance
a thermal
a thermal neutron before capture ( 5.64), it is
217
neutron
seen from (7.63.1)

that the migration area AT2 is one-sixth of the mean square distance a neutron
travels from its formation as a fast (fission) neutron to its capture as a thermal
neutron. The square root of M2, called the migration length, is thus a measure
of the distance traveled by a neutron from its source to its capture.
Calculation of Critical Size and Composition
given a particular size of reactor, it is required to determine the ratio of fuel to

moderator, which will make it just critical and, second, given a specified fuel-tomoderator ratio, it is desired to find the critical size. Both kinds of problem
may be illustrated by considering a relatively simple, but fairly practical, case in
which the fuel is assumed to be pure uranium-235 and the moderator is beryllium.
It should be pointed out, however, that because of the many simplifying assump
tions made in the preceding chapters, the results of the calculations given below
are approximate only. Their chief use, in actual practice, would be to serve as
a guide in the design of critical experiments.
7.66. Suppose it is required to make a homogeneous, bare, spherical reactor of
50-cm radius; what is the ratio of uranium-235 to beryllium that would make this
just critical? The infinite multiplication factor fc is equal to rifpe ( 4.61) and
it is sufficiently accurate to assume here that p and e are unity, so that k = t>/
( 4.62). If the absorption cross sections of the extraneous materials present in
the system are small, or negligible,
."Be
= R
"Be
*bL
|s.
since the thermal neutron flux may be taken as being the same in both fuel
and moderator in the homogeneous system. In this expression, z is the ratio
of the macroscopic absorption cross sections of uranium to beryllium, i.e.,
J*
Be
(7.66.2)
is,
where av and <7b are the nuclear absorption cross sections, and iVu and Aê are
the respective numbers of atoms of uranium and of beryllium in the system.
The problem therefore, to determine the value of the ratio Nv/Nb* for which
a spherical reactor of 50-cm radius will be just critical.
It
that the proportion of uranium-235 to beryllium in the

quite small, so that the slowing down properties of the homo
critical system
essentially those of pure beryllium. This fact permits the
are
mixture
geneous
7.67.
will
be seen
is

7.65. In the design of nuclear reactors, it is necessary to know something,

in advance, of the dimensions and fuel-to-moderator ratio required to make the
reactor critical. In this connection two types of problems are of interest : first,
THE ELEMENTS
218
[7.67
By defini
derivation of a relatively simple expression for the diffusion length.
tion, I? = D/2 and in the mixture the diffusion coefficient D of thermal neutrons
The absorption
is essentially that of beryllium, i.e., it may be taken as Db*
cross section 20 is approximately 2u + 2ae, so that
2u + 2b.
z +
The numerator Z>Be/2Be is equal to the square of the diffusion length for
beryllium; representing this by L02, it follows that
pure
(7-67.D
7.68. Upon introducing the values for
(7.67.1), respectively,
fc and L2, as given by

(7.66.1)
into the critical equation (7.23.2), it is seen that

If
+ LIB2
and
L<?B2
this equation is solved for z, the result is
+ WB"
(7.68.1}
in this equation, which was derived from (7.23.2), is the material buckling
Its value may be determined in the present
of the uranium-beryllium system.
case by setting it equal to the geometric buckling of a spherical (critical) reactor
For a sphere,
of 50-cm radius, as postulated in 7.66.
The
B2
by (7.48.1), where R is the extrapolated radius, which is approximately the

geometric radius plus 0.71X<, and \t is the transport mean free path ( 5.40),
or 0.71 X 3D, since D is X</3. In the present case, D is virtually that of beryl
lium, i.e., 0.70 cm, so that R is 50 + 1.5 = 51.5 cm. Hence,
B2 =
7.69. The value of

pure uranium-235
= 37.2
obtained from (4.57.1) which, in the present case, i.e.,

as fuel, takes the form
77 is
77
where
<t/
X 10- cm-2.
Of
<rc
is the fission cross section of uranium-235
fission) cross section.
and
<rc
Is its capture
These are 549 and 101 barns, respectively
(Table
(non4.57)
7.71]
since
is 2.5,
it follows that
tj
For beryllium,
is 2.1.
cm; hence, (7.68.1) gives
THERMAL
REACTOR
L02 is 560 cm2 and
219
t is
98
z = 6.6.
The total absorption cross sections <rb<>and <ru are 0.0084 and 650 barns, respec
tively, the latter being the sum of the fission and capture cross sections, and so,
by (7.66.2),

|E
Nbb
^
ti
^-4X6.6
650
8.5Xir.
This is the atomic ratio of uranium to beryllium required to make the 50 cmFrom the densities of the fuel and moderator
radius spherical reactor critical.
the critical mass of uranium-235 can then be calculated.
7.70. It is of interest to note that in the system under consideration k, as given
by (7.66.1), i.e., ?z/(z + 1), is about 1.84; this means that, since fcetf = 1 for a
critical reactor, about 45 per cent of the neutrons are lost due to leakage. The
fraction of source neutrons leaking from the reactor during slowing down is
1
which is about 30 per cent in the present case, while the proportion
of those which have been slowed down and leak out as thermal neutrons is
L2BV(1 + L2E2), i.e., 22 per cent, or 15 per cent of the total source neutrons,
It is evident that, in such a relatively
for the critical reactor of 50 cm radius.
small bare reactor, there would be a very large leakage of neutrons, most of the
It should
leakage taking place during the moderation of the fission neutrons.
be remembered that in the foregoing calculations the resonance escape probability
has been taken as unity.
7.71. The second type of problem, which is the inverse of the one just con
sidered, is to determine the critical size corresponding to a given composition
of core material; in other words, given 17, W, t, and z, it is required to find the
value of B2 for the critical system. The answer is to be found again in (7.68.1),
but the calculation is now more involved since it necessitates the solving of a
The method of solution is to write the critical equa
transcendental equation.
tion (7.68.1) in the form
6-bt =
(z
and let
B\
where
A = 2_^
and
1JZ
A and C are constants, and x is a variable.
then becomes
er*
(7.71.1)
Lo2B)>
- A + Cx,
C =
^,
J)ZT
The critical equation (7.71.1)

(7.71.2)
and this can be solved by iteration without difficulty. Since x is not large,
er* may be taken as approximately equal to 1 x; then, A and C being known,
(1
a preliminary value of x
.A)/(C + 1) is obtained from (7.71.2). With
THE ELEMENTS
220
17.71
this x, the two sides of the latter equation are evaluated.

In general the results
will not be equal, but if the left-hand side is the larger, then it is known that the
chosen x is too small, and vice versa.
Hence, another value of x is guessed, and
the procedure repeated; after three or four trials, the value of x = B2t, correct
to three significant figures, which will satisfy (7.71.1) can be found.
Since t is
known, the buckling
B2 can be determined,
of the critical
and the dimensions
reactor can be calculated.*
is
is
(1
1/
is
it
is
is
is
is
is
is
fcn
7.72. Two experimental methods have been used for the determination of the
critical size of a reactor.
The "exponential pile" method, which is applicable
only to large reactors, such as those using natural uranium as fuel, will be de
scribed in Chapter IX.
The other procedure, to be considered here, is that of the
critical assembly.
This requires the construction of a system consisting of the
fuel material and moderator, in the desired proportions, which can gradually
be built up until it approaches the critical dimensions.
At the center of the as
sembly is placed a neutron source, emitting about 107 neutrons per sec; this is
called the primary source.
As a result of the fissions induced in the fuel there is
an apparent multiplication of the primary source neutrons.
This multiplication
defined
as
of
the ratio
the total thermal neutron flux, due to both the
may be
primary source and fissions, to the flux due to the primary source only.
7.73. It was seen in 7.17 that the second term in (7.17.1) represents the con
tribution to the thermal flux of a point source at the center of a subcritical as
The presence of kn in this term indicates that the
sembly of fuel and moderator.
fast extraneous (primary source) neutrons are multiplied by fissions.
If no
fissionable material were present, so that kn would be zero, the thermal flux wrould
be determined solely by the sum of the source terms, like the second in the brack
ets in (7.17.1), with 1 k replaced by unity.
The effect of fissions, when fuel
is present, is therefore to multiply each of these source terms, for the different
values of n, by 1/(1 kn).
It is assumed that scattering and slowing down
are the same in both cases, i.e., with, and without fissionable material.
7.74. As the critical state is approached, the only value of
that
significant
the highest, previously called fa, which, as seen from (7.20.1),
identical with
It follows, therefore,
effective multiplication factor, kttl, defined by (7.27.1).
that in the system containing fissionable material the multiplication of the
primary source neutrons

then determined only by
Ku). At the critical
state Km
exactly unity, and hence the multiplication becomes infinite. When
the assembly
subcritical all the values of k are less than unity
7.18) and the
increased, the mul
multiplication
But, as the size of the assembly
finite.
tiplication of primary source neutrons increases and
becomes infinite when the
critical state
attained.
*

Experimental Determination of Critical Size:

The Critical Assembly
Graphical methods of solution based on the use of nomographs have been devised.
7.78]
THERMAL
REACTOR
221
if,
7.75. Results similar to those just described would be expected

instead of
point source, the source were distributed throughout the assembly in such
way that the source strength <S(r) were proportional to the lowest eigenf unction
is
is
0,
of the equation 72<S(r) + IPSiT) =

where S(r)
zero on the extrapolated
boundary of the assembly.
As before, the system
assumed to be homogeneous
and to have no re-entrant surface.
The source neutrons will now have the same
h<f'S
+ ... =
the same as for
central point source.
As the size of the assembly
the critical, kttt tends to unity, and the multiplication
becomes
infinite.
7.76. The multiplication can be determined
by measuring the
specified distance from the
thermal neutron flux within the assembly, at
first made in the absence of fuel and then repeated
source.
The measurement
The ratio of the two values gives the required mul
at the same point with fuel.
certain fixed field point, for the particular size of the assembly.
tiplication, at
The observations are repeated for assemblies of various sizes approaching the
critical.
con
7.77. For practical purposes,
venient to use the reciprocal of the multipli
cation of source neutrons; this will decrease
in value as the assembly grows in size, and
will become zero at the critical dimensions.
The reciprocal multiplication, at two or
function
plotted as
more field points,
is
experimentally
is
is
it
of the size of the assembly or, better, as

function of the mass of fuel material, e.g.,
then not necessary for
uranium-235. It
is
the system to become critical, for the criti

cal mass or size can be determined by ex
trapolating the curves to zero value of
FUEL MASS
is
Fig. 7.77. Determination of critical

the reciprocal multiplication, as shown in
mass
Fig. 7.77.
7.78. If desired, an actual critical assembly may be gradually built up until
If the system actually critical, the neutron
attained.
the critical condition
is

approaches
is
which
- Kti
1
KJS
S
+ huS
if
S
spatial distribution as the thermal neutron flux, and hence as the fission source,
in a bare reactor.
The nonleakage probability for the extraneous source neu
trons will then be the same as for fission neutrons, and the multiplication factor
of neutrons in the finite system in each generation will be fccff. Thus,
fast
neutrons are emitted by the source, there will be ktaS at the end of one genera
tion, fc2cff<S at the end of two generations, and so on. The multiplication of the
neutrons in the moderator-fuel system can then be represented by
THE ELEMENTS
222
[7.78
flux will remain constant with time in the absence of an extraneous source, since
a system that is just critical is in a self-sustaining
steady state.
If the
assembly
is still subcritical the flux will decrease steadily when the source is removed.
In
the event that the system is supercritical the flux would increase exponentially
with time.
Critical Mass
and Radius and Reactor Composition
7.79. The variation of the critical mass and critical radius of a thermal reactor,
ratio of fuel to moderator is changed, presents some interesting features.
as the
The curves in Fig. 7.79 give the critical radius of

1
1 1 1 1 1
00 at
III
a bare (unreflected)
H/U
sphere con-
225o||
i/

/!
\a
too
200
/
1
300
//
//!
/
/
/
1 1 1 1
500 700 1000
2000 3000
ATOMIC RATIO, H/O
Fig.
7.79.
Critical mass and critical radius as functions of atomic ratio
H/U
taining a solution of a salt of pure uranium-235 in ordinary water, and the cor
responding mass of uranium, for various atomic ratios of hydrogen to uranium
in the system. It is seen that, while the critical radius increases steadily as the
proportion of uranium decreases, the critical mass passes through a minimum.
There is thus a particular composition of the solution for which the critical system
involves a minimum mass of fuel.
7.80. The type of behavior illustrated in Fig. 7.79 is quite general for thermal
At the low ratio of moderator
reactors and is due to the following circumstances.
to fuel, e.g., low H/U in Fig. 7.79, the critical size of the assembly is small and
7.81]
THERMAL
REACTOR
223
the nonleakage probability is also small.

This is compensated for by the high
proportion of fuel which makes k large. As the ratio H/U is increased, k de
creases relatively slowly, but the nonleakage probability at first increases
rapidly (Fig. 7.80).
Consequently, the critical radius (and volume) increases

20
RADIUS,
Fig.
7.80.
30
CM
40
50
Fast nonleakage probability and multiplication factor as functions of radius
relatively slowly. The critical mass of fuel is determined, very roughly, by

the critical volume divided by the H/U ratio; hence, if the volume increases
less rapidly than does the value of the critical H/U, the critical mass will actually
decrease to a minimum. At this point, further increase in the critical size, due
to the decreased proportion of fuel, results in relatively little further change in
the nonleakage probability, but A; continues to decrease steadily because of
The critical mass then increases
increasing absorption by the moderator.
rapidly, becoming infinite when A; is unity.
7.81. As the ratio of moderator to fuel, i.e., H/U in the present case, increases,
the radius of the critical reactor becomes so large, that the total nonleakage
probability approaches unity. In this case, fc must equal unity for the critical
reactor, and so, by (7.66.1),
or by using the appropriate form of (7.66.2), which defines z,
TT
The values of av and
uranium-235 (7.69),
<th
- !).
are 650 and 0.32 barns, respectively,
Nn
2250.
and since
is 2.1 for
224
THE ELEMENTS
[7.S1
This represents the largest ratio of H/U for which a self-sustaining chain reaction
is possible, since this is the composition which makes k just equal to unity.
Any increase in the proportion of hydrogen will result in a multiplication factor
less than unity, due to parasitic capture in moderator, and a critical system will
be impossible.
Consequently, the curve in Fig. 7.79 for the critical mass be
comes asymptotic with a vertical line drawn at H/U = 2250; at this composition,
a (bare) homogeneous thermal reactor would have to be infinitely large to be
critical.
PROBLEMS

1. Find the minimum atomic ratio of Um to moderator atoms that will support a ther
mal neutron chain reaction in an infinitely large system for H20, D20, Be, and graphite
at 20C.
2. Calculate and plot the critical mass of bare, spherical, homogeneous thermal assem
blies containing U236 fuel, as a function of the atomic ratio of moderator atoms to LT!3S
atoms for the following moderators: D20, Be, and graphite at 20C.
3. Derive an expression for the geometric buckling of a system having the shape of a
hemisphere.
4. A bare, spherical reactor of 75-cm radius containing a uniform mixture of U536 and
Be is operated at 20C. Find the critical mass, the fraction of fission neutrons leaking
out as epithermal neutrons, and as thermal neutrons.
If 100 grams of Cd is uniformly
dispersed in the assembly, what is the increase in fuel required to maintain criticality?
5. Find the spatial distribution of fuel in a bare, spherical, thermal reactor that leads
to a uniform power distribution.
Treat all neutrons as being produced, scattered, and
absorbed at a single energy.
Chapter
VIII
HOMOGENEOUS REACTOR WITH REFLECTOR:

THE GROUP-DIFFUSION METHOD
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Properties of a Reflector
8.1. The critical mass of a reactor can be decreased by surrounding the core
This acts as a reflector
a scattering material, e.g., graphite, beryllium, etc.
since it scatters back into the chain-reacting system neutrons which would

with
A reflector thus reduces neutron

otherwise have been lost as a result of leakage.
leakage from the reactor core and permits a given fuel-moderator system to
become critical when the dimensions of the core are appreciably less than are
In this way, the use of a reflector makes possible
required for a bare reactor.
appreciable savings in the quantity of fissionable material required.
8.2. In addition to decreasing the
NEuTR0N F 1 u*
critical volume (and mass) of the core,
the reflector increases the average
power output of the reactor for a given
weight of fuel. As seen in Chapter IV,
REFLECTEDthe power level is proportional to the
average thermal neutron density or
flux in the core. In a reactor with
reflector, the neutron flux in the center
of the core is not essentially different
from that in a bare reactor, but near
REFLECTOR
CORE
REFLECTOR
the boundary the thermal flux is ap
preciably higher in the former
case.
This is represented in an approximate
Fig.
8.2.
Thermal flux distribution in bare

and reflected reactors
manner in Fig. 8.2, where the thermal

neutron flux is indicated for a bare reactor and for one surrounded by a re
flector.* The vertical lines represent the extrapolated boundaries of the core
*
The small "humps" in the flux in the reflector

225
are explained later ( 8.58).
226
[8.2
The average thermal neutron flux over the whole core and, hence,
the power output under given conditions are thus increased by the reflector.
The outermost regions of the core are used more effectively when a reflector is
and reflector.
present than is the case for a bare reactor (see also, 8.36, et seq.).
8.3. A general idea of the properties required for a reflector can be obtained
from the following considerations.
The chance of a neutron returning from the

reflector to the core is greater, the smaller the mean distance the neutron pene
trates into the reflector from the core. In other words, it is related to the scat
The smaller the

tering mean free path and hence to the diffusion coefficient.
scattering mean free path, the closer to the core will a neutron suffer its first col
This increases in two ways the chance that the neutron
lision, on the average.
will return to the core.
8.4. First, assuming approximately isotropic scattering ( 6.18, et seq.), the
probability that a neutron after its first collision will be scattered in such a direc
tion that it is headed for the core is proportional to the solid angle subtended by
The smaller the scattering mean
the core at the point of the scattering collision.
free path, the larger will be this solid angle, and hence the greater the chance for
the neutron to return to the core. Second, the probability that a neutron will
be absorbed in any medium in the interval from x to x + dx is 2 dx ( 3.45),
where Sn is the absorption cross section.
Hence, the probability that a neutron
will be absorbed in the reflector before it can return to the core is Z per unit
path length. It is seen, therefore, that the shorter the path back to the core,
the smaller the proportion of neutrons absorbed in the reflector.
8.5. In addition to the requirement that the scattering mean free path, and
hence the transport mean free path and the diffusion coefficient, of neutrons in
the reflector shall be small, it is evident, especially from the remarks at the end
of the preceding paragraph, that the absorption cross section of the reflector
should also be small.
The conclusions are in harmony with those reached in
It was seen that a
Chapter V in connection with the consideration of the albedo.
material will have a large albedo, and hence be a good reflector, when the quan
tity k D is small. Since k is equal to V 2/D, this is equivalent to the requirement
that the product 2D shall be small, and so is identical with the conclusion
reached above from general qualitative considerations.
8.6. It may be noted that an appreciable proportion of the neutrons leaking
from a reactor core do so during the slowing down process.
These will be neu
It would be advantageous
trons with energies in excess of the thermal value.
if they were returned to the core with their energies reduced, and this can be
achieved by using a good thermalizing material, i.e., a fight element with high
Actually, such materials, provided they
scattering cross section, as reflector.
have small absorption cross sections, best meet the other conditions referred tc
above.
8.10]
HOMOGENEOUS
REACTOR WITH REFLECTOR
THE GROUP-DIFFUSION
227
METHOD*
Introduction
treatment of a reflected reactor presents a difficult prob
lem. For a critical bare reactor, the slowing down density and hence the
thermal neutron source term is everywhere proportional to the neutron flux.
The thermal diffusion equation is then linear and homogeneous, and definite
solutions can be readily obtained.
Because the multiplying and slowing down
of
the
in
properties
reflector are,
general, different from those of the reactor core,
the neutron energy spectrum, which is fairly uniform throughout the bare reac
tor, changes markedly in the vicinity of the core-reflector interface.
As a result,
solution of the Fermi age equation to obtain the thermal neutron source term for
the diffusion equation, as in 7.10, et seq., becomes difficult.
8.8. One way of simplifying the analysis of the slowing down of neutrons in
composite media is by means of the group-diffusion method.
In this treatment, it
is postulated that the energy of the neutrons, from the source energy to thermal
energy, can be divided into a finite set of energy intervals or energy groups.
Within each group, the neutrons are assumed to diffuse, without energy loss,
until they have suffered the average number of collisions which would be re
At this point
quired to decrease their energy to that of the next (lower) group.
it is supposed that the neutrons are suddenly transferred to the latter group.
This process is supposed to continue while the neutron energy is degraded from
the group of highest (fission) energy to that of lowest (thermal) energy.
Group Constants
8.9. Since the energy spectrum of the neutrons in a reactor covers a continuous
range from thermal energies to about
is,
10 Mev, the group-diffusion concept is

evidently an approximation. This is partially overcome by assigning appropri
ate average values for each group to the various properties such as the cross
The procedure
sections and the diffusion coefficient of the core and the reflector.
for evaluating these group constants, as they are frequently called, will be illus
trated by reference to the case of two energy groups.
8.10. In the two-group treatment, neutrons of thermal energy constitute one
Assuming all
group while all of those of higher energy are in the other group.
neutrons to originate from a monoenergetic (fission) source with energy 2?0, it
will be supposed that they retain this energy until they have undergone the
average number of scattering collisions to reduce their energies to the thermal
The
value Eth; the neutrons will then be degraded to the lower energy group.
of course,
grouping together of all neutrons with energies higher than thermal
a gross over-simplification, and the average properties of the neutrons in the
"fast" group are derived in the following manner.
This method, aa applied to reactor calculations, was developed by F. L. Friedman, A.

A. Wheeler.
Weinberg, and
J.

8.7. The theoretical
M.
THE ELEMENTS
228
8.11. The
number
of scattering
collisions
suffered
[8.11
by the fast group
of
neutrons is
No. of collisions per

in fast group
cm3 per sec
Z.(EME)vdE,
(8.11.1)
where 2,(i?) is the macroscopic scattering cross section of neutrons of energy E,

n(E) is the corresponding neutron density per unit energy interval, and ; is
the velocity of these neutrons.
The total flux fa of the fast neutron group js

'So
n(E)vdE,
(8.11.2)
>Bt3x
it is possible to define an average cross section 2, for the group by
and so
2.(E)n(E)v dE
sUb*7F.
I
n(E)v
JBth
No. of collisions per cm' per
sec
(8.11.3)
dE
Consequently, it follows that (8.11.1) may be written
as
in fast group =
2,<fo.
8.12. The average loss in the logarithm of the energy per collision is , and
the average number of collisions required to degrade a sourc^ neutron from
E0 to Eth is
Average number of collisions from E0 to Eth = 7 In -=rE\h
(8.12.1)
The rate at which neutrons are transferred from the fast to the slow group
is equal to the number of scattering collisions per cm3 per sec, 2,<fo, divided by
the number of collisions required to decrease the energy from E0 to 2?th, given by
(8.12.1)
Hence,
No. of neutrons transferred from the fast to

the slow group per cm' per sec
It is now possible
2,<,
T~
E~l
(8.12.2)
is
is,
to postulate a "slowing down" cross section 2i for fast neutrons,

such that 2i<fo gives the number of neutrons per cm3 per sec which are degraded
This quantity
of course, that given by
from the fast to the slow group.
cross
down
section
slowing
so
that
the
defined
by
(8.12.2)
,

2. =
8.15]
HOMOGENEOUS
229
8.13. The diffusion coefficient of the fast neutron group is derived from a
consideration of the fast neutron current density; this can be represented [cf.
(5.28.1)] by
ret
Fast neutron current density =
D(E) grad
(r, E)
dE
and also by D\ grad fa, where Di is the fast diffusion coefficient and fa is the
fast neutron flux. Hence, it follows that
Di grad fa =
or
Di =
/ grad *(r,
JEth
E) dE
(*D(E) grader, E)
grad
><h
I D(E) grad
JElti
dE
dE
(8.13.1)
(r, E) dE
(j,
It

(r, E)
can be seen from this equation that D\ is constant only if

E) is separable
into a function of r multiplied by a function of E, i.e., if the variation in the neu
tron flux spectrum from point to point in the medium can be neglected.
This
assumption is usually made for simplicity and, hence, replacing D(E) by |X<,
(8.13.1)
becomes
D1 =
f* IHE)<KE)
I
JBih
where 4>(E) is the neutron flux spectrum.

asymptotic 1/E distribution (cf. 6.63, et
fa[E)
dE
(8.13.2)
dE
If the
latter can be represented by the
seq.), then (8.13.2) reduces to
8.14. The group-diffusion method will be applied here to the study of thermal
It will be illustrated first by a detailed consideration
reactors with reflectors.
of the cases in which the energies are treated as being in one group and two
The generalized or multi-group treatment, involving a
groups, respectively.
large number of groups, will then be outlined briefly.
One Group
of Nedtrons
8.15. In the simplest case, sometimes referred to as one-group theory, it is sup

posed that all production, diffusion, and absorption of neutrons occurs at a single
Although this represents a considerable
energy, namely, the thermal energy.
for
an
actual
thermal
reactor
with reflector, it can, at least, be
approximation
used to give preliminary results which can be refined later. Since it is postulated
that fission neutrons have thermal energies, the problem of slowing down does
THE ELEMENTS
230
[8.15
not arise; the resonance escape probability and the fast fission factor ( 4.58,
The over-all multiplication factor is thus equivalent
4.59) are then both unity.
to vf8.16. Using the subscripts c and r to indicate the core and reflector, respectively,
the steady state diffusion equation (5.43.1) for the core neutrons is
Dc
TV.
+ kZ^c = 0,
(8.16.1)
is the macroscopic absorption cross

where Dc is the diffusion coefficient and
The form of the third term in the equation, i.e.,
section for the core neutrons.
the source term, arises from the fact that, by definition of the multiplication
If no extraneous
factor ( 4.47), k neutrons are produced for every one absorbed.
source is present, as is assumed to be the case, the steady state, to which (8.16.1)
Upon dividing through this
applies, is also the critical state of the reactor.
it is
equation by Dc and rearranging,
seen
that
7Vc+(fc-D^*c
= 0,
7Vc +
(8.16.2)
is given by
|j
B?
= 0.
B24>c
1)
B?
(fc
Hence, the critical buckling
(8.16.3)
Dr
V2r
consequently
it
is
posed to contain no fuel material.

There
neutron diffusion equation for the reflector;
~ Zr4r =
to say,
is
assumed to be nonmultiplying, that
it
r,
is
8.17. The reflector
is
(816-4)
^WF'
the core migration area, which may be taken as equal to Lc2

the Fermi age of thermal neutrons in the given core system.
is
where
M?
is
where
preferable
B'
sup
no source term in the
thus
is
[cf.
0,
to use
However, for actual calculation purposes,

(7.63.3)] the form
is
the critical system.
it
of
is
where Le
the diffusion length of neutrons in the core, L? being equal to DJZ^.
This expression may be used to derive an approximate value for the buckling
(8.17.1)
and K2
Znr/Dr
equal to 1/Lr,
where
is
V^r
5.44).
- KrVr =
the reciprocal
0,
where Dr and 2r are the diffusion coefficient and macroscopic absorption cross
section for the neutrons in the reflector.
This expression may also be written as
is

and this may be written in the form of the wave equation, i.e.,
(8.17.2)
of the diffusion length in the reflector,
HOMOGENEOUS
8.20]
8.18.
231
To solve the differential equations (8.16.2) and (8.17.2) with appropriate
boundary conditions set by the geometry of the reactor, in order to obtain the
critical buckling, it is convenient to consider cases which can be reduced to oneSuch cases are an infinite plane slab reactor,
dimensional symmetrical problems.
a sphere, and an infinite cylinder, a point in the plane or at the center of sym
metry being chosen as the origin of the one-coordinate system.
Case
I.
Infinite Plane Slab
8.19. The first case to be considered is that of an infinite plane slab of half-
thickness %H, with a reflector on each side of thickness T, which includes the
extrapolation distance (Fig. 8.19). The origin of the coordinate is taken at the

REFLECTOR
Fig.
8.19.
Infinite slab reactor with reflector
For convenience, positive values only of x

plane of symmetry of the system.
will be considered; the results are the same for negative values, and so x may
Without going into
be regarded as the absolute value | x | of this coordinate.
details, it can be readily shown that the solution of (8.16.2), for the neutron flux
in the core, subject to the conditions that the flux shall be symmetrical and that
it shall everywhere be finite and non-negative, is
e(x) = A cosBcx,
where
(8.19.1)
is an arbitrary constant.
8.20. The general solution of the reflector equation (8.17.2) involves hyperbolic
sines and cosines, since k2 is a positive quantity; thus, the neutron flux in the
reflector is given by
4>r(x)
A'
COSh KrX
C Sinh
KrX,
(8.20.1)
THE ELEMENTS
232
[8.20
subject to the boundary condition that the flux is zero at the extrapolated bound
ary of the reflector, i.e., when x = \H + T. This leads to the result
so that
If
4>r(hH
+ T) =
this value for
A'
cosh Kr(hH
A'
A'
+ T) +
- -C" tanh
C sinh
+ T).
<r(|H
is now inserted into (8.20.1),
(8.17.2) is
T(x)
Kr(\H + T) = 0,
(8.20.2)
it is found that the solution
C sinh kt($H + T
- x),
of
(8.20.3)
where C is a new arbitrary constant.
A and C may be related by introducing the

boundary conditions that the neutron flux and current density shall be continu
ous at the core-reflector interface ( 5.38), i.e., when x = \H; these lead to
8.21. The arbitrary constants
4,c(\H) =
MhH)
and

ax
ax
Using the first of these conditions, it follows from (8.19.1) and (8.20.3) that
A cos Bc ~ = C sinh ktT
(8.21.1)
and, from the second,
ADcBc sin
Bc
~ = CDtkt cosh ktT.
(8.21.2)
Then, upon dividing (8.21.2) by (8.21.1), the result is

DcBc tan Bc
~ =
Dr/cr coth ktT.
(8.21.3)*
This transcendental
equation is the critical equation for the reflected infinite

Since Dc, Bc, Drr, and t,
according to the one-group treatment.
can be estimated from the known properties of the fuel, moderator, and reflector
slab reactor
materials, as indicated below, (8.21.3) gives the critical half-thicknesses \H cor

responding to a specified reflector thicknesses T; thus, the reflector thickness re
quired for an infinite slab reactor of given thickness to become critical can
be
obtained.
8.22. As seen in 8.16, B2 is equal to (k- 1)/Le2 or, better, to (fc- l)/(Lcl+r),
If
and its value can be calculated if the composition of the core is specified.
the ratio of fuel to moderator is fairly low, it is possible to write, by means of
(7.67.1),
This equation can be derived directly

on the albedo of the reflector.
L02
7+1'
from (5.107.2)
for the boundary condition based
HOMOGENEOUS
8.23]
233
where Loe is the diffusion length of neutrons in pure moderator, and z is the ratio
of the macroscopic cross sections of the fuel and the moderator in the core
In the one-group treatment, k may be taken as equal to vf ( 8.15),
[cf. (7.66.2)].
so
that
fc
as
in (7.66.1).
r may
Upon substituting these values into the expression for
found that
where
vf
r,z
(z
1)
Bc2,
it is
(8.22.1)
be taken as the age of the neutrons in the pure (core) moderator.

be calcu
The buckling, and hence the critical dimensions, of the core can thus
lated for specific materials.

Alternatively, if the dimensions of the critical
core are given, the buckling can be obtained directly in the usual manner (see

Table 7.60).
8.23. The values of Dc and Dr are essentially those for pure moderator and
for reflector material, respectively, and so they can be obtained from the respec
tive transport mean free paths; finally, kt is equal to 1/Lr for the reflector mate
rial. All the information is thus available for the one-group calculation of the
relationship between the thickness T of the reflector and the critical half-thickness
\H of the infinite slab core. The results of a typical case are shown in Fig. 8.23.
<o
20
30
40
50
T, CM
Fig.
It
8.23.
Reflector savings for infinite slab reactor
is seen that, as the reflector thickness
increases, the critical core thickness
decreases at first, but beyond a certain thickness of reflector, the core size does
As will be explained below, a reflector having a
not decrease appreciably.
thickness of about two diffusion lengths behaves virtually as a reflector of infinite
thickness.
THE ELEMENTS
234
[8.24
approaches zero, coth ktT tends to infinity; hence, it will be seen

from (8.21.3) that tan BcH/2 becomes infinite and BeH/2 approaches x/2.
Thus for an infinite slab reactor with no reflector (T = 0), the one-group treat
ment leads to the critical equation BcH0/2 = t/2, or Bc = ir/H0, which has the
However, Bc is not
same form as for a bare, infinite slab reactor ( 7.39).
8.24. As
identical with Bg of (7.39.1), because it is assumed, in the one-group treatment

that neutrons are produced and absorbed at the same energy. A closer approxi
mation is obtained if Bc is defined by (8.16.4), rather than by (8.16.3).
Reflector Savings
8.25. The decrease in the critical size of a reactor, due to a reflector, is expressed
by means of the reflector savings, 5, defined by
=
where
H 0 is
- \H,
(8.25.1)
the critical thickness of the bare slab reactor and
with a reflector.
Since H0 is equal to
t/Bc,
2Bc
H/2 in
DcBc tan
or
jr
(|
is the thickness
it follows that
the critical equation (8.21.3), the result is
Bjj
Substituting this value for
2Bc
or
as seen above,
jr _H
= DrKr coth ktT
DcBc cot BcS = DrKr coth KtT.
Upon inverting and rearranging,
this becomes
tan BcS =
tanh ktT
(8.25.2)
or
=
~
[tan-1
(jjy tanh k^J
(8.25.3)
From this equation the reflector savings can be cal

of the reflector.
The general nature
of the variation of the reflector savings with the thickness of the reflector
depicted in Fig. 8.23.
8.26. If either the reflector thickness
small,
relatively small, so that
or the reactor core, i.e., H,
large, so that Bc
small, the quantity BJi will be
small, and tan B^ in (8.25.2) may be replaced by B<$; this equation then gives
given slab reactor.
-~ tanh ktT,
is
is
is
is
is
culated for various specified thicknesses
for

iH0
HOMOGENEOUS
8.30]
or, since
kt is equal to
235
1/Lr,
5
îrtanh^-
(8.26.1)
If
Dc = Drr, as for example if the moderator and reflector are of the same material
and the proportion of fuel in the core is not large, then (8.26.1) reduces to
5
8.27.
If
thickness,
Lrtanh^\
(8.26.2)
length in the reflector is appreciably larger than the

that T/LT is small, tanh T/Lr may be replaced by T/Lr; equation
the diffusion
so
(8.26.1) then becomes
S~DrTIn the
with
special case in which Dc = Dr, the reflector savings for a large reactor
a thin reflector is equal to the thickness of the reflector.
8.28.
For a very thick reflector, on the other hand, T/Lr is large and tanh T/LT

approaches unity.
(8.26.1)
The reflector savings for a large reactor is then given by
as
3
- jf Ln
(8.28.1)
of the reflector
8 attains a constant limiting value which is independent
thickness (Fig. 8.23). If the diffusion coefficients in the core and reflector are
equal, it is seen that, for a large reactor with thick reflector, the reflector savings
is approximately equal to the diffusion length of the neutrons in the reflector.
For thermal neutrons, with graphite as reflector, this would be about 50 cm
so that
(Table 5.91).
8.29. A number of interesting qualitative conclusions can be drawn from the
In the first place, it is seen that in (8.26.1), (8.27.1), and
foregoing equations.
(8.28.1), at least, the reflector savings is inversely related to the diffusion coeffi
This is in agreement with the results derived in 8.3,
cient Dr of the reflector.
Further, for a thick reflector, the reflector savings is seen from (8.28.1)
et seq.
to be determined by the ratio Lr/Dr. Since L? is defined by Dr/2nr, where
2r is the absorption cross section of the reflector, it is seen that LrJ/Dr is equal
to l/2r. It would appear, therefore, that the reflector savings will be relatively
This conclusion
large when the absorption cross section of the reflector is small.
with
in
the
earlier
discussion.
harmony
is again
8.30. It will be noted from the equations given above that for a specified
large reactor and reflector material, so that Dc/Dr is fixed, the reflector savings
is influenced primarily by the thickness of the reflector if the latter is thin [equa
tion (8.27.1)] and by the neutron diffusion length if the reflector is thick [equation
It is apparent, therefore, that, according to the results of the one(8.28.1)].
treatment,
little is to be gained by using a reflector of thickness exceeding
group
THE ELEMENTS
236
[8.30
More exact calculations show that a reflector

thickness of about 1.5 times the migration length is virtually equivalent to an
It is of
infinite reflector, as far as the effect on the critical mass is concerned.
interest in this connection to recall the result obtained in 5.57 and 5.101,
that, as far as diffusion of monoenergetic neutrons is concerned, a medium having
a thickness of two or three diffusion lengths behaves virtually as an infinite
the thermal
diffusion
length.
medium.
Case
II.
Symmetrical Reflected Reactor with Spherical Core
It
is unnecessary to discuss the one-group treatment of a spherical re

flected reactor in detail; but the results will be outlined briefly.
Taking the
origin of the r-coordinate at the center of the core, it is found that
8.31.
, .
*.W
and
,
A' sinh
, ,
A sin Brr
r
+ T
Kr(R
- r)
R is the radius of the core, and T is the thickness of the symmetrical reflec
tor which surrounds it. Introducing the continuity conditions for neutron flux
and current density at the boundary, and dividing the results, as in 8.21, it
is found that
where
cot
BJ{
KR {'
Lr has been written for
d)
DMr COth'
(8 311)
This is the critical equation for the spherical

From (8.31.1) it is possible
rejected reactor according to the one-group method.
to calculate the thickness T of reflector required to cause a spherical reactor of
radius R to become critical. The reflector savings in this case is defined by
where
1/r.
= Ro
R,
where Ro, equal to t/Bc (cf. 7.48), is the critical radius of the bare reactor.
8.32. In the case of a large reactor, i.e., R is large, so that Bc is small, or a small
reflector thickness, when S is small, the value of B will be small.
It is then pos
sible to obtain an explicit expression for 8 in terms of the properties
Replacing R by R0 5 and R0 by ir/Bc,
system.
Since BcS
small, cot BJ&
is
(it
cot BcR = cot (BcR0

BcS)
cot
= cot
BcS.
BcS) =
is

Krr
approximately equal to l/BcS,

cot
BJi
~. .
Dc0
so
that
of
the
Ro-
where
*
60
Roj
~So +
yj(]yJo +
D,
77
,T
tann
-\
solution is
(8.31.1), a quadratic in
d2
is obtained,
large value for the reflector savings.
DJDr
case where
is
In the special
8.33.
(8.32.1)
The solution with the plus sign preceding the square root term
giving an unreasonably
of which the
4floao]
unity,
as well as
BJ
is
If this result is substituted into
237
HOMOGENEOUS
8.36]
neglected as
small, (8.32.1)
Lr tanh
j-
(8.33.1)
becomes
Lr
is
is
7-7
Ur
Lr tann 7-
Lir
may be made, as for

the slab reactor, by considering the cases where
Lr or >5> Lr. The general
conclusions reached for the spherical reactor are the same as for the infinite
to be gained by increas
slab, namely, that, especially for a large reactor, little
ing the thickness of the reflector to values much greater than about twice the
''Tusion length L, of thermal neutrons in the reflector material.
similar treatment to that given above can be applied to an infinite
8.35.
symmetrical reflector shell.
The details
cylindrical reactor surrounded by
will not be given, as the conclusions are essentially similar to those described
should be emphasized that, irrespective of the shape of
above. In any event,
the reactor, although the qualitative behavior derived from the one-group treat
correct, the quantitative results must not be taken too seriously.
ment
they are used at all, they must be treated as being in the nature of first, approxi
If
it
is
8.34. Further simplification of the foregoing equations
is
mation^
Ratio of Maximum to Average Neutron Flux in Slab Reactor
metry, i.e., when z
zero,
is
is
then
mux
A,
is
is
8.36. The core flux distribution, in the x-direction, of an infinite, homogeneous

cos Bjc, where Bc
given by (8.19.1) as c(x) =
slab, reflected reactor
that along the plane of sym
defined by (8.21.3). The maximum flux, which
is

is
is
if
is
which
identical with the corresponding equation (8.26.2) for an infinite slab
reactor. The same result can be obtained directly from (8.31.1)
small
BJ&
to
If
and De
the radius R0 of the critical reactor without reflector
equal
Dr.
large, the reflector savings, with Bc5 small,
given by (8.32.1) as
238
[S.36
The average flux
where A is determined by the power level of the reactor.
is
obtained by integrating over the thickness of the slab and dividing by the thick
if
ness: thus,
"H/2
A
j. .
tl
HJ-z
J-a/2
2A
Hence, the ratio of maximum
cos
Bd dx
BJI
to average flux is
<ftmax
0av
\BcH
\BcH
(8.36.1)
sin
\BcE
= tan-1
KtT^,
This result, combined with (8.21.3) in the form

coth
to calculate the ratio of maximum to average flux for various thick

Particular values for H and
are chosen and then,
with Dc, Dr, and *> known, the transcendental equation
solved for Bc by
of
iteration.
With
H
known
for
value
of
and
the ratio
process
given
Bc
For zero thickness of reflector,
expressed by (8.36.1) can be readily calculated.
for
the
bare
the ratio <max/ is x/2,
reactor,
and,
hence,
x/2,
i.e.,
Bc
t/H 8.24)
On the other hand, for large reflector thicknesses, i.e., as

i.e., 1.57.
>oo,
From this the limiting
coth KrT >1, and then \BJ1 = tan-1 (DrKr/DcBc).
for any core thickness.
be for
calculated
value of <*,max/ can becan
calculated
any core thickness.
8.37. The results for
reactor core, consisting mainly of beryllium, with
beryllium reflector, so that Dr/Dc
unity, and kt = l/Lr = 0.0423 cm-1, are
shown in Fig. 8.37 for infinite slabs of 25, 50, and 75 cm thickness, respectively,
for reflector thicknesses up to 50 cm. The initial sharp decrease in the ratio
maximum to average flux with increase in reflector thickness indicates a flattening
of the flux distribution in the reactor core resulting from the presence of the
With increasing thickness of the latter, however, a limiting
reflector
8.2).
value
approached asymptotically when the reflector thickness
about twice
the diffusion length of the thermal neutrons, i.e., about 48 cm in this case;
further increase in thickness has little effect on the neutron flux distribution.
This
in general agreement with the results given in
8.30.
may
be used
T,
is
is
is
of
is
is
is
is
Two Groups of Neutrons

8.38. The one-group
calculations
given above are approximate
because the
properties of the material in the core are very different for fast and slow neutrons.
Actually, the reflector savings based on the one-group treatment are found to
In the first place, since the one-group

be too low for the following reasons.
method assumes all the neutrons to be thermal, no allowance
made for the
is

nesses of core and reflector.
HOMOGENEOUS

8.39]
239
fact that fast neutrons entering the reflector have a higher probability than do
thermal neutrons of being scattered back into the core due to the extra colli
they make while being slowed down. Further, neutrons which enter the
reflector with energies above the resonance level are moderated in the reflector;
sions
they then return to the core as thermal neutrons, having completely avoided
the resonance capture to which they would have been liable if they had reached
Both these factors
thermal energies in the core before entering the reflector.
tend to increase the effectiveness of the reflector, as compared with that to be
if all the neutrons had thermal energies. Consequently, taking into
account the range of neutron energies, from the maximum fission energy to ther
expected
mal values, gives reflector savings greater than those calculated

one-group method.
above by the
second approximation is to suppose that the neutrons may be divided

into two groups, namely, slow (thermal) and fast, as described in 8.10. Con
In the
sider, first, the core of a reactor in which there is no resonance capture.
8.39.
following treatment the fast neutrons will
be represented
by the subscript
and
THE ELEMENTS
240
[8.39
the thermal neutrons by the subscript 2. The number of fast neutrons produced
by fission is kllîc per cm3 per sec, where 2^ is the macroscopic absorption cross
section for thermal neutrons in the core of the reactor, and this may be taken as
Thus,
the source term for fast neutrons in the diffusion equation for the core.
for the reactor in the steady state, this equation becomes
- 2lcfc,
Dlc V*ihc
fc22c<fcc
= 0,
(8.39.1)
where 2ic is a fictitious absorption cross section, which is actually a slowing down
cross section, having exactly the significance described in 8.12. Thus, 2iîe
If there is a
gives the number of thermal neutrons produced per cm3 per sec.
of resonance capture, (8.39.1) will apply if allowance is made
by including the resonance escape probability in the calculation of k. In this
will be p times the flux without capture, and 2i;<ic will, as before, give
case,
the number of thermal neutrons produced.
8.40. For the thermal neutrons in the core, the steady state diffusion equation
small amount
is

Du
V*<hc
- Sufa
+ Zlclc =
0,
(8.40.1)
source term 2i,;<ic is the number of fast neutrons, per cm3

per sec, slowed down into the thermal group, the resonance capture during
The absorption cross section 2^ has the same
slowing down being neglected.
significance as in (8.39.1).
where the slow-neutron
8.41.
In the
reflector,
the steady-state
Dlr Vhhr
diffusion
- 2lrlr =
equation
for fast neutrons
0,
is
(8.41.1)
there being no source term, since there is assumed to be no multiplication in

The cross section 2ir is here a slowing down cross section, defined
the reflector.
in a manner exactly similar to 2ic in (8.39.1), except that the former applies to
the reflector.
For slow neutrons in the

Dir
where
22r is
V*<hr
the true absorption
reflector,
22r<^r
the diffusion equation is
+ 2,,*r =
0,
(8.41.2)
cross section.
it will
In addition,
be recalled that all neutron fluxes must be finite and non-negative.
in dealing with symmetrical reactors, there is the requirement that both fastand slow-neutron flux distributions shall be symmetrical about the plane, axis,
Further, there will be a continuity of both
or center of symmetry (cf. 5.74).
fast- and slow-neutron fluxes and current densities at the core-reflector interface.
Also, both fast- and slow-neutron fluxes will become zero at the extrapolated
For simplicity, it will be supposed that the
boundary of the finite reflector.
linear extrapolation distances are the same for thermal and fast neutrons; the
error introduced in this manner is negligible in comparison with other approxi
mations of the two-group treatment.
8.42.
In attempting to solve the four differential
diffusion
equations,
HOMOGENEOUS
8.44]
8.43.
Of the four differential equations to
241
be solved, namely,
(8.39.1), (8.40.1),
(8.41.1), and (8.41.2), all except (8.41.1) are inhomogeneous.
However, the
homogeneous parts of the other three equations, and also (8.41.1), are wave equa
tions. Consequently, for the core equations (8.39.1) and (8.40.1), solutions of
the type
V2fa + B2fa
(8.43.1)
V2fa + B2fa = 0
(8.43.2)
may be tried, and the conditions necessary for these solutions to apply can be
found. It will be noted that the constants B2 are taken to be the same for both
fast- and slow-neutron groups. This may be justified by deriving an expression
for fa in terms of fa, from (8.40.1), and then inserting this value for lc in
A relationship is thus obtained involving fa only. Next, an expres
(8.39.1).
sion for fa is obtained in terms of fa, from (8.39.1), and this is substituted in
(8.40.1), thus yielding an equation containing fa only.
The result is found to
be identical with that for fa, so that when the homogeneous parts are expressed
in the form of the wave equation, B2 must be the same in both cases.
8.44. Upon substituting -B2fa for V2fa in (8.39.1) and -B2fa for V2fa in
(8.40.1), it is seen that
-(DlcB2 + Xu)fa + kXtcfa =
- (DuB2 + 2ic)fa
and
Si.**
= 0.
The condition that these simultaneous equations should have a nontrivial

solution is that the determinant of the coefficients shall vanish (Cramer's rule) ;
i.e.,
(DuB2
+ ZuXDicB2 +
22c)
- kluZu
= 0,
(8.44.1)
which is the characteristic or critical equation for the core of a reflected reactor
Upon dividing through by
on the basis of two energy groups of neutrons.
B2
&+l}
WB2)
(8.44.2)
gjs
Ii^jc, the result is
Lu2B*)(l +
k,
(1
or
(8.44.3)
is
the square of the diffusion length, L^, of thermal neutrons in

Dae/Sie
fictitious dif
5.64), and Z)lc/2ic has been replaced by the square of
slowing down cross section,
really
fusion length, Lu. However, since 2ic
equal to \r,2, where
5.63,
seq., that Lx?
can be shown by the method of
a
is
et
it
the mean square distance traveled by neutron in the fast group before
thermal. Consequently, by (6.141.1), Lu2 equivalent to tc, the Fermi
is
becomes
is
it
is
the core
where
r2

and
THE ELEMENTS
242
age of the thermal
If
neutrons in the core material.
Lu2 is replaced
(8.44
by
rc, the
critical equation (8.44.3) becomes

(1
or
+ TeB2)(l + WB2) = k
k
(1
+ tc5j)(1 + L22B2)
(8.44.4)
v2
n2
v2,
Of the two solutions for B2 one is positive and the other is negative; they will
by n2 and
and
respectively, so that both
are positive
The
are
then
solutions
quantities.
be represented
and
n2
of
The general solutions of the core equations (8.39.1) and (8.40.1) involve linear
combinations of
and v2. It will be noted that these are both properties
the reactor core materials.
^
n2
then these equations may be written as
and
V2Y
- ifiY
(8.46.1)
(8.46.2)
v2
m2
and
are both positive quantities. The solution
where, as seen above,
these equations depends on the geometry of the reactor, and the cases to
of
V2X + n2X =
respectively;
0,
Y,
and
8.46. Consider now the core wave equations (8.43.1) and (8.43.2); let the
for the flux corresponding to the two values
and
for B2 be
solutions
be
considered here will, as before, be restricted

a
is
in
for an infinite slab,

sphere, and
Table 8.46, taking into consideration
negative and that
symmetrical.
it
to those which can be treated as

The permissible solutions for A' and
cylinder of infinite length are given
the fact that the flux
finite and non-
problems.
is
one-dimensional
symmetrical,

This is also the two-group critical equation for a bare reactor; it is similar in
form to (7.62.1) for a large reactor, assuming continuous slowing down.
and k are properties of the materials constituting the reactor
8.45. Since tc,
core, (8.44.4) gives the permissible values of B2 if the solutions of the core dif
ferential equations (8.39.1) and (8.40.1) are to be of the wave-equation form
The critical equation (8.44.4) is actually a quadratic in B:,
postulated above.
and so there are two possible solutions which will now be considered.
Upon
multiplying out and rearranging, the equation takes the form
HOMOGENEOUS
5.48]
TABLE 8.46.
SOLUTIONS
OF WAVE EQUATIONS
Geometry
Infinite slab
Sphere
FLUX IN CORE
FOR NEUTBON
cos fix
cosh vx
sin iir
sinh vr
Jo(jir)
Infinite cylinder
Io(vr)
8.47. The general solutions of (8.39.1) and (8.40.1)
and Y, namely,
u=
and
(fee
243
are
linear combinations
of
AX + CY
(8.47.1)
A'X + CY.
(8.47.2)
These solutions appear to involva-four arbitrary constants, but it will now be

shown that only two are independent. Although (8.47.1) and (8.47.2) give the
most general solutions of (8.39.1) and"(8.40.1), permissible solutions are <ic = AX
and fa = A'X, so that, by (8.46.1), V2u = yPA'X. Upon substituting these

in
(8.40.1),* the result is
-MA'X - -ZuA'X
The
ratio
A' /A
is represented by
<Si
+ 2UAX =
0.
(8.47.3)
and called the coupling coefficient, i.e.,
A'
and, hence, by (8.47.3)
Since Du/Eu is equal to L%e2, and Du/Zu is equivalent to the

may be arranged to give
8.48. Similarly by substituting
D?C'Y
CY for
Again, denning the coupling coefficient
u, CY
+
<S2 as
for
4>u,
age tc ( 8.44),
and v2CY for
= 0.
Ftyte>
(8.48.1)
C'/C, it is found that
&fi?-^-X77
used,
this
Instead of equation (8.40.1), the fast-neutron flux equation

but the subsequent treatment is more involved.
(8-482)
(8.39.1)
may equally well be
THE ELEMENTS
244
[8.49
It
is seen from (8.47.5) and (8.48.2) that Si and <S2 depend on Du, D*,
t, L^, n, and v, all of which are properties of the core material and so are not
are really equivalent to
arbitrary. Thus, the four constants A, A', C, and
8.49.
only two arbitrary constants, which may be represented by A and C.

general solutions of the core diffusion equations may thus be written as
lc
<hc
AX + CY
8.50. Attention may now be turned to the reflector.

through by Dlr and (8.41.2) by Z)2r, the results arc
V*<hr
K2*<hr
table:
where
8.51.
kir*
solutions
is equal to
|r
= 0
(8.49.2)
If
(8.41.1) is divided
(8.50.1)
*1r = 0,
(8.50.2)
to
The equation
(8.50.1) may be solved directly since it is already in the homogeneous waveFurther, results of the
equation form, noting that ir2 is a positive quantity.
will
solutions
of
the
be
homogeneous part, i.e.,
same form, with k2r2 replacing Kir2,
the first two terms, of (8.50.2).
8.51. Taking into consideration the boundary condition that the fast- and
slow-neutron fluxes go to zero at the same extrapolated boundary of the reflector,
the permissible solutions of (8.50.1), for three different geometries, are given in
Table 8.51. They are represented by the symbol Z, it being understood that
respectively,

- KlrVlr
7Vlr
and
(8.49.1)
SiAX + S,CY.
The
2ir/Dir and
of wave equations fob neutron flux in reflector

Z
Geometry
Infinite slab.
K2rs
. . .
Sphere
Infinite cylinder
sinh r(i# +
sinh/c-Cft
r -r)
Z (T infinite)
e-
x)
e-w
r
hM - Ao MR
D] KoM
Z\, the solution of (8.50.1), contains kit, while Z2, the solution of the homogeneous
part of (8.50.2), contains K2r. As before, \H is the half-thickness of the infinite
slab, R is the radius of the sphere or of the infinite cylinder, and T is the reflector
thickness in each case.
For thick reflectors, which may be treated as having
infinite thickness, the solutions of the wave equations are given in the column
headed
Z (T infinite).
8.52. The general solution of the fast-neutron flux equation
simply
<hr
FZi,
(8.41.1) is then
(8.52.1)
HOMOGENEOUS
8.55]
245
where F is an arbitrary constant ; no other terms are necessary since the equation
is homogeneous.
For the slow-neutron flux equation (8.41.2) or (8.50.2), how
ever, the general solution is
- GZt +
<hr
S#t>ir
= GZ2 +
S3FZu
(8.52.2)
where G is an arbitrary constant, and the factor S3 is the reflector coupling coeffi
cient.
8.53. In order to evaluate S3, the fa's in (8.50.2) may be replaced by Sîr;
it is unnecessary to include the GZt term as it appears in (8.52.2), since it is a
solution of the homogeneous equation and would make a contribution of zero in
any event. The resulting expression is
S3
Since V2^ is equal to
Vhhr
tirVir,
- <S*lrVlr
<hr
= 0.
by (8.50.1), it follows that
+ -=T
<S3Klr2 jS3K2rfylr
+ -=T lr = 0,
jS3K2rfylr
lr = 0,

and hence
-S
frf-î
iV
(8.53.1)
The factor 2ir may be eliminated by introducing the Fermi age, i>, for the reflec
tor, equal to Ar/Sir (cf. 8.44). It is evident from this result that <S3 is deter
mined by the nature of the reflector material.
8.54. The equations (8.52.1) and (8.52.2) for the reflector, and the correspond
ing equations (8.49.1) and (8.49.2) for the core, contain four unknowns, i.e.,
A, C, F, and G, and there are four continuity conditions, namely, that the fastand slow-neutron fluxes and current densities are continuous at the core-reflector
These conditions lead to the following equations:
interface.
AX + CY
S,AX + S2CY
DUAX' + CY')
D^SrAX' + &CT0
FZl
= SsFZt + GZi
= DlrFZ1',
=
DiriStFZi' + GZ{),
and Zt' are the first derivatives of X, Y, Zi, and Z2, respectively,
x
with respect to or r, as the case may be, all evaluated at the core-reflector inter
where
X', Y', Z\,
face.
8.55.
The foregoing equations may be rearranged so

set of equations in A, C, F, and G; thus,
XA
+ YC
(SiX)A
(DuX')A
+ (S2Y)C
+ (DuY')C
(SiAJT'M +
(SiDicY^C
-ZlF
- (SZJF
- (DuZ^F
as
to give a homogeneous
=
- Z = 00
- (SiDirZ^F - (DirZ2')G
= 0
= 0.
THE ELEMENTS
246
S\X
DleX'
DuY'
SiDicX'
SiD2cY'
-Zi
S2Zi
Zi
SiDirZi
DirZ2'
S^Y
-DuZi'
= 0.
that
is,
For a consistent set of solutions, the determinant of the coefficients must be zero;
(8.55.1)
critical equation for the two-group method for

It should be clearly understood that in this determinant the
reflected reactor.
X,
Z\, and Z2, and their derivatives, refer to the values at the core-reflector
\U, whereas, for the sphere and the cylinder,
Thus, for the slab, x
interface.
in each case.
equal to
R,
and Zi and Zs contain
involve \H or
or
8.56. Since X and
except for the infinitely thick reflector (see Table 8.51), an explicit solution of the
as
function of
not pos
determinant so as to give
(or \H), or vice versa,
thus somewhat as follows.
sible.
The general method of using the expression
Suppose that, for
given fuel, moderator, and reflector, with
specified fuelrequired to find the critical core radius
moderator ratio,
(or half-thickness
first estimated,
\H) for reflector of thickness T. An approximate value of
inserted in the
by means of the one-group method, for the thickness T. This
determinant which
then evaluated, using the values Si, S2, S3, *ir,
m2, and
The result, represented by the
derived from the properties of the materials.
symbol
as the
is is
is
|0
y - Ar
y ~ SiDir %~(Sl~ Ss)D
~ - Dlr
- (Si - S3)D2r
j^SJhc y S^r
f
(d1c
(du
A,
is
p2
of
is
If
T,
is
then made at another value

guess
and will, in general, differ from zero.
and the determinant
the critical radius R, for the given reflector thickness
this
still not zero, the two A's may be plotted against the
again evaluated.
which will make

R's, and an estimate made, by means of a linear plot, of the
more accurate value
final adjustment may then be necessary to give
zero.
of
which satisfies the critical equation for the chosen reflector thickness.
This
the core radius that will make the reflected reactor critical under the specified
is
conditions.
of the fuelmoderator system, in order to find the minimum critical volume or mass of fuel
An alternative approach
to assume core radius and reflector thick
material.
make
the
fuel
concentration
the
variable.
In this case, the thermal dif
ness and
the important quantity, and the requisite value to make the reac
fusion length
and
can be determined.
tor critical for given
is
is
8.57. The calculation may be repeated for several compositions

it
R R
is a
is
is
R,
is
is
Y,
be regarded
This may
HOMOGENEOUS
S.59]
247
By means of (8.49.1), (8.49.2), (8.52.1), and (8.52.2), an indication can

obtained of the spatial variation of the fast and slow group fluxes in the core
The results are indicated in Fig. 8.58, for a system in which the
and reflector.
8.58.
be

EXTRAPOLATED
^BOUNDARY
0
DISTANCE
Fig.
8.58.
FROM CENTER OF REACTOR
Thermal and fast neutron flux distributions in core and reflector
in the core, with the properties

will be observed that the slowneutron flux exhibits a maximum in the reflector at a short distance from the
This arises from the fact that in the reflector slow neu
core-reflector interface.
trons are produced by the slowing down of fast ones, but they are absorbed very
Farther from the interface
much less strongly in the reflector than in the core.
the slow-neutron flux, like the fast flux, falls off to zero at the extrapolated bound
ary of the reflector.
reflector is the same material as the moderator
of the latter not greatly affected by the fuel.
It
Multi-Group Treatment
by the method of groups may be improved by increas
ing the number of energy intervals, i.e., the number of groups, into which the
neutrons are divided. Suppose there are n groups, namely, 1, 2, . . . , i, . . . , n,
It is
where 1 is the group of highest energy and n represents thermal energy.
assumed that all the fission neutrons have the same energy and enter the first
The diffusion equation for any group, indicated by i, provided
(fastest) group.
t 7* 1, i.e., the group of highest energy is excluded, is then [cf. (8.40.1)] given by
8.59. The treatment
Di
V*i
- Z&i + Si-ifc-i
= 0,
(8.59.1)
THE ELEMENTS
248
where
Si is the slowing down cross section in all
as equal
the
(i
to the number of neutrons per
= n (thermal
The source term is taken
cases except
neutrons), where it is the true absorption cross section.
[8.59
for
cm3 per sec, Si_i</j_i, slowed
down from
1)th group; the resonance capture is treated as in 8.39.
For the fission neutrons, i.e., those of highest energy (n = 1), the diffu
8.60.
sion equation is
>i
^_^+
(8.60.1)
Q,
where Si and Sn are the slowing down cross section of fission neutrons and the
It will be noted that
absorption cross section of thermal neutrons, respectively.
the absorption of thermal neutrons is the source of the fission neutrons.
8.61.
In the two-group method, the solutions for fa and
reflector, were expressed as linear combinations

and
v2
<,
for both core and
of functions p and
are the positive and negative solutions, respectively,
where n*
for B2 of the char
v,

A similar situation arises in the n-group treatment ;

acteristic equation (8.45.1).
each fa is an n-fold linear combination of functions Bn, there being a total of n
The condition that the solutions shall be nontrivial is found to
values of B2.
be, for any value of B2,
k
= l'
(8.61.1)

+
+
U2B2)(1
(1
L*2B2)
(1 + LJB2)
where L is the thermal diffusion length, and L\, L2, etc., are slowing down lengths
This equation is seen to be analogous to the critical
( 8.44) for each group.
equation (8.44.4) of the two-group treatment for a bare reactor.
8.62.
In the limit, when the number of groups approaches infinity, i.e.,
n * oo
the group treatment would be expected to pass into the continuous slowing
down (Fermi) model, since this postulates a continuous distribution of neutron
energies. This can be shown to be so, provided the sum of the (nonthermal)
slowing down areas remains finite and equal to the age; thus,
B-l
Iim
n->
(8.62.1)
<= 1
Upon taking logarithms of both sides of (8.61.1) and rearranging, it is seen that
n-l
In (1 + LfB*) + In (1 + Ln2B2).
In k =
2
i-i
In the limit, when n becomes infinite, each L? becomes infinitesimally small,

that In (1 + LfB2) approaches LfB2; hence, in the limit
n-l
In k = B2
If the
age, as given
+ In
(1+
Ln2B2).
by (8.62.1), is now introduced, it follows that
In k =
1
+ In
+ WB2
(1
+ WB2)
'
so
HOMOGENEOUS
8.64]
249
which is identical with the critical equation based on the Fermi model, since Ln
is
here the thermal diffusion length.

8.63. In the case of a large reactor, i.e., B2 is small and fc 1
1, all terms
in B* and of higher order in the critical equation (8.61.1) may be neglected, and
so, upon multiplying out, this becomes
k
1
+ (Lf +
. . .
L? +
. . .
+ Ln2)B2
Hence, under these conditions,
i +2 L*B
i
where AT2 is the migration area. Equations of this form have been obtained for
large bare reactors by other methods (cf. 7.63, 12.50).
8.64. Returning now to the general problem, it is seen that the multi-group
a set of n differential equations, n 1 being of the type of
(8.59.1), with (8.60.1) making up the set for the core. There will also be a set
of n equations applicable to the reflector. In each case, the boundary condi
tions are that the neutron flux shall be zero at the outer (extrapolated) boundary,
and that the flux and current shall be continuous across the core-reflector inter
face, for each neutron group. The solution of these equations is a maj or problem,
and several methods have been described, e.g., solution in closed form, series
A detailed
expansion, method of iteration, or a combination of these methods.
treatment of the subject is considered, however, to be beyond the scope of this

treatment leads to
book.
PROBLEMS
1 . Calculate the critical mass of U236 and plot the fast and slow fluxes at room tempera
ture for a spherical DjO moderated reactor with a 75-cm core radius for three graphite
reflector thicknesses, 25 cm, 50 cm, and infinite.
CORE
REFLECTOR
2. Obtain the critical determinant for a cylindrical assembly in which the fissionable
material is in the annular region shown in the diagram.
Chapter
IX
HETEROGENEOUS (NATURAL URANIUM)

REACTORS*
THE FISSION CHAIN IN NATURAL
URANIUM

Introduction
9.1. The treatment of the nuclear chain reaction in natural uranium is appro
priately divided into two parts: microscopic theory and macroscopic theory.
The microscopic theory is concerned essentially with the calculation of the infinite
This is an intensive property of the reactor system, since
multiplication factor.
it is determined by the number of neutrons released in fission, the macroscopic
cross sections for scattering and absorption processes, and the lattice structure,
all of which are microscopic properties, independent of the overall size of the
The extensive or macroscopic properties of the reactor, for example,
system.
its critical size, can then be obtained from the microscopic properties without
further reference to the microscopic structure of the system.
9.2. In a natural uranium reactor four distinct capture processes compete for
the available neutrons; they are:
(a) Absorption of fast neutrons above the fission threshold (about 1.1 Mev)
of uranium-238; this is the main cause of the fast fission effect.
(6) Radiative capture in the resonance region (around 10 ev) of uranium-238
during slowing down.
(c) Radiative capture of slow neutrons in moderator and impurities; this is
the so-called parasitic capture.
(d) Fission capture in uranium-235, mainly in the thermal region.
The determination of the infinite multiplication factor involves, essentially, com
puting the relative rates at which these processes occur.
* Most of the results presented in this
chapter were obtained by the Theoretical Physics
A
Group, led by E. P. Wigner, of the wartime Metallurgical Laboratory project at Chicago.
brief summary of the work of this group is given by E. P. Wigner,
Applied Phys., 17, 857
(1946); MDDC-83.
J.
250
9.5]
REACTORS
251
Thermal Neutron Fission

9.3. Because of the nature of the variation with energy of the cross sections
for the four reactions given above, the only possible chain reaction in a natural
is
is
it
is
is
Rc +
<r'
'
(Q,U
R<rf
R<r,
'
<rcni
is
ac238
found from (9.5.1) that
= 101 barns
- 2.8 barns,
_
13
is
2.5 neutrons per thermal fission, and
is
the isotopic ratio of uranium235 to uranium-238 in natural uranium, i.e., 0.00715. Utilizing the following
values (see Table 4.57) for the thermal neutron cross sections:
= 549 barns
where v
it

is
is
is
it
is
is,
uranium system is one involving thermal neutrons with uranium-235 undergoing

fission. Uranium-238 does not undergo appreciable fission with neutrons of
energy less than 1.1 Mev, whereas the fission cross section for uranium-235
increases considerably with decreasing neutron energy.
The use of slow neutrons
for maintaining the chain reaction
However, because of
therefore, required.
he large resonance absorption by uranium-238 in the vicinity of 10 ev, the pro
portion of neutrons taking part in fission
small in this energy region.
Conse
quently,
only in the thermal range, where the fission cross section for ura
nium-235
549 barns, as compared with 2.8 barns for the absorption of thermal
fission chain
neutrons by uranium-238, that
possible in natural uranium.
In spite of the fact that this material contains only 0.7 per cent of uranium-235,
more than half of the neutrons absorbed in the thermal region cause fission.
9.4. In order to slow down the neutrons to thermal energies, the use of
As seen in Chapter VI, the best moderators are those
moderator
necessary.
having the largest values of 2,/2. From the data in Table 6.25 and the accom
evident that the only practical moderators for use in
panying discussion,
with
reactors
natural
uranium are heavy water, carbon (graphite),
thermal
and beryllium (or beryllium oxide). The first successful reactor used graphite as
moderator; this material was also employed in the so-called X-reactor at Oak
Ridge, and in others. Several natural uranium reactors in which the moderator
heavy water have also been constructed.
9.5. Although 2.5 neutrons are produced, on the average, for each thermal
neutron fission, the preponderance of uranium-238 in natural uranium causes
marked decrease in the value of j?, the number of neutrons released per thermal
neutron captured in fuel. If NMS and N236 represent the numbers of atoms of
the two uranium isotopes per cm3 of natural uranium and <rc238 and <7c236 are the
the
respective thermal neutron capture (nonfission) cross sections, while <r/36
fission cross section of uranium-235, then, by (4.57.1),
THE ELEMENTS
2.r>2
It
OF NUCLEAR
REACTOR THEORY
[9.6
that in a natural uranium reactor the maximum

possible value of the infinite multiplication factor (km) is 1.3 for thermal neutrons.
This means that the product of the other three factors of kK, i.e., the fast fission
factor e, the thermal utilization /, and the resonance escape probability p, must
For various
exceed 1/1.3, i.e., 0.77, if a fission chain system is to be maintained.
reasons, which will be considered in Chapter XI, the multiplication factor in an
actual reactor must be about 1.05, and so the value of epf must not be less than
about 0.8. Since e is not very different from unity about 1.03 in graphite
lattices it is necessary that the product of p and should be greater than 0.78
for a fission chain reaction to be possible in natural uranium.
9.7. It will be seen shortly that it is not a simple matter for the condition
Any change in the composition or arrangement
derived above to be attained.
in a given type of natural uranium reactor resulting in an increase in the thermal
utilization is accompanied by a decrease in the resonance escape probability.
As a result, there is very little leeway possible, and the value of
for the system
must be determined with greater precision than is necessary for enriched (homo
9.6.
follows,
therefore,

geneous) reactors.
9.8. The evaluation of kx is based on a combination of theory and experiment,
in which the role of theory is to serve as a guide to experiment rather than as an
exact instrument. This course is dictated by the difficulty of the problem of
calculating precisely the neutron events as a function of energy and position in a
heterogeneous reactor system, and by the lack of, and inaccuracies in, cross-sec
tion data.
9.9. In addition to the experimental determination of v and thermal cross
sections, the measurement of the effective resonance integral ( 9.11) in natural
uranium is of major importance.
The result so obtained is combined with a
relatively simple theoretical treatment to yield a reasonably good value for the
The data secured in this manner make possible a
resonance escape probability.
preliminary design of the fuel-moderator system in the thermal reactor.
This is
subjected to a critical test by means of the exponential pile experiment in which
the so-called "material" buckling is measured in a subcritical assembly.
RESONANCE CAPTURE IN NATURAL

The Effective Resonance
9.10.
It
was shown in Chapter
neutrons of energy
E in
VI
URANIUM
Integral
that the resonance escape probability for
an absorbing system could be represented approximately
by
(9.10.1)
is the fission neutron energy, 2. and 2,, are the total macroscopic scat
tering and absorption cross sections, respectively, and | is the average of the
where
2?0
HETEROGENEOUS (NATURAL URANIUM) REACTORS
9.12]
253
logarithmic energy decrement per collision, denned in 6.74. In general, it may

be assumed that in a fuel-moderator system, the absorption cross section of the
moderator is negligible compared to that of the fuel, so that 2 refers to the latter
alone. Although (9.10.1) holds rigorously for hydrogen as moderator with an
infinitely heavy absorber, its application to other moderators is restricted to
absorbers with widely spaced resonances or to those exhibiting weak resonance
capture.
9.11. If a system under consideration contains JV0 atoms per cm3 of the reso
nance absorber, e.g., uranium-238, and aao is the absorption cross section for
neutrons of energy E, then 2 is equal to Noaao- It is thus possible to write
In
Sq
N 0Cjo
2. + 2
2.
the resonance region, the scattering
2,
(9
11 1)
cross sections for both moderator
and
2. +
2a
The integral in (9.11.2) is called the
[-
replaced by
7Voctoo,
frj-
(9.11.5)
follows, upon rearrangement,
(a.o).fi =
-a
f*\a*oh,
it
2o in (9.11.4)
is
9.12.
Upon substituting (9.11.3)
T
T
into (9.11.2), the resonance escape probability

p(E) = exp
energy.
"a
a function of the neutron
(9.11.4)
XE
(9.11.3)
aa0
dF'
aa0,
is
and, Uke
jjjji
jjT
W.,,^.
defined by
("ao).tt
is
(aoo).
is
where
Xs,/
effective resonance integral, i.e.,
luao
If
that
(9.12.1)
iV ofa0
2j
the total macroscopic scattering cross section divided

The quantity 2,/iVo, that
by the number of atoms of uranium per cm3, may be regarded as the scattering
absorber.
It
is
cross section associated with each atom
of
is,

absorber may be taken to be independent of the neutron energy and hence, by

combining (9.11.1) and (9.10.1), the result is
seen
from
(9.11.3),
THE ELEMENTS
254
[9.12
(9.11.4), and (9.11.5) that the effective resonance integral and the resonance
As the number of uranium
escape probability are dependent upon this quantity.
atoms per cm' is increased, the scattering associated with each absorber atom is
It follows, therefore, from
decreased, and (ao)eff decreases correspondingly.
(9.11.3) that the effective resonance integral also decreases. The smallest value
of the effective resonance integral is that for pure uranium in the absence of a
moderator.
9.13. On the other hand, if the proportion of uranium is decreased, the scat
tering associated with each absorber atom is increased, i.e., 2,/JVo becomes larger
while N0/Ni becomes smaller.
Hence, iVVao/2, in the denominator of (9.12.1)
where the right-hand side is the actual (or ordinary) resonance integral.
9.14. It should be noted that 2,/iVo, or rather iV0/2 also appears in front of
the effective resonance integral in the exponent of (9.11.5).
As far as this factor
is concerned, it is apparent that a decrease in the scattering associated with
each atom of uranium will result in a decrease in the resonance escape probability,
for a given value of the effective resonance integral.
Thus the actual effect of a
is,
change in the scattering per uranium atom on the resonance escape probability
will depend on which of the two opposing factors predominates.
For the in
finitely dilute mixture the effective resonance integral has its maximum value,
but since N0 is then zero, the resonance escape probability
of course, unity.
9.15. Although increase of temperature
it
is
results in a broadening of resonance

peaks, due to the so-called nuclear Doppler effect
can be shown, from
11.5),
the Breit-Wigner treatment (Chapter II), that the area under the peak and
hence the actual resonance integral
independent of temperature, the value
of
aa
dE/E
being âainmi)irr.
However, since
(aa0)eff
involves the absorption
in both numerator and denominator, as may be seen in (9.12.1),

the effective resonance integral does change with temperature.
For very dilute
mixtures of uranium with moderator, the effective resonance integral
not very
and
so
the
of
different from the actual resonance integral,
variation
the resonance
escape probability with temperature in this case would be small.
aa0
is
cross section
9.16.
For more concentrated mixtures, however, the effective resonance inte
gral and the escape probability are both temperature dependent.
behavior of concentrated
transient behavior of reactors.
ture
This tempera
important in connection with the
systems
As the power level and, hence, the temperature
is

will decrease and become negligible in comparison with unity; (o-a0)eff will thus
approach ao0. Consequently, for an infinitely dilute mixture of absorber and
moderator, the effective resonance integral becomes identical with the actual
resonance integral; thus,
9.20]
REACTORS
255
change, the effective multiplication factor changes, since this depends, among
other quantities, on the resonance escape probability. As a result, there may
or may not be a tendency for the chain reaction to be stabilized, depending upon
whether the effective multiplication decreases or increases, respectively, with
increasing temperature.
9.17. The ratio of aa0 to
called the volume advantage factor, is given by
(aa0)el<,
(9.12.1) as
2,,
\,aaO)ett
If JVi is
the number of moderator atoms per cm5, and a,0 and a,i are the scattering
cross sections of uranium and moderator, respectively, (9.17.1) may be written as
^f-
1+
(9.17.2)
No
+ iVi<7,i. It is evident that the volume advantage

N0/Ni, i.e., the proportion (or volume) of uranium to modera
since 2, is equal to N0a,o

factor increases
as
tor, increases.
9.18. As indicated
earlier, and as is apparent from (9.17.1) and (9.17.2), the

actual resonance integral is larger than the effective resonance integral, the ratio
with the proportion of uranium in the system.

The physical reason
for this will be apparent from a consideration of the variation of the neutron flux
with energy, in the region of a resonance.
increasing
9.19.
For the present
case of a single absorber and a single moderator,
the col
lision density, by (6.71.1), is
*w-jr^^*r+jr^?^*r-
(9i9i)
The integrals represent the number of neutrons slowing down into unit energy
range at E per cm3 per second.
is related to the collision density
9.20. The flux
by
(E)
F (E),
as shown
in 6.82,
+ -rr a.i)
o,o
iVo(<7+ o,o + -rr
a.i)
iVo
by (9.19.1), is a smoother function of E than

is 4>(E) because the former involves the sum of integrations over the intervals
E to E/cto and E to E/ai. It can be seen, therefore, from (9.20.1) that the flux
will have a minimum roughly where aa0 has a maximum, i.e., in a resonance, since
In general, the depression
17,o and tr.i are small and vary slowly with energy.
In the present
case,
F(E),
as given
THE ELEMENTS
256
[9.20

of the flux in the resonance will be greater the smaller the value of
i.e., S.i/JVo, as shown qualitatively in Fig. 9.20.
Fio.
9.20.
Dependence
of neutron flux in resonance region on scattering

per atom of absorber
iW.i/A'o
cross section
9.21. Comparison with (9.17.2) shows that the conditions for a large depression
of the resonance flux are just those which will increase the value of the advantage
The physical reason for the decrease in the effective resonance integral
factor.
in a concentrated mixture of uranium with moderator is consequently the marked
In a dilute system 2,i/N0 is
decrease in the resonance flux in such a mixture.
large, and the resonance flux will be almost the same as in the pure moderator,
with no depression within the resonance (Fig. 9.20). In these circumstances, the
effective resonance integral has its maximum
value being equal to the ordinary
resonance integral.
9.22. The effective resonance integral as a function of scattering cross section
per uranium atom has been measured in mixtures of UOj and various scatterers,
namely, carbon, sugar,
HjO, and D20.
It was
found that the effective resonance

nuclei,
and
that for values of the scattering cross section per uranium atom up to about
barns, it could be expressed with fair accuracy by
1000
integral
was essentially
independent
of the mass of the scattering
The limiting value of the integral at great dilution is

results based on this equation are given in Tabic 9.22.
240 barns.
Some of the
9.23]
TABLE 9.22.
EFFECTIVE RESONANCE
CROSS SECTION
INTEGRAL AS FUNCTION
PER URANIUM ATOM
s.
257
OF SCATTERING
J ('..). -J
8.2 barns
9.3 bams
50
20
100
26
300
42
500
51
1000
69
CO
240
9.23. Using experimental
data for the effective resonance integral, together

be shown that it is impossible to establish
chain reaction in a homogeneous mixture of natural uranium
with the thermal utilization, it can
The thermal utilization in a uniform mixture is
2nQ
+ 2ol
2o0
N 0aa0
AâO
+ Niv*
and aai are here the absorption cross sections of natural uranium metal
for
and graphite, respectively, for thermal neutrons.
The values of p and
several different ratios Ni/No are recorded in Table 9.23. Since p decreases
where
while
ao
/ increases,
the product
pf
passes
through a maximum,
by the
as shown
geneous thermal reactor with natural uranium fuel and carbon moderator
is
is
a a
is,
The highest value of pf

figures in the last column.
however, less than 0.55,
neutron
and this falls far short of the minimum (0.77) necessary to maintain
It
homo
chain reaction.
evident, therefore, that the construction of
possible.
TABLE 9.23.
RESONANCE ESCAPE PROBABILITY AND THERMAL UTILIZATION
IN UNIFORM MIXTURES OF NATURAL URANIUM METAL WITH GRAPHITE
dE
V

a self-sustaining
metal and graphite.
Pf
72 barns
0.579
0.889
0.515
300
87
0.643
0.842
0.541
400
100
0.682
0.800
0.546
500
112
0.693
0.762
0.528
Nt
200
not
THE ELEMENTS
258
PROPERTIES
Resonance
OF HETEROGENEOUS
SYSTEMS
Capture: Volume and Surface Absorptions
a(E) + b(E)
(9.25.1)
absorption
is
where the first term on the right-hand side represents the volume
the surface absorption cross section;
cross section, and the second
surface area of the lump or rod and
cm1
is
(ao)e
j|,
ratio of fuel to moderator, could be increased by using a heterogeneous lattice

system consisting of lumps (or rods) of natural uranium arranged in a matrix of
The neutrons which are slowed down to resonance energies in the
graphite.
moderator are largely absorbed in the outer layers of the uranium lump; the
resonance neutron flux within the lump is consequently sharply depressed.
As
a result, the value of the effective absorption cross section for the fuel, i.e.,
(oao)eff, in the center of the lump is less than for an equivalent uniform mixture
The resonance escape probability is increased ac
cordingly. At the surface of the lump the neutron spectrum is essentially the
same as within the moderator, and hence the resonance absorption will be ap
proximately equal to that for uranium infinitely diluted with graphite.
9.25. The theoretical treatment of resonance absorption in a lump system has
been simplified by the proposalf that the effective absorption cross section could
be separated into two parts: (1) the volume absorption, proportional to the
number of atoms of uranium per cm3, and (2) the surface absorption, proportional
to the surface-to-mass ratio of the uranium lump, i.e.,
the
its mass.
(9.26.1)
a(E) =
is
Experimental studies
grams
of the absorption of neutrons in uranium lumps of various sizes provide justifica
tion for the division into volume and surface contributions.
9.26.
simple procedure for deriving a(E) and b(E) has been given by A. M.
Weinberg,! and this will be followed here. In the first place, the volume term
a(E) can be taken as equal to the effective absorption cross section within the
lump, so that, from (9.11.4)
An alterna
where 2, and 2 are the macroscopic cross sections within the lump.
tive form would be
Ar
M
.
a(E) = aa0
N^"L+ gga=
See H. D. Smyth, "Atomic Energy for Military Purposes," U. S. Government

2.12.
Office, 1945,
E. P. Wigner, unpublished; also, S. M. Dancoff and M. Ginsborg, unpublished.
Private communication.
t t

9.24. The suggestion was made by E. Fermi and L. Szilard in the early days
of the Manhattan Project* that the resonance escape probability, for a given
(9.26.2)
Printing
9.29]
and
for
259
a lump of pure uranium metal this reduces to
W
The ratio of
j<r0
<ro
dE/E to fa(E) dE/E
t
.
"no
is seen to be equal to the integrated
volume advantage factor for the lump,

as defined by (9.17.1).
For pure uranium
metal, this ratio is found to be about 26.
9.27. To derive an expression for the surface absorption coefficient b(E), it is
necessary to consider, first, the resonance flux within the lump.
Neutrons
having energies in the resonances of uranium will be rapidly absorbed in the
outer layers of the lump. If there were no depletion of the resonance flux, the
effective absorption cross section a(J?) would be <rn0l as can be seen from the argu
ments presented earlier. Hence, from (9.26.1) the fraction 2,/(2, + 2) is the
factor by which the resonance flux is depleted in the interior of the lump due to
neutron capture in the outer portions. The flux '(E) in the interior of the lump
is thus given by
where
(E)
is the undepleted flux, equivalent to the flux incident on the lump.

The difference between the undepleted flux and the depleted flux is then equal
to the resonance flux at the surface of the lump; thus,
UE)
4>(E)
4>'(E) =
(9.27.1)
9.28. The neutrons represented by the flux

are those with energies suffi
ciently close to the resonance absorption maximum that they will have a high
In other words,
probability of being absorbed in the outer layers of the lump.
these neutrons are those which will contribute to the surface absorption in
The number of such neutrons striking the lump per cm2 per sec is
(9.25.1).
approximately \T<a. Upon introducing (9.27.1), it follows that
Number of neutrons striking the surface
of lump per cm2 per sec
2g
._.
4(2, + 2)
9.29. The probability that a neutron will be absorbed on its first collision in
the lump is 20/(Z, + 2), and hence the total number of neutrons of energy E
captured by surface absorption per cm2 per unit flux is
4(2, +
20)
2. +
Zn
\S. + 2
The number of uranium atoms per gram of lump is N0/d, where N0 is the number
of atoms per cm3, as before, and d is the density of the uranium lump. ( The sur-
THE ELEMENTS
260
[9.29
face absorption per atom per cmVgram per unit flux, which is equal to
then expressed by
b(E),
is
~=j a(E) jf + jjfHE)
(9.30.1)
a(E) and b(E) are denned by (9.26.1) or (9.26.2) and (9.29.1), respectively.
dE
b(E) -g- have been determined
/dE
a(E) -jjr and
where
(e*oU
-',
The surface contribution to the effective absorption cross section is now obtained
by multiplying this quantity by S/M, as in (9.25.1).
9.30. The effective resonance integral for a uranium lump is thus given by
experi
a(E)
dE
^
Ja
= 9.25 barns
dE
In the derivation of (9.29.1)
+ 24.7
barns.
has been tacitly assumed that
9.32.
= 9.25
it
(<r.o).
-f
b(E) -j^ = 24.7 barns gram/cm2.
resonance
if
neutron suffering an elastic scattering collision in the outer layers of the lump
will be thrown out of the resonance region. This will be true only
the reso
nances are narrow in comparison with the average change in energy of a neutron
is
is
in an elastic collision in the lump, with uranium or any other element that may
Actually, this not the case for uranium, since a neutron
be present in addition.
per cent of its energy per collision, on the average.
loses about
At 10 ev this
roughly equal to the half- width of the resonance.*
9.33. The expressions for a(E) and b(E) are strictly valid only for hydrogen
heavy absorber, since
only then
moderator and
given
6.88) that p(E)
rigorously by (9.10.1). However, they do indicate roughly the dependence of
To obtain a rigorous
(ov,o)eff on the scattering cross section per atom of uranium.
solution, the transport equation with energy loss must be solved for the case
rapidly varying cross sections with energy.
*
More detailed calculations by E. P. Wigner and by

elastic scattering collisions in the lump.
S.
of
is
is
it

mentally, by measuring the U239 activation in cadmium-covered uranium lumps.

The resonance absorption may also be obtained by inserting cadmium-covered
uranium lumps in
reactor and observing reactivity changes, which may be
calibrated to give
measure of the resonance absorption.
Experimental results
obtained for uranium metal are
M. Dancoff include the
effect of
9.36]
261
9.34. The dependence of the volume and surface absorptions on the scattering
crass section per uranium atom, i.e., on 2,/No, may be seen by writing (9.26.1)
and (9.29.1) in the alternative forms
No
a(E) = y
and
It
(9.34.1)
aa
will
decrease correspondingly.
9.35. Attention may be called to the fact that the mass number of the scatterer
does not enter into either of the expressions (9.34.1) and (9.34.2) for the volume
This is strictly true, however, only if the
and surface absorptions, respectively.
width of the resonance is small in comparison with the average energy loss of a
For uranium this average energy loss is about 0.8
neutron per elastic collision.
For a 10-ev neutron the average energy
per cent of the energy before collision.
decrease, i.e., 0.08 ev, is of the same order as the resonance width, about 0.1 ev.
Absorption at resonances above 10 ev will thus be dependent, to some extent, on
the mass of the scattering nucleus.
Resonance Escape Probability
It will
be shown later ( 9.51) that the regular arrangement of fuel lumps

in a moderator may be regarded as made up of a lattice of equivalent unit cells.
In each lattice cell the resonance escape probability depends on the spatial dis
tribution of resonance neutrons, as well as on the structure and number of reso
A(E)
= ^,(E)N0Voa(E)
sec per
unit energy interval at
+ $.(E)N0VME)
is
the volume of the lump, per unit cell, and 4>o(E)

per unit energy in the interior of the lump, defined by
0(/J) =
(r,E>,IV,
pVojv,
where Vo
j|,
The total number of absorptions per

m the uranium lump is given by (9.25.1) as
nances.
is
9.36.

be apparent that, whereas the volume absorption a(E) increases with the
scattering cross section per uranium atom, the surface absorption decreases. The
physical interpretation of these results is as follows.
The depression of resonance
flux in a uranium lump decreases as 2,/iVo increases, and this will mean an in
crease in the effective (volume) cross section.
On the other hand, the larger the
scattering per uranium atom, the greater the probability that a resonance neutron
will be scattered rather than absorbed in a lump. The surface absorption will
(9.36.1)
the average flux at
THE ELEMENTS
262
OF NUCLEAR
and 4>.(E) is the average flux at
REACTOR THEORY
[9.36
per unit energy at the surface of the lump,
defined by
9.37. The total number Q(E) of neutrons slowing down past energy
in the moderator present in the cell is given [cf. (6.67.1)] by
Q(E) = *x(E)V&2aE,
per
(9.37.1)
Vi is the volume of the moderator, per unit cell, and <h(E) is the average
where
flux at
per unit energy in the moderator,
*(E)
where
/ *(r, E) dV.
If
more than one element is present in the moderator, t is replaced by .

rate of change in Q(E) with respect to is equal to the absorption A (E)
uranium lump,
so
The
in
the
that
*P
MM).
(9-37.2)
9.38. Upon combining (9.36.1), (9.37.1), and (9.37.2) the result is

1
'
dQ
dE
rN0V<4o(E)a(E)
N0V^.(E)b(E)
+
L V&Z.ME)
'
811
M]E
Q(l)
- Q(E0)
exp
- y^-
\Jm
and integration then gives
a(2?0
~W
mJb UE')hm~w\r
a(E
is
E>
W) ^
J}
UEI)
Jb
- exp (
p(E)
is
equal to Q(E)/Q(E0), where Q(E0)

The resonance escape probability p(E)
the number of neutrons slowing down into the resonance region per sec.
Hence,
.
(9.38.1)
In the
case of
homogeneous mixture of fuel and moderator,

unity Atattheall
At the same time Vo and
<0/ and and
4>,/4>\4>,/4>\
are unityare
at all energies.
sameenergies.
time Vo and Vi become
9.39.
the ratios
Vi
become
it
In general, however,
identical, and (9.38.1) reduces, as
should, to (9.11.5).
of
p(E),
for heterogeneous assembly the evaluation
assuming a(E) and b(E) to
be known, depends on obtaining these flux ratios as functions of the energy.
graphite moderator,
9.40. In uranium lumps near the optimum size, in
In the resonance region,
<o/0i may be set equal to 4>./4>i for simplicity.
<5o/0i
if

sec
9.45]
is assumed to be independent
becomes
263
of energy, the resonance escape formula (9.38.1)
9.41. In this form p(E) can be computed fairly easily, using experimental
The approximation is not as bad
values for the effective resonance integral.
as it would at first appear, since to calculate the resonance escape probability
need be known only to
to within 1 per cent error, for example, the value of
within about 10 per cent near the optimum ratio of the volumes of moderator to
is the
called
the disadvantage
fuel, Vi/V0. The ratio <i/ is called
disadvantage
factor for resonance neu
factor for resonance neu
trons.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Heterogeneous System

9.42. The main advantage to be gained in the use of a heterogeneous assembly

in a thermal reactor is the increase in the resonance escape probability due to
the decrease in the effective resonance integral, for a given ratio of uranium to
moderator. This arises largely from the absorption of resonance neutrons in
the outer layers of the uranium lumps, so that the resonance flux in the interior
is greatly decreased. Of the neutrons entering a uranium lump from the modera
tor only those with energies at, or very close to, resonance peaks will be captured.
All others will have a high probability of passing through the lump, since they
Upon re-entering the
suffer little energy loss in collisions with uranium nuclei.
moderator, the neutrons will undergo further slowing down, and they may pass
through several resonances and reach thermal energies before being captured.
The resonance escape probability is thus increased.
9.43. If the uranium resonances had been broad and low, the increase in the
Because of the
resonance escape probability due to lumping would be less.
a
larger spread of energies
greater width of the resonance peak, neutrons covering
would be absorbed upon entering a uranium lump (or rod). Thus, a smaller
fraction of the neutrons incident on the lump would re-enter the moderator for
In addition, since the resonances are wider, the probabil
further slowing down.
ity that neutrons would be degraded from above to below the resonance range
in a collision with a moderator nucleus would be greatly decreased.
9.44. A less important effect of lumping the uranium is a small increase in the
resonance escape probability arising from the fact that some neutrons may be
The effect is
slowed down to thermal energies without ever entering a fuel rod.
essentially geometrical, since it depends on the spacing of the rods, as well as
It amounts to a factor of about
on the slowing down length of the moderator.
1.04 in the Oak Ridge X-lattice.
9.45.
In a heterogeneous system, there is also a small increase in the fast fission
with a uniform mixture of the same composition.

Since
fission neutrons are produced within the uranium lump, in which they undergo
factor,
as compared
264
.[9.45
very little slowing down, the probability of the capture of fast neutrons by uranium-238 nuclei, and thus causing fission, is greater than for a uniform mixture
9.46. The chief disadvantage of the heterogeneous arrangement of uranium
and moderator lies in the decrease in the thermal utilization.
This is due largely
to the depletion of the thermal flux within the uranium lump.
The factors deter
mining the thermal utilization in a lattice are considered in the next section.
Calculation of the Thermal Utilization*

9.47. The thermal utilization in a heterogeneous assembly, in which the fuel
from the moderator, is not a simple function of the macroscopic
is separated
It depends
absorption cross sections, as it is for a homogeneous system ( 7.66).
also on the thermal neutron flux in different parts of the lattice.
By definition,
the thermal utilization is

f=
f S.*(r)
dV
,
(2o0
(9.47.1)
dV
21)<Kr)
(r)
is the thermal neutron flux at a particular point r, and 2o0 and 2i

are the macroscopic absorption cross sections, for the fuel and moderator respec
The integration is carried over the whole of the
tively, for thermal neutrons.
where
reactor.
If
the fuel is completely
separated from the moderator,
so that each
region is homogeneous,
20
f=
20
J*(r)
*(r) dV + 2l
Fuel
9.48. Average thermal fluxes
dV
$0
(9 47 2)
*(r) dV
Moderator
and
<fo
in the fuel and moderator are defined
(cf. 9.36) by
and
*(r) dV,
where Vo is the volume of the fuel and Vi is that of the moderator.
utilization as expressed by (9.47.2) then becomes
AlO
(9.48.1)
All
r7-
Vo
'
9o
See A. M. Weinberg, in "The Science and Engineering of Nuclear

C. Goodman), Vol. II, Chapter 6, Addison-Wesley Press, 1949.
*
The thermal
Power" (edited by
9.51]
265
is
is
is
Unit
o
^
Fig. 9.51.
'

is
If
is
it
is
It
is,
The ratio of the average thermal flux in the moderator to that in the fuel, i.e.,
factor for thermal neutrons.
The thermal flux is
4>i/4>o, is the disadvantage
The
depressed in the fuel, so that the disadvantage factor is greater than unity.
thermal utilization is then smaller than for a corresponding homogeneous system
with the same relative amounts of fuel and moderator.
9.49. In physical terms it may be stated that fast neutrons produced in the
uranium lumps are slowed down significantly only in the moderator.
Hence,
thermal neutrons are produced only in the moderator and must diffuse into the
fuel. The thermal neutron flux
therefore, depressed in the center of the ura
nium lump because of absorption of thermal neutrons in the outer layers.
9.50. The calculation of the thermal utilization thus becomes essentially a
matter of finding the thermal neutron flux distribution in the uranium-moderator
In the following treatment, three assumptions (or approximations) will
system.
be made.
will be supposed, first, that the slowing down density
constant
in the moderator and zero in the uranium. In other words,
assumed that
thermal neutrons are produced uniformly throughout the moderator but not
at all in the uranium. This condition will hold, provided the separation of the
not too large in comparison with the slowing down distance.
the
lumps
slowing down densities, as calculated by the Fermi theory, due to point sources
found
arranged in lattice, are superimposed, the slow neutron production rate
to be remarkably uniform, provided the lattice spacing
not greater than two
or three slowing down lengths.
9.51. The second approximation
number of
to divide the lattice up into
identical unit cells and to suppose that square cross section can be replaced by
circular cross section of the same area. If the reactor consists of cylindrical
rods of uranium, arranged in the manner shown in Fig. 9.51, each cell will consist
cells in heterogeneous
o
lattice
266
THE ELEMENTS
[9.51
The equivalent cell of circular cross

section, indicated by the dotted circle, will then be a long cylinder, with the fuel
rod at the center. If the lattice consists of roughly spherical lumps, then the
equivalent unit cell would be a sphere. The foregoing approximation, which is
equivalent to that used by E. P. Wigner and F. Seitz in the theoretical treatment
of crystal lattices, greatly simplifies the calculations.
9.52. The third assumption is that simple diffusion theory is applicable.
This will be the case only if the dimensions of the system are large compared
to the scattering mean free path of the neutrons, if the neutrons are not absorbed
too strongly, and if there are no neutron sources present.
None of these condi
tions is strictly satisfied, and estimates made by more accurate methods indicate
that simple diffusion theory does result in some errors. However, in view of the
simplicity of the calculations, the treatment is well worth while.
9.53. The theory will now be used to calculate the thermal utilization for a
reactor with long cylindrical fuel rods, the cross section of the equivalent (cylin
drical) unit cell being shown in Fig. 9.53. The radius of the fuel rod is R0 and

of a parallelepiped
of square cross section.
Fig.
9.53.
Cylindrical lattice cell
that of a unit cell in the reactor lattice is Ri. If the cell is long in comparison
with its diameter, the neutron flux distribution becomes essentially a one-dimen
sional problem.
9.54. Since
it has been assumed that the slowing down density is constant
in the moderator and zero in the uranium, the neutrons may be treated as monoThus,
energetic and the equations of the one-group method can be employed.
for
fuel
is
the thermal diffusion equation
the
rod
Do Vfyo
where
o represents
Sa0</o
= 0,
(9.54.1)
the thermal neutron flux at any point in the uranium, and

are the corresponding diffusion coefficient and macroscopic absorption
Do and So0
cross section, respectively.
It
will be noted that there is no thermal neutron

source term in (9.54.1), since it had been postulated that there is no slowing down
in the uranium.
9.58]
9.55.
REACTORS
267
For the moderator, the thermal diffusion equation is

Di V2i
2<i+ q - 0, (9.55.1)
q
0,
(9.55.1)
where the source term; equal to the number of neutrons becoming thermal in
the moderator per cm3 per sec, is constant because of the uniform slowing down
density.
9.56. The boundary conditions which must be satisfied by solutions of the dif
ferential equations (9.54.1) and (9.55.1) are as follows:
(i) Continuity of neutron flux at the fuel rod-moderator boundary, i.e.,
4>o
at r = Ro.
(ii) Continuity of neutron current density at the boundary, i.e.,

=
Do%
ar
Aâtr
ar
= fl0.
measured from the axis of the cylinder in
is
out of
as
i.e.,
-a.
^-Oafcr
or
The r-coordinate
to its surface.
as diffuse
direction normal
7Vo
is
- rfto
(9.57.1)
is
9.57. Upon dividing through (9.54.1) by D0 and replacing 20o/-Do by k02,

the reciprocal of the thermal diffusion length in uranium, the result
k0
where
is
AIoM
modified Bessel equation
is
is
equivalent to
positive, this expression
Since k<?
of the form
and the general solution
7.54)
or, in cylindrical coordinates,
A'KoM,
(9.57.2)
and K0 are zero order, modified Bessel functions of the first and second
where
However, since K0 would require the neutron flux to go
kinds, respectively.
=
the second term on the
to infinity at the axis of the uranium rod, where
right-hand side of (9.57.2) may be eliminated, so that
*o = Ah(K0r).
(9.55.1) for the moderator
(9.57.3)
may be divided through by
Z>i
Vî
0.
that
and 20i/Z?i replaced by
ki2, so
9.58. The equation
0,
70

many neutrons diffuse into any given unit cell
it,
(iii) No net flow of neutrons at the outside boundary of the cell, since just
(9.58.1)
268
The homogeneous part of this equation is analogous to equation

the solution of this part is
=
(h(homo)
[9.58
(9.57.1),
and
Chimr) + FKo^r).
is,
is
is,
The Ko function cannot be discarded in this case since the moderator region of
The solution of the particular part of (9.58.1)
the cell does not include the origin.
therefore, q/D\tf, which
may be obtained by setting <tn constant; it
equal
= 2i/Di.
to g/20i, since
The complete solution of (9.58.1)
therefore,
+ FK0(Klr) +
(9.58.2)
9.59. The relationship between the arbitrary constants
and
is
CIM
<h
obtained
from the boundary condition (iii) thus,
Ji(Kifli)
ClIMKfcJld
ffoOcirO/iMO]
4~
(9.59.1)
Ki(kiRi) has been absorbed into the constant factor C.

A
and
may be evaluated by means of the boundary
thus, using (9.57.3) and (9.59.1) for
and
<fo,
respectively,
AI0(koRo)
ClhiKiRJK^RO
JT0(iR)/i(ift)]
and from (ii),
that
follows from
and (ii)
(i)
(i)
9.60. The constants

conditions
it
into (9.58.2) then gives
where
Introduction of this value for
#.
- ^l(lBo)/l(lBl)]-
DoAko/iOcoRo) = DiCKilLiKjl^K^KxRO
or, better, its reciprocal
1//, in terms of measurable quantities
Note that dl<,(ic,r)/dr = *i/ifor), and dJToOnr)/dr =

order modified Bessel functions.
is
it
rqfinil
possible to express the thermal
- KiJCifor),
where
Ii
+ K0(kiRo)Ii(kiRi)]
Do/c07i(0fio)[/o(ifio)-K,i(ifii)
With the information now available
utilization
*
is
9.61.
it
Srf/..
is
not required, and in place of A,

In the later development the value of
found more convenient to derive an expression for 1/A. Algebraic treatment
of the two foregoing equations leads to the result

and, consequently,
4n
- FXifaA)] = 0,*
= i[CJi(ifli)
dr
d\
and 2T, are
for
first
9.62]
REACTORS
269
Consider a cylindrical shell of radius r, thickness dr,

and unit length, within the fuel rod, as indicated in Fig. 9.61. The volume of
the heterogeneous

Fig.
lattice.
9.61.
Calculation of thermal neutrons absorbed in fuel rod
this shell is 2rr dr, and the number of thermal neutrons absorbed in it is
2o0o(-)2irr dr per sec; <o(r) is the thermal neutron flux in the uranium at a radial
distance r from the axis, as given by (9.57.3). The total number of thermal
neutrons absorbed per sec in a unit length of the cylindrical fuel rod is then
obtained by integration over values of r from zero to R0, the radius of the rod.
Hence,
No. of thermal neutrons absorbed per _
/"*.
~~
2na4>o(r)2irr dr
unit length of fuel rod per sec
J0
r/o(for) dr
=
2ir2o^4i2o
(Co
-tt r, \
il(Korto).
9.62. The number of thermal neutrons produced, by slowing down, in unit

volume of the moderator per sec is q, and since the volume of unit length of the
i?0J), the total rate of thermal neutron production
moderator in a cell is
The thermal utilization is the ratio of
is <?jr(ftiJ i2o2) per unit length per sec.
thermal neutrons absorbed in the uranium to the number produced, by slowing
Hence, the reciprocal, 1//, is given in the present case
down, in the moderator.
by
1
qirjRi
fl02)*o
27r20C>fto/i(Kofto)
'
J_ '
(QROU
Introducing the expression for 1/A in (9.60.1), and rearranging the result, it is
found that
tdjRx2
2R0
R<?)
rJofaR^gifaRQ
+ jr0(Klfi0)71(Klfi1)-]
tfxM^/iOciflo)]'
Ui(afli)*i(*i#o)
THE ELEMENTS
270
Defining the quantities

2
and
and
[9.62
by
I0(k0R0)
K0R0
'/i(oBo)
KtjR\*
fio2)
r/oM^,M,)
2fl o
+ go(<nBo)f i(iBi)i
the thermal utilization is represented by

(9.62.3)
9.63. The quantity F defined above can be shown to give the ratio of the neu
tron flux at the surface of the rod to the average fljuc in the interior. Consider
the limiting case of an infinite diffusion coefficient in the moderator; then i is
zero and E is unity, and (9.62.3) reduces to

or
(9.63.1)
2oo
If
the diffusion coefficient in the moderator
Vo
SaiF
is infinite, there can be no gradient
of neutron flux, and hence the flux would be uniform throughout the moderator.
The thermal neutrons produced
uniformly in the moderator,

FUEL
and distributed
ROD
MODERATOR
EDGE OF
LATTICE CELL
Fia.
9.63.
EOGE
OF
LATTICE CELL
Nem .ron flux distribution for infinite diffusion coefficient in moderator
isotropically, would travel in straight lines until they were absorbed in the mod
erator or left it to enter a fuel rod.
The corresponding neutron distribution
would then be as shown in Fig. 9.63.
9.64. Upon comparing (9.63.1) with (9.48.1), it is seen that
9.65]
where & is now the neutron flux at the outer surface of the fuel rod.
the same throughout the moderator,
271
Since
it is
Thermal neutron flux at surface of rod

Average thermal flux in interior of rod
Actually, because the diffusion coefficient in the moderator is finite, the average
thermal flux in the moderator is greater than the flux at the surface of the fuel
ÊDGE
EDGE OF
OF

LATTICE CELL
Fig.
9.64.
LATTICE
CELL
Neutron flux distribution for finite diffusion coefficient in moderator
rod (Fig. 9.64).
This additional absorption is measured by the quantity
1,
which is called the excess absorption.

9.65. By calculating 1/f for a given value of Vi/Vo and of R0, it is possible to
obtain a series of curves in which 1/f is plotted as a function of Vi/Vo for various
The general trend of these curves is shown in Fig. 9.65 for three values
R0's.
of the fuel rod radius,
jR0i > Roi > Ro3-
It
v,A>
Fig.
9.65.
is seen that the thermal utilization
Reciprocal of thermal utilization as function of moderator-fuel jod volume

ratio
272
[9.65
decreases (a) with increasing radius of the rod at constant Vi/Vo, because the
depression of the flux increases with the radius, and (6) with increasing Vi/Vo at
constant rod radius, because more neutrons are captured in the moderator.
9.66. Results similar to those derived for a cylindrical cell may be obtained
for other types of lattice cells.
The actual values of
and
E, which have the
same physical significance as derived above, depend on the geometry of the cells ;
the appropriate formulae for an infinite slab and a sphere are given in Table 9.66.
TABLE 9.66.
Cell
Geometry
FOR LATTICE CALCULATIONS
FUNCTIONS
Infinite
KttRo COth KoR0
Kl(Ri
ft0) coth < - R0)
Slab
ko'/Jo*

Sphere
For the slab cell,
tanh koRi
fo tanh koRo
i?0 is the
,s(fli3-#o')
3R0
R0)
1-k,R, eothm(Ri-Ro)
Ll -K.ye.fto-MCft.-.Ro)
coth
,(,-)
~l
half-thickness of the fuel element and Ri is that of the
entire cell; for the spherical cell, R0 is the radius of the fuel sphere and Ri that
of the whole cell.
It is of interest to note that F contains only the constants of
the fuel
(k0)
while
E contains
sible to prepare tables of
It is therefore pos
only that (kO of the moderator.
and E, which facilitate lattice calculations.*
Calculation of the Resonance Escape PROBABiLiTYf

9.67. The value of the resonance escape probability can be found from (9.40.1),
provided the disadvantage factor for resonance neutrons, i.e., the ratio of the
average value of the resonance flux in the moderator to that in the uranium, is
known.
In order to determine this factor, the resonance flux will be treated as
a single neutron group, in a manner identical with that used for the fast neutron
flux in the two-group reactor calculations (Chapter VIII). The problem is for
mally the same as the determination of the thermal utilization. Since very little
slowing down occurs in the fuel, a uniform source of resonance neutrons may be
assumed in the moderator.
These neutrons then diffuse into the uranium, some
of them being absorbed in the uranium-238 resonances.
9.68. The first and essential step in the calculations is to determine the appro
priate group constants, namely, 2 and D. Since the energy range of the reso
nance region is not known exactly, estimates have been made in various ways.
One of these is to compare the diffusion length of resonance neutrons in uranium
oxide (Us08) with the known transport mean free path, \t, and the total volume
Such tables have been prepared under the supervision of J. A. Wheeler,
t R. F. Christy, A. M. Weinberg, and E. P. Wigner, unpublished.
*
9.71]
absorption, a(E). The average absorption cross section,

neutrons as a single group, is given by
J^'T
aa,
273
treating resonance
dE
aa
= 20
N0
In (EÊ2)
'
(9.68.1)
but since 2<,o = X<o/3Lo*, where L0 is the diffusion length of resonance neutrons
in the fuel (uranium oxide), it follows that
Êi
SWN0f\(E)f
Ei
Xio
Since the integral, representing the total volume absorption, as well as L02 and
In Ei/E2 can be evaluated.
The result,
Xro can be determined experimentally,
found to be in agreement with other estimates, was In Ei/E2 = 7.3 for uranium
oxide.

9.69.
In uranium metal, In Ei/E2 is smaller because the volume absorption is
less than that in the oxide by a factor of 0.77 ; hence, for the metal In Ei/Ei is 5.6.
Since, for uranium, the volume absorption is equal to the effective resonance
integral, (9.68.1) gives
f*
J*
Sjo
dE
E_
(9 691)
where for the metal the effective resonance integral is given by (9.30.1).
9.70. The values of k02, equal to 3S<02o, with an appropriate transport theory
correction ( 14.40), may
be obtained
from
,Hi:)'
A better procedure to estimate
where 20 is the total cross section of the fuel.
k0 is to measure the uranium-239 resonance activation in a fuel lump as a function
of position; the data are then fitted to the appropriate solution of the diffusion
For example, if the fuel element is a long rod, the activation should
proportional
to 0far), where r is the distance from the axis [cf. (9.57.3)]. In
be
uranium metal of density 18.7 grams per cm3, k0 was found to be 0.42 cm-1.
Since 2o and K0 are known, Do can be calculated.
for the moderator may be determined from
9.71. The values of 2o1, Kh and
Some
experimental cross sections and diffusion lengths for resonance neutrons.
values, which may be used when uranium metal is the fuel, are given in Table
9.71. If the fuel is uranium oxide (or other compound or mixture), some allow
ance must be made for the oxygen (or other element), because of the difference
in the effective width of the resonance region.
For uranium oxide (UjOg), for
equation.
THE ELEMENTS
274
[9.71
example, Si = 0.772!* and ki = Vo.77ki* = 0.88ki*, where the starred values

are those for the pure metal.
TABLE 9.71.
GROUP
CONSTANTS
OF VARIOUS
MODERATORS
Moderator
FOR RESONANCE
2! cm-1
Water
Heavy water
NEUTRONS
ki cm-1
0.241
0.583
0.0313
0.155
Beryllium
Beryllium oxide
0.0276
0.237
0.0150
0.138
Graphite
0.0108
0.1075
9.72. The problem is now formally identical with that of calculating the ther
The resonance neutron diffusion equation for the fuel lump is
mal utilization.
Pô
and for the moderator
it is
?V,
S is constant,
koVo = 0,
- KlVl + S
above.
as postulated
= 0,
The boundary conditions are,
as
continuity of flux and the normal component of the current at the

interface; and (ii) no net current in the direction normal to the
surface of the lattice cell.
9.73.
resonance neutron utilization, fr, may be defined, analogous to the
thermal utilization; thus,
(i)
before,
moderator-fuel
Number of neutrons absorbed in uranium resonances

Number of resonance neutrons produced
Consequently, in accordance with (9.62.3),
1+^F + ^-1),
V
}=
Jr
oioO
(9.73.1)
and Sal now refer to resonance neutrons, the latter being effectively a
In this equation,
slowing down cross section.
the ratio of the resonance
neutron density at the surface to the average density in the interior and E
is
2o0
where
The expres
for various cell geometries are identical in form with those given
9.62,
seq.).
By transposing
an expression
factor for resonance neutrons, i.e.,
00
0i/<o,
similar to (9.48.1), the disadvantage

can be expressed by
= Zoggo/j
7lSA/r
,\
9.74.
}'
above
and
the excess slowing down of neutrons out of the resonance region.
sions for
et
is

where
and hence (9.40.1) for the resonance escape probability becomes
9.75]
From arguments similar to those in

Sql
8.12,
{Z.\
and from (9.69.1)
it follows that
1
In (Ei/E2)
2o
In (V2)
N0
so that
:2,iSo0
275
,
<
(aaojeff
'
d = i
I.
Upon substituting in (9.74.1), the result is

p(E) =
exp^-j-^yj-
By using (9.73.1) to obtain/r, it is thus possible to calculate the resonance

escape probability for any particular type of lattice cell, if the various group
constants are known.
The general nature of the dependence on Vi/V0 of the
9.75.
for various fuel-rod radii

The resonance escape probability increases (a) with
escape probability, or rather its reciprocal,
is indicated in Fig. 9.75.
v./V
Fio.
9.75.
Reciprocal of resonance escape probability as function of moderator-fuel

volume ratio
rod
is,
increasing radius at constant Vi/Vo, and (b) with increasing Vi/V0 at constant
radius of fuel rod. Thus, the conditions which favor increase of the resonance
escape probability are just those which cause the thermal utilization to decrease
The problem
then, to find the arrangement which gives an optimum
This
corresponds approximately to the Vi/Vt, and R0
product
of
the
pf.
value
and are equal.*
for which
*In the Oak Ridge (X-10) reactor the cylindrical fuel rods of natural uranium have
ameter of 1.1 in. and are arranged on 8-in. centers in a square lattice of graphite.
( 9.65).

resonance
di
THE ELEMENTS
276
[9.76
Calculation of the Fast Fission Factor*

9.76. Fast neutrons with energies greater than about 1.1
Mev can cause fission
Thus, for every neutron produced in fission due to thermal

in uranium-238.
neutrons, an additional number of fission neutrons, due to fast-neutron fission,
will enter the system. For every fission neutron there will be a certain probabil
The
ity of causing fission, which will, in turn, produce more fission neutrons.
is
thus
a
cascade
The
fast
fission
factor
e
can
be
defined
process.
typical
effect
as the number of neutrons slowing down past the fission threshold of uranium-238
per primary fission neutron, i.e., per neutron produced by thermal fission.
The
computation of the fast fission factor must include the contribution of all the fis
sion neutrons produced in the cascade.
9.77. The slowing down of fission neutrons produced in a uranium lump takes
First, by inelastic collisions with uranium nuclei; because
place in two ways.
of the nature of such collisions,

the fission threshold.
the neutron energy will be reduced well below
Second, by escape of fast neutrons into the moderator;
to a good approximation that none of the neutrons entering the

will return to the uranium lump with energies exceeding the fission
threshold.
Elastic scattering within the lump will not change the neutron energy
appreciably.
Hence, elastic collisions will be regarded as leaving the neutron
it can
be assumed

moderator
energy unchanged.
9.78. Let P be the probability that a primary fission neutron, as defined above,
will make a collision inside the fuel lump in which it was created. Starting with
one primary neutron, the following average values will hold on the first collision:
=
Collisions in the lump
Fission neutrons produced

Elastic collisions in the lump
Neutrons escaping from the lump with
out collision
Neutrons slowed down below threshold
by inelastic collision
where af, at, <n, and a are the fission, elastic scattering, inelastic scattering, and
total cross sections, respectively, for fast neutrons in the fuel. The total number
of fast neutrons available in the lump after the first collision is the sum of the
second and third quantities above, i.e., P(vaf + a,)/a.
sented by the symbol Z, thus
If
(yaf
+ ae)/a is repre
the number of neutrons available in the lump after the first collision is
*
H. Castle, H. Ibser, G. Sacker, and A. M. Weinberg, unpublished.
PZ.
9.82]
277
9.79. Neutrons that have been scattered at least once within the fuel are dis
tributed almost uniformly in the lump. But the primary fission neutrons are
distributed like the thermal flux, which is depressed in the center of the lump.
Since more primary neutrons are produced per unit volume in the outer layers
than in the interior, the probability P' that second and higher generation fission
neutrons will make a collision in the lump is greater than the probability for the
primary neutrons.
9.80. The conditions for the second collision are as follows:
P'PZ
P'PZ
<j
P'PZ

Neutrons escaping from the lump with-_

out further collision
Neutrons slowed down below threshold _
by inelastic scattering
p/\pg
p,pg
j
a
The total number of fast neutrons available in the lump after the second collision
is thus P'PZ2.
9.81. Continuing in the same manner, it is apparent that, after the (n + 1)th
collision, the various terms will be:
P(P'Z)n
P(P'Z)n
P(P'Z)"
Neutrons escaping from the lump without further collision

Neutrons slowed down below threshold
by inelastic scattering
p,p,psn<[i
P'
P'
a
a
p,p,.n
9.82. The total number of neutrons slowing down past the fission threshold
per primary fission neutron, which is equal to e, is then obtained by summing the
last two quantities for all the generations; thus,
e
l- P
P^
P(l- P' + P'^jZ
-1 + p(?-1)+[^
PP'(l
- P' + P'^jZ*+-
p(?-1)Ir=!^-1}
. .
THE ELEMENTS
278
[9.S2
Noting that a = a} + <n + a, + ae, where ac is the cross section for nonfission
capture of fast neutrons by the fuel, so that
<n
a =
(07
it is found that the expression for

recalling the definition of
Z in
0-e
o-c),
reduces to
r^V-
+ L
(9-82-1)
9.78.
9.83. It should be mentioned that, in the foregoing derivation, it is assumed

that all the fission neutrons are produced with energies above the threshold for
fast-neutron fission. Because of the distribution of fission neutron energies,
this will not be true.
A proportion of the neutrons produced in fission will have
The net effect of this is to decrease e 1
energies below the threshold value.
by about 3 per cent.
9.84. To complete the calculation of e, the essentially geometric problem of
The probability that a neutron originating
computing P and P' will be outlined.
at ii will suffer a collision in the volume element dr2 at r2 in the fuel is
4t
ii
r2 12
dr2,
where 2 is the total macroscopic cross section of the fuel.
If n(ii) is the neutron

ii per cm3 per sec,
distribution in the fuel, i.e., the number of neutrons produced at

then
2_
Jn Jri
ri
4x
.,
r2 p
n(rO dn
These integrals
where the integrations are carried over the entire fuel lump.
have been evaluated for lattice cells of various geometries.
The value of P' can
be obtained by letting the source distribution n(ri) be a constant.
is of interest to note that, in a large assembly, where P' = 1, a diver
It was
gent fast chain reaction would be possible if vaf + a were equal to a.
found experimentally* that the maximum value of e in uranium metal is about
9.85.
1.2.
It
The following average cross sections for fast neutrons in uranium metal
give close agreement with the experimental
results:
a/ = 0.29 barn
= 2.47 barns
<7i
barns
ae = 1.5
ac
*
A. H. Snell, unpublished.
= 0.04 barn
9.88]
279
that <r is 4.3 barns. The values of the fast fission factor for heterogeneous
reactors of two types, with natural uranium as fuel, and either graphite or heavy
water as moderator are given in Table 9.85.
so
TABLE 9.85.
FAST
FISSION
FACTOR
FOR NATURAL URANIUM REACTORS
Type
Reactor
Moderator
CP-2 or "GLEEP"
CP-3 or "ZEEP"
Graphite
Heavy water
1.029
1.031
MACROSCOPIC REACTOR THEORY

Calculation of the Material Buckling
The preceding parts of this chapter may be regarded as covering what
was called (9.1) microscopic reactor (pile) theory.
A knowledge of the four
quantities ij, /, p, and e for a particular fuel-moderator lattice of a certain com
position permits evaluation of the infinite multiplication factor.
It is the main
purpose of macroscopic theory, combined with experiment, to determine the
critical size of the specified system. The first step in this direction is to estimate
appropriate values for the diffusion length and the age of thermal neutrons in

9.86.
the heterogeneous
lattice.
9.87. Whereas microscopic theory is concerned with the variation of the neu
tron flux within a lattice cell and its effect on the infinite multiplication factor,
macroscopic theory must take into consideration the variation of the average
flux in a cell from cell to cell over the entire reactor.
The thermal neutron flux
in a heterogeneous reactor can be considered as the product of two factors: one
is an over-all cosine (or similar) distribution analogous to that in a homogeneous
finite system (cf. 7.61), and the other is the microscopic distribution within a
lattice cell. The thermal flux is thus given by
*(r) = *(r)0<(r),
where the subscripts a and refer to macroscopic and microscopic,

The macroscopic flux is assumed to satisfy the diffusion equation
TV. +
2<
+ S = 0,
(9.87.1)
respectively.
(9.87.2)
D is the average diffusion coefficient and 20 is the average macroscopic

absorption cross section of thermal neutrons in the reactor, and S is the source
term due to slowing down in the moderator.
9.88. The diffusion coefficient is not very different in fuel and moderator, and
since the volume of moderator is large compared to that of the fuel, the average
diffusion coefficient D in (9.87.2) may be taken to be equal to Di, the diffusion
The absorption cross section, however, does differ
coefficient in the moderator.
where
THE ELEMENTS
230
[9.88
appreciably in the two media, and the value, averaged according to the variation
of flux in a lattice cell, is represented by
Vi4>i
F090
4>0
,
Koy
Vi-r Tr
T7
From (9.48.1),
1
<h
where
/ is the thermal utilization
of the lattice, and so (9.88.1) becomes
2 =
(9.88.2)
91
In actual lattices Vi is much greater than Foô/î, and hence the average macro
2 =
(9.88.3)
The thermal diffusion length in the lattice is then given by
Lj V1
- /,
(9.88.4)
Li
is the diffusion length in pure moderator.*

9.89. The next matter to consider is the Fermi age of the neutrons in the lat
tice.
It would be expected to be somewhat larger than in the moderator alone
where
because uranium is not effective in slowing down neutrons by elastic collisions.

However, this increase in the thermal neutron age is opposed by the effect of
inelastic scattering in the uranium. For all practical purposes, therefore, the
age of thermal neutrons
in the lattice may
be
taken as equal to that in the pure
moderator.
is,
9.90. Because ij for natural uranium is 1.3, and p and/ are both less than unity,
while e is about 1.03, it is evident that the infinite multiplication factor k
at best, only slightly greater than unity.

Consequently, in order to reduce the
relative loss of neutrons from the assembly by leakage, a critical reactor, using
be large.
For large reactors,
*It may be noted that (7.67.1) for a homogeneous reactor

this result
general.
is
M*Bm*
*'
natural uranium as fuel, will inevitably have to

the critical equation may be written
7.63) as
is

scopic absorption cross section becomes equal to the absorption cross section of
the moderator divided by 1 /, i.e.,
equivalent to (9.88.4), so that
9.93]
281
so that the material buckling is given by
BJ
4^'
(9901)
Since k may be regarded as known, and the migration area M2 is defined by
M* = L* + t,
L in the lattice is defined by (9.88.4) and the age

the thermal neutrons can be assumed to be the same as in the moderator,
where the diffusion length
t of
all the information may thus be regarded as available for the evaluation of the
material buckling by (9.90.1).
If this is set equal to the geometric buckling
for a specified shape, the critical dimensions of the reactor can be determined

( 7.26).
The Exponential
Experiment*
9.91. Confirmation of the results given by the procedure described above is

obtained by means of what has been called the exponential pile experiment. This
involves construction of a subcritical assembly with exactly the same lattice as
the proposed reactor but appreciably smaller.
In a system of this type, a selfsustaining fission chain reaction will, of course, not be possible, but if an extra
neous source is present, a steady state can be realized ( 7.2).
The flux distribu
tion m such a system does not satisfy the wave equation for a critical reactor.
Nevertheless, as will be shown later ( 12.46), if the subcritical assembly is
relatively large, as would be the case for a natural uranium system, the thermal
neutron flux distribution, at a distance from boundaries and from the extraneous
source, can be represented fairly closely by
+ BJ4> = 0,
(9.91.1)
Strictly
where Bml is the material buckling of the given fuel-moderator system.
In a
speaking, the wave equation (9.91.1) applies to a homogeneous system.
heterogeneous assembly, there will be local irregularities due to the lattice struc
ture,
as
indicated earlier, but the wave equation will nevertheless give the large-
scale or over-all neutron distribution.

9.92. The purpose of the exponential experiment is to determine Jhe material
buckling from measurements of the thermal flux distribution in the appropriate
regions' ~bf~a mcêlêlyTarge^ subcritical assembly in which a steady state is
maintained by an extraneous neutron source. The critical dimensions of a reac
tor having the same composition and structure as the experimental assembly can
then be obtained from the expression for the geometric buckling, as stated in
9.90.
In
the exponential arrangement, a portion of the reactor is constructed,

with linear dimensions of the order of one-third or so of the critical reactor, on a
9.93.
The theory of the exponential pile
is due to
E. Fermi.
THE ELEMENTS
282
[9.93
from which emerges a supply of thermal neutrons.

The latter may consist
of a structure of graphite and uranium within which is placed a neutron source,
such as radium-beryllium, or it may be part of an existing thermal reactor.
In
base
the case of a cubic or rectangular
Fig.
9.93.
as
Assembly for exponential experiment in rectangular block
taken at the center of the bottom face of the reactor.

The assembly has a num
ber of vertical holes or tubes parallel to and near the z-axis of the coordinate sys
tem shown.
In these holes can be placed indium foils or neutron counters by
means of which the neutron flux at various distances from the bottom face can
be determined.
To solve equation (9.91.1), the thermal flux is written as the product

the functions X(x), Y(y), Z(z) of the respective single variables x, y, z.
As
9.94.
of
in
previous cases ( 5.71, 7.42), this leads to the expression

<PX
J.
The terms in
72,
X, Y,
respectively,
so
dx2
'
dPY
dif
By the
that
found (cf.
tions,
B.0.
72
= B
o?, /S*, and

(9.94.1)
symmetry condition, as before, it can be shown that

Taking into account the usual boundary condi
that
5.76)
use of the flux
are positive quantities.
is
and
/3s
9.95.
a2
and Z may then be set equal to the constants
it

be represented schematically
block reactor, the experimental system would

in Fig. 9.93, the origin of the coordinates being
9.98]
and
Am = Am cos
F =
Cn
r = (ff
and
(^)
(9.95.1)
rmrx
C08^,
' =
and
1,
and n =
The smallest
respectively,
(fJ-
that
are those for which m =
/32
and
(j)'
a2
/32
where Am and C are constants, and m and n are odd integers.

eigenvalues of
283
so
(9.95.2)
Hence,
a2
and
in (9.95.2) are much greater
z).
9.97. Upon inserting the values in (9.95.1) for
a2
and
Z(z) =
sinh y(c
/32
follows from (9.94.1) that
also positive.
(9.96.1)
into (9.94.1),
it
Consequently,
5.77,
is
Bm2.
as in
72
exceed
Hence,
/32
will
it
than the corresponding components of the critical geometric buckling. In fact,

in the exponential pile experiment, the dimensions of and are such that a2
follows
It
J-*.'.
("f
W-(f)'
that
(9.97.1)
apparent that for each pair of m and n values there will be definite value
of y, which may be indicated by ymn. Thus, from (9.96.1), the general solution
for Z(z) may be written as
a
is
= Fmn sinh ymn(c
z).
(9.97.2)
is
a
9.98. The simplest solution of the wave equation (9.91.1)

product of X,
but in view of the linear nature of this equation, the general solution
and
n-1
Amn cos
cos ^T^ sinh ymn(c z),
(9.98.1)
0=22
m-l
is Y,
Zmn
Z,
et
where the arbitrary constants Am, C, and Fmn have been combined into Amn.
In order to evaluate this constant, use must be made of the source condition,
as in the treatment for the determination of the diffusion length in
5.81,
seq.

less than in the critical reactor.
/S2
it
9.96. Although these results are formally similar to those obtained in connec
tion with the rectangular block reactor
should be noted that the di
7.43),
mensions and of the block in the exponential pile experiment are considerably
be regarded as a point source of fast neutrons lying on the z-axis

distance
below the origin in Fig. 9.93. Then by solving the age equation
at some
for the slowing down density, evaluated at thermal energies, and combining with
The source may
THE ELEMENTS
284
the diffusion treatment
(cf. 6.149), the thermal

be determined.
neutron
[9.9S
source term
This could
in the
expanded into
a series of orthogonal functions, as in 5.82. It would then be found that, at a
distance of about two diffusion lengths from the source, the only term of (9.98.1)
which makes any appreciable contribution to the neutron flux is the fundamental
through the origin could
x, y-plane
mode, i.e., when m =
and n =
be
1.
9.99. Hence, if the bottom of the experimental block, i.e., the x, y-plane
through the origin, is about 100 cm or so from a fast neutron source, embedded
in graphite, the contributions of the harmonic terms to the flux in the pile can be
neglected.
Consequently, under these conditions, it is not necessary to make
the source calculations described above, but merely to write (9.98.1) in the form
4>
An cos cos ~r sinh y(c

a
o
z),
z > 0.
Since there is only one value of the constant Amn which need be
considered, there
similarly, only one value of Fmn and one of ymn. The thermal
=
=
is,
by the
(9.99.1)
(9.99.2)
has been included in the constant C.

does not approach
i.e., at distances not too near the top
of the rectangular block, the term in the brackets in (9.99.2)

from unity, and then
(z)
is
9.100. Provided
c,
eyc
where
- e-2*"*],
sinh y(c
Ce-T[l
therefore, given
z)
4>(z)
flux distribution along any line parallel to the z-axis*

simplified form of (9.97.2), namely,
not very different
Ce-".
(9.100.1)
I/7.
In the foregoing
has been assumed that for
>
0,
9.101.
it
seen to be
is
This means that, in the experimental arrangement under consideration, along

any line parallel to the z-axis, the thermal neutron flux falls off in an (approxi
For this reason, the system has been called an
mately) exponential manner.
"exponential pile." The relaxation length of the neutrons, i.e., the distance
within which the neutron flux falls off by a factor of in the z-direction,
here
i.e., within the
is
pile itself, the neutrons coming from the source have virtually all been thermalized in their passage through the graphite base.
This will be essentially true,
=
at
provided the fast neutron source
distance from the
plane of at least
assumed,
of course, that the line
is
It
is
is
is
two or three slowing down lengths

6.142), i.e., more than 2Vr or 3v^, where
Since the value of r for thermal neu
the Fermi age of the thermal neutrons.
trons in graphite
about 300 cm, the minimum distance for virtually complete
*

is,
for
not close to the vertical boundaries of the assembly.
9.105]
285
thermalization is thus about 50 cm. An experimental check on this assumption

can be made by measuring the cadmium ratio ( 3.89) at various points along the
z-axis.
If there is no appreciable slowing down for z > 0, the cadmium ratio
will be constant.
9.102. If the fluxes <(z) at various distances z in the same vertical line near
the central axis of the assembly are determined experimentally, e.g., by the irradi
ation of indium foil and subsequent determination of the (saturation) beta activ
ity, then the plot of In (z), or rather a quantity proportional to In 4>(z), against
z should yield a straight line of slope 7.
Actually, the plot will be linear only
for points which are not too near the base nor too close to the top.* In the
former case higher harmonics, i.e., terms for which m or n, or both, are greater
than unity, will make some contribution to the flux, and (9.100.1) will not be
If necessary, corrections can be made for these harmonics, from measure
exact.
ments of the lateral distribution of the flux in the x, j/-plane (see also, 5.88).
9.103. The deviations from linearity of points representing measurements
made near the top of the block are due to the neglect of the "end correction term,"
1
in (9.99.2). The experimental fluxes can be corrected by dividing
by this quantity, which can be evaluated by the procedure described in connection
with the measurement of diffusion length ( 5.89). From the best linear plot
of the corrected values of In 4>(z) against the vertical distance z, the slope, equal
Since this is really yu, it follows from (9.97.1) that
to y, is obtained.

e 2T,
9.104.
block
In this
case a and b are the extrapolated
in the x- and ^-directions, which may
dimensions of the experimental
be obtained
by adding
0.71X<
dimensions.
The actual values may be determined by meas
uring the lateral variation of the neutron flux and finding where it would
Alternatively, the difference between the extrapolated height, c,
become zero.
determined above, and the measured height may be used as a basis for applying
Thus, with a, b, and y known, the
a correction to the geometrical dimensions.
material buckling of the multiplying medium constituting the assembly can be
calculated.
The dimensions of the critical reactor can then be obtained from
for the critical system.
(7.44.1), since Bm2 is equal to
to the geometrical
Cylindrical Reactor
9.105.
If
it is required to design a cylindrical reactor, then the structure of

will also be cylindrical in shape (Fig. 9.105). As
the exponential experiment
It should be remembered that the diffusion equation (9.91.1), upon which the foregoing
treatment is based, will represent the neutron flux distribution only at appreciable distances
from the source and from boundaries.
*
THE ELEMENTS
286
[9.105
in 7.51, the solution 4> of the wave equation is found to be separable into the
product G(r) and Z(z), where the former is a function of the variable r only and

Fig.
9.105.
Exponential experiment in cylindrical assembly
Thus, it is possible to write the wave equation
the latter is a function of z only.
in the form
f[O(r)]+f'[Z(z)]+BJ
= 0.
If the
function of 6(r) is represented by the constant a2, where a2 is a positive

quantity, and the function Z(z) by the constant y*, then y2 is a positive quan
tity, since
-o? +
BJ
72
= 0,
(9.105.1)
The solution of the differential equation in 0, as seen earlier,

function of the first kind J0(ctr), but since the equation
is linear, the general solution is given by a summation of terms; thus,
and
Bms
is positive.
is the zero order Bessel
=2
G(r)
AJ0(anr),
(9.105.2)
where n may have any integral value.

9.106. The differential equation
the solution is
Z =
in
z is
C sinh
identical in form with (5.72.3), and
yn(H
- z),
(9.100.1>
taking into account the boundary condition that the flux shall be zero at the
(extrapolated) upper surface of the cylinder, where H is the extrapolated height.
9.109]
287
9.107. The general solution of the wave equation is now
*(r,
z)
=J AnJ0(anr)
sinh yn(H
- z),
(9.107.1)
so that at the bottom face of the cylindrical pile, the flux distribution is given by
(r,
0) which may be represented
by/(r),
where
Kr)=%AManr).
n=l
(9.107.2)
The Bessel functions J0 form a complete orthogonal set in the interval of 0 to r,

and so the Fourier theorem can be used, to determine the coefficients An', and
It appears, however, from calculations and from experimental data
hence A.
that, provided measurements are made at distances not too close to the bottom
face, the flux distribution can be represented with sufficient accuracy by the fun
damental term (n = 1) alone of (9.107.2). Hence, (9.107.1) reduces to
AJ0(ar) sinh y(H

z).
The expression for 0(r) is then

6(r) = AJo(ar),
and from the boundary condition that the flux shall
surface of the cylinder.
be zero
at the (extrapolated)
2.405
a = 5 ,
ti
where
R is the extrapolated radius.

term of (9.107.1), the flux variation along
9.108. Using only the fundamental

the z-axis may thus be represented by
(z)
where
(9.107.3)
is the extrapolated
the exponential
A'
sinh
y(H
- z),
height of the experimental
term, this becomes
0(z) = Ce~T[l
cylinder.
Extracting
- e-2*n-],
which is analogous to (9.99.2).

9.109. As in the case of the rectangular block arrangement, the neutron flux
is measured at various distances from the bottom in a vertical line parallel to
By determining the extrapolated height H, in a manner exactly
the z-axis.
similar to that described above, the slope y of the plot of the logarithm of the
corrected (exponential) flux, In 4>(z), against the vertical distance z can be ob
Only measurements made above about 2v^ from the bottom are in
tained.
cluded, since the contributions of the harmonic terms for n > 1 are then small.
THE ELEMENTS
288
[9.110
9.110. The results in Table 9.110 were obtained with an arrangement of rods
of natural uranium suspended vertically in a cylindrical tank of heavy water.*
The geometrical radius of the tank was 55.5 cm, and the water reached a height
The first column gives the distances from the bottom at which
measurements were made. The second column shows the activity of indium foil
in counts per minute, after allowing for natural decay; this is proportional to
The next two columns show the harmonic and end corrections,
the neutron flux.
of 154.1 cm.

TABLE 9.110.
RESULTS
OP EXPONENTIAL
End
Corrected
Correction
Activity
1.0181
1.0030
85,072
1.0053
1.0098
47,413
26,113
1.0015
1.0318
26,982
13,607
1.0004
1.1091
15,097
Height
Activity
Harmonic
Correction
21.4 cm
83,306
41.4
46,703
61.4
81.4
respectively;
EXPERIMENT
the fifth column represents the "corrected" activity, which is the
product of the observed activity and the two correction terms. The natural
logarithms of the corrected activity were plotted against the heights in the first
column, and the best slope was estimated by the method of least squares.
9.111. The slope found in this way was 28.76 X 10-3 cm-1, so that y is
28.76 X 10-3, and 7s is 827 X 10-" cm~2.
The geometrical radius of the experi
mental cylinder is 55.5 cm, and taking the transport mean free path in heavy
water as 2.4 cm, the extrapolated radius is 57.2 cm.f Hence, by (9.105.1) and
(9.107.3),
- 827 X 10- =
942
10-4
cm-'.
The critical dimensions of a cylindrical reactor of minimum volume ( 7.59)

given by
5.441
and
are
_
2.945
R =
The
and, in the present case, these values are 177 cm height and 96 cm radius.
It should be noted that these
volume of the critical system would be 5190 liters.
results apply to a bare reactor, and that, by using a reflector, the critical dimen*
The data refer to a CP-3 or "ZEEP" type of reactor.

t The extrapolation distance for the large cylinder is assumed to
slab.
be 0.71X<,
as for a plane
9.111]
HETEROGENEOUS
(NATURAL URANIUM) REACTORS
289
be reduced.
For a reactor having a 60-cm graphite reflector, the
critical dimensions were found by experiment to be 122.5 cm (height) and 91.4 cm
sions would
(radius), the volume being
3213 liters.
PROBLEMS
1 . Calculate the minimum isotopic ratio of U236 to U238 that will make an infinite homo
geneous water solution of uranyl sulphate just critical. Repeat for graphite and D2O
moderators.
2. Calculate and plot the minimum critical mass of unreflected spherical reactors con
taining UO2 and D20 at room temperature as a function of the isotopic ratio of U235 to

U138.
Chapter
TIME BEHAVIOR
OF A BARE THERMAL REACTOR*
TIME BEHAVIOR WITH PROMPT NEUTRONS
Introduction
The preceding discussion, with the exception of the treatment of the
to critical in Chapter VII, has referred to reactors in the steady or
stationary state where there was an exact balance between the neutrons lost by
diffusion and absorption, on the one hand, and those gained form the source, i.e.,
The neutron density was thus independent of time
fission, on the other hand.
The case will now be considered in which there is a change in the neutron density
with time, resulting from a sudden change in the multiplication constant due to
such factors as alteration in the position of a control rod, removal of fuel, removal
of reflector, etc. The rate of gain of neutrons will then be greater or smaller
than the rate of loss.
It will be supposed, in the first instance, that all the neu
trons emitted in the fission process appear within a very short time, about lG-1*
sec; that is to say, it will be postulated that all the neutrons are released instan
taneously as prompt neutrons.
10.2. In connection with the problem of neutron multiplication, the generation
time is important ; this is defined as the average time between successive genera
It will, therefore, include the time
tions of thermal neutron fissions ( 7.34).
required to slow down the neutron from fission to thermal energies, as well as
the diffusion time of the thermal neutron before it is captured in a fission process.
For the present purpose, however, the slowing down time will be assumed to be
negligible in comparison with the diffusion time of the slow neutron (see Table
This is true for the natural uranium-graphite (X-10) reactor, but not
6.147).
for reactors in which an appreciable proportion of the fissions are due to neutrons
10.1.

approach
in the intermediate
energy range ( 7.35).
The treatment will be restricted here to the homogeneous, bare, thermal

reactor, although many of the general conclusions are applicable to heterogeneous
10.3.
The development of this subject is largely due to R. F. Christy and

(cf. MDDC-35).
290
L. W.
Nordheim
TIME BEHAVIOR OF A BARE THERMAL REACTOR
10.5]
291
et
is,
Further, it will be supposed that the system is near criti

and reflected reactors.
cal, so that all solutions other than the fundamental solution of the wave equation
for the neutron flux can be neglected, as explained in Chapter VII. Part of the
in effect,
simplified form of that in
7.5,
aeq.,
discussion given below
Using only the fundamental eigenfunction for the slowing down density and the
flux of thermal neutrons.
The diffusion equation for thermal neutrons in

written as
10.4.
can be
nonequilibrium system
-i.f,
DF*
The Nonequilibbium Diffusion Equation
(10.4.1)
k^-^,
(10.4.2)
the number of thermal neutrons per cm3 per sec that would result
fcSa<
from fission in an infinite system, i.e., there were no leakage, and e BIr represents
the nonleakage probability during slowing down.* Upon introducing (10.4.2)
into (10.4.1), the result, in the absence of an extraneous source,
- -
1/2ot<
has been replaced by
l0,
where
equal to
is
it
is
Upon dividing through by 2 and making use of the fact that D/2a
seen that
the thermal diffusion length,
L*, where
is
suffer'**
7*4,
1)
is
if
is
where
lo^,
(10.4.3)
the infinite medium mean lifetime of thermal
neutrons.
An attempt will now be made to solve this equation by separating the

variables, i.e., by setting
4>(i,
t)
10.5.
(r)T(0,
(10.5.1)
based on the Fermi (continuous slowing down) model,

Although the treatment here
the same results can be obtained by the use of the generalized slowing down treatment, given
independent of any particular model.
in Chapter XII, which
is
is

is
is
4>
is
is
the mean velocity of the thermal neutrons, so that

equal to nv.
According to the Fermi age theory, the thermal neutron source term due to
fissions
pq (tu,), and this
where
THE ELEMENTS
292
where
r is the position vector of any point in the reactor and
(10i
is the time.
0(r) is a function of the space coordinates only, and T(t) is dependent

Combining (10.5.1) with (10.4.3) gives
time only.
For the present treatment it will

in a steady state up to a time
Thus,
on
the
that the reactor has been operating

= 0, when the multiplication factor k is made
be supposed
It will be postulated that subse

to undergo a small sudden or step change.
In these circumstances the left-hand
quently the value of k remains constant.
side of (10.5.2) contains no time variables, and the right-hand side no space
variables, so that the variables have, in fact, been separated.
10.6. If the system is not far from critical, the spatial distribution
of the
flux
is represented to a good approximation by the wave equation

= 0,

TV(r) + B2(t)
where B2 is the geometric buckling (cf. 7.11,
for r20(r)/<(r) in (10.5.2), the latter becomes
and, dividing through by
ke~^
1
Hence, substituting
et seq.).
L2B2, the result is
L2fl2
h
1
L2B2
"
T(t)
'
dT(t)
dt
iMMKij
The first term on the left-hand side is the effective multiplication factor, Kit
[cf. (7.27.1)], and the first factor on the right-hand side is the mean lifetime I of
thermal neutrons in a finite medium ( 7.34); thus, (10.6.1) reduces to
10.7.
The
excess
represented by
of
kett
over unity is called the excess multiplication factor,
so that
For a critical system,
fc = *eff
1.
kcu = 1, and so fc is a measure of
(10.7.1)
how far the reactor
It is positive if the reactor is supercritical and negative if

from critical.
subcritical. Upon introducing the definition of ka into (10.6.2), it is seen
"
"
T(t)
dt
is
it ithat
10.9]
293
Integration of this expression gives

so
that, by (10.5.1),
At zero time,
and
T(t) =
A*-"1,
*(r, 0 = A*(r)e*".
*(r, 0) =
(10.7.2)
A(r),
if this is represented by o, it follows from (10.7.2) that

(10.7.3)
is the thermal neutron flux at the position vector r in the steady state
where
at zero time when the effective multiplication factor of the reactor was suddenly
It will be noted that (10.7.2) is equivalent to the
changed by an amount ktx.
general equation (7.17.1) in the absence of an extraneous source so that the

second term of the latter is zero provided the spatial part of the flux can be
which is a solution of the wave equation.

As
already mentioned, this is possible only if the reactor is near the critical state.

expressed by a single eigenfunction
The Reactor Period

10.8. The time required for the neutron flux (or neutron density) to change
by a factor of e is called the pile period or reactor period, and is represented by T.
This can be stated mathematically by writing
*(r, 0 = oe'/T,
(10.8.1)
with (10.7.3) shows that in the present case, i.e., with all the
neutrons emitted in the fission process assumed to be prompt neutrons,
and comparison
(10.8.2)
10.9. According to the foregoing treatment, it is seen that the thermal neutron
flux of a reactor in a non-stationary state, i.e., fcex ^ 0, will increase (or decrease)
in an exponential
manner, the rate depending on the ratio of the average lifetime
of the thermal neutron to the excess multiplication factor.
That this result is
to be expected has been seen from the general considerations in 4.49. Since
the time required for the neutrons to slow down has been assumed negligible,
the average thermal lifetime is essentially the same as the generation time, and
hence (4.49.2) is equivalent to (10.7.3).
The reactor period is thus equal to the
generation
time divided by the excess multiplication factor.
It
may
be noted
that this result is completely general, and is independent of whether the neutrons
liberated in fission are prompt or delayed.
However, it is only when the fission
neutrons are all prompt that the average thermal neutron lifetime can be identi
fied with the generation time, as will be seen below.
THE ELEMENTS
294
10.10.
[10.10
As stated earlier, k is positive, and hence the reactor period is positive,
when the reactor is supercritical, i.e., ktn > 1; then the neutron flux will increase
On the other hand, if the reactor
exponentially, in accordance with (10.7.3).
is subcritical,
fc,
is negative and so also is the period
decrease in an exponential
10.11.
the neutron flux
will then
manner.
An indication of the rate at which the neutron flux (or density) would
increase according to the equations given above may be obtained by considering

an actual example.
Suppose that the effective multiplication factor is suddenly
increased by 0.01, i.e.,
is 0.01.
Since the thermal neutron lifetime in a large
thermal reactor may be of the order of 0.001 sec, the reactor period given by
(10.8.2) is then 0.001/0.01, i.e., 0.1 sec; hence the neutron flux would increase by
a factor of
e10,
every 0.1 sec.
i.e., about 2
In
sec the
over-all increase would
be
by a factor of
104.
TIME BEHAVIOR WITH DELAYED NEUTRONS

General Considerations
It
that, with such a rapid increase in the neutron flux, a

It should be remembered, however, that
reactor would be difficult to control.
the foregoing derivations were based on the assumption that all the neutrons
emitted in the fission process are released promptly. Fortunately, this is not
Of the total number of neutrons liberated in fission, something like
the case.
0.75 per cent are delayed neutrons which appear for an appreciable period of
It is the occur
time following the actual nuclear fission, as seen in Chapter IV.
rence of these delayed neutrons which makes it possible to operate a reactor in
such a manner that the rate of change of neutron flux is much less than would be
the case if there were no delayed neutrons (cf. 4.74, et seq.).
As a result, the
problem of control of a thermal reactor is greatly simplified.
10.13. It is apparent from the qualitative argument presented earlier ( 10.9)
that the reactor period, for a given excess multiplication, is proportional to the
10.12.
is evident
Because some of the neutrons are

average generation time of the neutrons.
delayed, the time between generations is increased, and the reactor period is
The general nature of the effect of the delayed neutrons

in the following manner.
The fact that U is the average life of the
precursor* of the delayed neutrons of the ith group is equivalent to saying that
each neutron of this group may be regarded as appearing at an average time of U
after fission. If ft is the fraction of the total fission neutrons in the tth delayed
The weighted mean delay
group, the mean delay time for this group is
time, which is the same as the weighted mean life of the precursors, is then equal
to the sum of the ftk terms, i.e., to S/3A, for all the delayed neutron groups.
increased accordingly.
may
be seen
* The term precursor is uBed to describe the

species, e.g., Br " and I1" ( 4.10, 4.11), whose
rate of decay, by the emission of a beta particle, determines the neutron delay time. The decay
product of the precursor expels the delayed neutron instantaneously.
TIME BEHAVIOR OF A BARE THERMAL
10.17]
REACTOR
295
Neglecting, as before, the time required to slow down the neutrons from fission
to thermal energies, the average time I between generations, taking into account
the fact that some of the neutrons are delayed, is given by
I =
where
Zft< + I,
+ I,
is the average lifetime already defined.
10.14. Upon multiplying each U by the corresponding ft in Table 4.8 and add
ing the results, it is found that the weighted average delay time 2ft<i is 0.0942
sec, i.e., approximately 0.1 sec. Although I may be 10-3 sec for a large thermal
reactor, this is negligible in comparison with the mean delay time, and so I is close
to 0.1 sec. Thus, the reactor period is now roughly 0.1/fcex, instead of Z/fcex as
if there were no delayed neutrons. In other words, it is

increased by a factor of 0.1/i. For fce* equal to 0.01, as before, the reactor period
would
be the case
It would thus require something on the order of

becomes 0.1/0.01, i.e., 10 sec.
10 sec for the neutron flux to increase by a factor of e, i.e., about 2.7. A period
of this magnitude is sufficient to permit adequate control of the reactor.

The Diffusion Equation with Delayeh Neutrons

10.15. The number of thermal neutrons absorbed per cm3 per sec is 2o0, and
hence the over-all rate of production of fission neutrons, including both prompt
and delayed, is equal to. (fc/p)2< per cm3 per sec. Since ft is the fraction of the
total number of fission neutrons which are delayed neutrons belonging to the ith
group, the rate of formation in the fission process of the nuclei which are the
precursors of those neutrons is equal to ft(A;/p)2a< per cm3 per sec. If & is the
concentration, in atomic nuclei per cm3, of the precursors from which the ith
group of delayed neutrons arise, then the normal rate of radioactive decay is
sec-1 is the appropriate decay constant.
XiC,- nuclei per cm3 per sec, where
The
net rate of formation of delayed neutron precursors of the ith group is conse
quently given by
dCj(t, t)
dt
thermal neutron diffusion equation for the homo

geneous, bare reactor has the same general form as before, namely, equation
(10.4.1), but the source term must now be modified to allow for the delayed neu
trons. The sum of the ft values for the various delayed groups is represented by
ft and hence, 1 fi is the fraction of fission neutrons which are emitted promptly.
The corresponding (prompt neutron) source term is then (1 /3)/:2o<e~fltr, which
is the value given in (10.4.2) multiplied by 1 ft
10.17. The rate of formation of delayed neutrons in any group is equal to the
rate of decay of the precursor, i.e., to XiC, and hence
10.16.
The time-dependent,
(10.15.1)
Total rate of formation of all

the delayed neutrons
THE ELEMENTS
296
where the summation
[10.17
is taken over all m values of t, i.e., for all the m groups
of
If this is multiplied by e~B'r, the nonleakage probability during

the slowing down process, and also by the resonance escape probability p, the
result, namely,
m
delayed neutrons.
is the source term due to delayed neutrons.
For simplicity, the approximation
is made of taking the energy spectrum of the delayed neutrons to be the same
as
Actually, the energies of the delayed neutron=

that of the prompt neutrons.
are somewhat less than that of the prompt neutrons, but since a neutron spends
most of its life, on the average, in the low energy regions, the difference is small.*
10.18. For the present case, therefore, the source term of (10.4.1) may be
written
as
S =
and consequently
V*4>(r,
(1
- Wâte-**
"
+ pe~B*
Z *A
the appropriate thermal neutron diffusion equation is
- 2*(r, I) + - 0)A;So*(r, i)*-** + pe~**

(1
x>c<(r,

Dividing through by 2 and substituting V- for D/Za, and

10.4, this becomes
U rJ*(r,
0 +
[(1
- flfce-** - 1]*(r,
t)
l0
V^ % X,C,(r, t)
v'
3<ft(r,
dt
for 1/2, as
= U
in
(10.18.IJ
10.19.
If,
as before,
it is postulated
that the reactor has been operating
in
the steady state and that the effective multiplication factor undergoes a small
step change at time t equal to zero, after which it remains constant, it can be
shown that the space and time variables in (10.18.1) are separable.
Suppose the
reactor is near enough to critical so that the neutron flux can be calculated satis
factorily from the fundamental

and
mode of the wave equation, and let
(r, t)
C,(r, 0 =
(t)T(1)
OMHiM.
Making these substitutions, (10.15.1) becomes
and consequently
*
must
C<(r)/ must be independentbe

of r. independent
of r.
Taking the average energy of the prompt neutrons to be 2 Mev and that of the delayed
neutrons to be 0.5 Mev (Table 4.8), it is found that the age of thermal neutrons in graphite is
For a large reactor, i.e., B* small,
about 350 cm* in the former case and 333 oms in the latter.
the difference in e~B'r is very smr.ll.
10.20.
(r,
With the same substitutions, for
<)
REACTOR
and C,(r,
t),
10.23]
297
equation
(10.18.1)
becomes
as before,
7V(r) + BV(r)
is
it
is
can be separated,
it
is,
10.21. Because the space and time variables
to write,
possible
0.
is is
r,
is
and, since Ci(r)/#(r)

seen that the
as shown above,
independent of
variables have indeed been separated.
It will be noted that this separability
due to the fact that C(r), the concentration of each delayed neutron precursor,
of course, to be expected on
everywhere proportional to the flux, <(r) this
physical grounds.
t)
t)
is
resulting from the boundary condition that

boundary. Hence
in (10.18.1) can be replaced by -Bîr,
Fty(r,
10.22. The problem now
to solve the differential equations (10.15.1) and
Since both of the former equations
(10.18.1), taking into account (10.21.1).
are linear and first order, and since the space and time variables are separable,
solutions of the form
where B2
the lowest eigenvalue
be zero at the extrapolated

t).
the thermal neutron flux shall
and
eters represented by
w,
It
4><*?*
(10.22.1)
= doe?
(10.22.2)
then required to find the conditions on the param

having the dimensions of reciprocal time, which permit
a
be superimposed.
is
may
Ciir,
t)
<(r,
t)
is
t)
is
0,
It should be noted that 0 and do are the values of the neutron

such solutions.
flux and of the concentration of the precursor of the ith group of delayed neutrons,
=
at a point represented by the vector r.
The latter
respectively, at time
variable has been omitted from the symbols for simplicity of representation.
and d, as given by (10.22.1) and (10.22.2), respec
10.23. Upon substituting
tively, into (10.15.1), the result
t
C<0=
and consequently
p(w

0,
However, since the Laplacian operator has no effect on the time-variable function
T(t), both sides of this equation may be multiplied by T(t) to give the general
wave equation
=
PV(r,
+ BV(r,
(10.21.1)
hi)
(10.23.1)
THE ELEMENTS
298
Further,
by introducing (10.21.1), (10.22.1), (10.22.2),

(10.18.1) the latter equation can be simplified to
and
[10.23
(10.23.1)
into
-(IS&
1)
(1
- fljfce-*-
+ ke-**
=
2 w-&rT Ai *.
(.1
and recalling that Z0/(l + UB2) is equal to I, the

Dividing through by 1 +
mean lifetime of the thermal neutrons in the finite reactor, it is seen that
*\
to'**
Upon introducing the definition of

(1
- 0)k. -
fcc,f, as
ke~"*
i 4.
h&
given by (7.27.1), this becomes
+ Ktt %
= l.
-^zk
(10.23.2)
The total fraction /3 of delayed neutrons is equal to the sum of the individual Pi's,
by definition, and since ku 1 is defined as fcex, by (10.7.1), it follows that
(10.23.2) may be written as
* + Ku
or
fc =
10.24.
leo
fcetf
2
i-I
~tV
+ X,
(10.23.3)
01
At this point it is convenient to introduce
reactivity, and defined as
the
- a) - fa
2 f-r
+ x,
<ti \w
a quantity p, called
- 7^ =
the
(io-24-i)
utility of which will be considered below.
Hence,
if (10.23.3) is divided
through by ktu, the result is
From (10.24.1),
latter becomes
fc,ff =
1/(1
Keff
Keu
p), and,
+ Ai
if this is introduced into (10.24.2), the
which is a convenient form for calculation purposes.

equation which relates the
10.25. Equation (10.24.3) is the characteristic
parameters w to the nuclear properties of the substances constituting the reactor.
It
is an algebraic equation of degree m + 1 in w, and consequently there are,

in general, m + 1 values of w corresponding to each value of the reactivity, p.
The general nature of the solutions of (10.24.3) can best be understood by plotting
w as a
function of
p, as
in Fig.
10.25.
This
is a
purely qualitative representation,

THE ELEMENTS
300
[10.25
to correspond to five groups of delayed neutrons.

It is seen that
for
w
values
of
It should
there are six poles,
X3,
Xi,
X2,
X6, and 1/1.
X4,
be noted that only a portion of Fig. 10.25 is significant from the reactor point of
as
view; this is because the maximum value of
having physical meaning
=
will be evident from the definition of p, by (10.24.1). The region between

indicated by the horizontal dashed lines.
and
there are
10.26. It
apparent from Fig. 10.25 that for positive values of
Numeri
m +
roots of (10.24.3); of these m are negative and one
positive.
seen to be of the same order as one of
cally each of the m negative values of w
Hence,
constants
of
the
the
Vs,
decay
delayed neutron precursors.
i-e.,
the
as
function of time, may be represented by a linear
the neutron flux at a point
is
is
...,w<,...,
+ A*!*
+ Am^",
(10.26.1)
posi
w0 having
X, respec
. .
tive value, and wi, . . . um
tively. The A0, Ai, etc., are constants determined by the initial conditions in the
given reactor, as will be seen below.
10.27. Since all the terms beyond the first on the right-hand side of (10.26.1)
evident that as the time following the sudden small
have negative exponents,
the contributions of these terms decrease rapidly
increases,
reactivity
change in
transient contribution to the neutron
to zero. These terms, therefore, make
soon
becoming
negligible
compared to the first term.
values
Hence,
the
flux,
of the order of something less than 1/Xi,
short interval of time, which
after
the smallest decay constant, i.e., corresponding to the most-delayed
where
,
Xi
is
is
it
is
roots of (10.24.3),
w* are the m
being approximately equal to Xi, .
w0, wi,
where
(10.26.1) reduces to the first term only, i.e.,
case A0
Further, since
be set equal to
evidently equal to
w0, as seen
l/T,
so
0,
A^.
the flux at zero time, and so
above, has the dimensions of
that
reciprocal time,
= <t*J'T.
it
In this
is
neutrons,
may
(10.27.1)
evident, from the definition of the reactor period as the time re

10.28. It
that
here the reactor
quired for the neutron flux to increase by a factor of
period after the lapse of sufficient time to permit the contributions of the transient
defined by
Hence,
terms to damp out.
is
T,
e,
is

solutions of the form of (10.22.1); thus,

-\
of m
4>
combination
r,
is
is
is
1,
5,
|p|
with m =
(10.28.1)
10.29]
REACTOR
301
is called the stable reactor period.

The quantities 1/i, 1/wj, etc., are sometimes
referred to as transient periods, but they are negative in value and do not have
w0
Fig.
10.28.
is
- 1/T (SEC"')
Reciprocal stable periods for positive values of reactivity
This means that,

small, e.g., less than about 0.005, the curves almost coincide.
for systems having the same delayed neutron characteristics, the stable reactor
period corresponding to a given reactivity
then virtually independent of
For higher reactivities, however, w0 increases, and hence
the neutron lifetime.
the period decreases, with decreasing neutron lifetime.
The physical interpre
tation of these results will be considered later.
I,
is
is
10.29.
If
in (10.24.2)
former becomes
is
The Inhour Formula

replaced by
.
that the reactivity
l/T,
in accordance with (10.28.1), the
is
The reactivity
some
related to the reactor period.
in
times expressed
terms of the "inverse hour" or "inhour" unit, this being de
fined as the reactivity which will make the reactor (stable) period equal to hour,
Thus the value of the inhour unit
obtained
by setting
i.e., 3600 sec.
is
so
is

is
/3,
X<
any physical significance as reactor periods in the sense that 1/o>0 does. They
are the values of the parameter w which satisfy the characteristic equation of the
problem considered here. The dependence of w0 (or l/T) on the positive reactiv
ity, as derived from (10.24.3), using the values of and
in Table 4.8,
shown
in Fig. 10.28, for equal to 10-3, 10-4, and 10-6 sec. It
seen that when
in
THE ELEMENTS
302
[10.29
The reactivity of a
(10.29.1) equal to 3600 sec, since X< is expressed in sec-1.
reactor in inhours, represented by Pih, is then obtained by dividing (10.29.1) by
the corresponding value of the inhour unit; thus,
Pih
t
+2
j
i
3(iOOA-,.
This expression is known
(10.29.2)
Pi
1
3G00X;
inhour formula, although (10.24.2), (10.24.3),
as the
and (10.29.1) are sometimes referred to by this name, since these equations are
identical with (10.29.2) except for the fact that they express in different units
the reactivity corresponding
to a specified value of the reactor period.
of Delayed Neutrons
One Group
Some indication of the relative importance of the stable and transient

terms in (10.26.1) may be obtained by considering the simple case in which there
10.30.
is only one group of delayed neutrons with a decay constant X equal to the prop
erly weighted average for the five actual groups. For a single group of delayed
neutrons,
(10.24.2) becomes
'
+ ZTTx'
(10-301)
which is a quadratic equation in w. In order to simplify the treatment without

and p are small, so that
affecting the main conclusions, it will be supposed that
Equation (10.30.1) may then be written as
kttf is approximately equal to unity.
P m fa
or
U+
03
+ t\)u
-p
(10.30.2)
- \p 0.
The solutions of this equation are

<-
|[-03-p +
Oj
If
03
+ l\y
| 2ZXp I,
"~
Vfj5-
[X
V1
zx)
.21
ZX)
+ W + ilkp)
03-4p5+fX)J'
this becomes
27
and the two solutions are

wo
Xp
(0-
TK\
10.32]
303
|.
is
about 0.08 sec-1;* suppose the reactivity
is
the delayed neutrons
2l\p
(j3
where, in the case of wi, the second term in the square brackets has been neglected
2l\p
in comparison with unity, since
+ iX)2
10.31. For
thermal reactor, may be 10-3 sec or less, and the average
for
0.0025, then
is
seen
(j3
is
0.0075,
it
0
is
Since
10-.
/3
is
is
is
is
that
10-6;
26
iX)2
and this
sufficiently greater than 0.4 X 10~8 for the present approximation to
be applicable with fair accuracy for reactivities of 0.0025 or less.
Under these
p, i.e.,
conditions l\, which
about
appreciably less than
X 10-6,
X 10-3 or more; the former may thus be neglected in comparison with the
latter, and the two solutions of (10.30.2) become
0.4
u* =
In
wl=-(^pV
and
jZTp
(10.31.1)
is
as postulated
u0 represents
+ Ait*,
= Aoef^
while that for the delayed neutron precursor will

=
(10.32.1)
be,
by (10.22.2),
B^.
(10.32.2)
It
-XC
(10.32.3)
^/92,
and
given
of (10.32.2),
fiLJiAJ*
Bif)
is
By differentiation
= -XCBoe"-
it
yt
is
Upon inserting the values of

for one group of delayed neutrons.
by (10.32.1) and (10.32.2), respectively, the result
C,
</
would appear, at first sight, that there are here four arbitrary constants, but
actually only two are independent, because
and
are related by (10.15.1).
In the present case, this reduces to
Ai**).
found that
The appropriate average decay constant

the reciprocal of the average mean life, defined
by 2ft <,V2ft; hence
given by /9/2ft^ = 0.0075/0.094 = 0.08.
The use of this definition
gives (asymptotic) results equivalent to those obtained by taking the five groups of delayed
neutrons into consideration (cf.
10.43).
is
is

is
is
is
/3
/3
is
of practical interest and, in any event, when

small,
so that
above,
positive; hence, provided
>
positive,
the positive solution of (10.30.2) and wj
the negative solution.
10.32. The expression for the flux variation with time
cases
THE ELEMENTS
304
OF NUCLEAR
of the coefficients of e"* and
and comparison
REACTOR THEORY
in the two foregoing expressions
e""1
leads to
B0 =
COo
Upon introducing the values of

become
where, as before,
XZ
and
w0
(fl-p)s,,
B1 =
and
A0
<oi
[10.32
.4,.
COi .+- A
given by (10.31.1), these relationships
and
k.^xt_
p
p
0
has been neglected in comparison
with
/3
in evaluating
It
is evident from (10.32.4) that Bo and Bi are related to A0 and .4i

by quantities which are determined by the microscopic properties of the reactor,
10.33.
and hence there are only two arbitrary constants to be determined.
To evaluate
them, therefore, two boundary conditions are required, and these are obtained as
First, in accordance with the postulates already made, before the sud
den change in the effective multiplication factor at time t = 0, the reactor has
been operating in the steady state, with a flux <0- Hence, by (10.32.1),
follows.
0(t = 0) = 0, = A0 + At.
(10.33.1)
10.34. Second, since the reactor has been in a steady (or equilibrium) state
up to t = 0, the concentration of neutron precursors will be constant (C0), and
will be zero at time t = 0. Consequently, from (10.32.3), it follows that
dC/dt
=-XCo +
^/32n0,
or
Co =
--?200.
V A
t = 0,
Further, from (10.32.2), at
C(t = 0) =
10.35.
(10.34.1)
Co = B0
+ Bi.
(10.34.2)
Upon introducing into (10.34.2) the values for
C0, Bo,
and Bi given by
(10.34.1) and (10.32.4) the result is

P y
X
Replacing
Ai by
rearranging,
<0
A0,
0*
~
A
l&*
p p
in accordance with (10.33.1), cancelling the
it is found that
I2's and
10.37]
305
where the second term in both numerator and denominator, which is of the order
of 10-3, has been neglected in comparison with the first, of the order of 10-1, in
each case. With the value of A0 given by (10.35.1), equation (10.33.1) leads to
P
(10.35.2)
Introducing these results, together with (10.31.1), into (10.32.1), the final expres
sion for the neutron flux at a given point as a function of time, in the special case
of one group of delayed neutrons, and where the reactivity is small, is
=
It
is of interest to note that since
/3
p is positive,

(10.35.3) is applicable, the second (or transient)

tive coefficient, provided p is
behavior,
will
Suppose,
as before,
10-3 sec and
be
(.6
considered.
that I is
1.2
1.1
a.
POSITIVE REACTIVITY
X is 0.08 sec-1 and 0 is 0.0075;
as already seen, these figures
0.8
satisfy the conditions
0.7
for
which the foregoing approxi
mations are applicable. Equa
tion (10.35.3) then becomes
p= 0.0025
=
4>
(1.5e0-04,
O.Se-**)
0.6
0.9
- 0.5<r6
and each term separately and

their difference are plotted in
Fig. 10.36.
10.37. There are a number
of points of interest to which
attention may be drawn.
First, it is seen that the sec
DIFFERENCE
. 1ST TERM
1.3
is 0.0025, while
= 0o(1.5eO M'
that
1.4
0.9
<p
under the conditions
term in the brackets has a nega
1.3
a specific
example
(10.35.3)
1.7
positive. The neutron flux

is thus the difference of two
terms, one of which increases
while the other decreases with
increasing time.
10.36. To illustrate the
general
0-P
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
'I
J_J
2nd TERM
I
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
L
2.0 2.2
TIME, SEC
Fig.
10.36.
Change of neutron flux with time for

positive reactivity
ond (or transient) term dies

In
out within 1 sec; its contribution is then about 0.2 per cent of the total flux.
general, the time taken for the transient to damp out to negligible proportions
306
THE ELEMENTS
[10.37
of 5/[u,i|, i.e., 51/(8 p).

Subsequently, the neutron flux is
essentially equal to the first (or stable) term in (10.35.3). In these circumstances
is of the order
8
p
P
and the stable reactor period is given by

1
(10.37.1)
Xp
which is equal to 25 sec, in the example cited above. This may be compared
with a calculated period of 0.4 sec for a reactivity of 0.0025 with all the neutrons
liberated promptly. For very small reactivities, p may be neglected in compari
son with 8, and (10.37.1) gives
f,
(10.37.2)
Xp
for the stable period.

10.38. It will be noted, further, from Fig. 10.36 that immediately after the
sudden change in the multiplication of the reactor, i.e., at times soon after t = 0,
the flux rises rapidly. The rate approximates, in fact, that for the case in which
ell the neutrons are prompt. However, after a short time the effect of the de
layed neutrons begins to be felt, and the flux increases more slowly.
10.39. The initial slope of the plot of
against t may be obtained from (10.32.1)
by differentiating with respect to time, and then setting t = 0. The result is
(at
= 0) = Aouo
and introducing the values of A0, A\,

(10.35.2), it follows that
w0,
+ Am,
and wi, from (10.31.1), (10.35.1), and
4>'
From (10.27.1)
dt
T'
is
it
0.
and hence the left-hand side of (10.39.1) may be regarded as the reciprocal of the
=
seen that
stable reactor period at
Representing this period by T0,
t
10.40. For moderately small values of p, the first term on the right-hand side
of (10.39.2) may be neglected.
In the example considered above, the first term
2.5.
For smaller
in the equation would be equal to 0.06, while the second
is

T =
10.42]
values of
be
written
p,
the relative difference is greater still.

as
307
Consequently, (10.39.2) may
(10.40.1)

the final result being based on the fact that

while fceff is not very different from unity.
p is
It
equal to kex/kM, by definition,
that the reactor period is

identical with that given by (10.8.2) for the case where all the fission neutrons
are prompt neutrons.
Thus, for small reactivities, the initial rate of growth of
the flux when there are delayed neutrons is almost the same as if all the neutrons
were prompt.
\
10.41. The physical interpretation of this result is as follows.
The number of
delayed neutrons contributed to the chain reaction at any instant is proportional
to the neutron flux at some previous time, while the number of delayed neutron
precursors produced by fissions, i.e., the number of neutrons being delayed, at
the same instant is proportional to the flux at that given time.
For a short time
after the change in multiplication, especially if the reactivity is small, the neutron
flux will not change very greatly; the number of delayed neutrons contributed
to the system will then not be appreciably less than those being delayed.
Hence,
for a very short time, the reactor behaves as if all the fission neutrons were
prompt, and the flux increases with a period of approximately l/km. However,
as the neutron flux grows with time, fewer delayed neutrons enter the chainreacting system than are being delayed, and the rate of increase of flux gradually
falls off. Ultimately, the rate of growth of the neutron flux is determined by
the stable period, as given by (10.37.1), or by (10.37.2) if p is small.
TIME
Fia.
10.42.
is seen
Effect of delayed neutrons on rate of increase of flux with time
as a
10.42. The results derived above may be summarized by plotting In
shown
the
by
of
of
In
is
The actual variation
time, as in Fig. 10.42.
function
THE ELEMENTS
308
[10.42
full curve, while that for the case in which all the fission neutrons are treated as
prompt neutrons is indicated by the dotted line. The full curve becomes linear
as the time increases, and its slope is equal to the reciprocal of the stable period
of the reactor.
Small Reactivities
Returning to the general problem of (10.24.2) and m groups of delayed
In these cases it is possible to
neutrons, two extreme cases will be considered.
derive simple expressions for the stable period observed after the transient terms
First, suppose that fcex and p are small ; it will be evident from
have damped out.
the plot of p against w (Fig. 10.25), that w0 will then be small.
Consequently,
wo may be neglected in comparison with the Vs in the denominators of the sum
mation terms in (10.24.2). Hence, when the transients have damped out, this
10.43.
equation becomes
is equal to
>
l/T,
P
this gives
LK
Upon rearrangement,
,-3
w0
"JIc+fH'
(10431)
about 10-3 sec or less.
the weighted mean delay time,
is
On the other hand, the

about 0.1 sec, as seen
is
second term, which
is
the first term in the bracket
is
is
where, as before, the U's are the mean lives of the delayed neutron precursors
or the mean decay times of the delayed neutrons.
For thermal reactors,
not very different from unity,
of the order of 10-3 sec or less, and, since kcn
Hence, l/kett may be neglected, and (10.43.1) becomes
r-JJjftk
footnote),
equations
(10.37.2) and (10.43.2), for very small reactivities,
for
It of interest to observe that by defining the mean decay constant

single (average) group of delayed neutrons as fi/^fiiU, as was done above
(10.43.2)
earlier.
is
10.31,
become
identical.
that
w0
In the derivation of (10.43.1), and hence of (10.43.2),

was postulated
small in comparison with any of the Vs, and thus, in comparison with
it
10.44.
is
it
is
U-
equivalent
is
T,
to saying that
taken
equal to 1/w0,
to be large in comparison with the largest
As seen from Table 4.8, this
about 80 sec, and as rough indication
may be stated that the approximation
is
the smallest of them; this

a

or, since
10.46]
309
by (10.43.1) will apply provided T is greater than about 250 sec.

Upon inserting this value in (10.43.2) and recalling that 2|Wi is about 0.1, it
follows that the approximations will be valid if
In other
about 0.0004 or less, (10.43.2) will be

given fissionable material,
follows
is
a
words, for very small reactivities,

applicable. Since Sj3A
constant for
0004-
it
<
>
<
0
>
represented
it
is
I,
is
from this equation that, under these conditions, the reactor period
inversely
proportional to the reactivity.
Consequently, for a given (small) reactivity, the
reactor period will be the same, independent of the neutron lifetime,
for any
thermal reactor employing the same fuel material.
It
because
leads to
this useful result that the particular definition of reactivity given above was
chosen.
For small reactivities,
is
is is
keu
is
close to unity, and

not very different
from fcex; hence, from (10.43.2), the reactor period
seen to be equal to the
weighted average delay time divided by fcM. This
identical with the result
10.45.
is
is
is
Large Reactivities
is
(10.46.2)
can hold only when
T is
equation
eff
By its derivation, this
(10.46.1)
now given by
Hence the stable period
is
> Pi
0.
is
is,
is
10.46. The second asymptotic case to be considered

that in which the reac
at
right
that
the
of
Fig. 10.25; 0
then large in comparison
tivity
large,
with any of the Vs. After the transients have died out, (10.24.2) reduces to
large and positive; in

a
If
(3,
has significance only when

for otherwise
would have
>
fact
negative
can be neglected in comparison with p, equation (10.46.2) becomes
value.
it
-i- = -L
KllP
(10.46.3)
it
* While equation
can be seen from (10.37.1)
(10.43.2) holds only for very small reactivities,
still independent of the neutron lifetime for
that the reactor period, for a given reactivity,
somewhat higher values of p, e.g., up to about 0.005 (see Fig. 10.28).
is

obtained by the qualitative treatment in

10.14.
Physically, this means that
when the reactivity
small, the rate of increase of neutron flux, for
given
determined essentially by the neutron delay time, and
reactivity,
independ-/
ent of the much shorter neutron lifetime.*
[10.46
is,
THE ELEMENTS
310
/3,
that
larger
Hence, for reactivities, or excess multiplication, larger than
than 0.0075, the reactor period becomes very small, approaching that for the
The reactor
case in which there are no delayed neutrons [cf. equation (10.8.2)].
The reason why the latter no
the effective multiplica
that,
>
longer have any considerable influence
the delayed neutrons are disregarded entirely.
tion will exceed unity even
Hence, the neutron flux can multiply rapidly due to the prompt neutrons alone,
with no de
and the reactor then behaves virtually as
the reactivity
The actual neutron generation time (or lifetime) now deter
layed neutrons.
mines the rate of increase of the flux, and hence the reactor period, in agreement
with (10.46.2) or (10.46.3).
10.47. The state at which the reactor
critical on prompt neutrons alone
referred to as prompt critical
The required condition can be obtained
4.78).
from (10. 18. . If the delayed neutron source term
ignored, this can be readily
transformed into
the delayed neutrons.
/3
is
if
or
*.
It follows,
is
d4>/dt
-1
is
- P)k,
(10.47.1)
(1
For the reactor to be critical, the flux must not vary with time, so that
.ero; hence, the condition for prompt critical
73-0
therefore, from the definition of reactivity in (10.24.1) that at prompt

P
critical
= P,
is
is
is
that the reactivity

then equal to the fraction of delayed neutrons.
thermal reactor in which the fissionable material
uranium-235 thus becomes prompt
critical when the reactivity
0.0075; the effective multiplication factor, as given
60
/3.
is,
/3,
is
is
If
is
If ket\ exceeds this value, the

very close to 1.0075, i.e.,
+
neutron flux will increase with great rapidity and the reactor will soon go out of
control.*
the effective multiplication factor
less than 1.0075, control of the
reactor
feasible because of the delayed neutrons, although the period decreases
that
as the reactivity approaches the value 0.0075.
as approaches
by (10.47.1),
Negative Reactivities
The discussion of special cases has so far dealt with positive reactivity
or excess multiplication resulting from an increase in the multiplication factor
of the system.
However, equation (10.7.3), for prompt neutrons, and (10.24.2),
10.48.
is
is
The reactivity of reactor

sometimes expressed in terms of the "dollar" unit, proposed
The "dollar"
the reactivity that will make
by L. Slotin.
reactor prompt critical.
"cent" represents one-hundredth of the dollar reactivity.
*

1)
is
is
is
if
/3,
if
is
is
then said to "outrun"
10.50]
311

which includes the effect of delayed neutrons, as well as those equations derived
directly from the latter, e.g., (10.35.3) and (10.43.2),* hold for negative, as well
as positive, values of the reactivity.
In other words, they will apply when the
effective multiplication factor of the reactor undergoes a sudden decrease. The
case where all the neutrons produced in fission are prompt requires no special
consideration, but that in which there are delayed neutrons merits examination.
10.49. It will be apparent from Fig. 10.25 that, in the general case, for a nega
tive reactivity all m + 1 solutions of (10.24.2) have negative values. The ex
pression for the flux as a function of time will then consist of a series of m + 1
terms with negative exponents, and the magnitude of each term will then de
crease with increasing time.
Although the first term, with the smallest numerical
(negative) value of u0, will decrease at a slower rate, and ultimately yield a stable
period, it will not be so dominant as when the reactivity is positive.
10.50. The effect of the delayed neutrons may be seen more clearly by
considering the case in which there is one group of delayed neutrons with an
average decay constant.
Equation (10.35.3) will be applicable for almost any
negative value of p, especially for large values, for the approximations made
0.9
r>
0.8
0.7
MST
TERM
REACTIVITY
NEGATIVE
0.4
h
4>
< 0.3
0.2
pm -0.0025
+ 0.25e ,0t)
(0.75e~-"
4>
L
V
2MB TERM
0.1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
L
2.0 2.2
TIME, SEC
Fig.
10.50a.
Change of neutron flux with time for negative reactivity
in deriving this equation are more justifiable under these conditions, f
Suppose
now, that the reactivity is suddenly decreased by 0.0025, so that p is 0.0025;

taking the same values for I and X as before, (10.35.3) now becomes
4>
= <fc,(0.75e- Mt
0.25r10').
It should be noted that (10.46.2) and (10.46.3) hold only if p is large and positive.
p
l\. It is
+ IK)2 J | 2iXp | and that 0 p
t The main approximations are that (0
readily seen that, with I equal to 0.001 sec and X to 0.08 sec-1, these conditions are satisfied for
almost any negative value of p.
*
312
It
will
THE ELEMENTS
[10.50
that the coefficients of both terms are now positive, whereas

However, the large negative exponent in
the second term makes this damp out fairly rapidly, as shown in Fig. 10.50a.
When this term ceases to be significant, the stable reactor period is 1/0.02,
i.e., 50 sec, for p equal to 0.0025, compared with 25 sec when p is 0.0025
If all the fission neutrons were prompt, the reactor periods would
positive.
Thus, although the presence of delayed neu
be 0.4 and 0.4 sec, respectively.
trons slows down the rate of increase of the flux when the reactivity is positive,
it slows down the rate of decrease to an even greater extent when the reactivity
is negative (Fig. 10.50b).
This makes it impossible to reduce the neutron flux
be noted

the exponents
are both negative.
<0
30
20
TIME,
Fig.
10.50b.
40
50
SEC
Comparison of positive and negative reactivities
in a reactor more rapidly than is permitted
by the longest delayed neutron
period (cf. 10.52).

10.51. Since the arguments leading to (10.40.1) apply irrespective of the sign
of the reactivity, it follows that immediately after the effective multiplication
factor of a reactor is suddenly decreased, after being in the steady state for some
time, the rate of decrease of the neutron flux is the same as if all the fission neu
trons were prompt. The physical interpretation is analogous to that given in
After a
10.41 for the case in which the effective multiplication is increased.
short time, however, the delayed neutron effect causes a considerable slowing
down of the rate of decrease of the flux.
10.52. The foregoing discussion is based on the approximation of one group of
In the general case of m delayed groups, it can be seen from
delayed neutrons.
Fig. 10.25 that, when p has a large negative value, then w0, corresponding to the
stable period, will approach Xi, where Xi is the smallest decay constant for the
The stable period, equal to 1/w0, is then 1/Xi, i.e.,
delayed neutron precursors.
80.2 sec (see Table 4.8).
Consequently, if a reactor is shut down suddenly,
by introducing a large negative reactivity, the flux will fall off rapidly at first,
but in a short time, when the transient terms have damped out, it will decay
10.52]
313
exponentially with a period of 80 sec. Apart from the effects of secondary

neutrons (cf. 4.80), this period determines the maximum rate of shut-down
of a reactor after the transients have died out.
PROBLEMS
1. Plot the thermal flux as a function of time for a reactor in which a step change in
reactivity of 0.0025 is introduced.
Assume the reactor to be in equilibrium initially,
treat the delayed neutrons as a single group with constants X = 0.08 sec-1 and j8 = 0.0075,
and consider three cases with neutron lifetimes of \Q~*, 10~6, and 10-6 sec.
diffusion equation for an instantaneous plane source

2. Solve the time-dependent
emitting one neutron per cm* to obtain the so-called time-dependent diffusion kernel. That
is, let S(x, t) = S(x)5(t). At what time after the source burst at any given point in the
At a distance of 200 cm from the source,
medium is the neutron intensity a maximum?
what is this time lag in graphite?
3. If the source in Problem 2 is an oscillating source,

S(x,
t)
5(x)efe<,
obtain the neutron density as a function of space and time. The neutron density is
propagated as a damped wave. Find the velocity of the wave, the wave length, and the
attenuation distance of the wave, i.e., the distance in which its intensity is reduced by
a factor of e.
Chapter
XI
REACTOR CONTROL
DISTURBANCE
OF NEUTRON ECONOMY
Introduction
If
a reactor is to operate in a steady state, the effective multiplication

factor must remain at unity, that is to say, the system must be exactly critical.
However, if a reactor were constructed such that it was just critical, it would
11.1.
not stay in this condition very long.

Several factors serve to change the effective
multiplication of the system, most of them tending to cause a gradual reduction
in the neutron flux and the power level with time. The main sources of disturb
ance of the neutron economy to be considered here are fuel depletion, fission
product poisoning, and temperature effects. In addition, apparently extraneous
factors, such as the barometric pressure, for example, in the case of a large aircooled reactor, have some influence.
Changes in the pressure are accompanied
by changes in the thermal neutron absorption by the nitrogen (aa = 1.5 barns)
of the air circulated through the reactor for cooling purposes.
11.2. As a reactor operates, the quantity of fissionable material in the core
If operation is to continue for an appreciable time, therefore, more
decreases.
fuel material must be used than the minimum quantity required for the system
to be critical. The amount of depletion or "burn-up" which a reactor can toler
ate depends on a variety of conditions, such as the size, structure, composition,
In general, the maximum burn-up
and radiation damage to the fuel units.
which can be tolerated in power reactors is 5 to 10 per cent, and this means that
5 to 10 per cent more fissionable material must be placed in the reactor when it is
In other words, the reactor must have a few per cent
first put into operation.
into
it in order to allow for fuel depletion.
extra reactivity built
Temperature Effects
When a reactor operates, its temperature rises because of the energy
No matter how efficient the cooling, parts of the system will inevita
liberated.
bly be at temperatures above those existing when the reactor is subcriticalSince the fuel and moderator materials expand upon heating, their densities
11.3.
314
REACTOR CONTROL
11.7]
315
One result is that the diffusion length and the age of thermal neutrons
are increased.
The probability of neutron leakage during slowing down to ther
decrease.
mal energies and before capture as thermal neutrons increases. This means that
the critical mass will be greater at the higher temperatures.
Sufficient fuel ma
terial, therefore, must be included in the reactor to allow for this extra require
ment.
11.4. Further, one of the factors determining the critical mass of a reactor is
the relationship among the fission, absorption, and scattering cross sections for
At the higher temperatures inside the
thermal neutrons of fuel and moderator.
reactor when it is in operation, the average energy of the thermal neutrons will be
greater than at atmospheric temperatures at which the reactor is constructed.
There will consequently be changes in the diffusion length, in the age of thermal
in the average number (q) of fast neutrons produced per thermal
neutron captured, in the thermal utilization/, and in the resonance escape proba
bility, all of which depend on the cross sections.
neutrons,
11.5. If the fission and absorption cross sections for thermal neutrons change
would be unaffected.
according to the 1/v law, then 17 and
The resonance
escape probability, however, will be influenced by the so-called nuclear "Doppler
effect."* Because of the increased kinetic energy of the target (Uranium-238)
nuclei with increasing temperature, the width of a resonance is increased, but the
height of the peak is decreased, the total area beneath the resonance curve re
maining constant.
If the resonance absorption cross sections are large, so that
essentially all neutrons with energies in the resonance region are captured, the
widening of the region will result in a decrease in the resonance escape probability

as the reactor operates and the temperature
rises.
Effect of Fission Products

11.6. With continued operation of a reactor, the nuclides formed in fission
and their many decay products accumulate; some of these may have large cross
If such
sections for the absorption of neutrons, and so they can act as poisons.
poisons are produced in appreciable amounts, either as direct fission fragments

or as a result of radioactive decay, they will affect the neutron balance in the
continue to form even after the power level
of a reactor has been reduced, the concentration of a poison may increase to a
In order to be able to start up a reactor at any time
maximum after shut-down.
reactor.
Because decay products
it may thus be necessary to include additional reactivity to

"over-ride" the fission product poisoning.
11.7. Two nuclides, namely, xenon-135 and samarium-149, are of particular
interest in this connection because of their large capture cross sections for ther
One of the direct products of fission, formed in 5.6 per cent of
mal neutrons.
after shut-down,
*B. A.
Bethe, Rev. Mod. Phys., 9, 140 (1937).
316
THE ELEMENTS
the slow-neutron fissions of uranium-235,
is tellurium-135; this undergoes a series
of stages of negative beta decay, as follows:
_Te1,s
...
2m
*-
6.71i
P" *-
...
Xe136
[11.7
9.2h
*-
_ ... 2xl0*y_ ...
Cs1'6
Ba136
...
(stable).
Of these nuclides, xenon-135 has the high absorption cross section of about
X 10s barns for thermal neutrons at ordinary temperatures, and since it
originates from tellurium-135, which is formed in relatively high yield in fission,
the effect of xenon-135 on the neutron balance in a reactor can be quite consider
able.
Samarium-149 is a stable species, being the end-product of the decay chain
3.5
Nd140
Pm149
Sm149
(stable),
1.4 per cent of fissions.

Its absorption cross section for
is
thermal neutrons
about 5.3 X 104 barns.
Although this is large, it is not as
large as that of xenon-135, and since it is formed in smaller amounts, samarium-
which occurs in about
149 is a less
important poison.

CONTROL RODS*
Functions of Control Rods
11.8. It is apparent from the foregoing considerations that, if a reactor is to
operate continuously for any period of time, or if it is to be started up soon after
latent multiplication or reactivity to be

This reactivity will not be necessary when the reactor
is first operated, but it will have to be increasingly drawn upon as the temperature
a shut-down, there must be available
called upon as required.
rises, the fuel material is burned up, and the fission products accumulate.
The
problem presented by these requirements is solved by building excess reactivity
or excess multiplication into the reactor; this is achieved by putting more than
the minimum critical amount of fissionable material into the core, and then com
pensating for the excess by means of control rods.
For a thermal reactor these
control rods consist of bars of cadmium or of boron steel, the isotopes Cd113 and
B10 having large capture cross sections for thermal neutrons.
When first set
into operation the control rods are inserted into the reactor so that they absorb
sufficient neutrons to keep the system just critical. As time goes on, and the
effective multiplication factor of the reactor begins to fall below unity, due to the
causes mentioned above, additional reactivity is provided by gradual withdrawal
of the control rods.
Thus, the decreased absorption of the rods exactly com
pensates for the decrease in multiplication due to fuel burn-up, temperature
effects, and poisons.
The control rods are also of vital importance in the start-up and shut
down of the reactor.
When not in operation, the rods are inserted so deeply into
11.9.
The theory of the effectiveness of control rods was worked out by F.

Weinberg, and J. A. Wheeler, and by L. W. Nordheim and R. Scalettar.
L.
Friedman, A. M.
REACTOR CONTROL
11.10]
317
the core that the multiplication factor is well below unity. In order to start up
the reactor, the control rods are gradually withdrawn until the reactivity is
slightly positive. The reactor is then supercritical and the neutron flux in
creases, as shown in Chapter X. When the desired power level is reached the
rods are driven into the reactor core to a position where kett = 1. The flux and
power level then remain constant, except for statistical variations. Conversely,
in order to shut down the reactor, the rods are dropped rapidly into the core,
thus increasing the parasitic capture of neutrons and decreasing the effective
multiplication factor below unity. The effect of withdrawing the control rods
is thus to increase the reactivity, while insertion of the rods decreases it. The

consequent over-all time effect on the neutron flux has been considered in the
preceding chapter.
11.10. In addition to increasing parasitic capture, a control rod has another
effect in reducing the effective multiplication factor.
Because of the strong ab
sorption of neutrons in the rod, the thermal flux distribution in the reactor under
goes a marked change, as shown in Fig. 11.10.
The dotted line indicates the
ÊDGE
OF CONTROL ROD
WITH NO CONTROL
ROD
0 R
Fig.
11.10.
Neutron flux distribution in reactor with and without control rod
distribution in the absence of a control rod, and the full line shows the effect of
introducing the rod. The flux now goes virtually to zero at the rod, as well as at
As seen in the figure, this leads to a
the extrapolated boundary of the reactor.
relatively higher thermal neutron flux near the boundary, and consequently the
probability of leakage of thermal neutrons is increased. Physically, the absorp
tion of thermal neutrons by the rod means that relatively more fissions take place
in the outer regions of the reactor, thus leading to an increase in the flux and the
leakage, and a decrease in the multiplication.
THE ELEMENTS
318
Theory of Control Rods: One-Group
[11.11
Treatment*

11.11. The theoretical calculation of the reactivity equivalent of a control rod,

in terms of known properties of a reactor, is relatively simple in the case of a large,
finite, cylindrical, bare homogeneous reactor, of radius R and height H, with a
cylindrical control rod, of radius R0, at its axis (Fig. 11.11). In order to simplify
Fia.
11.11.
it will
the treatment
expels an equivalent
Cylindrical reactor with central control rod
when the control rod is pushed in, it

cylinder of the reactor core, and that, when the rod is with
be supposed that,
drawn, it does not leave a hole along the axis of the reactor core. The result of
this assumption is to overestimate the effect of the control rod to some extent ;
pushing in the rod would not only introduce a strong neutron absorber, it would
also remove some of the active material from the core.
11.12.
The problem will
the neutrons
energy
be treated by the one-group method, in which all

are supposed to be produced, to diffuse, and be captured at one
( 8.15).
The modified
B2
where M2 = L2
be
'
(8.16.4)
is then
(11.12.1)
B2 is the buckling,
Consequently,
critical
k = M*B2
See
M2
+ t is the migration area, and
for the reactor to
critical equation
one-group
1.
R. Scalettar and L. W. Nordheim, MDDC-42.
(11.12.2)
REACTOR CONTROL
11.17]
319
11.13. As seen earlier ( 7.50, et seq.), in the treatment of

reactor, the variables r and z may be separated, and B2 may
B2 = a2
cylindrical
written as
a finite
be
(11.13.1)
/32.
Since, with the control rod out, the reactor in the present case is just a finite
cylinder of height H and radius R, the results obtained in Chapter VII may be
used; thus,
so
- Ms)'
*-m
that
be recalled that the boundary conditions are that the neutron flux shall be
finite and non-negative and go to zero at the (extrapolated) boundary of the reac
tor.*
11.14. When the control rod is inserted, the boundary conditions are changed.
It is assumed, for the present treatment, that the control rod is "black" to ther
mal neutrons, so that every thermal neutron striking it is absorbed.
Conse
This
quently, neutrons travel from the reactor into the rod, but none return.
introduces a new boundary condition, namely, that the neutron flux shall go to
zero within the rod at R', where R' = R0 d, and d is the linear extrapolation
According to transport theory, d may vary from 0.71X<
distance for cylinders.
for plane surfaces to X< for surfaces with radius of curvature small compared to
X,
( 14.56).
11.15. Since the
where
and
is
/J2
r and z variables are separable, the introduction of the control

rod will not affect the flux distribution Z(z) dependent on z only; hence the value
of the
term in the buckling will be the same as before, namely, (n-///)2.
The
value of the function 6(r), however, will be changed.
11.16. As seen in
7.53), the general solution of the equation for 9(r)
given
in this case by
CY0(ar),
9(r) = AJoiocr)
(11.16.1)
A
are arbitrary constants,
and
J0
and Y0 are zero-order

In the treatment
functions of the first and second kinds, respectively.
Bessel
of the
it
required the flux to

cylindrical reactor, the second term was rejected because
oo
this
in
the
term cannot be ex
However,
to
at
the
axis.
case,
present
go
cluded by the requirement that the flux shall be everywhere finite and non-nega
annular and does not include the axis of the cylinder.
tive, since the region
11.17. Introducing the boundary condition that the neutron flux
zero at
=
when
follows
from
that
i.e.,
extrapolated
boundary,
the
(11.16.1)
As before, the values of
and
R,
it
CY0(aR)
0.
AMaR)
is
is

It will
are supposed to include the linear extrapolation distances.
320
This gives
[11.17
relationship between A and C, namely,
rL
AJ o(ai?) '
Yo(aR)
and, hence (11.16.1) becomes
0(r) = A
[jo(ar)
(11.17.1]
F0(or)]-
The value of A, which is here merely a proportionality constant, is determined

by the power level of the reactor.
R, the change in a required to
11.18. In a large thermal reactor, where R0
make the reactor critical with the control rod inserted is small.
Let a0 be the
value of a for the reactor without the control rod- then the difference may be
written as
a = ao + Aa,
(11.18.1
The zero-order Bessel functions can then be represented
where Aa is small.
by

Jo(aB) = Jo[(a0 + Aa)R]

= Jo(aoR)
- Ji(aoK) AaR.
For the critical reactor without control rod,

Jo(aoB) =
= 2.405 ( 7.56), so that
Ji(aoR) = 0.519.
and
ajt
(11.18.2)
Hence, (11.18.2) gives
Jo(aR) = -0.519 AaR.

Further, since a
(11.18.3)
a0 is small,
Y0(aR) = F(aoK) = 0.510.

11.19.
(11.18.4)
For small values of r, i.e., when ar is small, the following asymptotic
expressions may be used:
J0(ar) ->
F0(or)
- - (0.116
7r
+ In
-VJ
11.20.
The
excess
[l
-^
2.44
(0.II6
(11.19.2)
OCT
These, combined with (11.18.3) and (11.18.4) when substituted

give for the flux distribution in the r-direction
9(r) = A
(11.19.1)
+ In
into
(11.17.1).
(11.19.3)
multiplication Ak that is controlled by the rod is given

Ak
ko,
by
REACTOR CONTROL
the value
MV
Dividing both sides of this equation by
the result
#1-
(11-20.1)
it
follows that
Aa
Ak
M2ao2
a0
Consequently, (11.19.3) can be written

=
Aa
'
is
if
and by comparison with (11.20.1)
as
(lL20-2)
41-^(0116+ln^)]-
is
11.21. At this point the boundary condition given in

11.14, i.e., that the flux
shall go to zero at R' (the effective radius of the control rod), may be introduced.
Since R' may be regarded as small, especially for large thermal reactor, R' may
be substituted for in (11.20.2) and the result set equal to zero; upon solving for
seen that
Afc
^~^r\0
U6 +
ln2%R')
(1L211)
'
it
is
is
is
is
is
is
it
is
d,
11.14.
This expression gives an approxima
as denned in
where R' = R0
tion to the maximum excess multiplication that can be controlled by central rod
for a large reactor. It should be borne in mind that the terms with zero sub
scripts in the foregoing development refer to the critical conditions with the
control rod out and replaced by core material.
11.22. The simple one-group treatment given above
defective in three re
void when
First,
withdrawn, as
the control rod leaves
gener
spects.
ally the case, the value of AA; derived here an overestimate, since the void intro
In
negative effect on reactivity.
duces neutron leakage losses that have
made of the change in multiplication due to leakage
actual practice, an estimate
withdrawn, and this subtracted
out of the channel left when the control rod
from the AA; given by (11.21.1). In the second place, the postulate that all the
if

and rearranging,
small, as postulated above,

a2
a2).
a02
Aa
Z32)
1,
Ak =
From (11.18.1),
02)
is
so that
and
A;
= Af2(a2
fco
it
where k is the multiplication factor with the control rod in and

with
out. By (11.12.2) combined with (11.13.1),
is
321
fc0
11.22]
THE ELEMENTS
322
[11.22
neutrons are in one energy group tends to overestimate the absorption of neutrons
This would also make the calculated Afc too large. A better
by using two groups of neutrons, as will be seen
below; the fast neutrons are then treated as being scattered or absorbed weakly
by the control rod. Finally, it may be mentioned that, if the rod is smaller than
two or three transport mean free paths in the core, diffusion theory is not reliable.
by the control rod.
approximation can
be obtained
Theory of Control Rods: Two-Group Treatment

The calculation of the excess multiplication which can be taken up by
a control rod can be improved by treating the neutrons as being in two groups,
as in Chapter VIII.
The boundary conditions at the control rod are in this case
for
fastand the slow-neutron fluxes, since fast neutrons are not
different
the
At the surface of the control rod the gradient
absorbed appreciably by the rod.
of the fast flux is zero, i.e., as many fast neutrons enter the rod as leave it; this
is physically equivalent to the assumption that the control rod does not absorb
fast neutrons.
The same boundary condition as in the one-group treatment
holds for the slow-neutron flux.
11.24. The radial and longitudinal parts of the flux are separated, as before,
and the radial parts of both slow- and fast-neutron flux satisfy the wave equation

11.23.
72G(r) + 29(r) = 0,
where o? may have either of two values obtained from the solution of the char
The values of a2 are given
equation exactly analogous to (8.45.1).
acteristic
[cf. (8.45.2) and (8.45.3)]
by
if k >
where
m1
is positive
where
v2
is also positive.
1,
and
11.25. The radial parts of both the fast flux and the slow flux are linear com
binations of solutions of the equations.
FIX^ + M2*! = 0
and
72Xj
- k2*,
= 0.
In the annular part of the reactor core under consideration,

omitting multiplicative arbitrary constants,
Xl
- JoGtf)
X2 =
+ AYoGw)
Chiyr) + Koivr).
(11.25.1)
the solutions are,
REACTOR CONTROL
*128]
323
11.26. The boundary condition that the fast and slow flux both go to zero
at the outside extrapolated boundary of the cylindrical reactor can be satisfied by
making Xi and X2 equal to zero when r = R; thus,
X,
JoM
which is analogous to (11.17.1), and
FoOir),
(11.26.1)
- fsfcS J,W.
Zs = Ko(vr)
(11.26.2)
1121. By postulating a large reactor, and writing

p = po
with Ay small, where
Am,
is the value of m in the critical reactor without the control

by
be shown,
a procedure exactly equivalent to that used in deriving
(11.19.3), that (11.26.1) reduces to
no
rod, it can

Xi. = JoOr) + 2.44
^
Mo
Yoitir).
(11.27.1)
Further, for small values of r the second term in (11.26.2) becomes negligible in
comparison with the first, and hence, under these conditions,
X2 = K0(pr).
The radial part of the fast-neutron flux may
be
(11.27.2)
written
as
0i = Zi + AX2,
and hence, by (11.27.1) and (11.27.2),
6i = J0(nr) + 2.44
11.28.
^
Mo
FoO^)
+ AK0(vr).
(11.27.3)
The boundary condition that the gradient of the fast flux is zero at the
surface of the control rod, i.e,
= 0 at
r = R0,
Upon differenti
can now be satisfied approximately in the following manner.
r
ating (11.27.3) with respect to and setting the result equal to zero, it follows
that
Vi(mo) + 2.44
&
Mo
Y0'(jJlo) + AK,'(rRo) = 0,
where the primed quantities represent first derivatives with respect to r.

> 0 for small values of the argument,
Since
JiQjJto)
=-2.44^-|2^.
(11.28.1)
THE ELEMENTS
324
[11.28
For small values of the argument, the asymptotic expression for Yoinr) is given
by (11.19.2), and that for K0(vr) is
Ko(vr) -> 0.116 + In
(11.28.2)
if
Consequently,
2
Yo'(yRo)
tR0
Ko'(vRo)
2
ir
Rt
If this result is inserted into (11.28.1), the approximate

for small arguments.
value of A required to satisfy the boundary condition is
A = 2.44^
MO
11.29.
The radial part of the slow flux

=
(11.28.3)
is
StXi + ASiXi,
(11.29.1)
coefficients given by (8.47.4) and (8.48.2).

In
reactors under consideration k 1 is small compared with
unity, and hence from (11.24.1) and (11.24.2)
where
Si and
S2 are the coupling
the large thermal
With these values for
and
y2,
and
the coupling coefficients become
and
S2-~D,'
so
that
g
11.30.
(11.29.2)
By using the values of Xt and X2 from (11.27.1) and (11.27.2), that of
from (11.26.3), and S2/Si from (11.29.2), the equation (11.29.1) gives
|=Jo(Mr)+2.44^[7(,r)-W^.g.
the asymptotic expressions for Jo(jir), Y0(jxr), and KB(yr)
Hence,
small,
by (11.19.1), (11.19.2), and (11.28.2), respectively.
For small values of
is
are given
if

62
REACTOR CONTROL
11.32]
|2 =
- 2.44 ^
- fo.116
+ In
-+
By a procedure similar to that used in
11.31.
2 Am
~
f2 ( 0.116 + In
it can
11.20,
-YL
(11.30.1)
be shown
that
Afc
MW
Mo
This may
325
into (11.30.1) and the boundary condition introduced

that the slow flux shall go to zero at the effective boundary of the control rod,
i.e., when r = R'. Thus, setting G2(i2') = 0, and solving the resulting form of
(11.30.1), it is found that
+
In
[0.116 (1
f2)
M-'-jf
be substituted
+ In
jfLJ*.
(H.31.1)
^^-^*^-QHl
lj-
^TWO
GROUP
GROUPS^.
'^"VONE GROUP CORRECTED
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
BY FACTOR L2/M2
0.01
R/'R
Fig.
11.32.
One- and two-group calculations
of effect of control rod

is
the
expressed as the percentage change in
plotted as a function of R'/R; R'
the linear extrapolation

effective radius of the control rod, i.e., R0
where
It can be seen that the one-group method overestimates the effective
distance.
ness of the control rod, for the second reason given in
is
d,
ciency.
it
as
11.22, i.e., because
sumes that the control rod absorbs neutrons of all energies with the same effi

is
is
which gives the maximum multiplication that can be controlled by rod, accord
ing to the two-group calculation.
11.32. The values of Afc as derived from (11.21.1) and (11.31.1), i.e., by the
one-group and two-group treatments, respectively, have been calculated for the
0.20.
The results in Fig. 11.32 are
case in which L2
equal to t, and M/R
THE ELEMENTS
326
11.33.
It will
(11.33
be noted that the Afc value predicted by the two-group treatment
[equation (11.31.1)] becomes identical with that given by the one-group method
[equation (11.21.1)] when t is zero. This will be obvious physically, since a zero
It might be expected, there
value of t implies that there are no fast neutrons.
fore, that the Ak given by the one-group treatment is too large by a factor of
approximately L2/(LJ + t), i.e., U/M2, for control rods of small radii. In the
case to
which Fig.
11.32 is applicable
L*/M2 is 0.5, and the results obtained by
correcting the one-group values by this factor are represented by the dotted line.
It is seen that this simple modification of the one-group equation (11.21.1), i.e.,
Ak
- *f=
(0.116
b5p)-*.
gives values of Ak which can be taken up by a control rod, in fair agreement with
those derived from the two-group calculations.
Theory of Eccentric

11.34.
Control Rod*
A control rod located eccentrically in a cylindrical thermal reactor may
be considered to produce a singularity in the neutron flux at its position.
The
strength of the singularity is then determined by the boundary conditions at the

surface of the rod.
The problem is analogous to that of finding the electrical
potential due to a point charge. In the latter case, the potential is e/r, where e
is the charge and r is the distance from it. At the position of the charge, the
potential has a1/r singularity, the strength of which is measured by the charge e.
The strength of an absorber control rod is found from the boundary

condition that the neutron flux shall go to zero at the extrapolated boundary
within the "black" rod, as described in 11.14.
By restricting consideration to
a large reactor, in which k

1
1, the neutron flux in the reactor wall satisfy
11.35.
the equation
7V +
B24>
= 0
(11.35.1)
where
*'
^r-
(H.35.2)
A critical equation for
the reactor, including the control rod, can then be derived

and used in various ways.
The simplest is to prescribe a certain value for k, for a
reactor of given dimensions, and then find the radius of the control rod for which
this particular reactor will be critical.

11.36. The neutron flux is a superposition of two solutions of the wave equation
(11.35.1); one of these is nonsingular, while the other has a singularity at the
control rod position.
These solutions are obtained as follows.
Let r be the dis
tance from the axis of the reactor, of radius R, to a field point P, and let p be the
*
The treatment given
here follows that of
R. Scalettar and L. W. Nordheim, unpublished.
REACTOR CONTROL
11.39]
327
\f/
is
distance from this field point to the axis of the control rod, of radius R0. The
distance from the axis of the reactor to the axis of the rod is r0.
The angles 9 and
are then defined as in Fig. 11.36.
The origin of the z-axis
taken at the mid-
Prg.
Cylindrical reactor with eccentric control rod
11.36.
11.11, and the height of the reactor
is
The general solution of (11.35.1) which

regular everywhere and
given [cf. (7.58.2)] by
symmetrical with respect to
as before.
is
H,
as in
Fig.
is
point of the axis of the reactor,
00
= cos -rz
tl
Ms
where
=
B>
is
0,
11.37.
n-o
AnJ(nr)
cos n0,
(11.37.1)
(11.37.2)
is
11.38. The irregular solution of (11.35.1) may be found by solving this equa
tion referred to the control rod as the center of the coordinate system and taking
The Jm terms, being finite at the axis of the control rod, do
only Ym solutions.
Thus, the irregular part of the
not contribute to the strength of the absorber.
neutron flux
tion of the flux with the angle
this point,
over the surface of the control rod
the varia
small.*
This
is
the rod
at the center of the reactor.
rigorous
be noted that this approximation
be identical with those derived above.
The results obtained will then
if
It may
be achieved, at
(11.38.1)
if
simplification may
Fn sin mfl.
is
Considerable
YmM[Em cos
is
11.39.
" m-0
4>i
= cos
00

CONTROL ROB
IRAOiUS R0>
means that
of the angle
is essentially independent
(11.39
that (11.38.1) may
so
be
as
FoCwO.
(11.39.1)
now obtained from (11.37.1) and (11.39.1) as
r+
and
thus for
The function Y0(hp) may be expressed in terms of
(11.39.2)
l'o(w>)]-
0;
cos ne
Jn(jir)
= cos
4>i
is
The total flux
cosg
[%
written
 r0,
F0(MP)
= r0(Mr)Jo(Mro)
^..(MrV.^ro) cos
n<?.
(11.39.3)
Upon applying the boundary condition that the flux shall be zero at the
= R,
follows from (11.39.2)
boundary of the reactor, i.e., when
and (11.39.3) that
AJn(pR)
cos n0
0(jiR)J o(nr0)
= cos
<(#)
it
11.40.
extrapolated
nd\ =
0,
0.
^n(Mft)/n(Mro) cos
that
+ 2Yn(jiR)Jn(^r0)] cosnd -2Y0(nR)J0(nr0)

+^[AJn(nR)
n-0
[AJnW
2
Since
<(#)
11.41.
where
+ 5F(Mfl)J(Mro)]
=
=
n =
n >
for
for
for all values of
cos nd =
(11.40.1)
0. 0
n-0
0,
as
0,
This may be rewritten
Yo(nR)Jo(tir0)
so
equation
(11.40.1) holds for all 9%
and consequently,
[-
= cos
j?
This expression for An may now

4>
be inserted
5"7"^;(Mrn)
into (11.39.2),
so
cosnfl +
that
FoOxp)]-
(11.41.1)
is
is
11.42. The boundary condition that the flux shall go to zero at the extrapola
tion distance
within the control rod
now introduced.
If R0 small in com
parison with r0, this requires that

00
REACTOR CONTROL
11.46]
when r =
r0, p = Ro, and 0 = 0.
it follows from
329
Since, from (11.41.1),
- cos
nYiM,
(11.41.1) and (11.42.1) that
/(M)
(11.42.2)
is
it,
control rod.
11.43. The simplest procedure for the use of (11.42.2) is somewhat as follows.
Suppose that it is desired to find the radius R0 of the control rod that will result
in a certain change in k. Then, from (11.35.2) and (11.37.2) the value of M2 may
be obtained to correspond to the desired k, for a reactor of given dimensions, and
hence of known B2. Since R is known from the size of the reactor, and the posi
tion of the control rod specifies r0, it is possible to solve (11.42.2) for R0 by a proc
ess of iteration.
11.44. The problem of two control rods may be treated in a similar manner to
that described above. Since a control rod depresses the flux in its vicinity, the
effect of another rod will be a function of the spacing between rods as well as of
their location in the reactor.
Two important conclusions may be stated:
there
is
a
of
the
rods
for which their effectiveness is a maximum;
separation
(1)
and (2) beyond a certain separation, the total effectiveness of two rods is greater
than the sum of the effects of each control rod separately.
11.45. The latter result can be explained qualitatively with the aid of Fig.
11.10. If a control rod is placed at the center of the reactor, the flux in the outer
regions of the reactor is increased above that to be expected without a control
Thus, if a second rod is now placed in the region where the flux with the
rod.
in
the effectiveness of the second rod
control rod is greater than without
creased because of the initially larger thermal neutron flux.
FISSION PRODUCT POISONING

General Considerations
a
11.46. As stated above, when

reactor operates, certain nuclei with large cross
sections for the capture of thermal neutrons are produced, so that they act as
"poisons." These nuclei may be either direct fission products or they may result
is
from the decay of the latter. The rate of formation depends on the fission rate
in the reactor, while their removal
determined partly by natural radioactive
of neutrons which leads to a change
capture
decay,
radioactive, and partly by
of identity. In the cases of interest, namely, xenon-135 and samarium-149, the
if

This expression is the critical equation for a cylindrical reactor with an eccentric
xenon-136 and samarium-150, respectively, have small cross sections

for thermal neutron capture and so they may be neglected.
products,
330
In the course of time there will
[11.47
of forma
tion and of loss of the absorbing nuclei, so that an equilibrium concentration is
However, when the reactor is shut down, substances
attained in the reactor.
like xenon-135 and samarium- 149, which result mainly from the decay of other
fission products, continue to be formed, although their rate of removal due to
neutron capture is greatly decreased because of the diminution of the flux.
There
a
of
nuclei
will
possibility
is consequently
that the concentration
poison
actually
increase and pass through a maximum, before finally decreasing because of natural
decay. These aspects of fission product poisoning will now be considered ana
lytically.
11.48. Xenon-135 is formed in a fractional yield (average number of atoms
produced per fission) of 0.003 as a direct fission product, but a much larger
11.47.
amount
be a balance between the rates
results from the two-stage decay of the direct product
tellurium-135,
the fractional yield of which is 0.056.
The half life of tellurium-135 is only 2

min, while its decay product, iodine-135, which is the parent of xenon-135, has a
half life of 6.7 hr ( 11.6). For purposes of simplifying the treatment, without

introducing any appreciable error, it will be assumed, therefore, that iodine-135

is produced directly in fission with a fractional yield of 0.056.
Iodine Concentration
If 7 is the con
Consider first the net rate of formation of iodine-135.
centration of these nuclei per cm3 at any instant, the natural rate of radioactive
nuclei per cm3 per sec, where Xi is the ordinary decay constant.
decay is
In addition iodine-135 will be lost as a result of neutron capture at a rate equal
to oiI nuclei per cm3 per sec, where a is the microscopic cross section in cms
for the capture of thermal neutrons and 4> is the thermal flux in neutrons per cm2
per sec. The rate of formation, on the other hand, will depend on the number of
If 2/ is the macroscopic (thermal neutron) cross section for fission of
fissions.
the fuel material in the reactor, the rate of neutron capture as a result of fission,
and hence the rate of fission, will be equal to 2/< neutrons (or fissions) per cms
If 71 is the fractional yield of iodine-135 actually of tellurium-135
per sec.
11.49.
\J
as a direct fission product,

71S j4>
i.e., 0.056, then the rate of formation of iodine-135 is

It is thus possible to write the equation
nuclei per cm3 per sec.
-\J -
+ 7l2^
(11.49.1)
for the net rate of increase of iodine-135 nuclei with time.

11.50. The microscopic cross section a for iodine-135 is about 7 X 10~u cm8,
is not likely to exceed 1016 neutrons per cm2 per sec, the value of
and, since
will be of the order of 10-8 or less. On the other hand, the decay constant
Xi is 2.9 X 10-6 sec-1, and hence in (11.49.1) the term ai4>I may be neglected in
comparison with Xi7, so that
REACTOR CONTROL
11.52]
^=-X!7
331
(11.50.1)
7i2W>.
If
the reactor has been operating for some time the concentration of iodine-135
its equilibrium value, and dl/dt will be zero. Indicating the
equilibrium concentration by 70 and the corresponding (steady state) flux by 0,
it follows from (11.50.1) that
will have attained
Xi/o =
or
7o
11.51.
A general expression for
7i2/<o
(11.50.2)
Al
7(<),
i.e., the concentration
of iodine as a
function of time, is now obtained by rewriting (11.50.1) in the form

XJ
and then multiplying both sides of the differential equation by the integrating
factor ex1' dt; thus,
ex1'
dl +
e^'XiJ dt =
y^^'' dt,
where the flux may be a function of time. The left-hand side of this equation
is now a perfect differential, equal to d(M"'), so that
d(If*)
tiS/^1'
dt,
and upon integration this gives

7(0 = e-xl'[7i2/
dt
+ 7(0)],
(11.51.1)
where 7(0) is the concentration of iodine at zero time.

11.52. If the rate of growth of iodine in a reactor is being studied, zero time
may be taken as the time of start-up, and then 7(0) is zero. Suppose, for sim
plicity, the neutron flux is increased so rapidly that it attains the steady state
in an extremely short interval of time compared with the growth of the
value
Under these conditions, (11.51.1) becomes
iodine-135 concentration.
7(0 =
=
e-îSôjfV''^
(1
<Tx*).
(11.52.1)
When t is large, this reduces to the value given by (11.50.2) for the limiting or
equilibrium concentration.
THE ELEMENTS
332
11.53. Alternatively, (11.51.1) may be used to express the rate of decay of

iodine-135 in a reactor which is shut down after running in a steady state for
If t = 0 is now the time of shut-down, l&tj is the equilibrium con
some time.
of iodine-135 as given by (11.50.2).
centration
= e~x"[7i2/
/)
is a function of
where
jfV* dt + /],
(11.53.1)
by the manner in which the reactor
determined
Hence,
is
shut down.
Xenon Concentration
11.54.
If X
of xenon-135 nuclei per cm3, at any instant,
is the concentration
the rate of radioactive decay is XjZ and the rate of loss by neutron capture is
oibX, where
the decay constant and microscopic
X2 and a2 are, respectively,
neutron
On the other hand, xenon-135
capture.
is
formed by decay of iodine-135, at a rate Xi/, and as a direct product of fission,

at a rate of 7jS/<, where 72 is the corresponding fractional fission yield, i.e., 0.003.
The net rate of growth of the xenon concentration is then given by
\J +
yrf>
- \,X - a^X.
The mean life of xenon-135 in the nuclear reactor is
seen
(11.54.1)
to
be
1/(Xj + oô),
with the natural decay mean life of 1/X2, the decrease being due to
The equilibrium or steady state concentration is obtained by
neutron capture.
setting dX/dt equal to zero; it is then readily found that
as compared
4- 7;Z/<fto
ZX1/0
'
\ T
T 7
0
C2<?,0
A2
and introducing the value for I0 from (11.50.2)
Xo=(7i
11.55.
72)2W,o,
In order to obtain the concentration
(U542)
of xenon as a function of time,
(11.54.1) is rearranged to give
+ (Xj +
X, I,
and
a*t>)X
are functions of time.
ential equation is exp
\J + 7,2,0,
X2
(11.55.1)
The integrating factor for this differ
dt, where
where
dtj

cross section for thermal
4- G2,
REACTOR CONTROL
11.58]
and consequently it follows,
after multiplying both sides of (11.55.1) by this
factor, that
d(X exp
Upon integration it is
X(t)
= exp
(J A di)(\J + y&rf>)
= exp
jAdt)
seen
333
dt.
that
(- } A dt)
[exp (
f A dt)(\J + y-Zrf)
dt]
+ X(0)
(11.55.2)
where 7, actually 7(0, is given by (11.51.1), in the general case.

11.56. As with the value of 7(0), considered above, the expression for X(0)
depends on the initial conditions.
If (11.55.2) is to give the growth of the xenon
concentration after start-up, then X(0) will be zero. Assuming the neutron
flux to have the steady-state value of 0, then, using (11.52.1) to give the required
expression for 7 as a function of time, it is found from (11.55.2) that
X(0 = X,{l
J
7i + 72 fr
\X2
f^
Xi +
--
yX~
<r2*o

7i
7i +
7a
This equation gives the xenon build-up with time in terms of the steady state
value of the neutron flux.
Calculation of Poisoning
11.57. The poisoning,
P, of
ratio of the number of

thermal neutrons absorbed by the poison to those absorbed in the fuel; thus, at
tmU<'
a reactor is defined as the
P^^
Mhl,
(H.57.D
where 2 is the macroscopic thermal absorption cross section of poison at time t,

and 2 is the corresponding value in fuel. Hence, the poisoning P0 due to xenon135 when the latter has reached its equilibrium value X0 is given by
P0
jjggj
g'(7i +
(Xi
2U
Since 71 + 72 = 0.059, <r2 = 3.5 X 10-18

0.84 for uranium-235, this becomes
p0
1.7
2.1
Ti)2/<fto
+ f20o)2u
cm2,
X2
= 2.1
X 10-6 sec-', and S//2. is
x lQ-'Vo
10-6 + 3.5
If (t>0is
10-18o"
mwr>
J
U
10" or less, the second term in the denominator in (11.57.3) may

be neglected in comparison with the first; then
11.58.
10-16(fo,
THE ELEMENTS
334
and hence, when

flux of
1012
<0
is
1011
Even for
or less, the poisoning will be negligible.
neutrons per cm2 per sec, the poisoning is
[11.5S
a
only 0.007, i.e., about 0.7 per
cent of the thermal neutrons are absorbed by the equilibrium amount of xenon.
However, for values of 0 of the order of 10" or more, the poisoning increases
rapidly, and, if the flux is greater than about 1016 neutrons per cms per sec, Xi be
comes negligible compared with o-j^0 and the poisoning, as given by (11.57.2),
reaches a limiting value expressed by
Pn =
for uranium-235
(71
+ 70
|f"
= 0.059
0.84
= 0.050,
This is the maximum value for the poisoning during
as fuel.
operation of thermal reactors of high flux; about 5 per cent of the thermal neutrons
by the xenon poison under these conditions.*

11.59. The values of P0 calculated from (11.57.3) for various steady state
fluxes are given in Table 11.59 to two significant figures.
It is seen that the
are captured
EQUILIBRIUM
DURING
Flux
VALUES OF XENON POISONING
OPERATION
OF REACTOR
Poisoning (P0)
(<o)
1012
0.007
10"
10"
10"
0.030
0.046
0.048
equilibrium poisoning is small for a flux of 1012 neutrons per cm2 per sec, but in
creases rapidly at higher fluxes, approaching the limiting value at about 10u neu
trons per cm2 per sec.
Poisoning Effect on Reactivity
is
is
if
A;,
is
11.60. The relationship between the poisoning as calculated above and the
Of the four factors which
reactivity of the reactor may be derived as follows.
the thermal utilization
essentially
make up the infinite multiplication factor
the leakage of neutrons
not
Hence,
the only one changed by the poison.
affected by the poison, the effective multiplication factor will be proportional to
Since fission product poisons are present in very small
the thermal utilization.
concentrations, the change in neutron scattering resulting from their presence
bare thermal reactor the fast-neutron leakage
Consequently, in
negligible.
The thermal diffusion length, however, will be decreased by
will be unaltered.
The foregoing calculations are based on the assumption of uniform distribution of flux and
poison throughout the reactor. If <o taken as the average flux, the resulting error
will probably be no more than 10 per cent.
more exact treatment should make use
statistical weights and perturbation theory (see Chapter XIII).
of
in
is

TABLE 11.59.
REACTOR CONTROL
11.62]
335
the additional neutron absorber, and so the thermal nonleakage probability, i.e.,
1/(1 + L2B2), will change to a small extent. But in most thermal reactors
1 -f- 1?& is close to unity and is fairly insensitive to changes in ZA
Hence, it is
reasonable to take the thermal utilization and the effective multiplication factor
to be proportional, with or without poison.
1 1.61. Let
be the thermal utilization in the reactor without poison, and let
be the value with poison; then, assuming a uniform flux,
where SB, 2, and 2P are the macroscopic cross sections for the absorption of
The ratio Sp/2
thermal neutrons in fuel, moderator, and poison, respectively.
has been defined above as the poisoning P, and, representing the ratio Sm/2U
by y, it follows that
/=
+ 2/
T~T
1
/'
and
=
1
+ y +P
If
the effective multiplication factor of the reactor without poison is

that with poison is fcef/, then
Kit'
f -/
-Ku
/'
fcef'
P_
1+y
ketl and
fll 61 2)
Uiei.4
If the
reactor was just critical without the poison, kttt is unity, and the left-hand
side of (11.61.2) becomes equivalent to the reactivity p due to the poison; thus,
P =
+y
Since y is generally a small fraction of unity in an enriched reactor, it is seen that

the negative reactivity resulting from the presence of fission products is roughly
equal to the poisoning as defined above. Thus, the maximum reactivity due to
the equilibrium concentration of xenon-135 is about 0.05.
Build-up of Xenon after Complete Shut-down
A highly important aspect of poisoning due to xenon-135 arises because

in the concentration of this species after a reactor is shut down.
increase
of the
As stated earlier, the reason for this increase is that the iodine-135 present in the
reactor at the time of shut-down continues to decay and form xenon-135. The
11.62.
latter is now lost by radioactive decay only, assuming the neutron flux to be so
low that there is no appreciable removal of xenon-135 nuclei due to neutron cap
ture. Since the half life of xenon-135 is greater than that of iodine-135, it is
evident that the concentration of the former will increase at first. However,
as the iodine-135 is not being regenerated when the reactor is shut down, the
concentration of xenon will ultimately decrease after passing through a maximum.
THE ELEMENTS
336
[11.63
It
will be seen shortly that the maximum concentration of xenon-135

attained after shut-down may be several times the equilibrium value, especially
This results in a correspondingly
if the neutron flux was high before shut-down.
An equivalent amount of multiplica
large increase in the negative reactivity.
tion, therefore, must be built into the reactor in order to make it possible to start
up during a reasonable time interval after shut-down.
11.64. The variation of xenon concentration in a reactor after shut-down will
be represented by (11.55.2) with AÔ), the xenon-135 concentration at zero time,
It is assumed, of course,
equal to the equilibrium value X0 given by (11.54.2).
that prior to shut-down the reactor has been operating for a sufficient length of
time for the equilibrium concentration of xenon to be attained.
The value of J,
actually /(<), is now given by (11.53.1).
it is evident that the build
11.65. Since (11.55.2) and (11.53.1) both involve
up of xenon after a reactor is shut down will depend on how the flux is decreased.
In general,
may be expressed as a function of t, and the required integrations
A simple case, and one having some practical interest, Lmay be carried out.
that in which the reactor is shut down as completely as possible. Taking into
consideration the initial rapid drop and the subsequent stable negative period of
80 sec due to delayed neutrons ( 10.52), it is found that a reactor can be shut
down from a flux of 1012 to 103 neutrons per cm2 per sec in about 20 min.
This
time is short compared with the several hours during which the xenon concentra
tion builds up, and so very little error results from the assumption that the neu
tron flux drops immediately to zero at t = 0 and remains at this value during
shut-down.
11.66. Consequently, setting < equal to zero, (11.53.1) for the iodine concen
tration becomes merely
11.63.

7(0 =
where
o is
70e-x"
(11.66.1)
the steady state flux before shut-down.
now equal to
X2,
and hence exp ( A dt) =

J*
by (11.54.2), becomes
Further, since
4>
= 0,
Thus, (11.55.2), with X(fl)
is
given
*j
(11.66.2)
The poisoning P, as defined by (11.57.1), is then

(11.66.3)
11.67. The values of P as a function of time, calculated from this equation,
for various values, 0, of the steady-state flux before shut-down, are plotted in
REACTOR CONTROL
11.69]
337
Fig. 11.67.
The concentration of xenon-135, which is proportional to P, is

seen to increase to a maximum in each case.
For fluxes of the order of 1013 neu
trons per cm2 per sec or less, the increase is negligible, but it assumes greater
significance for higher fluxes. It is seen, for example, that, for
equal to
2 X 1014, the poisoning due to xenon attains a value of over 0.35, compared with
the equilibrium value of 0.05, when the reactor was in operation.
The reactivity
which can be tied up in this manner by the xenon is approximately 0.35. Conse
quently, this amount of excess multiplication must be built into a reactor to
0.5

= 10'4
NEUTRONS/CM2/SEC
NEUTRONs/cM2/sEC
<o=10 NEUTRONs/cM2/sEC
5
10
TIME
Fig.
11.67.
20
15
AFTER SHUTDOWN
25
HR
Change in xenon poisoning with time after shut-down
operate at a flux of 2 X 1014 neutrons per cm2 per sec, if it is to be capable of being
started up at any time after shut-down. If this amount of reactivity is not avail
able, then the reactor could be started up either before the xenon-135 had attained
its maximum concentration or by waiting a sufficient time for the poison to decay
to an adequate extent. For a flux of 1016 neutrons per cm2 per sec, the maxi
mum poisoning, which occurs at about 12 hr after shut-down, is roughly 2.0.
11.68. In general, it can be seen that the problem of xenon poisoning is not
very important for thermal reactors with fluxes of the order of 1012, or possibly
or after shut-down. Since the poisoning has a
1013, either during operation
limiting equilibrium value of 0.050, it is not too serious while the reactor is operat
But it is in connection with the start-up of a thermal reactor of high flux
ing.
after shut-down that xenon poisoning becomes a matter to be considered in the
It will be evident from the figure that, for fluxes exceeding
design of the reactor.
1014 neutrons per cm2 per sec, the maximum poisoning after shut-down increases
rapidly with the operating flux.
11.69. The foregoing discussion has referred to the special case of an instan
taneous, and essentially complete, shut-down after the reactor has been operating
in the steady state. However, equation (11.55.2) may be solved for different
types of shut-down, e.g., partial instantaneous shut-down, partial or complete
338
THE ELEMENTS
[11.69
shut-down in steps, or linear (or other) partial or complete shut-down. There

is also the possibility that the reactor may be shut down before the xenon has
The general results are the same as those
attained its equilibrium concentration.
described above, except that the more gradual and the less complete the shut
This is due, of
down, the smaller will be the maximum build-up of xenon.
course, to the fact that, for partial and gradual shut-downs, neutrons are avail
able to be captured by, and hence to remove, the xenon-135.
Samarium Poisoning
11.70.
The stable isotope samarium- 149 is the product of the radioactive beta

decay of promethium-149, half life 47 hr; the latter may be formed directly in
fission and also by the decay of neodymium-149.
Since the neodymium has a
half life of 1.7 hr, which is relatively short in comparison with that of the promethium, it may be supposed that the 47-hr promethium-149 is a direct product of
fission, its fractional yield being 0.014 ( 11.7). The problem of the formation of
promethium and samarium in a reactor is thus similar to that considered above
for iodine and xenon. The thermal neutron absorption cross section ai of prome
may be neglected in comparison
thium is very small, so that, as with iodine,
of
an
the
same
in
form as (11.50.2) will repre
Hence,
equation
with Xi
(11.49.1).
Similarly, all the equations
sent the promethium concentration at equilibrium.
with
will
the
of the required phys
appropriate
be
values
applicable
above
derived
Thus, if promethium is indicated by the subscript 1 and sama
ical constants.
fractional
yield 71 is 0.014, the value of y2 being taken as zero.
the
2,
rium by
The decay constant Xi is 4.1 X 10-6 sec-1, while Xj is zero, since samarium-149
The absorption cross section 02 of the samarium for thermal
is a stable nuclide.
ai
neutrons is 5.3
11.71.
10-'0 cm2.
X is zero, (11.54.2) for the equilibrium concentration of samarium

7i2//oi, so that it is independent of the neutron flux in the reactor.
Since
is given by
The time to attain equilibrium is roughly 5/o-jô sec, and this would be about 11
The reactor poisoning at
days for a flux as high as 1014 neutrons per cm' per sec.
equilibrium is equal 7i2//2u, i.e., 0.014 X 0.84 = 0.012, independent of the flux:
hence, the maximum reactivity due to samarium under steady-state conditions
is about -0.012.
11.72. The expression for the poisoning as a function of time after instantan
eous complete shut-down, i.e., equation (11.66.3), now becomes
(11.72.1)
It
can be seen from this expression that, after shut-down,
the poisoning due to

samarium increases from its initial value of 7i2//2u to a limit, when t is large,
represented by
REACTOR CONTROL
11.75]
= 1.5
For
a steady-state
X lO-"^
X lO-ô +
flux of the order of
1012
339
0.012.
neutrons
per cm2 per sec or less,
with 0.012, and the poisoning due to

If the steady state flux
after shut-down.
is 2 X 10", which appears to be the practical limit for thermal reactors unless
means are provided for the removal of xenon, the limiting samarium poisoning
after instantaneous, complete shut-down is 0.030+ 0.012, i.e., 0.042. It is appar
ent, therefore, that the presence of samarium among the fission products requires
an addition of no more than about 0.04 to the reactivity of a thermal reactor of
high flux.
1.5
is negligible in comparison
samarium remains almost constant
REACTIVITY TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS

Effects of Temperature on Reactivity

11.73.
In a nuclear reactor a considerable amount of energy, depending on the
power output, is released in the form of heat, and, although some form of heat
transfer mechanism is used to cool the reactor, the temperature will inevitably
An increase of temperature will affect
experience variations during operation.
for
at
two
the mean energy of the thermal neu
least
reasons:
first,
reactivity
the
trons increases and hence their absorption will be affected because the nuclear
cross sections vary with energy; and, second, the mean free paths and the nonleakage probabilities are functions of the density, which changes with tempera
ture.
11.74. The practical operation of a reactor requires the temperature coefficient
of the reactivity to be small, so that a steady state can be maintained by means of
the control rods. The reactor will then remain stable in spite of moderate
If the temperature coefficient is negative, i.e., the
fluctuations in temperature.
reactivity decreases with increasing temperature, the reactor will be stable.
Positive temperature coefficients, however, result in instability, since the critical
reactor will become supercritical when the temperature rises. For large thermal
reactors the temperature coefficient of reactivity can conveniently be separated
into two main parts, namely, the nuclear temperature coefficient, which is deter
mined by the effect on the nuclear cross sections, and the density temperature
These aspects
coefficient, due to changes in volume and density of the system.
will be examined in turn.
Nuclear Temperature Coefficients

11.75. Consider a reactor consisting of fuel and moderator only, and assume
that the absorption cross sections follow the 1/v law in the thermal energy region.
Since the kinetic energy (jwu;2) of a neutron is proportional to the absolute
THE ELEMENTS
340
[11.75
(Kelvin) temperature, T, this means that the thermal cross sections will vanas 1/T*.
Hence, if aa is the absorption cross section at the temperature T, and
ao0
is the value at T0, then
dL75-1)
aoO I
ft(y)*
is the ratio of the absolute temperatures,
i.e.,
Jr-
where
(11.75.2)
* =
is
length
given by L2 =
D/2 or 1/322|,
transport cross section.
11
1t
L2 =
(11.75.3)
relationship similar to (11.75.3) applies
the macroscopic
follows that
is
= a.0-*,
322,
32oo2<0
0-+*>
(11.76.1)
An expression for the age, from fission energies to thermal, can

larly, by writing [cf. (6.130.1)]
3{2.2,
'
3(2^1
dEi
wb?
dE
(11.76.2)
'
go,
obtained, simi
be
'Bxh
rEib
J fE'
JsthtP.
11
so that
f*JL
Hence,
it
is
a;
where 2t, equal to 1/Xt,
yJ
r.o
may be of the order of 0.1.

to transport cross sections.
11.76. The square of the diffusion
where
and t0 are the ages of the thermal neutrons at the temperatures

and
thermal
are
and
the
and
corresponding
energies
To, respectively,
Elh
E^.
1, can be shown from (11.76.2) that
|*|, denned by (11.75.3),
where
is
it
If
'-^-fcbi''1'-
(11-76-3)
Since the thermal cross sections of all absorbers present in the reactor
evident that the thermal utilization will be
may be supposed to obey (11.75.1),
The resonance escape probability may decrease
independent of temperature.
the infinite multiplication factor
raised, but on the whole

is
somewhat as the temperature
independent
it
it
is
11.77.
is

a. =
it
is
T,
if
is
The scattering cross sections do not change so rapidly with increasing tempera
the scattering cross section at the
ture as do the absorption cross sections;
a.
and a.0
that at T0, then
possible to represent the
absolute temperature
.
effect of temperature by
may be assumed that
of temperature.
REACTOR CONTROL
11.80]
11.78.
341
For a large reactor, the effective multiplication factor is given by
"
k
1
+ M2B2'
where k may be regarded as being independent of temperature.

p, which is (kt,, l)/kM, is then
general expression for p as a function of temperature
can now be obtained by
inserting (11.76.1) and (11.76.3) for L2 and t, respectively;

P =

of
(11-78-3)
i.e., the temperature coefficient

at
constant density, d, is given by*
p due to changes in the cross sections,
coefficient,
/dp\ =dp
\dTJi
since 30/dT is 1/T0 by (11.75.2).
At
the result is
i-fh-(3it:)olnff+LH'
11.79. The nuclear temperature
The reactivity,
the temperature T0, i.e., when
d0
'
dT
1_
dp
To' dd'
Hence, from (11.78.3),
= T0 so that
is unity, this becomes
t$r-wl-(dd.+*+*w}
(1L79-1)
11.80. The foregoing treatment does not take into account a nuclear tempera
As
ture coefficient that may arise from changes in the fission product poisoning.
a general rule, increase of temperature will result in a decrease in the absorption
cross sections of the poisons for thermal neutrons because of the increase in the
There is consequently a decrease in the poisoning and a
energy of the latter.
corresponding increase in reactivity of the reactor; this will produce a positive
temperature coefficient of reactivity. Unless the other nuclear temperature
coefficients have large negative values, to compensate for the positive contribu
tion of the fission product poisoning, the reactor may be unstable to temperature
Of course, if increase of temperature brought the energy of the thermal
changes.
neutrons close to a resonance, the absorption cross section of the poison might
be increased, and the effect on the reactivity temperature coefficient would be
reversed.
* The partial differential notation used here is that commonly employed in thermodynamics.
A subscript, e.g., d in this case, is used to indicate the variable maintained constant.
THE ELEMENTS
342
[11.81
Density Temperature Coefficients

causes expansion of the reactor materials, and
Increase of temperature
11.81.
\d)
'd)
this affects the reactivity in two ways: first, by changing the mean free paths
for absorption and scattering and, second, by an over-all change in the size of the
In some reactors a further change may occur due to the extrusion of
system.
material, e.g., liquid metal coolant in a reactor with stationary fuel elements.
absorption cross sections are proportional to the
11.82. The macroscopic
number of atoms per unit volume, and consequently such cross sections, apart
from changes in the microscopic cross sections considered above, are directly
It, therefore, can be shown, from the definitions
proportional to the density.
of L2 and t, that these quantities are inversely proportional to the square of the
In a homogeneous system, where density changes affect all components
density.
in the same manner, it is possible to write
Bi
held constant,
it
is
T,
'
constant, and
the microscopic cross
d>
sec
(ll.bi.l)
dT
+ a(T - T0)]\
of linear expansion
70[1
[i
is
substituted into (11.78.1),
as assumed above, then
the coefficient
=
To)], then
a(T
+ If
11.83.
= lo[l
and
/dpY
k
is
the volume
tions are constant,
this result
if
If
are the values at TV
follows that
If
\d)
are the migration area and density at the temperature
and
is
ilfo2 and
d0
where
M2 = M02
and, hence,
(r
dd
the material,
that
of
so
To)]''
[1
3ado
dT
a(T
To)]4
Insertion of this result into (11.82.1) then gives
\dT)
mM<?
'
dj
d*
'
[1
(dp\

or
+ a(T
- To)]*'
i.e.,
REACTOR CONTROL
11.85]
At T
To
343
this becomes
(dp\
\M )*......
replacing BW02 by
_ 6aBW
-ttfil,
1.
(UJU)
11.84. The reactivity change due to an over-all change in size of the reactor
is small, especially if the reactor is constrained.
The effect would be due to a
change in the buckling; thus, from (11.78.1),
reactor
the
and
1)
spherical,
= ir/R,
and
refer to the radius of the reactor; hence,
JS0
1)/J32.
To)], where
2(ft
is
If
Roll + a(T
(ft
since Af2 =
2MP _
(dP\
dR =
aRo
dT
_
~~
"
dR
R1' dT
air '
dB
dT
Consequently, from (11.84.1),
Wha,z.
^dpdB
dB' dT
2(fe
- 1)T
kBR
= 2(fc
(dp\
a.
(11.84.2)
In
order to illustrate the general magnitudes of the temperature coef

ficients derived here, the case will be considered of graphite-moderated, thermal
1.05.
reactor with an operating temperature of 400 Kelvin, for which
For
is k
is
11. 85.
-2.6
and
(m)*
10-6 per
-0.29 X
095
10-6 per
<r.
(&\ &,,,,
10-6
is
it
is x
is
is
is
(fc
is
is
is
if
the thermal utilization

2850 cm2 at 400K and
taken as 0.9,
graphite, V285 cm2.
The Fermi age, t0,
follows from (9.88.4) that L02 in the reactor
essentially that of the moderator, i.e., 350 cm2, so that Af02 = W
635
t0
cm-2.
Suppose
7.8
10-6
the
1.38,
cm2 and 52 =
l/2.2t
l)/Mo2
let
be
zero
10-6 per C and
11.75); then
coefficient of linear expansion a
found that
from (11.79.1), (11.83.1), and (11.84.2), respectively,
it

and
344
THE ELEMENTS
[11.85
The only positive temperature coefficient is the last, and this is the smallest of
the three, so that the over-all temperature coefficient is negative.
Such a reactor
would be stable to temperature fluctuations.
The total temperature coefficient
for homogeneous, water-solution, enriched reactors may be as large negative as
10-3 per C.
This is due mainly to the expansion of the water which carries
fuel with it.
PROBLEMS

1. Derive the critical equation for a bare cylindrical reactor containing two control
rods placed on a single diameter.
2. Find the critical atomic ratio of hydrogen to uranium in a spherical bare reactor of
30-cm radius containing a water solution of 100% enriched uranyl sulphate at 20C,
Assume that a strong pressure shell surrounds the reactor
100C, 175C, and 250C.
and that the pressure on the solution is held to 1000 p.s.i.
Calculate the reactivity
temperature coefficient at 250C.
3. If the reactor in Problem 2 is being operated at 175C and the reactivity is increased
0.25%, what is the new steady state operating temperature?
XII
Chapter
GENERAL THEORY OF
HOMOGENEOUS MULTIPLYING SYSTEMS*
INFINITE SLOWING
Gaussian
(Fermi Age)
Kernels
A general
approach to the theory of bare thermal reactors which does not

involve, although it can be adapted to, the continuous slowing down model,
is based on the use of slowing down kernels.
It was shown in 5.92, et seq.,
12.1.

DOWN KERNELS
that the flux distribution from a distributed source of monoenergetic neutrons

could be expressed in the form of an integral equation,
Similarly, the slowing down density
fusion kernels.
can be written in terms of the slowing down kernels.
for an infinite medium, on the basis of the continuous
model, will first be considered.
12.2.
due to
densities
using the appropriate dif
from a distributed source

The form of these kernels
slowing down (Fermi age)
Since the age equation (6.128.2) is linear, the slowing down density at r
distributed source in an infinite medium is the sum of the slowing down
due to the separate sources.
Hence, it is possible to write in general,
for an infinite medium,

'
S(T0)Pdt0,
apace
represents the distributed source, P is the appropriate slowing down

kernel, and dr0 is a volume element at the field point r0.
12.3. For a point source in an infinite medium the slowing down kernel,
according to the Fermi age theory, is given by a more general form of (6.138.1) ;
where
<S(r0)
thus,
[4tt(t
E.
T0)]a
* Some of the techniques employed in this chapter were first

developed by S. F. Frankel and
C. Nelson.
Use of the concept of "image piles" was proposed by F. L. Friedman, and the
generalization and organization of the material are due to A.

345
M.
Weinberg.
THE ELEMENTS
346
[12.3
is
it
r,
is,
where r0 represents the position of the point source emitting neutrons of age r.
This expression reduces to (6.138.2) if the source neutrons are fission neutrons,
so that their age is zero.
The point kernel
physically, the slowing down
due to
unit point source of neu
density of neutrons of age at field point
trons of age T0 at the point r0.
In other words,
gives the probability per unit
volume that a neutron emitted with age r0 at r0 will slow down to an age
at
the field point r.
12.4. For plane sources, the slowing down kernel, according to the age treat
obtained similarly, from (6.135.1); thus, for an infinite medium,
ment,
--|l-o|/4(r-t|)
- T0)]'
[4tt(t
is
the coordinate of the field point and

neutrons of age t0.
where x
x0
that of the source which emits
Because the kernels given above, in (12.3.1) and (12.4.1), derived from
the Fermi continuous slowing down model, are of the same form as the Gauss
functions, they are often referred to as Gaussian slowing down kernels. As
12.5.
is
be
the moderator
is
ordinary water or heavy water, the Gaussian kernels must

replaced by other kernels, as will be shown later
12.61).
If
Group-Diffusion
Kernels
Another approach to the problem of determining the spatial distribution

of the slowing down density of neutrons in an infinite medium, as a function
the group-diffusion method.
This
their energy,
somewhat more involved
than the continuous slowing down treatment given above, but
important
can be applied to cases, such as when the moderator
ordinary or
because
quite unsatisfactory.
heavy water, for which the continuous slowing down model
In the group method,
postulated, as in Chapter VIII, that the energy
neutrons
divided into a finite set of groups.
12.7. Suppose the neutron energy range from E0, the fission energy, down to
divided into n
Eth, the thermal energy,
groups, the last,
1)th, group
The probability per unit volume that a source neutron
being the thermal group.
(energy E0), i.e., one in the first group, at r0, in an infinite medium will enter the
second group (energy Ei) at field point ri may be represented, in general, by the
for the first neutron group.
infinite-medium slowing down kernel Pi(| ri r0
This has been written as
displacement kernel
5.96), since in an infinite
medium
dependent only on the distance from the source to the field point.
neutron in the second group
Similarly, the probability per unit volume that
(energy E{), at ri, will enter the third group (energy Ei), at rJ,
represented by
is
of
is
|)
is
is
(n
is
is
it
is
it
is
it
is
is
of
12.6.
it

6.122, the supposition that the neutron energy can be treated as

continuous function of the time, which leads to the results given above,
appli
cable only when the slowing down medium does not contain very light nuclei.
stated in
ri
|),
Pi(|
which
is
GENERAL THEORY OF MULTIPLYING SYSTEMS
12.10]
347
the slowing down kernel for the second group.
Analogous
ri
(12.8.1)
- r
P,(|
all spce
P(| r
r2
r_!
is
r,
rx
will become thermal at r
I)
P,(|
|)
JJj
r0
|)
r0
dri
<fr, . . .
dr_,,
(12.9.1)
it
If
it
This represents
where, in general, the P's are different for each energy group.
for
in
an
infinite
medium
neutrons
down
kernel
starting with fis
slowing
general
sion energy (E0) at r0 and slowing down to thermal energy (Eth) at r.
12.10. In order to derive expressions for the slowing down kernels on the basis
will be supposed, in the first place, that there are
of the group-diffusion theory,
only two energy groups. Thus, thermal neutrons will represent one group; all
there
neutrons of higher energy, the other (fast) group, as in Chapter VIII.
may be supposed
assumed to be no absorption of neutrons in the fast group,
that the fast flux, <tn, satisfies the diffusion equation
V24>i
- 2tfi +
0,
Dx
is
(12.10.1)
is
is
is
the average diffusion coefficient, defined by (8.13.1), and Si

the
where Di
in
8.12.
The
considered
first
term
section,
cross
the
fastgives
slowing down
the loss of neutrons per cm3 per sec due to degrada
neutron leakage, the second
the source of fast neutrons.
Upon
tion into the slow group, and the third
and replacing Di/li by Za2, where Li
fictitious dif
dividing through by
fusion length, (12.10.1) becomes
is
J;
V2<h
0.
is
a

*i.
By pursuing this treatment throughout the whole series of energy groups,
fission neutron starting at

the probability that
found to be given by
P(| r,
r2
ri
P2(|
|)
r0
|)
Piflr,
|)
12.9.
- r
P(|r2
|)
is
|),
is
|)
is
|)
|)
(I
is
|).
(n
symbols may be used for all the groups, the last kernel for slowing down from
the nth group to the thermal
+ l)th group being P(| r r_i
12.8. The number of source neutrons, originating at r0, entering the second
volume element drx at the field point ri
group (energy Ei) in
equal to
dii, assuming
single source neutron; the probability per unit
-Pi fi T0
then Pi(| ri r0
volume that these will enter the third group
Pj(| r2
dri.
The total number of source neutrons per cm3 per sec, starting at r0, which will
cross the energy level E2 and pass into the third group at the field point r2
consequently obtained by integrating over all space, since this sums up the con
tributions of all the volume elements dri for the second group; for unit source
so that
equivalent to the kernel P(| r2 r0
this
(12.10.2)
THE ELEMENTS
348
[12.10
The homogeneous part of this differential equation is similar to (5.44.2), except

that 1/Lr is used, for convenience, in place of ki2. Hence, for a unit point source
of fast neutrons, the flux [cf. (5.49.1)], away from the source, is
*
If Li22i
is substituted for
Z>i,
(12.10.4)
to construct the infinite-medium diffusion

As seen above, the quantity 2i<i represents
slowing down kernel for two groups.
the number of neutrons crossing from the fast group to the slow group per cm1
per sec, and hence the right-hand side of (12.10.4) gives the probability that a
source neutron at r0 = 0 will become thermal at the field point r, per cm3 per sec.
Consequently, if a point source is at r0 and the field point at r, in an infinite homo
geneous medium, the probability per unit volume, which represents the two-group
slowing down kernel, can be written as
12.11.

<12103)
to which it is equivalent, it follows that
2*
This result can now
be used
^'-^p-wiT-^r
(12111)
The foregoing treatment for one fast and one slow group may be ex
to
the general case, discussed in 8.59, et seq., of n groups of neutrons
tended
with energies exceeding the thermal values. Thus, consideration of the slowing
down from the ith group to the (t + 1)th group leads to the diffusion equation
12.12.
DtVH>i(d
2,tfc(r) + St = 0,
(12.12.1)
where the source term Si is given by the number of neutrons which have been
In accordance with the
degraded from the (i 1)th group into the ith group.
two
it
is
groups,
readily seen that, in an infinite medium, the
method used for
diffusion slowing down kernel for the ith group, which is the probability per unit
volume for a neutron at ii in the ith group to enter the (i + 1)th group at Th-i,
is given by
*(l*-r,|)-w|giti_r<|,
(12-12.2)
is the
where L< is equal to Z></2 here here
diffusion
of neutrons in the
D, is theD,
diffusion
coefficient
of neutronscoefficient
in the
ith group, and 2i is defined by an expression analogous to (8.12.3), viz.,
(12.12.3)
12.16]
349
If
the number of groups is sufficiently large, 2, may be taken as equal to the

scattering cross section of neutrons with energy Ei\ otherwise, it might be aver
aged over the range from 2?, to Ei+i, according to (8.11.3).
12.13. By inserting expressions of the form of (12.12.2) for the individual
group kernels, Pi, P, . . . , Pn into the general equation (12.9.1), it is possible
to determine the infinite-medium diffusion slowing down kernel for fission
neutrons originating at r0 and becoming thermal at r. It will be shown later
( 12.63) how the group-diffusion kernels for slowing down can be combined with
certain experimental data to permit the development of an analytical expres
sion for the slowing down density of neutrons in water.
As pointed out earlier,
the Fermi continuous slowing down model fails when either light or heavy water
is the moderator, and the approach indicated here provides a satisfactory solution
of the problem.
12.14.
It
is important to note that, in the derivation and application of the

slowing down kernels, the possibility of absorption of the neutrons during the
slowing down process has been neglected. The necessary correction can be
made, however, by multiplying the slowing down kernels, as given by (12.3.1),
etc., by the resonance escape probability.
THE GENERAL REACTOR EQUATION

The Slowing Down Density
12.15. The probability, per unit volume,
that
(fission) neutron re
leased at r0 will reach the field point r as a neutron of energy E may be represented
by the slowing down kernel P(r, r0, E).* When E is equal to the thermal energy
a source
the slowing down kernel P(r, r0, E'th) becomes the slowing down density at
thermal energy at r due to a point source at r0. Since the resonance escape
probability p(E) is the fraction of the source neutrons, in an infinite medium,
which actually reach energy E, it follows that the slowing down kernel can be
normalized so that
2?<h,
(12.15.1)
where di is a volume element at the field point r.

12.16. It was seen in 7.7 that the number of fast neutrons per cm3 per sec
produced at a point r0 by fissions in a multiplying medium, e.g., in a reactor, is
Hence, in a volume element di0 at the point r0, the number of
(fc/p)2n0(ro).
source neutrons created per sec is (fc/p)2</(r0) dr0. The number of source neu
trons originating in the volume element dr0 which are slowed down past energy E
A
general symbol is used here, as the slowing clown kernels may apply to
and are then not displacement kernels.
finite medium
THE ELEMENTS
350
[12.16
in a system with no extraneous source, assuming the fission

(source) neutrons to be monoenergetic, is thus
at
r per
cm3 per sec,
. n/
Neutrons from dr0 slowed = k
. .
- _2a0(ro)P(r,
.
t
w
down to energy E at r
p
r0,
E)
di0.
The total number of neutrons per cm3 per sec at the field point r slowed down to
energy E, which is equal to the slowing down density q(r, E), is then obtained
by summing the contributions from all volume elements in the reactor; thus,
3(r,
E)=fl
2a*(r)P(r, r E)
(12.16.1)
di0.

volume
of reactor
The slowing down density given by (12.16.1) includes allowance for absorption
during slowing down, since a proper estimate of the slowing down kernel must
take into account loss of neutrons by resonance capture, etc., during the slowing
This will be apparent from (12.15.1), where the integral of the
down process.
slowing down kernel is identified with the resonance escape probability.
12.17. The slowing down density at thermal energies q(r, Eth) is obtained by
substituting Eth for E in (12.16.1), and this is equal to the thermal neutron source
term in the diffusion equation; hence,
g(r,
?th)
2.<Kr)P(r,
^
r0j
E*)
di0,
(12.17.1)
volume
of reactor
where
P(r,
r0, 2?th)
is the slowing
down kernel for fission neutrons
to thermal
Since, as pointed out above, the expression for g(r, E) already includes
allowance for absorption during slowing down, it is not necessary to multiply by
If an extraneous source of fast neutrons, represented by
p, as was done in 7.6.
iS(r0), with the same energy as the fission neutrons, is present in the system, an
energy.
additional term must
be
included in (12.17.1), which now becomes
g(r, o,) =
|J S.*(r0)
volume
ol
S(r)]
P(r,
r0, Etb) di0.
(12.17.2)
The General Diffusion Equation
If the general value for q(i, Eth) given by (12.17.2) is inserted into the
diffusion
thermal
equation, in which the possibility of a change in the neutron
density with time is included, the result is
12.18.
D V*(T,
t)
- 2*(r, 0
20(r)
+J [|
volume
S(r)]
P(r,
r,
#*)
dr0 =
ol reactor
HI
''
(12.18.1)
12.22]
351
where the neutron density n is replaced by 4>/v, with v being the average speed
of thermal neutrons. The thermal neutron flux is then given by the solution
of this equation satisfying the condition that it goes to zero at the extrapolated
boundary. As mentioned above, it has been assumed, for simplicity, that all
fission and source neutrons are released with the same energy. The generaliza
tion to a fission spectrum can be made without difficulty. In addition, it is sup
posed that all the fission neutrons are emitted promptly; neglect of the delayed
neutrons does not affect the main argument.
12.19. In the subsequent treatment it will be postulated that the transport
mean free path and hence the extrapolation distance for the neutron flux
is independent of the energy. This means that the position of the extrapolated
boundary, where the flux goes to zero, is the same for neutrons of all energies.
This assumption is particularly satisfactory for large reactors, since the neu
tron flux is not changed appreciably by small variations in the extrapolation
12.20. To solve the boundary value problem analytically, it will be postulated
that the slowing down kernels employed shall be restricted to those obtained
from the solution of linear, homogeneous differential equations.
For example,
in the continuous slowing down treatment, the slowing down kernel is the solu
tion of the (linear and homogeneous) age equation, under suitable conditions.
The three kernels in general use in reactor theory are the Gaussian, diffusion,
and transport kernels, and the two latter, like the first, are derived from linear,
homogeneous equations.
12.21. For a bare, homogeneous reactor a solution
of the diffusion equation

by assuming the space part to be equivalent to the
Hence, solutions of the wave equation
&Z(z) =
(12.21.1)
72Z(r)
(12.18.1) may be attempted

space form of the wave equation.
that go to zero at the extrapolated boundary of a finite multiplying medium may

be considered.
The condition that Z = 0 on the boundary results in a set of
eigenvalues Bs; that is to say, Z will go to zero on the boundary only for discrete
values of Bn2. The corresponding eigenf unctions, of which Zn is the nth member,
form a complete orthogonal set of functions.
Consequently, the space part of
the space and time variables are separable in
(r,
is
If
it
12.22.
i),
the neutron flux, the slowing down density, and certain extraneous sources can be
expanded in terms of an infinite series of eigenfunctions Zn.
possible to
write
(12.22.1)
*(r,0 =ÂnZn(r)Tn(t)
and
(12.22.2)
n
volume
of reactor

distance.
THE ELEMENTS
352
for the flux and the slowing down density, respectively,

source is represented by
S(r)
[12.22
while the extraneous

(12.22.3)
=2SnZ(r).
M
Upon insertion of these results into (12.17.2), it is found that

Qn =
2nAnTn(t)
Sn.
(12.22.4)
of
a is
is
If
et
is,
The coefficients AH and Sn can be obtained from the orthogonality condition,

by expressing them as coefficients of Fourier series.
that
12.23. As can be seen from
12.3,
seq., the infinite-medium slowing down
kernels are displacement kernels, since they are functions only of the distance
from the source to the field point.
the medium
finite, however, the presence
boundary changes the slowing down kernel. This
of
apparent on physical
grounds, since neutrons originating near a boundary have
higher probability
The finite-medium
escaping than those produced in the interior of the medium.
P(r, r0, E), appearing in the equations given above, are

In order to solve the reactor equation
desirable to re
it
is
place them by infinite kernels, and this
achieved by means of the concept of an
image source.
Finite and Infinite Kernels

Consider
semi-infinite slab with a vacuum at its (extrapolated)
boundary; a plane source of fast neutrons
supposed to be within the medium
is
12.24.
VACUUM
MEDIUM
NEGATIVE
IMAGE^
PLANE
\S SOURCE
P.<l-*ol)-V
SOURCE^
x0
from the boundary (Fig. 12.24).

slowing down kernel
The infinite-medium (Gaussian)
P.(|
x-x\,E)=
distance
Negative image source in evaluation of finite kernels
at
12.24.
is
Fig.
a
[iirT(hi ;j*
(12.24.1)
is
not essential to the present

the resonance escape probability being omitted as
The finite or, rather, semifinite slowing down kernel that satisfies
argument.
it

thus very complex.
is
slowing down kernels,
12.25]
353
the condition that the slowing down density, and hence the kernel, shall
at the boundary, i.e., when x = 0, is then
P(x,
E) =
x0,
: [e~
[4ttt()]t
e~ 1*+"
"*].
be zero
(12.24.2)
This finite kernel is
seen to be the difference of two infinite-medium kernels;

the first term is that due to a plane source at x0, while the second corresponds to
Thus,
a negative image source at x0, shown by the dotted line in Fig. 12.24.
a finite kernel can be obtained from the superposition of infinite-medium kernels,
arising from a real source and a distributed image source that makes q = 0 on the
extrapolated boundary.
12.25. The result just obtained will now be applied to a consideration of the
source integral in the diffusion equation, and the semi-infinite slab will again be
used for purposes of illustration. Suppose the flux distribution is as indicated
by the full curve in Fig. 12.25; the dotted curve for negative values of a; is defined
Fig.
Analytical continuation of flux distribution to represent image source
12.25.
|),
is
an analytical continuation of (x), and will represent the

which
as 0(| x
Omitting (/c/p)2o, the source integral in (12.17.1) may be ex
image source.
pressed in the form
1=1
4>(x0)P(x,
x0,
E)
dx0,
(12.25.1)
= ~^x
(4ttt)*
f%(*o)[e-
l*-*'v*r
Jo
is
the finite-medium (slowing down) kernel corresponding

where P(x, x0, E)
Hence, from (12.24.2)
the given geometry, i.e., the semi-infinite slab.
- e-
to
dx0,
the integral can be written as
^-rTf"
(41rr)'L>/0
v*rdxo+
*(*)-
|I-*|V*r d*ol-
(\ x0
|),
is
where the first term in the brackets corresponds to the real source and the second
analytically continued as
to a negative image source at x0. Since (x0)

MEDIUM
THE ELEMENTS
354
[12.25
where the limits of integration have been reversed in the second integral and x0
in the exponent replaced by x0, since it is always negative in the range of inte
gration and the absolute value of x

1 =
i0 is involved; consequently,
(4^ X?(*o)e~
'*
* ^ dX'
(12.25.2)
Comparison of (12.25.1) and (12.25.2) shows that the finite kernel in the former
has been replaced by an infinite-medium kernel in the latter; at the same time,
the source distribution has been analytically continued to obtain a distributed
image source.

Solution of the Reactor Equation*

12.26. The results obtained above are quite general and can be applied in
solving the reactor equation with its associated boundary conditions. The
eigenfunctions Z of the wave equation (12.21.1) are continued analytically to
infinity, beyond the extrapolated boundary of the reactor.
This represents a
distributed image source system analogous to the simple case considered above.
The finite kernels in equations (12.16.1), etc., can then be replaced by infinitemedium kernels, and the integration of the source term extended over all space.
This provides a valuable method for the solution of the general problem of a
finite multiplying medium with fast neutron sources.
12.27. Applying the procedure to (12.22.2), the result is
g(r,
E)= T ^ QZn(r0)P(\
r0 |,
E) dr.,
(12.27.1)
space
where the finite kernel has been substituted by the infinite kernel ; at the same
time, the functions (r0, t) and <S(r0) have been analytically continued, and the
integration extended over all space. Equation (12.27.1) for the slowing down
density can now be written in a more convenient form employing Fourier trans
forms,
The procedure followed is essentially that of A. M. Weinberg, unpublished,

t The three-dimensional Fourier transform of Zn(r) is Z(a) defined by
2(a)
feta-'Z,(r)dr,
Jail
space
while the inverse transformation
is
Zn(r)
~ (Vta
Fallot
(2t)
(2t)>
x
da,
space
where a = ia, + jag + ka, is a vector integration variable.

tion is indicated by a line over the symbol.
The Fourier transform of
a func

The Fourier transform of (12.21.1)
12.28.
is
-c?2n(a) + BJZn(a)
so that
- aDZjft) =
0.
(12.28.1)
Consequently, Zn(a) is zero everywhere except when

Fourier transform of Zn(a) can then be written as
Z(r) = tA~,
T e~,B*
'
B = \BZ + jfi + kBz is the buckling vector.

for q(r, E) becomes
fj
J" ^
= *.
The inverse
(12.28.2)
With this result, (12.27.1)
(2^
E) =
2?ns
Z.() da,
where
g(r,
355
- 0,
l.
12.29]
S> dr-
(12-28-3)
space
all
space
g(r,
r0), equation
(12.28.3) can be written as
jfe~
(r
.',() da
E)=f^Qn~l
P(|
e4B"-
T-r\,E)
d(r0
- r).
all
apace
the inverse Fourier transform of Zn(j), so that this equation
becomes
=2 QZn(r) Jene. "P.fl

n
'
E)
q(jr,
|,
is
The second integral
E) d(r
- r).
(12.28.4)
space
is
B*)
Te**' fr-*P.(|
r0
|,
Pm(E,
|,
12.29. The three-dimensional

Fourier transform of the infinite slowing down
kernel Pm(\ r0 E), represented by PK(E, Bn*),
given by
E)
d(r0
- r),
(12.29.1)
./all
space
and hence (12.28.4) may
be
q(r,
written
E)
as
=2 QnZn(i)Pm(E,
This equation, in which the slowing down density
Bs).
(12.29.2)
is
e.g., the Fermi age equation,
linear and homogeneous.
q,
if
is
is
is
related to the three-dimen

fundamental to
sional Fourier transform of an infinite slowing down kernel,
It may be noted that the expansion of g(r, E) in the
generalized reactor theory.
the differential equation in
form of series, as in (12.29.2),
possible only
a

r)
dr0
is
at r0, provided the appropriate

equivalent to d(r0
limits are chosen so that the integration extends over all space, and since r0 =
The volume element
THE ELEMENTS
350
[12.30
Significance of the Fourier Transform

As a purely mathematical concept, the neutrons of any particular
energy E may be regarded as being divided into n modes; then the slowing down
density for the nth mode is given by (12.29.2) as
12.30.
g,(r, E)
QJn(r)Pm(E, Bf).
This gives the number of neutrons in the nth mode, per cm3 per sec, that slow
down past energy E.
The number of fast neutrons, with energy E0, that start
out from the source in this mode is then
qn(T,E0)
= QnZn(T)Pm(Eo,
Bf),
that the ratio of the number of neutrons in the nth mode reaching energy
to the number leaving the source at energy E0 in this mode, is given by
so
No. of nth mode neutrons reaching energy

No. of nth mode neutrons leaving source
E _

qn(r,
E)
g(r, E0)
SsULBA.
(12.30.1)
12.31. The denominator of this equation is equal to unity, as may be shown

by choosing a suitable infinite slowing down, e.g., Gaussian, kernel, based on a
A general expression for the Fourier
linear, homogeneous differential equation.
transform is then obtained, and the result is evaluated for E0 to give the required
Fourier transform for the source neutrons.
For example, it will be shown later
that,
when
the
Gaussian
down
kernel is used, Pm(E, BJ) is,
slowing
( 12.54)
equal to pe-3**, where p is the resonance escape probability and t is the Fermi
age of the neutrons of energy
E.
For the source neutrons t is zero and p is unity;
hence, the value of Pk(E0, Bn2) is unity.

can be concluded from (12.30.1) that
This result is quite general and so
No. of nth mode neutrons reaching energy

No. of nth mode neutrons leaving source
Thus, PX(E,
energy
E _ p
'
2,
it
probability that nth mode source neutrons will reach

in the assembly without escaping from the system or being absorbed
Bn2) is the
at higher energies.
APPROACH TO CRITICAL
General Behavior of Multiplying Systems
Consider a finite system built up of fissionable material and moderator,
containing a point source of fast neutrons at r0, represented by <S5(r r0), where
S is a delta function.
To simplify the problem without serious loss of generality,
it will be assumed, as above, that the neutrons produced by fission and the ex
traneous source neutrons are released with the same energy.
12.32.
12.36]
If
12.33.
the nth terms of the expansions in equations
357
(12.21.1),
(12.22.1),
(12.22.3), and (12.29.2) are inserted into the general diffusion equation (12.18.1),
the latter becomes, for thermal neutrons of the nth mode,
-DBn2AnTn(t)Zn(r)
+
- 2nAnTn(t)Zn(T)
g 2nAnTn(t)
.]z.(r)A.(B.')
\ AM)
(12.33.1)
where V2Zn(i) has been replaced by Bn2Zn(r) in accordance with (12.21.1),

and the symbol E has been omitted from the argument in Pm(E, Bn2), since the
energy is assumed to be thermal.
Dividing through (12.33.1) by 2<tATZ,
and recalling that D/2 = L2 and Z0 = l/20t>, where L is the diffusion length and
l0 is the infinite-medium lifetime of the nth mode thermal neutrons, the result is
TJD
- (H i\
pP.(fl.)-(l+^.)+UJ((t)-Ti(0-
/I
t>
2\
x(B2)
lo
dT(t)
^
LW),

12.34. Upon dividing through by (1 +

and replacing Z0/(l
by the finite-medium lifetime Z for the nth mode, it follows that
kP(Bn2)
+ L2B2)
l\
"1~
SJUBn2)
UB*)AnT&)
2.(1 +
A_
T.m
where k^,, is defined by

kn"
12.35.
L2Bn2)
dTn(t)
Tn(t)'
The solution of this differential equation for Tn(t) in terms of
dt
t
is
AMlsim-KY
p(l +
"
(12.34.1)
L2Bn2)
The total neutron flux in the assembly is then given by (12.22.1)
,(r,0
=^[AMr)î +
],
as
(12.35.1)
This equation is the general solution for the

where A' is a combined constant.
behavior of the thermal neutron flux in a finite multiplying medium with an ex
traneous source, irrespective of whether the system is in a steady state or not.
The first term gives the flux due to fissions, and the second term is the contribu
tion made by the extraneous source.
12.36. From the presence of k^,, in the second term, it is evident that the fast
If no fissionable material
extraneous source neutrons are multiplied by fissions.
were present, so that k and, hence, k,u would be zero, (12.35.1) would reduce to
*w _^
SnZn(r)P(Bn2)
2.(1 + L2B2)
'
THE ELEMENTS
(12.36
is,
358
c,
z,
is
b,
it
The effect of fissions

therefore, to multiply each mode of the thermal neutron
nonmultiplying medium by
flux that would result from
given source in
fcn.fi), the geometry, scattering, and slowing down being assumed to be
1/(1
the same in both cases.
12.37. Returning to the general equation (12.35.1),
will be shown how this
can be used to prove the existence of a specific, critical geometry for given mul
with
tiplying system.
Imagine, for example, a rectangular parallelepiped,
dimensions a,
Such
containing a point source of fast neutrons at its center.
a system
symmetrical with respect to the Cartesian coordinate axes, x, y,
selected with their origin at the center of the parallelepiped and parallel to its
The eigenfunctions are therefore even functions, i.e.,
edges.
vmi
7s-
cos
wtz
c
cos
eigenvalues that satisfy the boundary condition
12.21)
is
v,
is
If the assembly very subcritical,

and w are positive odd integers.
= c >0, Bn2 >oo .
e.g., due to its being too small, s
large; in fact, asa =
12.38. Consider now equation (12.34.1) which defines fc..
As the dimen
where u,
is
sions of the system are increased from the very small magnitude considered above,
The Bnys form a se
equal to unity.
Bn2 decreases until at some point fc.H
to the largest value of
fc.ff.
These values of u,
v,
then correspond
c,
b,
increase monotonically with increasing n,

quence of values that, for a fixed a,
= w =
the smallest value being that for which u =
[cf. (12.37.1)]; this will
w give the
is
is
is
if
is
is
lowest of the eigenvalues corresponding to solutions of the wave equation that

=
on the extrapolated boundary.
satisfy the boundary condition that
12.39. As long as fc,fl
less than unity for all n, the first term in (12.35.1) im
plies an exponential decay of the flux with time, since fc*.,,
negative for all
n. Hence, the only way that
an extraneous
steady state can be obtained
In this event, the fission chain reaction in the as
present.
source of neutrons
too large, or the multipli
not self-sustaining; the leakage of neutrons
sembly
In either case, extraneous source neutrons are re
too small.
cation factor
quired to maintain a neutron balance, and the steady state flux, after a sufficient
time for the exponential term to decay,
is
is
fc
is
12.40.
Suppose next that the assembly of given fuel and moderator
in size until
fco.ii
is
The Critical State
1j

and the corresponding
urx
Z = cos
increased
12.42]
359
where fco.,, is the largest fc,, which refers to u = v = w

1, and corresponds to
the fundamental eigenvalue B02. The first term in (12.35.1) then becomes con
stant for n = 0. Now, however, the second term becomes infinite if an extra
neous source is present. Hence, to have a steady state, this source must be re
moved. This is the condition for a critical self-sustaining reaction.
The critical
equation is consequently
12.41. Since fco,H is the largest

all others, for n > 0, are less than unity;
hence, the corresponding values of the first term in (12.35.1) decay exponentially
in time, and for a true steady state all must be zero. Therefore, when a chain
reaction is critical, without an extraneous source, the Fourier series expansion
for the flux reduces to only the fundamental term. The steady state flux in
the rectangular parallelepiped considered above is represented by
y,z) = A cos cos
cos
(12.41.1)
An equivalent statement is that the flux satisfies the wave equation

T20
with
= 0 on the boundary,
B2
= 0,
where
(12-41-2)
is the critical equation; and, for the geometry under consideration,

is given by (12.37.1) as
the buckling
The zero subscript has now been dropped from
If
is
is
is
is,
B2, since only one value has sig

nificance in the critical state. The essential result of the preceding argument
therefore, that in critical or near critical assemblies, the neutron flux can be ex
pressed by means of the fundamental mode of the wave equation whose solution
goes to zero at the extrapolated boundary.
12.42. It may be mentioned that, when fco,
greater than unity, the assembly
becomes supercritical, and the flux increases with time, because of the exponential
If the system not far from critical, so
increase of the first term in (12.35.1).
small, the rate of increase will be determined essentially by this

that ko,
the effective multiplication factor
in
numerator
of the exponent.
the
quantity
appreciably in excess of unity, then kua may also exceed unity, and two terms
of the series will increase with time. This situation has no practical significance,
supercritical to such an extent must be
for the condition in which a reactor
is
is

(x,
avoided.
THE ELEMENTS
3G0
The Asymptotic
[12.43
Reactor Equation and Material Buckling
12.43. If a steady state is maintained in a multiplying system in the absence

of an extraneous source, so that the reactor is in the critical state, the thermal
diffusion equation (12.18.1) reduces to
D 7V(r) -S*(r) + 2
"
1
f*(r0)P(r,
r0,
E)
dr0 = 0.
(12.43.1)
^/volume
ol reactor

The reactor is assumed to be uniform so that k, p, and 2 are independent of posi

The solution of this equation can
tion and can be taken out of the integral.
be obtained by the method of 12.26, et seq., on the assumption that the extra
polation distance is independent of the neutron energy ( 12.19). As a result,
the image system is given by the analytical continuation of the eigenfunctions
If the extrapolation distance varies with the
Zn of the wave equation (12.21.1).
neutron energy, this image system cannot satisfy the boundary conditions on
In general, by replacing the finite-medium slowing
g(r, E) for all energies.
down kernel by an infinite-medium kernel, and extending the integration over
all space, there is obtained an asymptotic equation
D 7V(r)
In a finite system
- 2*(r)
f*(r,)P(| r -
- S
r0 |) dr0 = 0.
(12.43.2)
falls off to zero at the extrapolated boundary, and
Consequently, if
r0 |) decreases rapidly with increasing
r0 |.
Px(| r
| r
the system is large, (12.43.2) gives an asymptotic solution to (12.43.1) which
is valid far from boundaries.
12.44. By means of the Fourier transform method used in 12.28, 12.29, it
can be shown that
<(r0)
/**(r,)P(|
Jaw
space
r |) dr0 =
(j)PK(&),
Fourier transform defined by (12.29.1)

Upon making the substitution for the
where Pni.B2) is the three-dimensional

with E equal to the thermal energy.
integral in (12.43.2), this equation becomes
D VWr)
If
B2 is a
2<Kr)
2*(r)PB(fi> =
(12.44.1)
solution of the wave equation

720(r) + B24>(i) = 0,
then
0.
(12.44.2)
it readily follows from (12.44.1) that

fcP.(P')
=
+ LW)
p(1
1.
(12.44.3)
12.47]
361
This means that the asymptotic reactor equation is satisfied by any solution
of the wave equation (12.44.2), provided B2 is a root of the critical equation
(12.44.3).
12.45. Since k, p, L2, and
Px(IP) are microscopic properties of the multiplying
system, it is evident that for a given reactor composition
there is only one value
of B2 which satisfies (12.44.3).

This is the material buckling Bm2, previously
defined in terms of the continuous slowing down model ( 7.24).
Hence, the
asymptotic equation for a critical reactor will be satisfied by only one solution
of the wave equation
(12.44.2) for the flux distribution, namely,

r20(r) +
BJ(r)
= 0.
(12.45.1)
In general, the asymptotic reactor equation and its asymptotic solution are valid
only at distances from boundaries that are large in comparison with the slowing
If the extrapolation distance is independent of
down length of the neutrons.
neutron energy, the asymptotic solution becomes identical with the solution of
the exact equation (12.43.1), as given in 12.40, 12.41.
12.46. For a large assembly which is subcritical, but is maintained in a steady
state by an extraneous source of neutrons, the thermal neutron balance in a
region Jar from the source, where essentially all the neutrons have resulted
from fissions, can still be represented fairly closely by (12.43.1), the integration
Provided the region is more than
being carried over the prescribed region only.
a slowing down length from the boundaries of the assembly, the slowing down
density can be expressed by means of the infinite-medium kernel, and the integra
tion extended over all space, as in (12.43.2). Consequently, from the arguments
presented above, the steady state thermal flux distribution in a large, subcritical
assembly, in regions well away from sources and boundaries, is given, to a good
approximation, by (12.45.1), where Bm2 is the material buckling of the particular
multiplying medium of which the assembly is composed.
In the exponential
experiment described in Chapter IX, the value of Bm2 is obtained from the flux
distribution measured in a subcritical assembly in the steady state. By setting
of the critical
Bm2 equal to the (critical) geometric buckling, the dimensions
reactor, having the same microscopic properties as the experimental assembly,
It should be noted that the exponential experiment method
can be determined.
for determining the material buckling cannot be used for enriched uranium sys
tems, for the subcritical assembly will generally be too small for the asymptotic
solution to hold at any point.
THE CRITICAL EQUATION FOR VARIOUS

SLOWING DOWN KERNELS
The Nonleakage Probability during Slowing Down
any
It
was shown in 12.31 that the fraction of the source neutrons, in

mode, which actually reach the energy E is equal to the Fourier transform
12.47.
THE ELEMENTS
362
[12.47
When the reactor is critical,

of the infinite slowing down kernel for that mode.
and only the lowest eigenvalue is significant, all the neutrons may be regarded
as being in one mode.
If E is taken as the thermal energy, it follows from
(12.31.1) that
No. of neutrons becoming thermal

No. of neutrons leaving source
where

equation
_p
,^2 47
jj
is identical with PK(B03) in (12.40.1) or with PK(B*) in the critical

If there were no leakage of neutrons from the reactor, i.e.,
(12.41.2).
in an infinite medium, the fraction represented by (12.47.1) would be identical

with the resonance escape probability p (cf. 12.14). For a finite system, how
ever, PK(B2) is the total probability that the neutrons will not leak out or be cap
tured while slowing down. The nonleakage probability during slowing down to
thermal energies is thus Px(B*)/p.
This is a completely general result and is
It will be
independent of any theory concerning the slowing down process.
seen later that, by the use of a slowing down kernel based on the Fermi con
tinuous slowing down model, the value of Pa,(B2)/p is found to be e BV, in agree
ment with the result obtained in Chapter VII. However, when the Fermi model
is not applicable, the nonleakage probability can be obtained by using more ap
propriate kernels.
Moment Form of the Critical Equation

12.48. The critical equation can be written in a convenient form which can be
directly related to a measured slowing down density in a given medium.
In the
critical (steady) state, the three-dimensional Fourier transform of the infinitemedium slowing down kernel P,(| r r0 |) for thermal neutrons is given by
(12.29.1) as
Pm(B*)
- fe"
<'-"'P.(| r
r0 |) d(r0
- r),
(12.48.1)
space
where Bs is the lowest eigenvalue of the wave equation, i.e., Bo2, all others being
now insignificant ( 12.41). In polar coordinates this becomes
P.(B) =
where r is equal to
medium.
To |,
Upon expanding
4*jQ
P.(r)
r* dr,
(12,1$ 2
and Pm(r) is the slowing down kernel for an infinite
s"^r
in a Taylor series, and integrating term by
term, the expression for the transform of the slowing down kernel becomes
P(B*) = 4x
P r*"P(r)7* dr.
B'.
% (}~})"
(2n + 1) !
Jo
T0
(12.48.3)
12.50]
363
12.49. The 2nth moment of the slowing down density distribution is repre
sented by
rin =
Jo
PJr^r2
(12.49.1)
dr
Since the slowing down kernel is normalized to yield the resonance escape prob
ability, according to (12.15.1), it follows that
4tt
where p is the resonance
jT P(r)r* dr =
escape
(12.49.1)
and (12.48.3) becomes
p,
(12.49.2)
probability at thermal energy.

=
i*Pm(rYdr
^rR,
p-(^-p|(>Tî^"
Hence, from
(12-49-3)
The critical equation (12.40.1) can then be written in terms of the 2nth, i.e.,
even, moments of the slowing down distribution at the thermal energy; thus,
U& &
(2n
1)
KM.***)
'
which is the moment form of the critical equation.

12.50. If the reactor is large compared to V^r*, the square root of the mean
square slowing down distance, the buckling B2 is small compared to 1/rs, and
terms beyond n = 1 in (12.49.4) may be neglected. In these circumstances
where r2 is the mean square distance a fission neutron travels from its source
to where it is thermalized in an infinite medium, and hence it is equal to the
quantity represented by r,2 ( 7.63). Making the substitution in the critical
equation (12.49.4), the latter becomes
I
If \B?r?
+kL*Bi
(1
- iBh?)
1.
(12.50.2)
is small in comparison with unity, this expression may be written, ap
proximately,
as
(1
+ L2B')(1 + $BW)
+ B*(U + |r,2)
1.
(12.50.3)
THE ELEMENTS
364
Since
+ \r? is equal to the migration area,

k

+ M *B2
Af2,
this result may
[12.50
be expressed as
1,
in agreement with (7.63.2) derived from the continuous slowing down theory
for a large reactor.
Thus, as is to be expected, the nonleakage probability for
large reactors is independent of the particular slowing down model used and
becomes essentially a function of the migration area.
12.51. The experimental determination
of r2" involves the measurement of
the slowing down density in the moderator at various distances r from a fast,
neutron source, and then fitting the results empirically by means of a suitable
slowing down kernel Px(r), e.g., one based on the Fermi treatment or on the
The kernel is then inserted into (12.49.1) and the
method.
group-diffusion
integral evaluated to give r2" for several values of n. When n is 2, the result is
r,2, where |r,2 is identified with the Fermi age, although it is equivalent to the
latter only if the continuous slowing down model is applicable.
The experi
mental values of r2" are then inserted into (12.49.4), and a critical equation is
obtained which is independent of any specific slowing down kernel.
12.52. In practice, the evaluation of the higher order moments for the purpose
of deriving a critical equation is difficult for, at least, two reasons.
First, it is
necessary that measurements be made at large distances from the source, where
the neutron intensity is very weak; and, second, the use of indium foil means
that slowing down densities are measured at about 1.4 ev, the indium resonance
level, and corrections must be applied to obtain values at thermal energy.
In
addition, measurements should be made in a region with the same resonance
absorption as the reactor; this requirement can be satisfied by adding the proper
amount of absorber uniformly to the medium.
Fermi Age (Gaussian) Kernels and the Critical Equation

The solution of the Fermi age, continuous slowing down, equation
for a unit point source in an infinite nonabsorbing medium was seen in 6.138 to
12.53.
be
(4ttt)*
where the origin of the coordinate system is taken to be at the source and t is
The slowing
the age of thermal neutrons from a monoenergetic fission source.
down density in an absorbing medium is obtained upon multiplying by the reso
nance escape probability p ( 6.159), so that the corresponding (infinite) slowing
down kernel is
p-w
(F
(,2SU>
12.56]
The Fourier transform of Pm(r) is then given by (12.48.2)
Jo
In
12.54.
as
Br
(4ttt)*
Pe-"/4VsinBrdr.
,p
(12.53.2)
J0
(4*-)*r*B
365
order to integrate by parts, let
m sin
and
v m
du =
Br,
2re~ r'/4f,
dt>
B cos Br dr
= re-*'** dr.
(4*-)*r*B
2re-"/4r sin Br|J + 2rB
fV',/4r cos Br drl .
Jo
?r-
A. (B2)
[~-
Consequently, (12.53.2) becomes

(12.54.1)
Px(B2)
pe'1*.
(12.54.2)
as derived in Chapter
VII.
is,
ke-"*
=
+ UB2
1,
is
is
As seen above, the nonleakage probability during slowing down to thermal energy
equal to Px(B2)/p, which
e~B* in the present case.
This
of course, the
result obtained by means of the Fermi age equation
Using the value
7.29).
of the Fourier transform, based on the continuous slowing down model, as given
by (12.54.2), the critical equation (12.41.2) becomes
(12.54.3)
Gaussian Kernel Critical Equation and Fission Spectrum Source
it
12.55. In the preceding case

was supposed that the fission source neutrons
were monoenergetic; the treatment will now be extended so as to allow for the
For moderators in which the con
energy spectrum of fission neutrons
4.7).
tinuous slowing down model may be used, the generalized slowing down kernel
obtained by superposing the Gaussian (age) kernels integrated over the fission
spectrum.
12.56. Let s(E0) dE0 be the fraction of fission neutrons created with energy
between E0 and E0 + dE0, so that the function s(E<j) may be regarded as the
The age r(E0, E) of the neutrons
analytical expression of the fission spectrum.
as
be
may
written
at energy
t(Eo,E) =
is

is
The first term in the brackets

zero, and the definite integral can be obtained
from tables; substituting the appropriate values, (12.54.1) becomes
^-*r>
(12.56.1)
366
THE ELEMENTS
[12.56
and the slowing down kernel, analogous to (12.53.1), is then
P.(r, E)
p(E) I
JBth [4tt(0, JB)]*
s(E0) dE0,
(12.56.2)
By
where p(2?) is the resonance escape probability for neutrons of energy E.
a
similar
to
that
described
the
Fourier
transform
of
using
procedure
above,
(12.56.2) is found to be
P(r,E)
p(E)
f6-*M*.*,s(()
dE*.
(12.56.3)
It may be noted that since the fission spectrum is effectively zero below 0.1 Mev,
i.e., virtually all fission neutrons have energy in excess of this value, it follows
that the resonance escape probability at a given energy will be the same for all
This is because the resonance capture takes place almost
fission neutrons.
at energies well below 0.1 Mev. Consequently, it is permissible to
write p(E) as a function of the energy at which Pm(r, E) is calculated.
12.57. The nonleakage probability while slowing down for thermal neutrons
is equal, in the present case, to Px(r, 2?th)/p(2?th), and hence the critical equation
exclusively
fr***-"*^
1+W2
If
dE0 =
1.
(12.57.1)
all the fission neutrons are created with the same energy, so that s(E0) is a
Dirac delta function, (12.57.1) reduces to the monochromatic critical equation
(12.54.3) derived above.
12.58. In order to allow for the fission energy spectrum in criticality estimates,
the proper average age, f , must be used. This can be obtained by defining it
so
that
/'CO
= / e-",r^Bai8(Eo)dBt.
JM\k
The critical equation may then
be
written
Ice-**
r+w>
as
(12-58-2)
12.59. The moment form of (12.58.1) can be obtained by expanding

in a power series; thus, the integral becomes
e-^^sOSo)
dEo =
B2
Pt(0,
^th)(ô) dE0
Similarly, expansion of the left-hand side of (12.58.1) gives
e-* =
(12.58.1)
- m + |J fJ
c-*t**iJ
12.61]
If
367
the reactor is large, so that the series may be cut off after the second term in
each case (cf. 12.50), comparison
of the expansions shows that
t(0, Eth)s(E0) dE0,
the right-hand side being the arithmetic mean of the age of the fission neutrons
from source to thermal energy. This result gives the physical significance of the
average age defined by (12.58.1).
12.60. Using the first two terms only in the expansion of e-**7, it follows that
for a large reactor
e-ax = 1
B*f (1 + B*f)~\
The critical equation (12.58.2) now becomes, as in 12.50,

k
1

with M2 defined by
+ M*B*
M2
where f is the arithmetic mean

the fission spectrum.
Group-Diffusion
,i
V + f,
age of the thermal
neutrons taking into account
Slowing Down Kernels: Two Groups
12.61. The infinite-medium slowing down kernel, in terms of diffusion theory,

as applied to two groups of neutrons, is given by (12.11.1), provided there is no
To allow for the latter, the kernel should be multiplied
resonance absorption.
by the resonance escape probability p of the neutrons in the first (high-energy)

group. Hence, if the neutron source is at the origin of the coordinates, it follows
that the slowing down kernel from fission to thermal energies is
P.(r)
g,
(12.61.1)
the 2i being a slowing down cross section ( 8.12).

where, as before, Li =
The Fourier transform of Px(r), represented by Pm(B2), is [cf. (12.48.2)] con
sequently
p*w
f>
,n->s
l
**J0
= .
Ve~rlu
sin
Br
h^--BV^dr
e-r/uain Br dr
TTE
WtS Jo
B
=
,,
(12.61.2)
THE ELEMENTS
368
[12.61
Upon inserting this result into the general critical equation (12.41.2), the
group critical equation becomes
(1
lf
+ L2fl2)(l +L!2BJ)
(12.61.4)
which is equivalent to (8.44.3).

12.62. The second moment of the slowing down density distribution is
6W,
two-
given
(12.62.1)
Jo iirLihand comparison with (6.141.1) shows that Li2 in the two-group treatment has the
same physical significance as the Fermi age, r, namely, one-sixth of the mean
travels from its source as a fission neutron to
square distance a neutron
it becomes thermal (cf.

written as
8.44).
Hence, the critical equation

k
(1
V&Kl
(1+ZAB')(1 + tB')
where
(12.61.4) may
=
be
(12-622
If
the critical reactor is large, so that B2 is small, or, in general, if k 1 is small,

the denominator can be replaced by 1 + B\L2 + r,2) ; then (12.62.2) becomes
+ B\L2 + \T})
Convolution
In
1.
of Diffusion Slowing Down Kernels:

Slowing Down in Water
for the slowing down kernel,

from fission energy to thermal energy, by imagining the neutrons to be divide*!
into n + 1 energy groups. The result was a convolution of functions, each of
which was a slowing down kernel for one of the n groups with energy above the
12.63.
12.6, et seq., an expression was derived
thermal value.
12.64.
It
can be shown that the Fourier transform of a convolution of func
tions is equal to the product of the transforms of the separate functions.

(12.9.1) leads to the result
P(B2) =
Ptffl
Pt(Bfl
. . .
Hence,
Pn(BS),
where Px(B2) is the Fourier transform of the over-all slowing down kernel, and
Pi(#i2), P2(Bti), etc., are the transforms of the kernels for the individual energy
groups.
The critical equation (12.41.2) then becomes

k
p(l + LIB2) P^B?)
P2(fl22)
. . .
Pn(Ba*) = 1.
(12.64.1)
12.65]
The advantage of the foregoing procedure is that it permits the
369
use
of any
12.65.
1
16
1
12
r,
Fig.
*

(i)
convenient number of kernels, which may be of the same or of different types.

In this way it is possible to introduce several parameters with which to fit the
analytical slowing down density distribution to an experimental distribution.
This was essentially the technique used* to obtain a slowing down kernel for the
homogeneous, water-moderated, enriched reactor known as the "water boiler."
12.65. The calculations were based on measured neutron slowing down densi
ties to indium resonance in water, for which the results are plotted in Fig. 12.65.
The ordinates are proportional to r"-q(r), where q(r) is the experimental slowing
down density at a distance r from the source. Measurements were made up to
30 cm, and the distribution was continued by the function r~2e-r/8. Various
analytical slowing down kernels, sometimes called synthetic kernels, were fitted
to the experimental distribution with the following conditions being satis
the analytical value for \r? should be equal to the experimental value;
fied:
and (ii) the total area under the analytical curves in Fig. 12.65 should be the
same as for the experimental curve.
20
24
28
32
36
CM
Experimental and calculated distribution of slowing down density in water
E. Greuling, unpublished.
THE ELEMENTS
370
[12.66
Three analytical curves are shown in the figure; the first is for a Gaus
sian (continuous slowing down) kernel, as given in (12.53.1), with t equal to
33 cm2 (cf. 6.145); the second is for a single diffusion kernel, as in (12.61.1),
with Li equal to 5.69 cm; and the third is for a convolution of three diffusion
kernels with L\ = 4.49 cm, Ls = 2.05 cm, and L3 = 1.00 cm.* It is seen that the
continuous slowing down model is not applicable to water as moderator. The
curve for the Gaussian distribution is displaced to the right, as compared with
the experimental results; this is because, as indicated in Chapter VI, a neutron
can lose energy in collisions with hydrogen nuclei at a faster rate than would be
The use of a convolution of
expected on the basis of continuous slowing down.
three diffusion kernels to give the slowing down in water is seen to provide a very
close representation of the experimental distribution of the slowing down density.
12.67. Utilizing the three-dimensional
Fourier transforms P, (S2) of the infi
nite slowing down kernels developed earlier in this chapter, it is seen that the
critical equations corresponding to various slowing down kernels are as follows:
(i)
12.66.
Gaussian slowing down
(ii) Two groups of neutrons
UB*
one diffusion kernel
(1+IlB)(1+L,BJ)
L12B2)(1
L22#2)(1
I,
L2fi2)(1
L32fl2)
the diffusion length of thermal neutrons in water, and B2
is
is
where
(1
(iii) Four groups of neutrons: three diffusion kernels
the buck
ling.
The results given above have been used to calculate the critical geomet
ric bucklings for finite cylinders containing solutions of uranyl fluoride in water
at various concentrations.
From the known H/U ratio and the nuclear absorp
tion cross sections, the multiplication factor for the different solutions can be
obtained, as shown in
7.66. The solutions were dilute enough for t and the
various Us to be the same as in pure water, and so from the data given in
12.66,
B2 can be obtained from the critical equations in
12.67.
Then from the expres
sion for the geometric buckling for
bare, finite cylinder
7.58), the critical
a
12.68.
In deriving these curves the resonance escape probability was omitted from the slowing
PxCBs)/p. It
down kernels, since the quantity of interest
apparent from the cases con
sidered above that the p'e cancel out in the critical equation in any event.
is
is

he-**
12.68]
371
height of the solution, for cylinders of a given radius, can be readily determined
in each case.
The results are plotted in Fig. 12.68.
Since a convolution of
three diffusion kernels gives a reasonably good representation of the slowing down
(10
(00
FERMI AGE>.
//
90
5
o
UJ
X
.J
4
80
70
60
i-
50
o
40

200
12.68.
TWO
/
/
GROUPv^
FOUR GROUP.
^V/^~
^^^^^^^^
*
300
400
ATOMIC
Fig.
/I
EXPERIMENTAL./
30
20
500
600
700
800
RATIO, H/U
Comparison of critical calculations using different kernels
density distribution in water (Fig. 12.65), it is found, as expected, that the critical
heights given by the four-group calculation are in close agreement with those
The observed differences are probably due, at least
obtained by experiment.
in part, to the neglect of fast-neutron fissions in the calculations.
It appears,
therefore, that, when the continuous slowing down model is not applicable,
the critical properties of a bare, thermal reactor can be determined, to a fair degree
of accuracy, by the development of a synthetic (empirical) slowing down kernel
based on observed slowing down density measurements in the moderator.
Chapter
XIII
PERTURBATION THEORY*
GENERAL THEORY
Mtjlti-Group Treatment
13.1.
The effect of changes in
localized poisons or temperature
a reactor structure
resulting, for example, from
changes is most readily determined
by means

of perturbation theory.
The perturbation will produce a change in the stable
period of the reactor, which can usually be related to a change in reactivity cor
responding to the perturbation.
However, most calculations using perturbation

theory are made to determine small compensatory changes that will leave a reac
tor critical. For example, it may be required to find the change in fuel necessary
to compensate for the additional poisoning due to an increase in the jacket thick
ness of a fuel rod.
In calculations of this sort, the effect of delayed neutrons
need not be considered.
13.2. In the multi-group treatment of a nuclear reactor, not necessarily in a
state of equilibrium, the equation for the ith group may be written in the general
form
_
(13.2.1)
where Mi3 is an operator and
is the neutron flux in the ith group.
whole system of m groups, the equation can be represented by
For
the
(13.2.2)
where
is the appropriate matrix operator and
4>
represents the vector set
<h, . . . 4>m)-
13.3.
Consider solutions of (13.2.2) that depend in an exponential manner
the time, i.e.,

so
on
(13.3.1)
that
(13.3.2)
*
The
use of perturbation
theory in reactor calculations is due to E. P. Wigner.

372
PERTURBATION
13.6]
THEORY
373
Since the group equations are coupled by the fission chain reaction and by the
slowing down from group to group, all the oij's for the various energy groups are
Hence, (13.2.2) may be written
equal.
M<
as
(13.3.3)
w4>,
having the same value for each group, is actually the reciprocal of the
reactor period ( 10.28). The general solution of (13.3.3) gives a series of
Of these eigenvalues,
eigenvalues, w*, and the corresponding eigenfunctions, fa.
only one will be positive, corresponding to the stable period of the reactor, and
The
this can usually be related in a simple way to the reactivity of the reactor.
negative eigenvalues are not of interest here, since they represent transients
of
which damp out with time. In the steady state of a critical reactor, w
course, zero, and the perturbations to be considered cause relatively small changes
inw.
reactor such as, for example,
13.4. Suppose that
small change occurs in
Let this change be represented by an operator
the introduction of an absorber.
and the reciprocal period will change from
P. The neutron flux will now be
u to <o\ The reactor equation will then be
w,
is,
where
(M +
P)c6' =
wV,
(13.4.1)
is
is
'
the perturbed flux and w' represents the new eigenvalues.

general
basic to all applications of perturbation theory to
formula for w' w, which
be given here, will now be derived.
where
Self-Adjoint and Adjoint Operators

is
If
the eigenfunctions of (13.3.3) form

complete orthogonal set, the op
An example of this to be found in the case of
erator M said to be self-adjoint.
when
the neutron flux satisfies the equation
of
bare
reactor,
one-group theory
13.5.
is
rv
BV-J-f,
is
it
vanish on the extrapolated surface of the

and the boundary condition that
complete set of eigenfunctions
reactor. The solution of this problem leads to
that are orthogonal over the volume of the reactor enclosed by the extrapolated
In this case the operator M self -adjoint and satisfies an important
boundary.
theorem.
13.6. Consider two particular eigenfunctions of (13.3.3), namely, fa and fa, so
that
Mc6* = ojkfa
and
Mfa =
Multiply the former by fa and the latter by fa and integrate each over the whole
faMfa dV =
mj
volume of the reactor; the results are

',
fafa dV
kMi dV =
= Ck
o>i)f
Mi dV.
(13.6.1)
k^l,
follows from (13.6.1) that
it
dV
if
0*tf>,
then
are orthogonal,
=
and so
(w*
dV =
if
and
the eigenfunctions
4>kMi
0,M0* dV
Mi dV.
that
seen
is
it
Upon subtracting,
[13.6
uij
and
If
THE ELEMENTS
374
4>M4>kdV.
said to be self-adjoint.
Suppose the eigenfunctions
do not form an orthogonal set, as
tM0i dV =
the 0*t's, called the adjoint functions,

adjoint equation
of
case
(13.7.1)
are the eigenfunctions
**t,
of
the
(13.7.2:
the complex conjugate of u.
In general, the adjoint operator Mf
M by
is
13.8.
Mn
is
Mf*t
the
may be defined by
,Mt<M dV,
where
where w*
Mf
reactor with reflector; then an adjoint operator
for
case the operator
(13.6.2)
is
13.7.
is
In this
a
obtained by replacing each
its complex conjugate and then interchanging
element
the rows and columns
is
is
in the matrix, i.e., each M*j becomes M*. For the equation of a reactor, the
elements are all real, so that the adjoint operator Mf
obtained merely by inter
changing rows and columns in the matrix M at the same time, *
equal to a
13.9. By starting with one solution of (13.7.2) and one of (13.3.3), namely,
=
Mfa*t
u>k4>k]
and
Mi,
0iMfa*t dV
<MM, dV
= (w*
is
and the latter by <M, integrating each and

multiplying the former by
tracting, the result, analogous to (13.6.1),

M4>idV
wi)
(fcfai
dV.
sub
PERTURBATION
13.11]
THEORY
375
Upon introducing the condition, expressed by (13.7.1), that Mf and M are ad

joint, it is seen that if k j& I, so that w* wi is not zero,
**t*j dV = 0
It is
for
evident, therefore, that the adjoint functions
I.
are orthogonal
to the origi
nal functions *.
13.10. An expression for the change in the reciprocal period of the reactor due
to a small perturbation can now be derived.
Upon multiplying (13.4.1) by <f
and (13.7.2) by <', integrating over the reactor volume in each case and subtract
ing the results, it is found that
tM' dV
dV +
t*V dV
= (a/
w)
4>W
dV.
dV
<*,tP dV
Jtf+'dV
If
the perturbation P is small,

may, in the first order of approximation, be
so
that
first
order
by
perturbation solution for the change in the
the
replaced
reciprocal of the reactor period, i.e., a' a
Aw, is given by
0tP<
Aw = r
dV
(13.10.1)
J *t* dV
Finally, if M is self-adjoint, the change in

Aw =
is represented by
UP dV
(13.10.2)
JtfdV
APPLICATIONS
OF PERTURBATION
Application to One-Group
THEORY
Treatment
13.11. Abare reactor having a stable period 1/w satisfies the one-group equation
then
The operator M
a =
<
cut>
- l)2v.
div D grad
div D grad
(A;
where
is

Since M and Mf are adjoint operators, the first two integrals on the left are equal
in magnitude, and hence it follows that
(13.11.1)
a.
(13.11.2)
THE ELEMENTS
376
Suppose now that the reactor is perturbed by a small change,

all of the parameters.
The operator M + P is then
M +P
Making
13.12.
= (v
div (D + 8D) grad + a +
8v)
S is a scalar and V is
it is
a vector,
or
(13.11.3)
grad
+ 8D)
grad + (D
written
be
+ vD
grad
(13.12.1)
that
seen
Using this result, (13.11.2) and (13.11.3) may

=
8a.
V + S div V,
div (D + SD) grad = grad (D + *D)
SD, 8a, in any
identity
use of the
div SV = grad S
where
Sv,
[13.11
F2
V2.
(13.12.2)
as
+ a
(13.12.3)
and
M +P
= ( + 5u)[grad (D
+ 8D)
grad
+ (D + SD)
72]
+ a +
8a.
(13.12.4)
grad
grad
0+<5
8a.
(Dv)
(13.12.5)
V^+Satf] d\.
(13.13.1)
V2
grad
(<D
72<
grad
to give
-D
grad
D . grad
<*,,
grad
D . grad
grad
= div
= grad
= D grad
which may be solved for
grad
grad
(4>D
identity (13.12.1), it follows that
div
use of the
+v grad SD
<f
Again making
D . grad
[0 Sv grad
) ,
grad + SD F2]
according to (13.10.2), is then
= -z
w,
t)[grad SD
V2]
4>
\
2
The change in
13.13.
A<o
D . grad + D
= 5y[grad
<)
- D V*.
(13.13.2)
(13.13.3)
(D grad
because
(D grad
dV
dV
thus,
=J't>D
zero on the surface of the reactor.
Srad
dS
0,
div
<)
vanishes by applying Gauss's theorem
div
4>)
it
This result may be substituted into the first term of the integrand in (13.13.1).
may be noted that the integral
However, before doing so,
is

Subtracting (13.12.3) from (13.12.4) and assuming that products of the varia
tions are small compared to the first variation, the result is
PERTURBATION
13.16]
13.14. Apart from the factor
= div
grad
377
the second term in the integrand, applying the
v,
same technique as in 13.13, is

grad SD
THEORY
SD grad
)-
- 4,SD V*.
\2
6D\ grad
(13.14.1)
Substituting (13.13.3) and (13.14.1) into (13.13.1), the result is

Aw =
It is
[[5a2
- S(Dv)
-
grad
\ s]
(13.14.2)
jtfdV
0
interesting
dV
to note that changes in absorption
or in multiplication factor
by the square of the flux, whereas the change in the diffusion coeffi
cient is weighted by the gradient of the flux squared, as appears reasonable.
13.15. The change in reactivity due to a perturbation over the whole reactor
If
can be obtained from (13.14.2) and the time-dependent diffusion equation.
it is assumed that the perturbation is small, then the flux is given by (cf . 10.7)
(13151)
^ -
(13.15.2)
or
w*'.
kXav
4>'
SJT*,-%
Multiplying (13.15.2) by the unperturbed flux,
dropping second order terms,
fa.,
dV
,
grad
if
S(Dv)
SM ~
the reactor was initially just
Aw = w
kZjxp dV
from (13.14.2), since
Sk
us
Substituting for
critical, then
kdv
k"
is
and integrating over the volume of the reactor, the result
kXav<P
dV
(13.15.3)
is
P1MV =
it
fc,
is
it
after introducing the expression for a in 13.11.

13.16. In many problems,
desirable to calculate the joint effect of two or
more changes in the nuclear parameters, namely, D, 2a,
that leave the reactor
just critical. For example, the effect of an absorber placed in
reactor may be
counterbalanced
by the addition of fuel to keep the reactor critical. From
evident that the condition that the reactor remain critical
(13.10.2)
is

are weighted
(13.16.1)
378
THE ELEMENTS
[13.16
or, from (13.14.2),
(5[(fc
l)20t>]02
- S(Dv)
grad
|J}
dV = 0.
(13.16.2)
In calculations
of this kind, delayed neutrons do not usually play any part

( 13.1), and hence (13.16.2) is somewhat more general than (13.15.3).
Statistical Weight
(tfdV
is made of two different
B2
and Bi;
by
(13.17.2)
= 0, where B2 =
= T
l)/M2, so that
&.
just critical, then from (13.16.1)

0.
(13.17.3)
dV+
(Bi
(Bi
f
jBi
Jh,
as
- B2)*' dV
B''s are independent of position in each region,
it
into (13.17.3) gives the criticality condition
in
13.18.
Bi and = Bi B2;
= Bi - B\
Substitution
P +
In the region with buckling Bf, M = 72

the region with buckling Bf, M = 72 + B? and
dV =
0.
JP
Since the
Bi
BfWiRi) + BiW(Rt).
P<
the steady state, the operator
is
follows from
(13.17.1)
4?dV
fr*dV
5j2
tfdV
Jî (
B2 m 5i2 dm
and (13.17.2) that
J>W
(13.18.1)
is
is
The statistical weights of concentric regions in cubic, cylindrical, and spherical

the radius of the region and r(F)
that
reactors are given in Fig. 13.18; r(R)
of the whole system.
For
cube, r(F) represents half the edge length.
a

In a large thermal reactor,
the reactor
having bucklings
it can be shown that the buckling of the entire reactor is given

B2 =
If
materials
(fc
respectively,
(13.17.1:
fydV
is
a reactor
a large bare reactor is denned as
W(R) =
If
R of
a region
in
The statistical weight of
13.17.
PERTURBATION

13.20]
i r
Fig.
13.18.
THEORY
379
Statistical weights in concentric regions of reactors
Poisoning of a Reactor and Danger Coefficients

13.19.
If
a thermal
neutron
absorber is added to a cell in a heterogeneous,

natural uranium reactor, the reactivity will decrease due to the decrease in the
thermal utilization.
changes in Dp, is
From (13.15.3) the change in reactivity, neglecting any

flfc.,,
m - 1)2*] WW
(13.19.1)
To apply
(13.19.1) to a heterogeneous assembly, the interpretation of the equa

tion must be modified.
The statistical weight for the cell is calculated from the
over-all cosine distribution of the flux. The constants k and 2 must be averaged
over the cell according to the flux distribution in the cell.

13.20. To find the change in reactivity by means of (13.19.1), it is convenient
t0Write
b[(k
- 1)2.
kl.a
In
Sk
SZa
(13.20.1)
the present case 2 is equivalent to the total neutron absorption in a lattice

cell, i.e., 2ooo + 2oi<fo, where the subscripts 0 and 1 refer to the fuel and moder
380
ator, respectively, and the
<'s
are the average unperturbed
the total neutron absorption by

*[(*
fluxes.
[13.20
Representing
A, (13.20.1) becomes
D2.1
kxa
k-l
Sk
8A
n-iWV
=k+~VT-
(13-20-2'
The quantities Sk/k and SA /A are obtained as follows.

13.21. The thermal utilization in the cell with the poison is
where the subscript
i refers
to the impurity (poison)
d' = 7 = perturbed
d' and d, are defined by
thermal disadvantage
<po
factor
and
average flux in impurity
'
average flux in fuel
<o'
correct to first order terms.

it follows that
Since the change in k is essentially due to that in/,
(13-211>
13.22.
Turning next to SA /A, this may
be expressed as
4i-^-*(d>
where
/is
If
the thermal utilization in the unperturbed system.
in the presence of poison, then,
A'
is the value
-37
d' +
f=i
of the total neutron absorption
di.
(13.22.2)
mation,
(13.22.3)
a first order approxi

If,order
toapproxi
factor, equal to <i/ If, to a first
assumed to be not very different from
subtraction of (13.22.3)
the disadvantage
d,
where
=4r
Similarly, for the unperturbed reactor,
d' is
is
from (13.22.2) and insertion of the result into (13.22.1) lead to

Consequently,
=-
fdi.
(13.22.4)
PERTURBATION
13.24]
13.23.
If
THEORY
381
(13.21.1) and (13.22.4) are now inserted into (13.20.2), the result is
6[(k
- l)2g]
__
2*
2<
2i
/d<
2o
The change in reactivity is then, by (13.19.1),

fdi
5k^1=_Xsi
w(fij
(13.23.1)
Jf
If there are <grams of impurity per gram of fuel, then from the definition of the
macroscopic cross section ( 3.44), it is found that
r~
T T
'
Mi>

where A 0 and A < are the atomic weights of fuel and impurity, respectively.
danger coefficient, Kd, of an impurity may be defined as
Kd =
and
bo
<7,
The
-j j
Ai
ao0
it follows from (13.23.1) that
_ - & wmMiK*
^
KM
(13.23.2)
This expression may be used to calculate the change in reactivity resulting from
the introduction of a given impurity, e.g., a coolant or an aluminum can for the
In this case, the total change in
fuel rod, in each cell of a heterogeneous reactor.
will
be
the
the
reactivity
sum of
given by
bktu/kM for all cells in the reactor.
Since all the terms in (12.23.2), except W(Ri), are essentially the same, the total
change in reactivity will be given by
=
since the sum of the
- ^ MiKd,
(13.23.3)*
W(Ri) for all cells is unity.
Application to the Two-Group Treatment
13.24.
In the two-group treatment,
as
outlined in Chapter
VIII,
the operator
[cf. (8.39.1) and (8.40.1)] is
^fi[div
-(.
A grad
t>i2i
2j
t>iA;Z
t;i[div
* The danger coefficient of a substance in a reactor

which is seen to be approximately proportional to Kd.
Di
grad
2jV
is sometimes defined as
Sktlt/k,u,
THE ELEMENTS
382
[13.24
The adjoint operator may be found from M by applying the definition (13.7.1).
If Mcf, and Mfcbf are written in the forms,
Mj2/
\M2i
and
it is found that
Mliîf
= + Ml2<20lt + M^K^fMl2<20lt
</,fM = Mliîf
+ M22<W,st
and
+ M^K^f +
= M11faifai + M12t^t<i
<*,Mfc6t
M22<W,st
+ M22t<fct
M21t<it + M22t<fct
Applying (13.7.1) and comparing the terms of these two expressions it is evident
that Mut = M11, M22| = M22, M5if = Mi2, and Muf = Mnj since each term in
M is self-adjoint. Thus, the adjoint operator is
M[(div
grad
>i
- Zi)]
\
t*Si
v2[div D2 grad
22]/
vjc^2
in Chapter
VIII.
The adjoint fluxes are obtained in

(13.7.2) for the steady state, i.e.,
u equal to zero, subject to the same boundary conditions as apply to the real
fluxes.
The appropriate weighting functions for various perturbations may
then be obtained in the manner outlined below.
13.26. The perturbation matrix in which vi, v2, D\, D2, Si, and 22 may all change
actual fluxes
as described
an analogous manner by solving the equations
is
D\
flifgrad SDi
(5t<i[grad
In general,
+ Di
grad
72]
- 5(i2,)
grad + SDi
5(j2i)
V2]
D2
t<2[grad
5(t<ifc22)
5t<2[grad
grad + D2 7s]
5(^2) J
.
grad + SD2 V2}
an expression for the change in
w may be obtained by performing the

in
operations indicated
13.10 and applying the same procedure as used in the
one-group treatment to reduce the P11 and P22 terms; the change in w is found to
Aw =
J
j
(vi2i)*itoi dV
Siv&JihfadV
5(Afi)
grad
<frt
+JKvJ&2)J<h dV
8(iit)fct4s dV
grad
where
frdV
5(yjZ>i)
-/**it*i + *it*0
dV.
grad
<fet
grad
<fe
dfj.
be

13.25. The general procedure in a group calculation consists of obtaining the
13.26]
PERTURBATION
THEORY
383
If an impurity that effectively changes only the thermal neutron absorption cross
section, 22, is added to the reactor, the change in u reduces to
Aw =
fj
The contribution to Am from the second integral is zero in this

mains essentially constant when 22 changes.
case since kX2 re
PROBLEMS

1. Find the two-group adjoint fluxes for the reactor described in Problem 1, Chap
Plot the statistical weight for a thermal
ter VII, having a 50-cm graphite reflector.
neutron absorber as a function of position in the system.
2. If the coolant air in the X-lattice is replaced with a 0.5-cm water coolant jacket
of the system, using onesurrounding the fuel rod, what is the approximate change in
group perturbation theory?
Chapter
XIV
TRANSPORT THEORY
AND NEUTRON DIFFUSION*
DEVELOPMENT
OF THE TRANSPORT EQUATION
14.1.
In Chapter V the problems associated with the motion of neutrons from
regions of higher to those of lower neutron density were treated by means of dif
fusion theory.
As stated in 5.4, this represents an approximation based on
that the angular distribution of the neutron velocity vectors is

The equation expressing the conservation of neu
trons thus did not include the direction of these vectors as a variable. The
transport theory treatment, some aspects of which will be outlined here, takes
into account the instantaneous velocity vectors of all the neutrons contained in
a given volume element.
In this way, the neutron distribution is characterized
more completely than it is by the use of the total (or scalar) flux, as is the case in
the postulate
isotropic, or nearly isotropic.
diffusion theory.
The objective of this chapter is limited to determining some of the condi

tions of validity of the elementary diffusion approximation as applied to monoIn particular, it will be shown that diffusion theory is an
energetic neutrons.
asymptotic form of transport theory which holds in regions away from boundaries
and sources where the angular distribution of neutron velocity vectors
in fact,
In addition, more precise formulae will be derived for the dif
nearly isotropic.
fusion coefficient and the diffusion length, and some corrections to elementary
For the present
diffusion theory for regions near boundaries will be developed.
will be supposed that the neutrons are monoenergetic; this sometimes
purpose
referred to as "one-velocity" transport theory.
it
is
is,
14.2.
This chapter
is
based largely on material made available by A. M. Weinberg, cf. AECDSome of the methods used here are essentially those described by W. Bothe, Zeit. fur
A summary of the work of many authors
E. Marshak,
Physik, 118, 401 (1942).
given by
Rev. Mod. Phys., 19, 185 (1947).
*
3405.
is

Introduction
384
TRANSPORT THEORY AND NEUTRON DIFFUSION
14.6]
385
The One-Velocity Transport Equation

14.3. The expression for the neutron current given in Chapter V was derived
on the assumption that the total or scalar neutron flux was a slowly varying func
tion of the space coordinates in a medium. In this event, the higher terms in the
Taylor series expansion of the flux may
be neglected,
in
5.12.
is
v,
is
it
(r,
changes ap
However, if the neutron flux varies in such a manner that grad
preciably in a distance of two or three mean free paths, then this approximation
is no longer justifiable. To understand the nature of the deviations from ele
mentary diffusion theory, it is necessary to consider the directions in which neu
trons are traveling, as well as their space coordinates.
In other words, a correct
theory will describe the neutron diffusion process in terms of a phase space con
sisting of three position coordinates and three velocity components along the
coordinate axes.
14.4. For this purpose, two new dependent variables are introduced.
Let n
dr
in
dx
dQ
be
the
number
of
neutrons
volume
element
at
whose
direc
11)
tions of motion lie in the element of solid angle dQ about the direction Q, where
will be assumed that all neu
U
a unit directional vector.
As stated above,
trons have the same velocity
but that they may change their directions when
The ordinary or scalar neutron density n(r)
scattered.
then given by
(14.4.1)
14.5. Further, the vector flux, which
F(r, O)
n(r, Q)vQ,
F(r, Q)Q
(14.5.1)
is
is
defined by
the number of neutrons traveling in

unit area normal to Q in unit time. The total or scalar
a vector whose magnitude
direction Q that cross

flux
then
is
where the symbol Q at the bottom of the integral sign implies integration over
all values of Q, i.e., over all directions.
is
(14.5.2)
14.6. In order to derive the transport equation from the conservation of neu
volume element dx dy dz at and an element of solid angle dQ
trons, consider
at Q. The number of neutrons in dQ that enter the volume element per second
equal to the x-component of F(r, Q), multiplied
through the dy dz-face at x, y,
by dy dz dQ, i.e.,
Number of neutrons entering volume

element through dy dz per sec
= Fx(x, y,
z,
z,
is

as was done
Q) dy
dz dQ.
THE ELEMENTS
386
(14.6
Similarly, the number of neutrons leaving the volume element per second through
the dy dz-face is
Number of neutrons leaving volume

element through ay dz per sec
Consequently, the net number of neutrons entering dx dy
nS ,
dz
through the dy
de
faces of the cube per second is
Net number of neutronsj entering
t.
volume element through dy dz per sec
dFx(x, ' y, z,
a)
ox
..
dx dy dz da.
The net number of neutrons in da entering the volume element per second
through all the faces due to diffusion is then
Net number of neutrons entering

dF,\
, dFy ,
= (dFz
,
i
^
+
+ dz j\
volume element
sec
dx
per
ay
\
-divF(r,Q) dr da.
dx dy dz
da
(14.6.1)
Neutrons may enter the phase element dr da by being scattered from

dr dd' to dr da; that is to say, neutrons in the volume element may be scattered
into do from directions different to the direction under consideration.
Let
2,(Q, Q') dO da' be defined as the differential macroscopic scattering cross
section from da' about Q' to da about O; then 2,(0, a')F(r, a') da da'
is the number of neutrons whose velocity vectors lie in da' that are scattered into
do per cm3 per sec at a. The number of neutrons entering the phase element
dr da due to scattering collisions per second is then

14.7.
Number of neutrons scattered into

volume element per sec
NMQ,a')F(r,Q')
dldaf
Jo-
N, is the number of scattering nuclei per

section for the scattering from da' into da.
where
14.8.
do is
cm3 and
da',
(14.7.1)
a,(a, a') is the cross
The total macroscopic cross section 2 for the removal of neutrons from
2
Naa +
N.v
where Na is the number per cm3 of absorber nuclei and aa is the absorption cross
section.
The (total) scattering cross section a, is related to a.(0, Q') by
a') da'.
The total number of neutrons removed from the phase element dr da per second
by absorption and scattering is then
T0UîTm - WWO**.
CUM
14.11]
387
if S(r, Q) dr da is the number of source neutrons emitted in

the conservation of neutrons requires for a steady state that
14.9. Finally,
dr
da
per sec,
-div F(r, Q)
or rearranging
+fjtf.a,(a,
a')F(r, QO da'
- 2(Q)F(r,
the terms, the one-velocity
div F(r, Q) + 2(Q)F(r, Q) =
O)
+ S(r,
1)
= 0 (14.9.1)
transport equation becomes
Q') da' + S(r, a).
fjf*.(n, Q0F(r,
(14.9.2)
The One-Dimensional Transport Equation

14.10. Considerable
simplification in notation can
be achieved,
with little loss
in generality for the present purpose, by considering the one-dimensional trans

It is assumed that F(t, a) and S(t, a) are functions only of x
port equation.

dfl
If
\\
\ \
//
%
Fig. 14.10.
Derivation of one-dimensional
transport equation
and of the angle between the i-aris^nd^Q^Jnjother words, it is assumed that the
source is symmefnc aEout the x-axis.
Let 0 be the angle between fit and the
z-axis (Fig. 14.10); then all 'the ~neutrons in an element do may be treated as
equivalent.
For convenience, let cos o be represented by n, and suppose F(x, n) is

the number of neutrons with direction cosines between n and y. + dp crossing a
ring element of area 2t per second. If <p is the azimuthal angle indicated in
Fig. 14.10, then
da dp d<p,
and hence,
14.11.
F(x,
dn =
c^jH
Q) dip
(14.11.1)
THE ELEMENTS
388
or
F(x,n) = 2vF(x,a).
[14.11
(14.11.2)
Similarly, if S(x, n) is defined in an analogous manner,

S(x,n) = 2tS(x,a).
(14.11.3)
By using the identity in (13.12.1) for the divergence of the product of

and
a vector quantity, the first term in the transport equation leads to
a scalar
14.12.
a)0] =a
div [F(x,
3^*'0)
dx
since
gradF =
where
i is a unit vector
gx,
in the x-direction.
The one-dimensional transport equa

<p from 0 to 2r

tion can now be obtained by integrating (14.9.2) over the angle

and introducing (14.11.2), (14.11.3), and (14.12.1) ; thus,
dF(x,
~dx~
x
+ 2F(Z, ^ =
f J-lf NMa,
Q/)F(a;j
Jo Jo
a')
dv'
d<p'
dv + S(x, ).
(14.12.2)
Expansion of Scattering Cross Sections in Spherical Harmonics

The cross section a,(Q, Q') is
14.13.
If
and Q', i.e., of the scattering angle.
then, as in 14.11, it is possible to write
a.Qxo) =
In general,
a.(no)
will not
function only of the angle between

Mo
is the cosine of the scattering angle,
2,(Q,
1').
except for scattering of neutrons by

is convenient to expand a.(jio) in spheri
be a constant,
It
nuclei of heavy elements (cf. 6.20).

cal harmonics, Pi(n0)*; thus, let
o)
(To
r.'P'M
(14.13.1)
<W
(14.13.2)
where
0xo)PiOxo)
The first two a.ts in the expansion (14.13.1) are, respectively,
14.14.
scattering
the total
cross section, i.e.,

a,o
a.(no) duo,
*
A few values of the spherical harmonics for low I's are
DP.G0 =
i(V -
(14.14.1)
as follows: PoOO = 1; Pi(m) = *:
14.17]
389
and the total scattering cross section times the average cosine of the scattering
angle, Ji0, i.e.,
a.i =
ri
AioO-s(/io ) d/xo
(14.14.2)
/io oo-
To permit the integral in (14.12.2) to be evaluated, a,(ji0) must now be

expressed as a function of )PimW)
where the Pfm's are associated Legendre functions.
<p'),
(14.15.1)
Consequently,
^1 awP.WP.M
a.(Q,Q') =
+2
2 5!lm?l
1-0 m-l l't"lj!
cosm(^
(21
+ 1)<MPrG0PimGO cosm(*,'
- *,)!.
J
(14.15.2)
14.16. Upon substituting (14.15.2) into the integral in (14.12.2) and performing
the integration with respect to <p, it is evident that each term in the double sum
integrates to zero and that the factor 2ir is cancelled in the first term. Then,
integrating with respect to <p', the final result is
m)
N.a.lPl(ll)j1pl(u')F(.X,
/) dy!
+ S(X,
M).
(14.16.1)
THE TRANSPORT EQUATION AND DIFFUSION THEORY

Elementary Diffusion Approximation
14.17.
A standard procedure for solving (14.16.1) is the so-called spherical
The angular distribution of the flux and the source

harmonics method.
in
expanded
Legendre polynomials; thus,
Fix,
m)
and
Six,
2 fL5Ll
where
F,ix) =
and
(14.17.1)
SMPfo)
1-0
are
F(x, m)P,(m) dn
(14.17.2)
(14.17.3)
S.ix)
=5(1^)^(^4
(14.17.4)
THE ELEMENTS
390
[14.18
For a given source distribution the source harmonics may be evaluated.

The
The problem is then to determine the Fi(x) in the expansion (14.17.1).
14.18.
procedure is to approximate
the angular distribution by a finite number of terms
in the expansion for F(x, n). Then, by operating on the transport equation,
a system of linear, first order differential equations for the Fi(x) may be obtained
and solved.
The elementary diffusion approximation, as will be shown below, cor

the angular dis
responds to taking all Fi(x) with I > 1 equal to zero. That
tribution
represented by only the first two terms in the spherical harmonics
expansion.
These two terms have
direct physical interpretation; thus,
a
is
is,
14.19.
is
F0(x) =
jF(x,ridv
the scalar neutron flux usually represented by
^(x,
Fi(x)=J
J(x).
whereas
4>(x)*,
n)dfx
(14.19.2)
The angular distribution, using only the first
fF\OrOAGO
(14.19.3)
+ fMFi(x)
(14.19.4)
W(*).
(14.19.5)
and PiOO = n.
14.20. To obtain the diffusion equation from the rigorous transport equation
made of the general method for generating the differential equa
(14.16.1), use
tions for Ft(x) in the spherical harmonics method.
The equation (14.16.1)
is
1.
Ptf)F<p,rtdn'
is
equivalent to multiplying
J-l
S(*,M)dM.
%^4-^N*,lPb)dii[
*
J-l 1-0
J-l
(14.20.1)
identical with the ordinary flux
(x),
n>
the former symbolism
is
Although Fo(x)
for consistency.
is
-27+1
l*n
l
<fc
PMPnin)
if
Using the orthogonality relations for Legendre polynomials
14.21.
This
integrating with respect to n; the result
to
Po(a) and
by
from
first integrated with respect to
is
is
since Po(m) =
= !Fo(x)PoGO
= hF0(x)
= 5*(x)
Fix,
n)
two terms of (14.17.1), thus becomes

is
the net neutron current,
(14.19.1)
retained
14.23]
391

dFi(x)
dx
+ &(*),
= jV>.oF0(x)
ZF0(aO
(14.21.1)
in which
As seen in 14.14, a,0 is the total

So(x) is the total source strength.
scattering cross section, so that N.a.0 is equal to 2 the macroscopic scattering
cross section. Further, since 2 is the total macroscopic cross section for absorp
tion and scattering, 2 2, is equal to 2 the macroscopic cross section for absorp
tion only. Consequently, (14.21.1) can be written as
- So(x)
+ 2F0(x)

(14.21.2)
Pi(p) and integrating over
14.22. Upon multiplying (14.16.1) by

1, it is found that
JfPMFix, p)
= 0.
from 1 to
+ 2F1(x) = N.e.Wx),
dM
(14.22.1)
Equa
the source term here being zero, if the source is assumed to be isotropic.
tion (14. 19.3) is now substituted into the integrand, and by the use of the relations
1
X uPMPfo)
dM
= 0
if I
n +
2n
2(n
1)
the integral in (14.22.1), neglecting all terms beyond
...
,
if I = n + ,1,
Pi GO,
becomes
MPiG0ftF.(*)P,G0 + |Fi(*)PiG0] = iF0(x).

Thus, (14.22.1) reduces to
|
14.23.
By combining
result being
3(2
'
+ (S
- X.a.JFi(x)
(14.21.2) and (14.22.2),
- AU.0
'
W*)
= 0.
(14.22.2)
Fi(x) may
+
be eliminated,
= -
the
(14-231)
This expression is obviously of the form of the familiar diffusion equation used
in earlier chapters, the diffusion coefficient for neutron flux being now represented
by
2>=
3(2
-I N.a.J
392
THE ELEMENTS
If
the medium is a weak absorber, 2 may be replaced by N,a,0 (or 2,) and, since
a,i is equal to moô, by (14.14.2), the expression for the diffusion coefficient be
comes
D =
3iW1
=
mo)
32.(1
iK
'
(14-23.2)
Ao)
(14.23.3)

The quantity 1/N^,0(1 mo) = 1/2,(1 mo) is the transport mean free path,
It may be concluded, therefore, that when the condi
X<, referred to in 5.24.
tions are such that the angular distribution of the flux can be represented by
the first two terms of the spherial harmonics expansion, simple diffusion theory
is applicable, with the diffusion coefficient defined by (14.23.2) or (14.23.3).
14.24. If the scattering were isotropic in the laboratory system, the net neutron
current for a given gradient of the neutron flux would be a minimum.
As ik
increases, i.e., as the scattering in the forward direction predominates, the net
neutron current is increased.
Hence, 1/(1 mo) is a measure of the forward
scattering in the laboratory system.
Generalized Fick's Law and Applicability of Elementary Diffusion

Theory
14.25. Since Fi(x) is equivalent to the net neutron current J(x), as pointed
out in 14.19, and, noting that Pi(ji) is equal to M, (14.22.1) can be put in the
form
2^;
= ~
The mean square cosine
m2
i /W,
M)
*.
of the neutron angular distribution is defined by
M2
H F(x,
and so (14.25.1) becomes
(14.25.2)
n)dn
/w z3i^-S^
This equation is
(14.25.1)
(14-253)
Fick's law, as applied to the diffusion of

neutrons, derived from transport theory.
It should be noted that this result
is quite general and does not depend upon the restriction of the spherical har
monics expansion to any particular number of terms.
14.26. The coefficient in (14.25.3) has the dimensions of length and is called
the diffusion mean free path; then,
a generalized form of
Xd
y
2
hi
M,a,i
I
Tt
v* T,
Naaa + A,a,o(l
T'
Mo)
(14.26.1)
14.29]
so that (14.25.3) may
be
written
J(x)
393
as
(14.26.2)
\t^t?Fo(x)].
If
the capture of neutrons by the diffusion medium is negligible, the diffusion

mean free path becomes identical with the transport mean free path as defined
in
14.23.
14.27. Elementary diffusion theory is based on the assumption that Fick's
law in the simple form J(x) = D grad F0(x) is applicable to neutrons. It is
evident, therefore, from (14.26.2) that elementary diffusion theory can hold
rigorously for monoenergetic neutrons only if ^2 is independent of position, for
and
X<jm2 is equal to D, the diffusion coefficient.

14.28. The mean square cosine of the neutron
obtained
as follows.
From the values of
Po(m),
angular
Pi(m),
distribution can
and Pj(m),
given
be
in

14.13, footnote, it is seen that
and then, using (14.17.1), (14.25.2) gives
Upon integrating and applying the orthogonality conditions, the result is

M
3^3
F(x)
so that if Ft(x)/Fo(x) is independent of x, elementary diffusion theory, based on

the proportionality of the net neutron current and the gradient of the neutron
flux, will
be
rigorously correct.
Asymptotic Solution of Transport Equation in Non absorbing
Medium
14.29. There are two special cases in which F2(x)/F0(x) is independent of

position : one applies to a nonabsorbing medium and the other to an absorbing
medium. It will be shown that in each case elementary diffusion theory is ap
plicable. Near a source or a boundary between two different media, the neutron
angular distribution is highly anisotropic, since it is influenced by the presence
A number of terms are then required in the spherical
of the source or boundary.
harmonics expansion of the angular distribution. At some distance from sources
and boundaries, i.e., in the so-called asymptotic case, however, their effect is
lost, and the angular distribution can be adequately represented by the first two
harmonics only, i.e., by F0(x) and Fi(x). Since Fj(x) is now zero, it is evident
394
THE ELEMENTS
that Fi(x)/Fo(x) must

should be applicable.
be independent
of x, and elementary
[14.29
diffusion theory
That this is
so, provided the medium is a nonabsorber,

The treatment is alternative to that in 14.22, el seq.,
may be shown as follows.
and has some points of interest.
Termination of the spherical harmonics for the angular distribution

after the second term is equivalent to expressing the scalar flux, i.e., F0[x), by
means of a Taylor series in which all terms containing derivatives of the second
and higher orders are taken as zero, as in 5.12. Thus, F0(x) must be a linear
function of x. As given in 14.19, the angular distribution of the flux, using
only two harmonics, is
14.30.
Fix, y) = \F0(x) + f/MaOM,
(14.30.1)
and, since F0(x) must be linear in x, a general solution for the angular distribution
will be of the form
F(x, n) = A+Bx + Cu,
(14.30.2)
where
Fo(x) = 2A + 2Bx
(14.30.3)
and
Fi(x) =
(14.30.4)
|C.
14.31.
The transport equation (14.16.1) in a source-free medium is
+ 2F(x,
*0
^^jp
N^^^fpMFix,
p0 <V-
(14.31.1)
Upon substituting (14.30.2) into (14.31.2) and integrating, the result is

MB
+ 2(A +Bx + Cn) = N.a.o(A + Bx) + N.a.mC.
Replacing 2 by 2 + 2, and N.a,0 by 2 it is found that
Since A and B in (14.30.3) are both arbitrary, that is to say, the specification of
the flux level and the slope is arbitrary, 2n must be zero if C is to be a constant.
In other words, the conditions require that the medium should
In this
be nonabsorbing.
case, (14.31.2) becomes
C=-27T^)=-X^
14.32. Differentiation of (14.30.3) with respect to x gives
d EM
= 2B}
ax
and consequently
(14.31.3) becomes
dFB(x)
~~^'~dx~'
(14-3U)
14.35]
395
Finally, utilizing (14.30.4), and the fact that fi(x) is equivalent to J(x), there
is obtained the result
F1(x) =
J(x)
(14.32.i)
which is the expression of Fick's law in diffusion theory with D = \\,, as in

Thus, elementary diffusion theory is rigorously correct for mono 14.23.
energetic neutrons in a nonabsorbing medium away from sources and boundaries.
By inserting (14.32.1) into (14.30.1), and writing F0'(x) for the derivative of
Fo(x), the equation for F(x, M) in the asymptotic case becomes
F(x,
Asymptotic
M)
= -Jf*o(x)
Solution of Transport
In the
- %\tlxF0'(x).
(14.32.2)
Equation in Absorbing Medium
which captures neutrons to an appreciable

may be derived if the
angular distribution F(x, M) can be treated as a product of two functions, one of
which is dependent upon x only and the other upon M only. In these circum
stances, all the harmonics bear a constant ratio to F0(x, M) for all values of x.
Thus, in particular, Fi(x)/F^(x) is independent of x, and elementary diffusion
theory should hold. The expression for the diffusion coefficient
however,
different from that derived above.
14.33.
case of a medium
is,
sotropic, the transport equation (14.31.1) in
is
if
is
14.34. If the expansion of the scattering cross section in

14.13 can be termi
not highly ani
nated after the first two terms, as
the case
the scattering
source-free medium can be written
+ fpft,
"0 dn'
mO dM'
'F(x,
/)
d^'],
F(x,
"a
= 2.
LF(-X' /} *'
= ^N,a'
+ SF(x,
[j
dFdx
m)
as
<m
Moa.o.
Upon substituting for F(x,

=
trial separable
e^/Oi),
(14.34.2)
fMM
V/GO
The separable solution (14.34.2) will then satisfy (14.34.1)

be found which will satisfy (14.34.3).
14.35.
solution for/(M) of the form
dM']-
dp'
if
/GO
M)/(p) = 2.
[i
(2
is
F(x,
the result
M)
solution, represented by
M)
= 2, and
iV.<r.o
since
(14.34.1)
(14.34.3)
value of /(M) can
gg9'
/(M) = const.
24

extent, the conditions for diffusion theory to be applicable
Kfl
(14.35.1)
396
THE ELEMENTS
[14.35
This will, in general, not satisfy (14.34.3), but it will do so for

particular values of A and k. These characteristic values may be obtained as
Upon substituting (14.35.1) into (14.34.3) and making use of standard
follows.
integrals, it is found that
may be tried.
where
s
This is an identity in
n and hence coefficients of powers of n may be equated
thus,
,(Hh')
v
*

A =
(14.35.2)
and
1
<
1 H
where 2 = 2
14.36.
322,
Mo
322,
it*
'
mo
+ 2..
For isotropic scattering in the laboratory system,
/2o
is zero, and
k is
determined, from (14.35.3), as the root of
This equation has one pair of real roots, +k, with absolute value less than 2;
there is also an infinite set of imaginary roots, which are of no consequence for the
It may be noted that, for the form of (14.35.1) for f(ji) to be
present purpose.
valid, it is indeed necessary for | k \ to be less than 2. If this were not so, f(ji)
would have singularities for those values of m at which the denominator of
(14.35.1) vanishes.
The quantity A,
by (14.35.2), is indeterminate for the

isotropic case, i.e., when <, is zero; nevertheless, it can be shown to be finite,
although the actual value is not required here. For isotropic scattering the
angular distribution is given by (14.34.2) and (14.35.1) as
14.37.
as expressed
F(x,
M)
= const.
Zi
Kft
'
(14.37.1)
14.39]
and from (14.25.2) it is found that

=
yy
~-
397
(14.37.2)
In
the diffusion theory approximation, the diffusion coefficient, D, is equal to

XdM2 ( 14.27), and since, for isotropic scattering, jx0 is zero, this is equivalent to
Consequently, it follows from (14.37.2) that in the present case
M2/2.
D = %.
(14.37.3)
14.38. When the absorption is very small compared to the scattering, k is small
compared to 2. It is then permissible to expand the denominator of (14.37.1)
and retain only the first two terms; thus,

F(x,ti
=Ce"(l
(14.38.1)
where C is a composite constant.

This is essentially an expression for the
angular distribution containing only the first two spherical harmonics, and so
it represents the distribution in elementary diffusion theory. Applying (14.19.1)
and (14.19.2), it is seen that
F0(x) =
2CeKZ
(14.38.2)
Fi(z) =
(14.38.3)
and
fC|e*.
Upon substituting these values into (14.19.3) the result is identical with (14.38.1).
It
is thus evident that in a weak absorber, the angular distribution of elementary

theory is a good approximation to the (asymptotic) distribution
diffusion
(14.37.1).
14.39. The angular distribution as given by (14.37.1) or (14.38.1) contains a
It is consequently not sufficiently general to
single multiplicative constant.
satisfy arbitrary boundary conditions of the kind that would apply to the neutron
Thus, the separable solution
angular distribution near sources or boundaries.
postulated for an absorbing medium, like the two-harmonic solution applicable
to the nonabsorbing medium, can hold only at considerable distances from sources
The solutions given, which satisfy elementary diffusion theory,
and boundaries.
are thus asymptotic solutions of the transport equation in absorbing and nonabsorbing media, respectively.
It may be concluded, therefore, that elementary
diffusion theory, based on Fick's law, holds strictly only for conditions where
asymptotic solutions of the transport equation are valid. In other words,
only when the neutron distribution approaches the asymptotic distribution,
i.e., a few transport mean free paths away from sources and boundaries, can
elementary diffusion theory be used.
THE ELEMENTS
398
[14.40
The Diffusion Length

14.40.
Since the neutron flux in an absorbing
can be represented
medium
by the exponential expression (14.37.1), it follows by the procedure given in

( 5.63) that the mean square distance a neutron travels before it is absorbed
is equal to 6/k2.
Consequently, the k in the preceding treatment is identical
The
with that used in Chapter V and is the reciprocal of the diffusion length.
latter may thus be regarded as being denned by the transcendental equation
If 2 is small in comparison with 2 the equation may be solved by
(14.35.3).
series expansion.
The result, correct to terms in the first degree in 2/2, is then
found to be
32,(1
).
(14-401)
1).
jio).
equal to 2a/*?,
~
mo)
re
(14.40.3)
it
(14.40.2)
that 2/2 can be neglected, and
is
so
Since, by (14.37.3), the diffusion coefficient
n
U
1 rô
(1-f-
= 32,2(1
(14.40.3) that
'
K2
zero, this reduces to
= 322.
On the other hand, for weak capture,

placed by 2 (14.40.1) becomes
follows from
**
as given by (14.23.2) from elementary diffusion theory.
RIGOROUS
SOLUTION OF TRANSPORT EQUATION
Infinite Plane Isotropic Source in Infinite Medium*

can be solved relatively easily for an infinite
There
no loss of generality,
plane isotropic source in an infinite medium.
point
source
since the solution can be transformed to that for
(cf .
136) and
the solution for general source distribution obtained by integrating the resulting
6.
E. P. Wigner, unpublished.
hN.a.0f F(x,
M)
ZF(x,
m)
dx
dF(x,
n)
dM
+ (*),
is
is
If
Let a unit plane source be placed at x =

kernel over the source distribution.
isotropic in the laboratory system, the transport equation
the scattering
0.
is
14.41. The transport equation

jS0
is
isotropic, i.e.,
the scattering
If
- b - 3S2.(1 - K1 is
'
(14.41.1)
14.43]
399
where the delta function, S(x), represents the plane source. To solve this equa
tion F(x, n) and &(x) are expanded in terms of the Fourier integral; thus,
S(x) =
and
eux do,
(14.41.2)
where the constant term S + iun has been used as the denominator in (14.41.3)
in order to simplify the algebra.
14.42. Upon substituting (14.41.3) into (14.41.1) it is found that
A(w) =
where
The
(14.42.1)
- I^T-
(14.42.2)
complete solution of (14.41.1) is then

=
("m
-lux
drb-
(14-42-3)
...
2tw
The total (scalar) flux is obtained upon integrating (14.42.3) with respect to n ;
thus,
fx
.1
1
-lux
0\ul
ra>
(14.42.4)
Asymptotic
and Nonasymptotic
Solutions
14.43. The integral in (14.42.4) has a simple pole where

2
2o
i
In
Comparing with (14.36.1), it is
f>
seen
2o
2 +
i
In
S
tw
1.
that the simple pole occurs where iw is equal
is,
to k, the reciprocal of the diffusion length. It also has an essential singularity

at io> = + S. The contribution to the integral from the residue at the pole
from Cauchy's theorem,
F0(x)m. =
ê-"",
(14.43.1)
where
2,
Ka
2Z

-=
THE ELEMENTS
400
[14.43
This is the asymptotic solution which holds beyond a few mean paths away frorn
the source.
[22(1
- 2.
In
?)J
Fo(x)
i,)
14.44. The nonasymptotic part of the solution, which comes from the essential
singularity, can be expressed as a real integral ; thus,
+ ,r%2
It
can be shown that Fo(x)n.a.. falls off much more rapidly with increasing dis
tance from the source plane than does F0(x)M..
asymptotic solution (14.43.1)

e~'z,
is
equivalent to
it
solution from elementary
diffusion
seen
theory,
compared with the corresponding
e.g., equation
which
(5.51.2),
is
If the
is
14.45.
that diffusion theory gives the correct asymptotic
This can
reduction in the
effective source strength, and the procedure for correcting elementary diffusion
theory then merely to multiply the actual source strength by the factor
as a
be interpreted
that the
The reason for the apparent reduction in source strength
additional term F0(x)n.M. shows that the absorption near the source
greater
For neutrons diffusing in ordinary
than given by elementary diffusion theory.
about 0.990, so that the discrepancy
is
2,
=.=:
ia
water, for example,
is
is
14.46.
not large
However, in homogeneous, enriched chain reactors, the absorption

by fuel will result in more significant source corrections.
in this case.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Interface Between Two Media
14.47.
At the interface between two media, the neutron flux distribution

a
0,
if
n)
If
F(x,
for all values of n.
were discontinuous at
boundary, the number of neutrons having given value of reaching the bound
ary from the right would not be the same as the number, having the same value
of m, leaving toward the left.
This would be possible only there were neutron
source or an absorber at the interface which would account for the difference
in the neutron currents to and from the boundary.
14.48. Suppose neutrons diffuse in
system consisting of two media with
different scattering and absorption properties.
The coordinate of the planar
interface between the media will be taken as x =
and
and signs will be
must be continuous

is
solution except for the factor a.
14.50]
401
The boundary condition of continuity derived

qualitatively in the preceding paragraph then means that
used to distinguish the media.
F+(0,
for all values of p.

this condition may
for all values of

14.49.
If
In view
be stated
M)
F-(0, )
of the spherical harmonics
expansion in (14.17.1),
in the form, that

F,+(0) =
I.
Fr(0)
(14.48.1)
neither of the media absorbs neutrons, then the asymptotic solution
(14.32.2) away from sources, namely,
F(x, )
F.(*)
Fo'(x),
(14.49.1)

The reason
where F0(x) = 2A + 2Bx [cf. (14.29.1)], holds even at the interface.
for this is that (14.48.1) is automatically satisfied if the arbitrary constants A+
and B+ and A~ and B~ for the two media are chosen so that
and
F0+(0) = F0-(0)
(14.49.2)
F,+(0) =
Fi-(0),
(14.49.3)
Xr^-
(14.49.4)
the latter condition being equivalent to
X<+^
The boundary condition (14.49.2) means that the total flux of neutrons is con
tinuous, while (14.49.3) requires that the net diffusion current shall also be
Since F0(x) in elementary diffusion theory is the
continuous at the boundary.
solution of a second order differential equation, it is possible to specify both
Fq(x) and F0'(x) at an interface.
Thus, when neither medium absorbs neutrons,
the boundary conditions (14.49.2) and (14.49.3) lead to a rigorously correct
solution.
14.50. If one of the media is an absorber, then continuity of flux and of current
The nonasympat the interface are not rigorously correct boundary conditions.
totic distribution in an absorbing medium involves all the spherical harmonics,
whereas continuity of flux and current means only that the coefficients of the
To satisfy the rigorous boundary condition
first two harmonics are continuous.
(14.48.1) a large number of nonasymptotic solutions, which die away beyond one
Since this proce
or two mean free paths from the interface, must be included.
dure is complicated, it is usual to employ the elementary diffusion theory bound
ary conditions of continuity of flux and current. This insures that there is
continuity as far as the Po(aO and Pi 00 terms are concerned, and that there is
no discontinuity in the net flow of neutrons, although there may possibly be dis
continuities for flow in particular directions.
THE ELEMENTS
402
[14.51
The diffusion coefficient in a medium with capture is equal to SaA* by

Hence, for absorbing media, the boundary condition (14.49.4)
(14.37.3).
14.51.
hocomcs
Since the identification of the diffusion coefficient with 2,,/ks is based on the
asymptotic distribution, which breaks down near an interface, it is not certain
that (14.51.1) represents a consistent approximation. An alternative procedure

would be to assume that the two-harmonic solution (14.49.1) applies to an ab
sorbing medium, since it represents a good approximation if the absorption is
The diffusion coefficient would then be equal to %\t, and (14.51.1) would
weak.
be replaced by
ax
is,
ax
Interface Between a Medium and Vacuum

a
is
a
If
vacuum, or perfect
14.52.
one of the media in the foregoing treatment
In a vacuum
absorber, the boundary conditions derived become meaningless.
there are no collisions, and hence there will be no net diffusion current from the
Thus,
vacuum acts as a perfect absorber.
Since
to the medium.
no neutrons can return from
perfect absorber, the rigorous boundary condition
=
for
Mg
0.
F(0,
n)
must be
vacuum
(14.52.1)
is
W-(0,
0.
noting that
J-(fl)
0,
as
m)
14.19)
=j[
expressed (cf.
is
is
it
replaced by the
This condition cannot be satisfied by diffusion theory, and so
condition requiring that there shall be no net current of neutrons back from the
In other words, there an implication that neutrons may be reflected
vacuum.
back from the vacuum in certain directions, provided they are compensated for
This
much
by increasing the flow into the vacuum from other directions.
less stringent than (14.52.1) which denies the possibility of any neutrons return
The diffusion theory boundary condition can then be
ing from the vacuum.
/x
The Extrapolation Distance

14.53.
In
a nonabsorbing
theory, distribution
is

is
in general, not possi

Without an exact solution of the transport equation, it
better approximation; both have
ble to decide whether (14.51.1) or (14.51.2)
been used in neutron diffusion theory.
medium
the asymptotic, or elementary
given by (14.49.1), and hence
diffusion
14.56]
which
is equivalent
zero, then
Consequently,
If /~(0)
to the diffusion theory equation (5.28.3).

Fo(0)
Fo'(0)
at a planar boundary between a nonabsorbing
medium
403
is to be
and a
vacuum, the asymptotic distribution of the neutron flux should extrapolate to

zero at a distance $ \% beyond the surface of the medium ( 5.39).
14.54.
more accurate calculation, in which all the nonasymptotic solutions

are used to satisfy (14.52.1) rigorously, gives 0.7104 X< as the extrapolation dis
tance for a noncapturing medium. In the exact transport theory treatment, it is
the asymptotic flux distribution which extrapolates linearly to zero at 0.7104X<
beyond the boundary; the actual flux falls below the asymptotic distribution
close to the boundary (cf. Fig. 541). The linear extrapolation of the asymptotic
flux is represented by c(x 0.7104X<), where c is a constant and x is the distance
from the actual boundary. The asymptotic flux at the boundary is consequently
The correct value from transport theory is X</V3,
proportional to 0.7104X.
i.e., 0.577X<, and so the ratio of the actual flux to the asymptotic flux is
Physically, the reason why the flux falls off faster near the
0.577/0.710 = 0.81.
boundary than in the interior is that close to the boundary neutrons arrive at a
given point almost entirely from one side, whereas in the interior they come from
both sides.
is correct only for a planar bound
the medium absorbs neutrons, the expression
14.55. The extrapolation distance of
ary of a nonabsorbing
for the extrapolation
medium.
If
0.71X<
distance becomes more complicated.
It
has been found
that, for a relatively weak absorber, the extrapolation distance is roughly equal
to 0.71X<S/S so that it is increased by the ratio of the total to the scattering cross
sections.
For curved boundaries, the extrapolation distance is greater than

In the limit of vanishingly small radius of curvature of the boundary
0.71X<.
corresponding to an extremely small spherical perfect (or "black") absorber em
bedded in a scattering medium the extrapolation distance is |A,.
14.56.

Index
Accelerators,
and nuclear reactions, 2.5,
3.9
13.7
operator, 13.7
Age, 6.128
and diffusion coefficient, 6.129
average for fission spectrum,
reactor
equation,
12.43-
12.46
Atomic mass unit, 1.4
and neutron production, 3.9
Adjoint function,
Asymptotic
12.58-
energy equivalent, 1.28

Atomic number, 1.6
and isotopes, 1.8
Augmentation distance, see Extrapola
tion distance
12.60
experimental
determination,
6.143-

6.145
results, 6.145
in heterogeneous system, 9.89
physical significance, 6.141
and slowing down length, 6.142
time, 6.127
temperature effect, 11.76, 11.82
values of, 6.145
Age equation, with capture, 6.155-6.159
without capture, 6.123-6.130
solutions of, 6.131-6.142
plane source,
6.131-6.135,
6.149-6.154
point source, 6.136-6.140
Age theory and slowing down kernels,
12.1-12.5
and thermal reactor, 7.5-7.24
Albedo, 5.97-5.113
as boundary condition, 5.106-5.108
and boundary crossings, 5.109-5.111
definition, 5.98
and diffusion coefficient, 5.98
properties, 5.105
determination,
5.112,
experimental
5.113
for finite slab, 5.100

for infinite slab, 5.99
for sphere, 5.103
values of, 5.102
Alpha particle, 1.12
emission, 1.19
in slow-neutron reactions, 3.29-3.34
Amu, 1.4
Barn, definition, 3.39

Beryllium, age in, 6.145
albedo, 5.102
diffusion properties, 5.91
moderating ratio, 6.25, 6.26
as moderator, 4.56
as neutron source, 3.1-3.3, 3.5
photoneutrons and shut-down,
4.80,
10.52
resonance neutron constants, 9.71
scattering properties, 6.24
slowing down power, 6.25
Bessel equation, 7.52, 7.53
functions, 7.53-7.55
Beta particle, 1.12
emission, 1.16-1.18
by fission products, 4.16, 4.23
negative, 1.16, 1.17
positive, 1.18
Binding energy, 1.23-1.44
and fission energy, 4.19-4.21
and mass defect, 1.25-1.29
and nuclear forces, 1.32
per nucleon, 1.30, 1.44, 4.19
semi-empirical calculation, 1.35-1.44
spin effect, 1.40
and fission, 4.41, 4.45
surface tension effect, 1.37
Boron, in control rods, 4.72
cross sections, 3.76, 3.77
as neutron detector, 3.84
as neutron source, 3.2
reaction with slow neutrons, 3.32
INDEX
406
Boundary conditions, and diffusion the

ory, 5.36-5.40, 5.106-5.108
and transport theory, 14.47-14.56
Breit-Wigner formula, 2.38-2.47, 2.54,
3.68, 3.77
and hydrogen, 3.81

and resonance absorption, 2.44, 3.74
and resonance scattering, 3.54
Buckling, 7.23
geometric, 7.24-7.27, 7.36-7.60
and effective multiplication factor,
7.27
for finite cylinder, 7.50-7.60

for infinite slab, 7.37-7.40, 7.60
and nonleakage probability, 7.32
for rectangular parallelepiped, 7.417.46, 7.60
for sphere, 7.47-7.49, 7.60

material, 7.24-7.27, 12.45, 12.46
and exponential experiment, 9.90Generated for wjivans (University of Florida) on 2015-09-21 20:57 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015026516685
9.111
and macroscopic theory, 9.86-9.89

vector, 12.28
Burn-up, 11.2
Cadmium, in control rods, 4.72
cross sections, 3.69
ratio, 3.89, 5.86
as shield, 3.89
Carbon, see Graphite
Center of mass (C) system, 5.20, 6.4
scattering in, 6.4-6.11
Chain reaction, 4.46-4.80
factor,
4.47-4.51,
multiplication
4.57-4.79
and power level, 4.48
in natural uranium, 4.56-4.65, see
also
Uranium
and neutron balance, 4.52-4.54, 7.33

self-sustaining, 4.46
conditions for, 4.47-4.51, 7.3-7.20,
7.31-7.33, 12.32-12.42
see
Critical
Characteristic
equation,
equation
Chemical energy and nuclear energy, 1.2
reactions and nuclear reactions, 2.1-2.5
Collision density, 6.33
in carbon, 6.55
in deuterium, 6.55
in hydrogen, with capture, 6.82-6.86
without capture, 6.32-6.39, 6.55
in mixtures, 6.69-6.73
in other media, with capture, 6.896.92
without capture, 6.446.66

Collisions, neutron, 6.4-6.24
to thermalize, 6.24
see also Scattering
Compound nucleus, 2.10-2.30
disintegration, 2.11, 2.18
emission of radiation, 2.21, 3.213 28
excited, 2.11-2.21, 3.21-3.28

in fission, 4.27, 4.37
formation, 2.11
ground state, 2.15
mean life, 2.12, 2.20, 2.26, 2.29, 2.30
Continuous slowing down model, 6.1176.122
Control, reactor, 4.72, 10.12, 11.8-11.45

and delayed neutrons, 4.744.80,
10.13-10.52
rods, 4.72
eccentric, theory of, 11.34-11.45
effect on flux, 11.10, 11.45
function of, 11.8-11.10
one-group theory, 11.11-11.22, 11.32
modified, 11.33
two-group theory, 11.23-11.33
Critical assembly, 7.72-7.78
Critical composition, calculation, 7.26,
7.65-7.69
Critical energy for fission, 4.25-4.35
Critical equation, 7.20, 7.23, 7.31, 8.62,
12.40-12.68
Gaussian (age) form, 7.20, 7.23,
12.53, 12.54
and
fission
spectrum,
12.55-
12.60
general form, 12.40

and group-diffusion
kernels, 12.61-
12.68
for large reactor, 7.62,
7.63, 8.63,
12.62
9.88, 12.50, 12.60,
for reflected reactor, 8.16, 8.44, 8.61,
see also Group-diffusion method
for uranium-water
system, 12.67,
12.68
Critical mass and composition, 7.79-7.81

Critical reactor, flux distribution, 7.22,
7.24, 7.25, 7.40, 7.43, 7.49, 7.57, 7.61
minimum volume, 7.60
INDEX
Critical
size, 4.69, 4.70, see also Buckling

calculation of, 7.26, 7.65, 7.71
and composition, 7.79-7.81
experimental determination, 7.727.78
Critical state,
7.2, 7.20-7.22, 7.33, 12.40-
12.42
approach to, 7.11-7.19, 12.32-12.39

absorption, 3.53, 3.60-3.65, 3.69-3.79
values, 3.79
Breit-Wigner formula, 2.38-2.47,
3.68, 3.71, 3.74, 3.77
determination,
3.57-
3.64

and reactor control, 4.74-4.80, 10.12,

10.14, 10.47
and time behavior of reactor, 10.1310.52
Delta function, 5.81

Density temperature
coefficient, 11.74,
11.81-11.85
Cross sections, 2.38-2.47, 3.38-3.82
experimental
407
activation method, 3.60-3.64

results, 3.65-3.82
transmission method, 3.57-3.59
fast neutron, 3.75
in natural uranium, 9.25
fission, 4.57
macroscopic, 3.42-3.52, see also Ma
croscopic cross sections
and mean free path, 3.45-3.47
microscopic, 3.42
and neutron energy, 2.39-2.47, 3.653.82
and relaxation length, 3.47

in resonance region, 3.69-3.74
scattering, 3.54-3.56
values, 3.79
significance of, 3.38-3.40
slowing down, 8.12
temperature effect, 11.3, 11.5, 11.74,
11.75
thermal neutron, 3.79

1/v law, 2.43, 2.46, 3.53, 3.68, 3.76,
3.77
Current density, 5.9-5.19,
5.26, 5.28
and albedo, 5.98

and boundary conditions, 5.38, 5.39
definition, 5.11
Danger coefficient, 13.23

Decay constant, 1.20
and half life, 1.21
and mean life, 1.22
Delayed neutrons, 4.6, 4.8-4.10
and generation time, 10.13
and perturbation theory, 13.1, 13.16
precursors, 4.10, 4.11
Deuterium, collision density in, 6.55

and continuous slowing down model,
6.118, 6.122

as neutron source, 3.9
Deuterium oxide, see Water, heavy
Diffusion coefficient, 5.7
and albedo, 5.98
and transport mean free path, 5.24,
5.28
and transport theory, 5.22, 14.40

values, 5.91
Diffusion equation, 5.4, 5.35, 5.43-5.61,
14.17-14.24
boundary conditions, 5.36-5.40
and Fick's law, 5.7, 5.28, 14.27
general form, 12.18
integral form, 5.92, 5.93
with slowing down, 6.149-6.152
solution of, 5.46-5.61
plane source, 5.50-5.61
time-dependent, 10.4-10.20
and transport theory, 14.17-14.24
Diffusion kernels, 5.93-5.95
Diffusion length, 5.57, 5.62-5.91
end correction, 5.89
harmonic correction, 5.88

results, 5.91
in heterogeneous system, 9.88
and temperature, 11.76, 11.82
values,
5.91
Diffusion mean free path, 14.26

Diffusion theory, 5.1-5.113
applicability of, 14.32, 14.39
extrapolation distance, 5.39
and Fick's law, 5.7, 5.28, 14.27
and transport theory, 5.3, 5.4, 14.1714.28
INDEX
408
Diffusion theory (Continued)
corrections, 5.20-5.29
Diffusion time, 6.146, 6.148
Dirac function, 5.81
Disadvantage factor, 9.41, 9.67, 9.74
perturbed, 13.21
Displacement kernels, 5.96, 12.23
Doppler effect, 9.15, 11.5
Effective multiplication factor, 4.71, 7.27,

7.32, 10.6, 12.34
resonance integral,
nance integral
Eigenfunction, 7.12
Effective
see
Reso
Eigenvalue, 7.12
Einstein mass-energy equation, 1.27
Electron volt, 1.28
Electrostatic repulsion of protons, 1.39,
1.44, 4.21, 4.32, 4.33

End correction, diffusion length,
5.89
exponential experiment, 9.103, 9.110

Energy, binding, see Binding energy
critical, for fission, 4.25-4.35
excitation, 2.13-2.20
of fission, 4.17-4.24
logarithmic decrement, 6.21-6.24
Energy levels, see Nuclear energy levels
Epithermal neutrons, 3.13
Ev,
1.28
Excess multiplication
Excitation
energy,
factor, 10.7
compound nucleus,
2.13-2.17
statistical distribution, 2.18-2.20
Exponential
(pile) experiment, 9.909.111
Extrapolated boundary, 5.40

Extrapolation distance, 5.39-5.41, 14.5314.56
Fast fission factor, 4.58, 9.45, 9.76-9.85

Fast neutrons, 3.10
in natural uranium, 9.85
detection, 3.87
fission by, 3.37, 4.36-4.45
reactions, 3.36, 3.37
Fast reactor, 4.55, 4.56
Fermi age treatment, 6.117-6.159, see
also Age
Fick's law, 5.7, 5.28, 14.27
generalized form, 14.25
Fission, 2.22, 2.35, 3.37

beta and gamma rays, 4.16
chain reaction, 4.46-4.80, see also Chain
reaction
characteristics of, 4.1-4.45
critical energy of, 4.25-4.35
for detection of neutrons, 3.86
energy, 4.17-4.24
and binding energy, 4.19-4.21
experimental determination, 4.22
and proton repulsion, 4.21
fast-neutron, 3.37, 4.36-4.45
fragments, 4.4, 4.12
energy of, 4.22, 4.23
liquid-drop model, 4.26, 4.33, 4.34
mechanism of, 4.25-4.35
neutron emission in, 4.4-4.11, 4.57
delayed, 4.6, 4.8-4.10
prompt, 4.6, 4.7
energy spectrum, 4.7
and time behavior of reactor, see
Time behavior
and nuclear type, 4.45
products, 4.12-4.16
poisoning by, 11.6, 11.7, 11.4611.72, see also Samarium, Xenon
over-ride, 11.6
and reactivity, 11.60, 11.61
radioactivity, 4.15, 4.16
yield, 4.13
slow-neutron, 3.35, 4.36-4.45
spectrum, 4.7
spontaneous, 4.2, 4.31, 4.35
Flux, see Neutron flux
Four-factor formula, 4.61
Fourier integral, 6.133
transform, 12.27-12.29
and convolution of functions, 12.64
in polar coordinates, 12.48, 12.53,
12.61
significance of, 12.30, 12.31, 12.47

Fuel, 4.54
burn-up, 11.2
enriched, 4.56, 4.65, 4.70
Gamma rays, 1.13
capture, 3.24
from fission products, 4.16, 4.23
and neutron production, 3.4-3.8
INDEX
Gamma rays (Continued)
in nuclear reactions, 2.21, 3.21-3.28
Gaussian kernels, 12.1-12.5
Generation time, 4.49, 6.146, 7.34, 7.35,
10.2, 10.9, 10.13
age in, 6.145
albedo, 5.102
Graphite,
collision density in, 6.55

constants for resonance neutrons, 9.71
cross section, 3.79
as moderator, 4.56
Group constants, 8.9-8.13
Group-diffusion method, 8.7-8.14
and reflected reactors, 8.15-8.64
treatment, 8.59multi-group

8.64
one-group treatment, 8.15-8.37

two-group treatment, 8.38-8.58
Group-diffusion slowing down kernels,
12.6-12.14
and critical equation, 12.6112.68
Half life, for delayed neutron emission,

4.8
radioactive, 1.21
correction,
Harmonic
length,
diffusion
5.88
exponential experiment, 9.103, 9.110

see Water
Heterogeneous reactors, 9.24-9.11, see
also Nuclear reactors
advantages and disadvantages, 9.42-
Heavy water,
integral,
9.30, 9.31
fast fission factor, 9.45, 9.76-9.86

lattice cell, 9.26, 9.51-9.53
macroscopic properties, 9.1, 9.869.111
material buckling, 9.86-9.89

microscopic
9.86
properties,
neutron flux in, 9.24, 9.27, 9.64

escape probability, 9.24,
9.36-9.41, 9.43, 9.44, 9.67-9.75
surface and volume absorption,
9.25-9.35
thermal utilization, 9.47-9.66
Homogeneous reactors, bare, 7.1-7.81,
see also Nuclear reactors
critical equation, 7.20, 7.23, 7.31,
12.40-12.68
resonance
large, 7.62, 7.63, 8.63, 12.50, 12.60,

12.62
time behavior, see Time behavior

reflected, 8.1-8.64
multi-group treatment, 8.59-8.64
one-group treatment, 8.15-8.37
infinite slab, 8.19-8.30
sphere, 8.31-8.34
two-group treatment, 8.38-8.58
Hydrogen, collision density in, 6.32-6.39
with capture, 6.82-6.86
and continuous slowing down model,
6.118, 6.122
diffusion properties, see Water

heavy, see Deuterium
resonance escape probability in, 6.866.88
scattering cross section, 3.80-3.82

slowing down in, 6.32-6.43, 6.55
slowing down density in, 6.40-6.43
with capture, 6.87, 6.88
-uranium system, see Uranium
Image, source, 12.24, 12.25
Incident particle, 2.10
Indium, neutron capture in, 3.25
9.46
age in, 9.88

diffusion length in, 9.88
and effective resonance
409
9.1,
9.36-

as neutron detector, 3.88, 3.89
Infinite multiplication factor, 4.66
Inhour formula, 10.29
unit, 10.29
Intermediate reactor, 4.55
generation time in, 7.35
Iodine in reactor, 11.49-11.53
Isotopes, definition, 1.8
radioactive, 1.12-1.15
stable and unstable, 1.9
INDEX
410
Kernels, diffusion, 5.93-5.95
displacement, 5.96, 12.23
slowing down, 12.1-12.14
finite, 12.24, 12.25
Gaussian (age), 12.1-12.5
and critical equation,
Macroscopic cross sections, 3.42

average, 3.52
and mean free path, 3.45-3.47
and rates of processes, 3.48, 3.49.
3.51
12.53-
12.60
group-diffusion, 12.6-12.14
synthetic, 12.65
Kinetics, see Time behavior
Laboratory (or L) system, 5.20, 6.4
scattering in, 6.46.11
Laplacian operator, 5.31, 5.32
Lattice cell, 9.36, 9.51-9.53
13.19and perturbation
theory,
13.23
3.17
Leakage, neutron, 4.52, 4.53, 4.66-4.70,

5.2, 5.30-5.35, 7.5
while slowing down, 7.27, 7.28, 7.30Generated for wjivans (University of Florida) on 2015-09-21 20:57 GMT / http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015026516685
7.33, 7.70
while thermal, 7.29-7.33, 7.70

and lifetime, 7.34
Legendre functions, associated, 14.14
Legendre polynomials, 14.14
orthogonality, 14.21
Lethargy, 6.27-6.29
Lifetime, thermal neutron, 6.148, 7.34,
7.35
effective, 4.75
in finite medium, 7.34, 7.35
and generation time, 7.34,
10.9,
10.28,
10.39, 10.40, 10.46
and time behavior of reactor, 4.49,

10.12, 10.52
Liquid-drop model, 1.31-1.34

and fission, 4.26, 4.33, 4.34
and nuclear surface tension, 1.37
Lithium, cross sections, 3.76, 3.77
as neutron detector, 3.84
reaction with slow neutrons, 3.33
Lumping in reactors, 9.24
advantages and disadvantages, 9.429.46
Macroscopic and microscopic theory, 9.1,

9.86
and cross sections, 3.53

Mean free path, 3.45-3.47
diffusion, 14.26
scattering, 3.55, 3.56, 5.24-5.29
transport, 5.24-5.29
Mean life, delayed neutron, 4.8
of excited nuclei, 2.26
radioactive, 1.22
Mev, 1.28
Migration
area. 7.63, 7.64, 8.63,

12.50, 12.60, 12.62
and temperature, 11.82
Migration length, 6.154, 7.64
Million electron volts, 1.28
Moderating ratio, 6.25, 6.26
9.89,
Moderator, 3.12, 4.52, 4.54-4.56

albedo, 5.102
10.13
and neutron leakage, 7.34

and reactor period, 10.8,
scattering, 3.54-3.56
of several nuclides, 3.44
significance, 3.43
slowing down, 8.12
Macroscopic reactor theory, 9.86-9.111
Mass defect, 1.26
Mass-energy equivalence, 1.27, 1.28
Mass number, 1.7
Mass unit, see Atomic mass unit
distribution, 3.14Maxwell-Boltzmann
age, 6.145

for natural uranium reactors, 9.4
resonance neutron properties, 9.71
Moment form of critical equation, 12.4 j12.52
Multigroup
treatment,
perturbation
theory, 13.1-13.10
reflected reactor, 8.59-8.64
Multiplication factor, 4.47-4.51, 4.574.79
calculation, 7.66
effective, 4.71, 7.27, 7.32, 10.6, 12.34
excess, 10.7
and fast fission factor, 4.57
INDEX
Multiplication factor (Continued)
four-factor formula, 4.61
infinite, 4.66
in natural uranium reactors, 9.6-9.8
and neutron density, 4.49
and power level, 4.48
and resonance escape probability,
4.59
and thermal utilization,
Natural uranium reactor,

Neptunium, fission, 4.43
formation,
Uranium
3.26
Neutron (or neutrons),

see
4.60
1.3
age, see Age

attenuation, 3.41
balance in reactor, 4.52-4.54, 7.27-7.33
conservation of, 5.2
cross sections, see Cross sections
current density, 5.9-5.19, 5.26, 5.28,
see also Current density
cycle, 7.33
delayed, 4.6, 4.8-4.10
control,
4.74-4.80,
and
reactor
10.12, 10.14, 10.47
density, 3.48
detection, 3.83-3.89
diameter, effective, 2.9
diffusion theory, 5.1-5.113, see also
Diffusion theory
emission in fission, 4.4-4.11
delayed, 4.6, 4.8-4.11
prompt, 4.6, 4.7
epithermal, 3.13
fast, 2.7, 3.10, see also Fast neutrons
flux, 3.49, 3.50, see also Scalar flux,
Vector flux
distribution, bare reactor, 7.22, 7.24,
7.25, 7.61
reflected reactor, 8.2, 8.19,
8.36, 8.37, 8.58
measurement, 3.63
forces, 1.24
8.20,
generation time, see Generation time

interaction with nuclei, 2.6, 2.7, see
also Neutron reactions
leakage, see Leakage
lifetime, see Lifetime
mass, 1.5
moderation, see Moderator
411
polyenergetic, 3.50-3.53
production of, 3.1-3.9
prompt, 4.6, 4.7
energy spectrum, 4.7
-proton forces, 1.24
-to-proton ratio and nuclear stability,
1.15, 1.45-1.48
and radioactivity, 1.16-1.19
reactions, 2.6, 2.7, 2.13-2.17, 3.20-3.27
radiative capture, 2.14, 3.21-3.28
rates, and cross sections, 348, 349, 3.51
scattering, 5.9-5.112, 6.1-6.116, see also
Scattering, Slowing down
slow, 2.6, 3.10, see also Slow neutrons
slowing down, 6.30-6.116, see also
Slowing down, Scattering
thermal, 3.13
velocity selector, 3.66
wave length, 2.8, 2.9
Nonleakage probability, 4.67-4.70
and effective multiplication factor,
4.67, 4.71, 7.32
in large reactors, 12.50

while slowing down, 7.27, 7.28, 7.307.33, 12.47, 12.57
while thermal, 7.29-7.33

Nuclear binding energy, see Binding en
ergy
Nuclear cross sections, see Cross sections
Nuclear density, 1.39
Nuclear energy levels, 2.23-2.30
and resonance absorption, 2.322.37
spacing, 2.24, 2.25, 2.36, 2.37, 2.40

width, 2.26-2.30, 2.39-2.47
partial, 2.27
Nuclear forces, 1.23, 1.24, 1.32, 1.33
attractive, 1.36, 1.46
and nuclear stability, 1.45-1.47
repulsive, 1.39, 1.45
and nuclear reactions, 2.3
spin effect, 1.40
surface tension effect, 1.37
Nuclear radii, 1.33, 1.34
Nuclear reactors, 1.1, 2.10, 4.54
control, 4.72-4.80, 10.12, 11.8-11.45,
see also Control
critical size, 4.69, 4.70, see also Crit
ical size, etc.
INDEX

412
Nuclear reactors (Continued)

fast, 4.55
and fission chain, 4.46-4.79
fuel, 4.54
heterogeneous,
4.64, 9.24-9.111, see
also Heterogeneous reactors
7.1-7.81, see also
homogeneous,
Homogeneous reactors
reflected, 8.1-8.64
intermediate, 4.55
kinetics, see Time behavior
moderators, 3.12, 4.52, 4.54-4.56,
see also Moderators
neutron balance, 4.52-4.54, 7.33
neutron leakage,
4.52, 4 66-4.70,
7.27-7.33, 7.70
poisoning, 4.52, see also Poisoning
power level, 4.48
prompt critical, 4.78, 10.47
resonance capture in, 4.52
steady state, 4.71, see also Critical
state
Bubcritical, 4.71, 7.25, 7.33
supercritical, 4.71, 7.25, 7.33
thermal, 4.55
time behavior, see Time behavior
types, 4.55
Nuclear stability, and neutron-proton
ratio, 1.15-1.19, 1.45-1.48
and nuclear forces, 1.45-1.47
Nuclear temperature coefficient, 11.74
11.80, 11.85
Nucleon, 1.3
and binding energy, 1.30, 1.44
Nucleus, 1.2
binding energy of, see Binding energy
compound, see Compound nucleus
excited, 1.13, 2.11-2.21
liquid-drop model, 1.31-1.34

radius of, 1.33, 1.34
recoil, 2.11
stability range, 1.15, 1.45-1.47, see also
Nuclear forces
structure of, 1.3-1.7
target, 2.10
Nuclide, 1.11
One-group treatment, control rod,
11.22, 11.32
modified, 11.33
perturbation theory, 13.11-13.23

Over-ride, 11.6
Periods, stable and transient, see Reacto?
period
Perturbation theory, 13.1-13.26
multi-group treatment, 13.1-13.10
one-group treatment, 13.11
and reactor poisoning, 13.19-13.23
statistical weight, 13.17, 13.18
Photon, 2.11
Photoneutron sources, 3.4-3.8
Photoneutrons, effect in shut-down, 4.80,
10.52
Photonuclear reactions, 3.43.8

Pile, see Nuclear reactor
Pile period, see Reactor period
Planck's constant, 2.8
Plane diffusion kernel, 5.94, 5.95
Plane source, diffusion, finite medium
5.54-5.58
infinite medium, 5.50-5.53
two finite media, 5.59-5.61
slowing down density distribution.
6.131-6.135
slowing down and diffusion, 6.14'>
6.154
Plutonium,
fission, 3.35, 4.2, 4.36,
4.42,
4.56
formation, 3.26, 3.27
Point diffusion kernel, 5.93, 5.95

Point source, diffusion, 5.46-5.49,
5.92
superposition, 5.52, 5.53

slowing down density distributior.
6.136-6.140
Poisoning, 11.57
over-ride, 11.6
and perturbation theory, 13.19-13.23
and reactivity, 11.60, 11.61
reactor, 4.52, 11.1, 11.2, 11.6, 11.7,
11.46-11.72,
see
also
Samarium.
Xenon
temperature effect, 11.80
Projectile, nuclear, 2.10
Prompt critical reactor, 4.78, 10.47
Prompt neutrons, 4.5-4.7
and time behavior of reactor,
10.12
11.11
Proton, 1.3
charge,
1.4
10.1-
INDEX
Proton (Continued)
formation in neutron reactions, 3.34
mass, 1.4
-neutron forces, 1.24

-to-neutron ratio, and nuclear stabil
ity, 1.15, 1.45-1.48
and radioactivity, 1.16-1.19
-proton forces, 1.24, 1.39, 1.44, 4.21,
4.32, 4.33

Radiative capture, 2.21, 3.21-3.28

Radioactive decay, 1.16-1.19
2.47, 3.74
peaks, 2.44, 3.69, 3.70
half width, 2.45
in reactor, 4.52
region, 3.69
Resonance escape probability, 4.59, 9.10
in heterogeneous
system, 9.36
9.41, 9.43, 9.44, 9.67-9.75
in homogeneous system, 9.23
in hydrogen moderator, 6.86-6.88

for infinitely large cross section,
10.24
and danger coefficient, 13.23

effect,
13.15,
perturbation
6.103
13.16,
13.19-13.23
for slowly varying capture, 6.1056.111
poisoning effect, 11.60, 11.61

and reactor period, 10.28, 10.29, 10.37,
10.43-10.46,
group treatment, 8.15-8.64, see also

Homogeneous reactor, reflected
savings, 8.25
infinite slab reactor, 8.25-8.30
spherical reactor, 8.31-8.34
Relaxation length, 3.47
Reproduction factor, see Multiplication
factor
Resonance absorption (or capture), 2.312.47, 3.69-3.74
and Breit-Wigner formula, 2.38conditions for, 2.31-2.37
constant, 1.20
half life, 1.21
mean life, 1.22
rate of, 1.20-1.22
Radioactive isotopes, 1.12, 1.14
Radioactivity, 1.12-1.22
alpha, 1.19
beta, negative, 1.16, 1.17
positive, 1.18
Reactivity,
413
10.50-10.52
temperature coefficient, 11.73-11.85

density, 11.81, 11.85
nuclear, 11.75-11.80, 11.85
poisoning, 11.80
and time behavior, 10.2410.52
form,
Reactor equation, asymptotic
12.43-12.46
Reactor kinetics, see Time behavior
Reactor, nuclear, see Nuclear reactor
Reactor period, 10.8
effect of delayed neutrons, 10.14
and neutron lifetime, 10.28, 10.45,
10.46
and reactivity,
10.28, 10.29,
10.43-10.46, 10.50-10.52
. stable, 10.28, 10.37, 10.40,
10.46
negative, 10.49, 10.52
transient, 10.28
Recoil nucleus, 2.11
Reflection coefficient,
10.37,
10.43,
see Albedo
Reflector, general properties, 8.1-8.6
and temperature, 9.16

for weak capture, 6.113-6.116
for widely spaced
resonances,
6.94-6.104
Resonance flux, 9.20
Resonance integral, 9.13
Resonance integral, effective, 9.11-9.23
in natural uranium, 9.22-9.31
Resonance neutron flux, 9.20
utilization, 9.73
Rhodium, cross sections, 3.69
neutron capture, 3.25
Samarium poisoning, 11.7, 11.46-11.48,
11.70-11.72
maximum, 11.72
Saturation activity, 3.62
Scalar flux, 5.4, 14.1, 14.5
Scattering, 2.48, 2.49, 5.9-5.12, 6.16.116, 14.7-14.9, see also Slowing
down
angle, 5.20
average cosine, 5.22-5.24, 14.14
INDEX
414
and
Scattering
(Continued)
L systems, 5.23, 5.25, 6.20
cross sections, 3.543.56
in C and
in hydrogen, 3.80-3.82
measurement, 3.59
values, 3.79
elastic, 2.49, 2.52-2.55, 3.10-3.13
mechanism, 6.3-6.11
energy change in, 6.12-6.16
average logarithmic, 6.21-6.24
inelastic, 2.49-2.51
isotropic, 5.9, 5.21, 5.23, 5.25, 6.18-

6.20, 14.24, 14.29
law, 6.17
potential, 2.53, 2.55
properties of nuclei, 6.24
resonance, 2.53-2.55
and Breit-Wigner formula, 2.54
spherically symmetric, see Scattering,
isotropic
Self-adjoint operator, 13.5, 13.6
Slowing down, 3.10-3.13, 6.30-6.116, see
also Scattering
continuous model, 6.117-6.122
in hydrogen, 6.32-6.43, 6.55
leakage while, 7.27, 7.28, 7.30-7.33,
7.70
in mixtures, 6.69-6.75
in other media, 6.44-6.68
asymptotic case, 6.63-6.68
Slowing down density, 6.40
in hydrogen, 6.40-6.43
in mixtures, 6.73, 6.74
in other media, 6.63-6.68
in reactor, 7.6-7.13, 7.22, 12.16,
12.17, 12.22, 12.27-12.29
spatial distribution, 6.117-6.159

plane source,
6.131-6.135,
6.149-6.154
Slowing down kernels, finite, 12.2312.25
Gaussian (age), 12.1-12.5

and critical equation,
12.53-
12.60
group-diffusion, 12.612.14
convolution of, 12.63-12.68
critical
equation,
12.61-
12.68
infinite, 12.1-12.14
Slowing down length, 6.142
Slowing down time, 6.129, 6.146, 6.147
and generation time, 7.35
Slow neutrons, 3.10
chain reaction, 4.56, 9.3
4.36-4.45, see alst
fission,
3.35,
Fission
reactions, 3.30-3.35
alpha-particle emission, 3.29-3.34
gamma-ray emission, 3.21-3.28
proton emission, 3.34
Spherical harmonics, 14.13
Spin effect and binding energy, 1.40
and fission, 4.41, 4.45
Statistical distribution of excitation en
ergy, 2.18-2.20
Statistical weight, 13.17, 13.18
Steady state, 5.2, 5.43, 7.2, 7.3, 7.18,
7.19, 12.39
Subcritical
reactor, 4.71, 7.2, 7.18,
7.25.
7.32, 12.42
Supercritical
reactor,
4.71,
7.25,
7.32.
12.42
Surface absorption term, 9.25-9.35

Surface tension effect, nuclear, 1.37
in fission, 4.33
Target nucleus, 2.10
Temperature coefficient, cross sections,
11.75
density, 11.74, 11.81-11.85

nuclear, 11.74-11.80, 11.85
Temperature effect, on age, 11.76,
on
on
on
on
on
11.82
cross sections,
11.75
diffusion length, 11.76, 11.82
reactivity, 11.73-11.85
reactor, 11.3-11.5, 11.73-11.85
resonance integral, 9.15, 9.16
Thermal energy, 3.11
Thermal neutrons, 3.13, see also Slow
neutrons
chain reaction, 4.56, 9.3, 9.27
values, 3.79
energy of, 3.18
flux, see Neutron flux

Maxwell-Boltzmann
3.14-3.17
distribution.
INDEX
and generalized Fick's law, 14.7-
Thermal neutrons (Continued)

speed of, 3.18
Thermal reactor, 4.55
Thermal utilization, 4.60
14.9
in
in
heterogeneous system, 9.46-9.66

homogeneous system, 9.23
Thermonuclear reactions, 2.5
Time behavior
of reactors, 4.48-4.50,
7.15-7.17, 10.1-10.52, 12.33-12.35
and control, 4.72-4.77, 10.12
and delayed neutrons, 10.13-10.52
one group, 10.40-10.52
and excess multiplication,
10.710.10
and generation time, 4.49, 4.75,

4.76, 10.9, 10.13, 10.14
and prompt neutrons, 4.49,
10.1
10.12

and reactivity, 10.24-10.52

large, 10.46, 10.47
negative, 10.48-10.52
small, 10.43-10.45
Track length, 3.49
Transient periods, 10.28
tion, 14.17-14.29
one-dimensional, 14.10-14.12
one-velocity, 14.9
solution, absorbing medium, 14.33-*
14.39
medium,
14.29-
14.32
rigorous, 14.41-14.46
Transport mean free path,
5.24-5.29,
14.23
and diffusion
Uranium-233, fission, 3.35, 4.36, 4.42

formation, 3.28
Uranium-235, fission, 3.35, 4.2, 4.36, 4.40,
4.42, 4.56
critical energy, 4.34, 4.36, 4.39

cross section, 4.57
energy of, 4.16-4.23
excitation energy, 4.38
yields, 4.13, 4.14
in nature, 1.10
Uranium-238, fission, 3.37, 4.2, 4.36, 4.41,
critical energy, 4.34, 4.36, 4.39
cross section, 4.57
excitation energy, 4.38
in nature, 1.10
neutron capture, 3.26
Uranium isotopes, 1.10
Uranium, natural, 1.10
chain reaction in, 4.56, 9.2-9.9
as fuel, 4.56, 4.64, 4.74, 9.2-9.9
heterogeneous system, 9.24-9.111
effective resonance integral, 9.30,
9.31
fast fission factor, 9.45, 9.76-9.86
material buckling, 9.87-9.89

determination,
experimental
determination,
9.90-9.111
resonance
escape
probability,
9.36-9.41, 9.43, 9.44, 9.679.75
5.42
and
extrapolation
distance,
5.39-5.41, 14.53-14.56
Transport theory, 5.3, 5.4, 14.1-14.56
and boundary conditions, 14.4714.56
and diffusion coefficient, 5.22, 14.23

and diffusion length, 14.40
and diffusion theory, 5.4, 14.1714.29, 14.32, 14.39, 14.45
and
11.33
perturbation theory, 13.24-13.26

coefficient, 5.24,
5.28
experimental
and neutron scattering, 14.7-14.9

Tritium formation, 3.39
Two-group treatment, control rod, 11.23-
4.42
Transport equation, diffusion approxima
nonabsorbing
415
corrections, 5.20-5.29
extrapolation distance,
5.41, 14.53-14.56
5.40,
surface and volume absorption,

9.25-9.35
thermal utilization, 9.47-9.66
homogeneous system, 9.10-9.23
effective resonance integral, 9.22,
9.23
multiplication factor, 9.6

resonance capture, 9.10-9.23
resonance escape probability, 9.23
thermal utilization, 9.23
INDEX
416
Uranium-water system, 7.79-7.81
critical equation, 12.67, 12.68
slowing down kernels, 12.64-12.66
Vector flux, 5.3, 14.5
Volume absorption terra, 9.25-9.35
Volume advantage factor, 9.17
integrated, 9.26

Water, age in, 6.145

albedo, 5.102
as moderator, 4.56
resonance neutron constants, 9.71
-uranium system, see Uranium
Water, heavy, age in, 6.145
albedo, 5.102
Blflfl
02/94
02-013-01
BR4
..pf 2
HlDL
as moderator, 4.56
photoneutrons and shut-down, 4J

neutron properties, 9 ?
Wave equation, 5.44, 5.45
solution, 5.46-5.61, 5.70-5.79 7J
resonance
7.59
Width, energy level, 2.26-2.30, 2.39partial, 2.27

and resonance peak, 2.45
2.
Xenon, concentration,
11.5411.56
after shut-down, 1 1 .62-1 1 .69
equilibrium, 11.59
maximum, after shut-down,

during operation, 11.58
poisoning, 11.7, 11.46-11.48,
11.61
temperature effect, 11.80
11.67
Ui


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Elements of Nuclear Reactor Theory

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The elements of nuclear reactor theory.

Glasstone, Samuel, 1897-1986.

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Public Domain, Google-digitized

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Consultant, United States Atomic Energy Commission

Physicist, Oak Ridge National Laboratory

VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INC.

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INC.

Alexander St., Princeton, New Jersey

principal office of the company at Princeton, N.

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, Inc.

assign copyright to the General Manager of the

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D. Van Nostrand Company (Canada), Ltd.

rights in this book are reserved. Without written

Library of Congress Catalogue Card No.

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resources of trained scientists and engineers.

Alvin M. Weinberg, Research Director

it is a subject of extreme practical importance whose principles have not been

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Pile Theory and the

volumes, The Science and Engineer

However, because of previous secrecy restrictions there

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into the reactor program for the first time.

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Nuclear Structure and Stability

by Fermi Age Theory)

with Reflector: The

of a Bare Thermal Reactor

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NUCLEAR STRUCTURE AND STABILITY*

Protons and Neutrons

The proton carries a single unit positive charge, equal in magnitude to

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OF NUCLEAR REACTOR THEORY

mass of a proton is taken as equal to the mass of a hydrogen atom minus

Mass of hydrogen atom =

which is of fundamental importance in connection with

even of a hydrogen atom

to the number of the element in order of increasing

Thus, the atomic number of hydrogen is 1, of helium 2, oi

Isotopes and Nuclides

This is because the

NUCLEAR STRUCTURE AND STABILITY

chemically, although they frequently exhibit marked differences of

numbers, are called isotopes.

.Most elements present in nature exist in two or more stable isotopic

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1.11. Although the majority of elements exist naturally as a mixture of iso

An isotope is consequently one of a ,

was stated above that a number

isotopes (or unstable