Fundamental Finite Element Analysis and Applications

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FUN AMEN L FINITE

ELE ENT ANALY IS
ND APPllC I NS
With Mathematica® and MATLAB®
Computations
M. ASGHAR BHATT~
~
WILEY
JOHN WILEY 8t SONS, INC.
METU LIBRARY
Mathematica is a registeredtrademarkof WolframResearch,Inc.
MATLAB is a registered trademarkof The MathWorks, Inc.
ANSYS is a registered trademarkof ANSYS, Inc.
ABAQUS is a registered trademarkof ABAQUS, Inc.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bhatti, M. Asghar
Fundamental finiteelement analysis and applications: with Mathematica
and Matlab computations/ M. Asghar Bhatti.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0,471-64808-6
1. Structural analysis (Engineering) 2. Finite element method, J, Title.
TA646.B56 2005
620' .001'51825-dc22
Printed in the United States of America

1098765432
r,~~; ~,:: Vr /\. f·f (; ".+ TL'~'}j i'J\If,!~ ~J:'''(~
CONTENTS
CONTENTS OF THE BOOK WEB SITE xi
PREFACE xiii
1 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD: THE BIG PICTURE 1

1.1 Discretization and Element Equations / 2
1.1.1 Plane Truss Element / 4
1.1.2 Triangular Element for Two-Dimensional Heat Flow / 7
1.1.3 General Remarks on Finite Element Discretization / 14
1.1.4 Triangular Element for Two-Dimensional Stress Analysis / 16
1.2 Assembly of Element Equations -/ 21
1.3 Boundary Conditions and Nodal Solution / 36
1.3.1 Essential Boundary Conditions by Rearranging Equations / 37
1.3.2 Essential Boundary Conditions by Modifying Equations / 39
1.3.3 Approximate Treatment of Essential Boundary Conditions / 40
1.3.4 Computation of Reactions to Verify Overall Equilibrium / 41
1.4 Element Solutions and Model Validity / 49
1.4.1 Plane Truss Element / 49
1.4.2 Triangular Element for Two-Dimensional Heat Flow / 51
1.4.3 Triangular Element for Two-Dimensional Stress Analysis / 54
1.5 Solution of Linear Equations / 58
1.5.1 Solution Using Choleski Decomposition / 58
1.5.2 ConjugateGradientMethod / 62
v
vi CONTENTS
1.6 Multipoint Constraints / 72

1.6.1 Solution Using Lagrange Multipliers / 75
1.6.2 Solution Using Penalty Function / 79
1.7 Units / 83
2 MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF THE

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 98
2.1 Axial Deformation of Bars / 99
2.1.1 Differential Equation for Axial Deformations I 99
2.1.2 Exact Solutions of Some Axial Deformation Problems / 101
2.2 Axial Deformation of Bars Using Galerkin Method / 104
2.2.1 Weak Form for Axial Deformations / 105
2.2.2 Uniform Bar Subjected to Linearly Varying Axial Load / 109
2.2.3 Tapered Bar Subjected to Linearly Varying Axial Load / 113
2.3 One-Dimensional
_...• -,- BVJ;>Using .Galerkin Method / 115
2.3.1 Overall Solution Procedure Using GalerkinMethod / 115
2.3.2 Highet Order Boundary Value Problems / 119
2.4 Rayleigh-Ritz Method / 128
2.4.1 Potential Energy for Axial Deformation of Bars / 129
2.4.2 Overall Solution Procedure Using the Rayleigh-Ritz Method / 130
2.4.3 Uniform Bar Subjected to Linearly Varying Axial Load I 131
2.4.4 Tapered Bar Subjected to Linearly Varying Axial Load / 133
2.5 Comments on Galerkin and Rayleigh-Ritz Methods / 135
2.5.1 Admissible Assumed S~lution / 135
2.5.2 Solution Convergence-the Completeness Requirement / 136
2.5.3 Galerkin versus Rayleigh-Ritz / 138
2.6 Finite Element Form of Assumed Solutions / 138
2.6.1 LinearInterpolation Functions for Second-Order Problems / 139
2.6.2 Lagrange Interpolation / 142
2.6.3 Galerkin Weighting Functions in Finite Element Form / 143
2.9.4 Hermite Interpolation for Fourth-Order Problems / 144
2.7 Finite Element Solution of Axial Deformation Problems / 150
2.7.1 Two-Node Uniform Bar Element for Axial Deformations / 150
2.7.2 Numerical Examples / 155
3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEM 173

3.1 Selected Applications of 1D BVP / 174
3.1.1 Steady-State Heat Conduction / 174
3.1.2 Heat Flow through Thin Fins / 175
CONTENTS vii
3.1.3 Viscous Fluid Flow between Parallel Plates-Lubrication

Problem / 176
3.1.4 Slider Bearing / 177
3.1.5 Axial Deformation of Bars / 178
3.1.6 Elastic Buckling of Long Slender Bars / 178
3.2 Finite Element Formulation for Second-Order ID BVP / 180
3.2.1 Complete Solution Procedure / 186
3.3 Steady-State Heat Conduction / 188
3.4 Steady-State Heat Conduction and Convection / 190
3.5 Viscous Fluid Flow Between Parallel Plates / 198
3.6 Elastic Buckling of Bars / 202
3.7 Solution of Second-Order 1D BVP / 208
3.8 A Closer Look at the Interelement Derivative Terms / 214
4 TRUSSES, BEAMS, AND FRAMES 222

4.1 Plane Trusses / 223
4.2 Space Trusses / 227
4.3 Temperature Changes and Initial Strains in Trusses / 231
4.4 Spring Elements / 233
4.5 Transverse Deformation of Beams / 236
4.5.1 Differential Equation for Beam Bending / 236
4.5.2 Boundary Conditions for Beams / 238
4.5.3 Shear Stressesin Beams / 240
4.5.4 Potential Energy for Beam Bending / 240
4.5.5 Transverse Deformation of a Uniform Beam / 241
4.5.6 Transverse Deformation of a Tapered Beam Fixed at
Both Ends / 242
4.6 Two-Node Beam Element / 244
4.6.1 Cubic Assumed Solution / 245
4.6.2 Element Equations Using Rayleigh-Ritz Method / 246
4.7 Uniform Beams Subjected to Distributed Loads / 259
4.8 Plane Frames / 266
4.9 Space Frames / 279
4.9.1 Element Equations in Local Coordinate System / 281
4.9.2 Local-to-Global Transformation / 285
4.9.3 Element Solution / 289
4.10 Frames in Multistory Buildings / 293
viii CONTENTS
5 TWO-DIMENSIONALELEMENTS 311
5.1 Selected Applications of the 2D BVP / 313
5.1.1 Two-Dimensional Potential Flow / 313
5.1.2 Steady-State Heat Flow / 316
5.1.3 Bars Subjected to Torsion / 317
5.1.4 Waveguidesin Electromagnetics / 319
5.2 Integration by Parts in Higher Dimensions / 320
5.3 Finite Element Equations Using the Galerkin Method / 325
5.4 Rectangular Finite Elements / 329
5.4.1 Four-Node Rectangular Element / 329
5.4.2 Eight-Node Rectangular Element / 346
5.4.3 Lagrange Interpolation for Rectangular Elements / 350
5.5 Triangular Finite Elements / 357
5.5.1 Three-Node Triangular Element / 358
5.5.2 Higher Order Triangular Elements / 371
6 MAPPED ELEMENTS 381

6) Integration Using Change of Variables / 382
6.1.1 One-Dimensional Integrals / 382
6.1.2 Two-Dimensional Area Integrals / 383
6.1.3 Three-Dimensional VolumeIntegrals / 386
6.2 Mapping Quadrilaterals Using Interpolation Functions / 387
6.2.1 Mapping Lines / 387
6.2.2 Mapping Quadrilater~ Areas / 392
6.2.3 Mapped Mesh Gene~ation / 405
6.3 Numerical Integration Using Gauss Quadrature / 408
6.3.1 Gauss Quadrature for One-Dimensional Integrals / 409
6.3.2 Gauss Quadrature for Area Integrals / 414
6.3.3 Gauss Quadrature for VolumeIntegrals / 417
6.4 Finite Element Computations Involving Mapped Elements / 420
6.4.1 Assumed Solution / 421
6.4.2 Derivatives of the Assumed Solution / 422
6.4.3 Evaluation of Area Integrals / 428
6.4.4 Evaluation of Boundary Integrals / 436
6.5 Complete Mathematica and MATLAB Solutions of 2D BVP Involving
Mapped Elements / 441
6.6 Triangular Elements by Collapsing Quadrilaterals / 451
6.7 Infinite Elements / 452
6.7.1 One-DirnensionalBVP / 452
6.7.2 Two-Dimensional BVP / 458
CONTENTS lx
7 ANALYSIS OF ELASTIC SOLIDS 467

7.1 Fundamental Concepts in Elasticity / 467
7.1.1 Stresses / 467
7.1.2 Stress Failure Criteria / 472
7.1.3 Strains / 475
7.1.4 Constitutive Equations / 478
7.1.5 TemperatureEffects and Initial Strains / 480
7.2 GoverningDifferential Equations / 480
7.2.1 Stress Equilibrium Equations / 481
7.2.2 Governing Differential Equations in Terms of Displacements / 482
7.3 General Form of Finite Element Equations / 484
7.3.1 Potential Energy Functional / 484
7.3.2 Weak Form / 485
7.3.3 Finite Element Equations / 486
7.3,4 Finite Element Equations in the Presence of Initial Strains / 489
7.4 Plane Stress and Plane Strain / 490
7.4.1 Plane Stress Problem / 492
7.4.2 Plane Strain Problem / 493
7.4.4 Three-Node Triangular Element / 497
7.4.5 Mapped Quadrilateral Elements / 508
7.5 Planar Finite Element Models / 517
7.5.1 Pressure Vessels / 517
7.5.2 Rotating Disks and Flywheels / 524
7.5.3 Residual Stresses Due to Welding / 530
7.5.4 Crack Tip Singularity / 531
8 TRANSIENT PROBLEMS 545

8.1 TransientField Problems / ,545
8.1.2 Triangular Element / 549
8.1.3 Transient Heat Flow / 551
8.2 Elastic Solids Subjected to Dynamic Loads / 557
8.2.2 Mass Matrices for Common Structural Elements / 561
8.2.3 Free-VibrationAnalysis / 567
8.2.4 Transient Response Examples / 573
x CONTENTS
9 p-FORMULATION· 586
9.1 p-Formulation for Second-Order 1D BVP / 586
9.1.1 Assumed Solution Using Legendre Polynomials / 587
9.1.2 Element Equations / 591
9.1.3 Numerical Examples / 593
9.2 p-Formulation for Second-Order 2D BVP / 604
9.2.1 p-Mode Assumed Solution / 605
9.2.3 Assembly of Element Equations / 617
9.2.4 Incorporating Essential Boundary Conditions / 620
9.2.5 Applications / 624
A USE OF COMMERCIAL FEA SOFTWARE 641

A.1 ANSYS Applications / 642
A.1.1 General Steps / 643
A.1.2 Truss Analysis / 648
A.1.3 Steady-State Heat Flow / 651
A.1.4 Plane Stress Analysis / 655
A.2 Optimizing Design Using ANSYS / 659
A.2.1 General Steps / 659
A.2.2 Heat Flow Example / 660
A.3 ABAQUSApplications / 663
A.3.1 Execution Procedure / 663
A.3.2 Truss Analysis / 66'5
A.3.3 Steady-State Heat Flow / 666
A.3.4 Plane Stress Analysis / 671
B VARIATIONAL FORM FOR BOUNDARY

VALUE PROBLEMS 676
B.1 Basic Concept of Variation of a Function / 676
B.2 Derivation of Equivalent Variational Form / 679
B.3 Boundary Value Problem Corresponding to a Given Functional / 683
BIBLIOGRAPHY 687
INDEX 695
CONTEN'TS OF THE BOOK WEB S~TE
(www.wiley.com/go/bhatti)
ABAQUS Applications
AbaqusUse\AbaqusExecutionProcedure.pdf
Abaqus Use\HeatFlow
AbaqusUse\PlaneStress
Abaqus Use\TmssAnalysis
ANSYS Applications
AnsysUse\AppendixA
. AnsysUse\Chap5
AnsysUse\Chap7
AnsysUse\Chap8
AnsysUse\GeneralProcedure.pdf
Full Detail Text Examples
Full Detail Text Examples\ChaplExarnples.pdf

Full Detail Text Examples\Chap2Examples.pdf
Full Detail Text Examples\Chap3Examples.pdf .
Full Detail Text Exarnples\Chap4Exarnples.pdf
Full Detail Text Exarnples\Chap5Exarnples.pdf
xi
xii CONTENTS OF THE BOOKWEB SITE

Mathematica Applications
MathematicaUse\MathChap l.nb
MathematicaUse\MathChap2.nb
MathematicaUse\MathChap5 .nb
MathematicaUse\Mathematica Introduction.nb
MATLAB Applications
MatlabFiles\Chap I
MatlabFiles\Chap2
MatlabFiles\Chap3
MatlabFiles\Chap4
MatlabFiles\Chap5
MatlabFiles\Chap6
MatlabFiles\Chap7
MatlabFiles\Chap8
MatlabFiles\Common I
Sample Course Outlines, Lectures, and Examinations

Supplementary Material and Corrections
PREFACE
Large numbers of books have been written on the finite element method. However, effective
teaching of the method using most existing books is a difficult task. The vast majority of
current books present the finite element method as an extension of the conventional matrix
structural analysis methods. Using this approach, one can teach the mechanical aspects of
the finite element method fairly well, but there are no satisfactory explanations for even
the simplest theoretical questions. Why are rotational degrees of freedom defined for the
beam and plate elements but not for the plane stress and truss elements? What is wrong
with connecting corner nodes of a planar four-node element to the rnidside nodes of an
eight-node element? The application of the method to nonstructural problems is possible
only if one can interpret problem parameters in terms of their structural counterparts. For
example, one can solve heat transfer problems because temperature can be interpreted as
displacement in a structural problem.
More recently, several new textbooks on finite elements have appeared that emphasize
the mathematical basis of the finite element method. Using some of these books, the fi-
nite element method can be presented as a method for .obtaining approximate solution of
ordinary and partial differential equations. The choice of appropriate degrees of freedom,
boundary conditions, trial solutions, etc., can now be fully explained with this theoreti-
cal background. However, the vast majority of these books tend to be too theoretical and
do not present enough computational details and examples to be of value, especially to
undergraduate and first-year graduate students in engineering.
The finite element coursesface one more hurdle. One needs to perform computations
in order to effectively learn the finite element techniques. However, typical finite element
calculations are very long and tedious, especially those involving mapped elements. In
fact, some of these calculations are essentially impossible to perform by hand. To alleviate
this situation, instructors generally rely on programs written in FORTRAN or some other
xiii
xiv PREFACE
conventional programming language. In fact, there are several books available that include
these types of programs with them. However, realistically, in a typical one-semester course,
most students cannot be expected to fully understand these programs. At best they use them
as black boxes, which obviously does not help in learning the concepts.
In addition to traditional research-oriented students, effective finite element courses
must also cater to the needs and expectations of practicing engineers and others interested
only in the finite element applications. Knowing the theoretical details alone does not help
in creating appropriate models for practical, and often complex, engineering systems.
This book is intended to strike an appropriate balance among the theory, generality,
and practical applications of the finite element method. The method is presented as a fairly
straightforward extension of the classical weighted residual and the Rayleigh-Ritz methods
for approximate solution of differential equations. The theoretical details are presented in
an informal style appealing to the reader's intuition rather than mathematical rigor. To make
the concepts clear, all computational details are fully explained and numerous examples are
included showing all calculations. To overcome the tedious nature of calculations associ-
ated with finite elements, extensive use of MATLAB® and Mathematicd'' is made in the
boole. All finite element procedures are implemented in the form of interactive Mathemat-
ica notebooks and easy-to-follow MATLAB code. All necessary computations are readily
apparent from these implementations. Finally, to address the practical applications of the
finite element method, the book integrates a series of computer laboratories and projects
that involve modeling and solution using commercial finite element software. Short tuto-
rials and carefully chosen sample applications of ANSYS and ABAQUS are contained in
the book.
The book is organized in such a way that it can be used very effectively in a lecture/
computer laboratory (lab) format. In over 20 years of teaching finite elements, using a
variety of approaches, the author has found that presenting the material in a two-hour
lecture and one-hour lab per week is i~eally suited for the first finite element course. The
lecture part develops suitable theoretical background while the lab portion gives students
experience in finite element modeling and actual applications. Both parts should be taught
in parallel. Of course, it takes time to develop the appropriate theoretical background in
the lecture part. The lab part, therefore, is ahead of the lectures and, in the initial stages,
students are using the finite element software essentially as a black box. However, this
approach has two main advantages. The first is that students have some time to get familiar
with the particular computer system and the finite element package being utilized. The
second, and more significant, advantage is that it raises students' curiosity in learning more
about why things must be done in a certain way. During early labs students often encounter
errors such as "negative pivot found" or "zero or negative Jacobian for element." When,
during the lecture part, they find out mathematical reasons for such errors, it makes them
appreciate the importance of learning theory in order to become better users of the finite
element technology.
The author also feels strongly that the labs must utilize one of the several commercially
available packages, instead of relying on simple home-grown programs. Use of commer-
cial programs exposes students to at least one state-of-the-art finite element package with
its built-in or associated pre- and postprocessors. Since the general procedures are very
similar among different programs, it is relatively easy to learn a different package after this
PREFACE xv
exposure. Most commercial prol$nims also include analysis modules for linear and nonlin-
ear static and dynamic analysis, buclding, fluid flow, optimization, and fatigue. Thus with
these packages students can be exposed to a variety of finite element applications, even
though there generally is not enough time to develop theoretical details of all these topics
in one finite element course. With more applications, students also perceive the course as
more practical and seem to put more effort into learning.
TOPICS COVERED
The book covers the fundamental concepts and is designed for a first course on finite ele-
ments suitable for upper division undergraduate students and first-year graduate students.
It presents the finite element method as a tool to find approximate solution of differential
equations and thus can be used by students from a variety of disciplines. Applications cov-
ered include heat flow, stress analysis, fluid flow, and analysis of structural frameworks.
The material is presented in nine chapters and two appendixes as follows.
1. Finite Element Method: The Big Picture. This chapter presents an overview of the
finite element method. To give a clear idea of the solution process, the finite element equa-
tions for a few simple elements (plane truss, heat flow, and plane stress) are presented in this
chapter. A few general remarks on modeling and discretization are also included. Important
steps of assembly, handling boundary conditions, and solutions for nodal unknowns and el-
ement quantities are explained in detail in this chapter. These steps are fairly mechanical in
nature and do not require complex theoretical development. They are, however, central to
actually obtaining a finite element solution for a given problem. The chapter includes brief
descriptions of both direct and iterative methods for solution oflinear systems of equations.
Treatment of linear constraints through Lagrange multipliers and penalty functions is also
included.
This chapter gives enough background to students so that they can quickly start using
available commercial finite element packages effectively. It plays an important role in the
lecture/lab format advocated-for the first finite element course.
2. Mathematical Foundations of the Finite Element Method. From a mathematical
point of view the finite element method is a special form of the well-known Galerkin
and Rayleigh-Ritz methods for finding approximate solutions of differential equations.
The basic concepts are explained in this chapter with reference to the problem of axial
deformation of bars. The derivation of the governing differential equation is included for
completeness. Approximate solutions using the classical form of Galerkin and Rayleigh-
Ritz methods are presented. Finally, the methods are cast into the form that is suitable
for developing finite element equations. Lagrange and Hermitian interpolation functions,
commonly employed in derivation of finite element equations, are presented in this chapter.
3. One-Dimensional Boundary Value Problem. A large humber of practical problems
are governed by a one-dimensional boundary value problem of the form
d ( dU(X))
dx k(x)~ + p(x) u(x) + q(x) =0
xvi PREFACE
Finite element formulation and solutions of selected applications that are governed by the
differential equation of this form are presented in this chapter.
4. Trusses, Beams, and Frames. Many structural systems used in practice consist of
long slender members of various shapes used in trusses, beams, and frames. This chap-
ter presents finite element equations for these elements. The chapter is important for civil
and mechanical engineering students interested in structures. It also covers typical mod-
eling techniques employed in framed structures, such as rigid end zones and rigid floor
diaphragms. Those not interested in these applications can skip this chapter without any
loss in continuity.
5. Two-Dimensional Elements. In this chapter the basic finite element concepts are il--
lustrated with reference to the following partial differential equation defined over an arbi-
trary two-dimensional region:
The equation can easily be recognized as a generalization of the one-dimensional bound-

ary value problem considered in Chapter 3. Steady-state heat flow, a variety of fluid flow,
and the torsion of planar sections are some of the common engineering applications that
are governed by the differential equations that are special cases. of this general boundary
value problem. Solutions of these problems using rectangular and triangular elements are
presented in this chapter.
6. Mapped Elements. Quadrilateral elements and other elements that can have curved
sides are much more useful in accurately modeling arbitrary shapes. Successful develop-
ment of these elements is based on the key concept of mapping. These concepts are dis-
cussed in this chapter. Derivation of the Gaussian quadrature used to evaluate equations for
mapped elements is presented. Four-sand eight-node quadrilateral elements are presented
for solution of two-dimensional boundary value problems. The chapter also includes pro-
cedures for forming triangles by collapsing quadrilaterals and for developing the so-called
infinite elements to handle far-field boundary conditions.
7. Analysis ofElastic Solids. The problem of determining stresses and strains in elastic
solids subjected to loading and temperature changes is considered in this chapter. The
fundamental concepts from elasticity are reviewed. Using these concepts, the governing
differential equations in terms of stresses and displacements are derived followed by the
general form of finite element equations for analysis of elastic solids. Specific elements
for analysis of plane stress and plane strain problems are presented in this chapter. The
so-called singularity elements, designed to capture a singular stress field near a crack tip,
are discussed. This chapter is important for those interested in stress analysis. Those not
interested in these applications can skip this chapter without any loss in continuity.
8.· Transient Problems. This chapter considers analysis of transient problems using fi-
nite elements. Formulations for both the transient field problems and the structural dynam-
ics problems are presented in this chapter.
9. p-Formulation. In conventional finite element formulation, each element is based on
a specific set of interpolation functions. After choosing an element type, the only way to
PREFACE xvll
obtain a better solution is to refihe the model. This formulation is called h-formulation,
where h indicates the generic size of an element. An alternative formulation, called the
p-formulation, is presented in this chapter. In this formulation, the elements are based on
interpolation functions that may involve very high order terms. The initial finite element
model is fairly coarse and is based primarily on geometric considerations. Refined solu-
tions are obtained by increasing the order of the interpolation functions used in the formu-
lation. Efficient interpolation functions have been developed so that higher order solutions
can be obtained in a hierarchical manner from the lower order solutions.
10. Appendix A: Use of Commercial FEA Software. This appendix introduces students
to two commonly used commercial finite element programs, ANSYS and ABAQUS. Con-
cise instructions for solution of structural frameworks, heat flow, and stress analysis prob-
lems are given for both programs.
11. Appendix B: Variational Form for Boundary Value Problems. The main body of the
text employs the Galerkin approach for solution of general boundary value problems and
the variational approach (using potential energy) for structural problems. The derivation
of the variational functional requires familiarity with the calculus of variations. In the au-
thor's experience, given that only limited time is available, most undergraduate students
have difficulty fully comprehending this topic. For this reason, and since the derivation
is not central to the finite element development, the material on developing variational
functionals is moved to this appendix. If desired, this material can be covered with the
discussion of the Rayleigh-Ritz method in Chapter 2.
To keep the book to a reasonable length and to make it suitable for a wider audience,
important structural oriented topics, such as axisymmetric and three-dimensional elasticity,
plates and shells, material and geometric nonlinearity, mixed and hybrid formulations, and
contact problems are not covered in this book. These topics are covered in detail in a
companion textbook by the author entitled Advanced Topics in Finite Element Analysis of
Structures: With Mathematico'" and lvIATLAB® Computations, John Wiley, 2006.
UNIQUE FEATURES
(i) All key. ideas are introduced in chapters that emphasize the method as a way to
find approximate solution of boundary value problems. Thus the book can be used
effectively for students from a variety of disciplines..
(ii) The "big picture" chapter gives readers an overview of all the mechanical details
of the finite element method very quickly. This enables instructors to start using
commercial finite element software early in the semester; thus allowing plenty
of opportunity to bring practical modeling issues into the classroom. The author
is not aware of any other book that starts out in this manner. Few books that
actually try to do this do so by taldng discrete spring and bar elements. In my
experience this does not work very well because students do not see actual finite
element applications. Also, this approach does not make sense to those who are
not interested in structural applications.
xviii PREFACE
(iii) Chapters 2 and 3 introduce fundamental finite element concepts through one-
dimensional examples. The axial deformation problem is used for a gentle intro-
duction to the subject. This allows for parameters to be interpreted in physical
terms. The derivation of the governing equations and simple techniques for ob-
taining exact solutions are included to help those who may not be familiar with
the structural terminology. Chapter 3 also includes solution of one-dimensional
boundary value problems without reference to any physical application for non-
structural readers.
(iv) Chapter 4, on structural frameworks, is quite unique for books on finite elements.
No current textbook that approaches finite elements from a differential equation
point of view also has a complete coverage of structural frames, especially in three
dimensions. In fact, even most books specifically devoted to structural analysis do
not have as satisfactory a coverage of the subject as provided in this chapter.
(v) Chapters 5 and 6 are two important chapters that introduce key finite element
concepts in the context of two-dimensional boundary value problems. To keep
the integration and differentiation issues from clouding the basic ideas, Chap-
ter 5 starts with rectangular elements and presents complete examples using such
elements. The triangular elements are presented next. By the time the mapped
elements are presented in Chapter 6, there are no real finite element-related con-
cepts left. It is all just calculus. This clear distinction between the fundamental
concepts and calculus-related issues gives instructors flexibility in presenting the
material to students with a wide variety of mathematics background.
(vi) Chapter 9, on p-formulation, is unique. No other book geared toward the first fi-
nite element course even mentions this important formulation. Several ideas pre-
sented in this chapter are used in recent development of the so-called mesh less
methods.
(vii) Mathematica and MATLAB ,implementations are included to show how calcula-
tions can be organized using' a computer algebra system. These implementations
require only the very basic understanding of these systems. Detailed examples
are presented in Chapter 1 showing how to generate and assemble element equa-
tions, reorganize matrices to account for boundary conditions, and then solve for
primary and secondary unknowns. These steps remain exactly the same for all im-
plementations. Most of the other implementations are nothing more than element
matrices written using Mathematica or MATLAB syntax.
(viii) Numerous numerical examples are included to clearly show all computations in-
volved.
(ix) All chapters contain problems for homework assignment. Most chapters also
contain problems suitable for computer labs and projects. The accompanying
web site (www.wiley.com/go/bhatti) contains all text examples, MATLAB and
Mathematica functions, and ANSYS and ABAQUS files in electronic form. To
keep the printed book to a reasonable length most examples skip some compu-
tations. The web site contains full computational details of-these examples. Also
the book generally alternates between showing examples done with Mathematica
and MATLAB. The web site contains implementations of all examples in both
Mathematica and MATLAB.
PREFACE xix
tVPICAL COURSES
The book can be used to develop a number of courses suitable for different audiences.
First Finite Element Course for Engineering Students About 32 hours of lec-
tures and 12 hours of labs (selected materials from indicated chapters):
Chapter l: Finite element procedure, discretization, element equations, assembly,
boundary conditions, solution of primary unknowns and element quantities, reactions,
solution validity (4 hr)
Chapter 2: Weak form for approximate solution of differential equations, Galerkin
method, approximate solutions using Rayleigh-Ritz method, comparison of Galerkin
and Rayleigh-Ritz methods, Lagrange and Hermite interpolation, axial deformation
element using Rayleigh-Ritz and Galerkin methods (6 hr)
Chapter 3: ID BVP, FEA solution ofBVP, ID BVP applications (3 hr)
Chapter 4: Finite element for beam bending, beam applications, structural frames (3 hr)
Chapter 5: Finite elements for 2D and 3D problems, linear triangular element for
second-order 2D BVP, 2D fluid flow and torsion problems (4 hr)
Chapter 6: 2D Lagrange and serendipity shape functions, mapped elements, evaluation
of area integrals for 2D mapped elements, evaluation of line integrals for 2D mapped
elements (4 hr)
Chapter 7: Stresses and strains in solids, finite element analysis of elastic solids, CST
and isoparametric elements for plane elasticity (4 hr)
Chapter 8: Transient problems (2 hr)
Review, exams (2 hr)
About 12 hours of labs (some sections from the indicated chapters supplemented by docu-
mentation of the chosen commercial software):
Appendix: Introduction to Mathematica and/or MATLAB (2 hr)
Chapters 1 and 4: Software documentation, basic finite element procedure using com-
mercial software, truss and frame problems (2 hr)
Chapters 1 and 5: Software documentation, 2D mesh generation, heat flow problems
(2 hr)
Chapters 1 and 7: 2D, axisymmetric, and 3D stress analysis problems (2 hr)
Chapter 8: Transient problems (2 hr)
Software documentation: Constraints, design optimization (2 hr)
First Finite Element Course for Students Not Interested in Structural Appli-
cations Skip Chapters 4 and 7. Spend more time on applications in Chapters 5 and 6.
Introduce Chapter 9: p-Formulation. In the labs replace truss, frame, and stress analysis
problems with appropriate applications.
Finite Element Course for Practicing Engineers From the current book: Chapters
1, 2, 6, and 7. From the companion advanced book: Chapters 1, 2, and 5 and selected
material from Chapters 6, 7, and 8.
xx PREFACE
Finite Element Modeling and Applications For a short course on finite element
modeling or self-study, it is suggested to cover the first chapter in detail and then move
on to Appendix A for specific examples of using commercial finite element packages for
solution of practical problems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Most of the material presented in the book has become part of the standard finite element
literature, and hence it is difficult to acknowledge contributions of specific individuals. I
am indebted to the pioneers in the field and the authors of all existing books and journal
papers on the subject. I have obviously benefited from their contributions and have used a
good number of them in my over 20 years of teaching the subject.
I wrote the first draft of the book in early 1990. However, the printed version has prac-
tically nothing in common with that first draft. Primarily as a result of questions from my
students, I have had to make extensive revisions almost every year. Over the last couple
of years the process began to show signs of convergence andthe result is what you see
now. Thus I would like to acknowledge all direct and indirect contributions of my former
students. Their questions hopefully led me to explain things in ways that make sense to
most readers. (A note to future students and readers: Please keep the questions coming.)
I want to thank my former graduate student Ryan Vignes, who read through several
drafts of the book and provided valuable feedback. Professors Jia Liu and Xiao Shaoping
used early versions of the book when they taught finite elements. Their suggestions have
helped a great deat in improving the book. My colleagues Professors Ray P.S. Han, Hosin
David Lee, and Ralph Stephens have helped by sharing their teaching philosophy and by
keeping me in shape through heated games of badminton and tennis.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the editorial staff of John Wiley for doing a great
job in the production of the book. 1'/am especially indebted to Jim Harper, who, from
our first meeting in Seattle in 2003, has been in constant communication and has kept the
process going smoothly. Contributions of senior production editor Bob Hilbert and editorial
assistant Naomi Rothwell are gratefully acknowledged.
CHAPTER ONE
5·
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:

THE BIG PICTURE
Application of physical principles, such as mass balance, energy conservation, and equi-
librium, naturally leads many engineering analysis situations into differential equations.
Methods have been developed for obtaining exact solutions for various classes of differ-
ential equations. However, these methods do not apply to many practical problems be-
cause either their governing differential equations do not fall into these classes or they
involve complex geometries. Finding analytical solutions that also satisfy boundary condi-
tions specified over arbitrary two- and three-dimensional regions becomes a very difficult
task. Numerical methods are therefore widely used for solution of practical problems in all
branches of engineering.
The finite element method is one of the numerical methods for obtaining approximate
solution of ordinary and partial differential equations. It is especially powerful when deal-
ing with boundary conditions defined over complex geometries that are common in practi-
cal applications. Other numerical methods such as finite difference and boundary element
methods may be competitive or even superior to the finite element method for certain
classes of problems. However, because of its versatility in handling arbitrary domains and
availability of sophisticated commercial finite element software, over the last few decades,
the finite element method has become the preferred method for solution of many practi-
cal problems. Only the finite element method is considered in detail in this book. Readers
interested in other methods should consult appropriate references, Books by Zienkiewicz
and Morgan [45], Celia and Gray [32], and Lapidus and Pinder [37] are particularly useful
for those interested in a comparison of different methods.
The application of the finite element method to a given problem involves the following
six steps:
2 FINITEELEMENTMETHOD:THE BIG PICTURE
1. Development of element equations

2. Discretization of solution domain into a finite element mesh
3. Assembly of element equations
4. Introduction of boundary conditions
5. Solution for nodal unknowns
6. Computation of solution and related quantities over each element
The key idea of the finite element method is to discretize the solution domain into a
number of simpler domains called elements. An approximate solution is assumed over
an element in terms of solutions at selected points called nodes. To give a clear idea of
the overall finite element solution process, the finite element equations for a few simple
elements are presented in Section 1.1. Obviously at this stage it is not possible to give
derivations of these equations. The derivations must wait until later chapters after we have
developed enough theoretical background. Few general remarks on discretization are also
made in Section 1.1. More specific comments on modeling are presented in later chap-
ters when discussing various applications. Important steps of assembly, handling boundary
conditions, and solutions for nodal unknowns and element quantities remain essentially
unchanged for any finite element analysis. Thus these procedures are explained in detail in
Sections 1.2, 1.3, and 104. These steps are fairly mechanical in nature and do not require
complex theoretical development. They are, however, central to actually obtaining a finite
element solution for a given problem. Therefore, it is important to fully master these steps
before proceeding to the remaining chapters in the book.
The finite element process results in a large system of equations that must be solved for
determining nodal unknowns. Several methods are available for efficient solution of these
large and relatively sparse systems of equations. A brief introduction to two commonly
employed methods is given in Section 1.5. In some finite element modeling situations it
becomes necessary to introduce constraints in the finite element equations. Section 1.6
presents examples of few such situations and discusses two different methods for handling
these so-called multipoint constraints. A brief section on appropriate use of units in nu-
merical calculations concludes this chapter.
1.1 DISCRETIZATION AND ELEMENT EQUATIONS
Each analysis situation that is described in terms of one or more differential equations
requires an appropriate set of element equations. Even for the same system of governing
equations, several elements with different shapes and characteristics may be available. It
is crucial to choose an appropriate element type for the application being considered. A
proper choice requires knowledge of all details of element formulation and a thorough
understanding of approximations introduced during its development.
A key step in the derivation of element equations is an assumption regarding the solution
of the goveming differential equation over an element. Several practical elements are avail-
able that assume a simple linear solution. Other elements use more sophisticated functions
to describe solution over elements. The assumed element solutions are written in terms of
unknown solutions at selected points called nodes. The unknown solutions at the nodes are
DISCRETIZATION AND ELEMENT EQUATIONS 3
generally referred to as the nodal degrees offreedom, a terminology that dates back to the
early development of the method by structural engineers. The appropriate choice of nodal
degrees of freedom depends on the governing differential equation and will be discussed
in the following chapters.
The geometry of an element depends on the type of the governing differential equation.
For problems defined by one-dimensional ordinary differential equations, the elements are
straight or curved line elements. For problems governed by two-dimensional partial differ-
ential equations the elements are usually of triangular or quadrilateral shape. The element
sides may be straight or curved. Elements with curved sides are useful for accurately mod-
eling complex geometries common in applications such as shell structures and automobile
bodies. Three-dimensional problems require tetrahedral or solid brick-shaped elements.
Typical element shapes for one-, two-, andthree-dimensional (lD, 2D, and 3D) problems
are shown in Figure 1.1. The nodes on the elements are shown as dark circles.
Element equations express a relationship between the physical parameters in the gov-
erning differential equations and the nodal degrees of freedom. Since the number of equa-
tions for some of the elements can be very large, the element equations are almost always
written using a matrix notation. The computations are organized in two phases. In the first
phase (the element derivation phase), the element matrices are developed for a typical ele-
ment that is representative of all elements in the problem. Computations are performed in
a symbolic form without using actual numerical values for a specific element. The goal is
to develop general formulas for element matrices that can later be used for solution of any
numerical problem belonging to that class. In the second phase, the general formulas are
used to write specific numerical matrices for each element.
One of the main reasons for the popularity of the finite element method is the wide
availability of general-purpose finite element analysis software. This software development
is possible because general element equations can be programmed in such a way that,
given nodal coordinates and other physical parameters for an element, the program returns
numerical equations for that element. Commercial finite element programs contain a large
library of elements suitable for solution of a wide variety of practical problems.
ID Elements
2D Elements
3D Elements
Figure 1.1. Typical finite element shapes

4 FINITE ELEMENTMETHOD:THE BIG PICTURE
To give a clear picture of the overall finite element solution procedure, the general fi-
nite element equations for few commonly used elements are given below. The detailed
derivations of these equations are presented in later chapters.
1.1.1 Plane Truss Element

Many structural systems used in practice consist of long slender shapes of various cross
sections. Systems in which the shapes are arranged so that each member primarily resists
axial forces are usually known as trusses. Common examples are roof trusses, bridge sup-
ports, crane booms, and antenna towers. Figure 1.2 shows a transmission tower that can
be modeled effectively as a plane truss. For modeling purposes all members are consid-
ered pin jointed. The loads are applied at the joints. The analysis problem is to find joint
displacements, axial forces, and axial stresses in different members of the truss."
Clearly the basic element to analyze any plane truss structure is a two-node straight-
line element oriented arbitrarily in a two-dimensional x-y plane, as shown in the Figure
1.3. The element end nodal coordinates are indicated by (Xl' YI) and (x2' Y2). The element
axis s runs from the first node of the element to the second node. The angle a defines the
orientation of the element with respect to a global x-y coordinate system. Each node has
two displacement degrees of freedom, u indicating displacement in the X direction and v
indicating displacement in the y direction. The element can be subjected to loads only at
its ends.
Using these elements, the finite element model of the transmission tower is as shown
in Figure 1.4. The model consists of 16 nodes and 29 plane truss elements. The element
numbers and node numbers are assigned arbitrarily for identification purposes.
600
570
540
480
420
10001b
10001b
300
180
o
in
300 180 96 o 6096 180 300
Figure 1.2. Transmission tower
y
Nodal dof End loads
x
Figure 1.3. Plane truss element
Element numbers
Figure 1.4. Planetruss element model of the transmission tower
Using procedures discussed in later chapters, it can be shown that the finite element
equations for a plane truss-dement are as follows:
Is lns -1;
In; -Is Ins
-ls lns z2s
-In; I s lns
where E = elastic modulus of the material (Young's modulus), A = area of cross section of
the element, L = length of the element, and Is. Ins are the direction cosines of the element
axis (line from element node 1 to 2). Here, Is is the cosine of angle a between the element
axis and the x axis (measured 'counterclockwise) and Ins is the cosine of angle between the
element axis and the y axis. In terms of element nodal coordinates,
In the element equations the left-hand-side coefficient matrix is usually called the stiffness
matrix and the right-hand-side vector as the nodal load vector. Note that once the element
end coordinates, material property, cross-sectional area, and element loading are specified,
the only unknowns in the element equations are the nodal displacements.
It is important to recognize that the element equations refer to an isolated element, We
cannot solve for the nodal degrees of freedom for the entire structure by simply solving
the equations for one element. We must consider contributions of all elements, loads, and
support conditions before solving for the nodal unknowns. These procedures are discussed
in detail in later sections of this chapter.
Example 1.1 Write finite element equations for element number 14 in the finite element
model of the transmission tower shown in Figure 1.4. The tower is made of steel (!i..=-
29 x 106Ib/in2 ) angle sections. The area of cross section of element 14 is 1.73 in2 .
The element is connected between nodes 7 and 9. We can choose e~as th~ first
node of the element. Choosing node 7 as the first node establishes the element s axis as
going from node 7 toward 9. The origin of the global x-y coordinate system can be placed
at any convenient location. Choosing the centerline of the tower as the origin, the nodal
coordinates for the element 14 are as follows:
First node (node 7) = (-60, 420) in; XI = -60; YI = 420

Second node (node 9) = (-180, 480) in; x2 = -180; Y2 = 480
Using these coordinates, the element length and the direction cosines can easily be calcu-
lated as follows:
Element length: L = ~(X2 -xll + (Y2 - YI)2 = 60-{5 in

Element direction cosines: ;' _ x2 - XI _ 2. 112 = Y2 - YI = _l_
Is - - L - - - -{5' s L -{5
-------
From the given material and section properties,
E = 29000000Ib/in2 ; E: = 373945. lb/in
Using these values, the element stiffness matrix (the left-hand side of the element equa-
tions) can easily be written as follows:
z2 Isms -I; -149578. -299156.

k = EA Isl~s 112; -Isms -m; _[299156.
-Isms]
-149578. 74789. 149578.
149578.]
-74789.
L [ -I; -Isms 1s2 Isms - "':299156. 149578. 299156.' -149578.
-lm, -112; Isms 112; 149578. -74789. -149578. 74789.
The right-hand-side vector of element equations represents applied loads at the element
ends. There are no loads applied at node 7. The applied load of 1000 lb at node 9 is shared
by elements 14, 16,23, and 24. The portion taken by element 14 cannot be determined
without detailed analysis of the tower, which is exactly what we are attempting to do in the
first place. Fortunately, to proceed with the analysis, it is not necessary to know the portion
of the load resisted by different elements meeting at a common node. As will become clear
in the next section, in which we consider the assembly of element equations, our goal is to
generate a global system of equations applicable to the entire structure. As far as the entire
structure is concerned, node 9 has an applied load of 1000 lb in the -y direction. Thus, it is
immaterial how we assign nodal loads to the elements as long as the total load at the node
is equal to the applied load. Keeping this in mind, when computing element equations, we
can simply ignore concentrated loads applied at the nodes and apply them directly to the
global equations at the start of the assembly process. Details of this process are presented
in a following section.
~Assuming nod'!JJQ.ads are tQ.~dedgU:~£:Jly~t.Q..!h£.g12Qe1.~q1!,gJjQ!1~~,!h~.1injj:e el~ent
equ~!~ons!2E. c::!.~ment 14 ar£§:§...f9JIRWJ/;,.
299156. -149578. -299156.

-149578. 74789. 149578. 149578.] [U7]
-74789. v7 _ [0]
0
[ -299156. 149578. 299156. -149578. u 9
' - 0 '
149578. -74789. -149578. 74789. v9 0
~ MathematicafMATLAB Implementation :n..l on the Book Web Site:

Plane truss element equations
1.1.2 Triangular Element for Two-Dimensional Heat Flow

Consider the problem of finding steady-state temperature distribution in long chimneylike
structures. Assuming no temperature gradient in the longitudinal direction, we can talce a
unit slice of such a structure and model it as a two-dimensional problem to determine the
temperature T(x, y). Using conservation of energy on a differential volume, the following
governing differential equation can easily be established.:
_. axa (aT)
kx ax + aya (ky aT)
ay + Q = 0
where kx and kyare thermal conductivities in the x and y directions and Q(x, y) is specified
heat generation per unit volume. Typical units for k are W/m- °C or Btu/hr· ft· OF and those
for Q are W1m3 or Btu/hr . ft3. The possible boundaryconditions are as follows:
(i) Known temperature along a boundary:
T = To specified
(ii) Specified heat flux along a boundary:
8 FINITEELEMENTMETHOD: THE BIG PICTURE
y (m)
0.03
0.015 qo
o
To
x (m)
o 0.03 0.06
Figure 1.5. Heat flow through an L-shaped solid: solution domain and unit normals
where nx and ny are the x and Y, components of the outer unit normal vector to the
boundary (see Figure 1.5 for anexample):
Inl = ~ n; + n; = 1
On an insulated boundary or across a line of symmetry there is no heat flow and
thus qo = O. The sign convention for heat flow is that heat flowing into a body is
positive and that flowing out of the body is negative.
(iii) Heat loss due to convection along a boundary:
st (aT aT) =h(T -

-k an == - kx ax nx + ky ay ny Too)
where h is the convection coefficient, T is the unknown temperature at the bound-

ary, and Too is the known temperature of the surrounding fluid. Typical units for h
are W/m2 · ·C and Btulhr· ft2 • "P,
As a specific example, consider two-dimensional heat flow over an L-shaped body

shown in Figure 1.5. The thermal conductivity in both directions is the same, kx = ky =
DISCRETIZATION AND ELEMENTEQUATIONS 9
45 Wlm . °C. The bottom is maintained at a temperature of To = 110°C. Convection heat

loss takes place on the top where the ambient air temperature is 20°C and the convection
heat transfer coefficient is h = 55 W/m 2 • ·C. The right side is insulated. The left side is
subjected to heat flux at a uniform rate of qo = 8000 W/m2 . Heat is generated in the body
at a rate of Q = 5 X 106 W1m3 .
Substituting the given data into the governing differential equation and the boundary
conditions, we see that the temperature distribution over this body must satisfy the follow-
ing conditions:
2 2
Over the entire L-shaped region 45 (aax + aay
; ; ) + 5 X 106 =0
On the left side (lix = -1, ny = 0) _ (45 aT (-1») = 8000 => aT = 8000 along x =0
ax ax 45
On the bottom of the region T = 110 along y =0
On the right side (nx = 1, ny = 0) ax = 0 along x = 0.06
aT
On the horizontal portions of aT ) ei 55

the top side (nx = 0, ny = 1) - ( 45 ay (1) = 55(T - 20) => ay =- 45 (T - 20)
On the vertical portion of the aT

top side (nx = 1, l1y = 0) - ( 45 ax (1)) = 55(T - 20) =>
et 55
ax = - 45 (T - 20)
Clearly there is little hope of finding a simple function T(x, y) that satisfies all these re-
quirements. We must resort to various numerical techniques. In the finite element method,
the domain is discretized into a collection of elements, each one of them being of a simple
geometry, such as a triangle, a rectangle, or a quadrilateral.
A triangular element for solution of steady-state heat flow over two-dimensional bod-
ies is shown in Figure 1.6. The element can be used for finding temperature distribution
------x
Figure 1.6. Triangular element for heat flow
10 FINITE ELEMENTMETHOD: THE BIG PICTURE
over any two-dimensional body subjected to conduction and convection. The element is
defined by three nodes with nodal coordinates indicated by (xI' YI)' (Xz' Yz), and (x3' Y3)'
The starting node of the triangle is arbitrary, but we must move counterclockwise around
the triangle to define the other two nodes. The nodal degrees of freedom are the unknown
temperatures at each node Tp Tz' and 13.
For the truss model considered in the previous section, the structure was discrete to start
with, and thus there was only one possibility for a finite element model. This is not the case
for the two-dimensional regions. There are many possibilities in which a two-dimensional
domain can be discretized using triangular elements. One must decide on the number of
elements and their arrangement. In general, the accuracy of the solution improves as the
number of elements is increased. The computational effort, however, increases rapidly as
well. Concentrating more elements in regions where rapid changes in solution are expected
produces finite element discretizations that give excellent results with reasonable com-
putational effort. Some general remarks on constructing good finite element meshes are
presented in a following section. For the L-shaped solid a very coarse finite element dis-
cretization is as shown in Figure 1.7 for illustration. To get results that are meaningful from
an actual design point of view, a much finer mesh, one with perhaps 100 to 200 elements,
would be required.
The finite element equations for a triangular element for two-dimensional steady-state
heat flow are derived in Chapter 5. The equations are based on the assumption of linear
y Element numbers
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
x
0 0.01 .0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
y Node numbers
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
21
0.01
0.005 20
0
1 6 11 16 19
x
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Figure 1.7. Triangular element mesh for heat flow through an L-shaped solid
temperature distribution over the element. In terms of nodal temperatures, the temperature
distribution over a typical element is written as follows:
where
The quantities Ni , i = 1, 2, 3, are known as interpolation or shape functions. The.superscript

T over N indicates matrix transpose. The vector d is the vector of nodal unknowns. The
terms b l , c I ' ... depend on element coordinates and are defined as follows:
b3 =YI - Y2
CI=X3-X2; C2 =xI -X3; C
3
= X2 - X j
II =XiY3 - x3Y 2 ; 12 =X3YI -XIY3; 13 = X IY2 - X2YI
The area of the triangle A can be computed from the following equation:
where det indicates determinant of the matrix.
A note on the notation employed for vectors and matrices in this book is in order here.
As an easy-to-remember convention, all vectors are considered column vectors and are
denoted by boldface italic characters. When an expression needs a row vector, a super-
script T is used to indicate that it is the transpose of a column vector. Matrices are also
denoted by boldface italic characters. The numbers of rows and columns in a matrix
should be carefully noted in the initial definition. Remember that, for matrix multipli-
cation to make sense, the number of columns in the first matrix should be equal to the
number of rows in the second matrix. Since large column vectors occupy lot of space on
a page, occasionally vector elements may be displayed in arow to save space. However,
for matrix operations, they are still treated as column vectors.
As shown in Chapter 5, the finite element equations for this element are as follows:
where kx = heat conduction coefficient in the x direction, ky = heat conduction coefficient

in the y direction, and Q = heat generated per unit volume over the element. The matrix
r"
Je" and the vector take into account any specified heat loss due to convection along one
or more sides of the element. If the convection heat loss is specified along side 1 of the
element, then we have
2 1 0)
k = hL 12 1 2 0 . hTooL12 [ .11)
r" -- --2-
Convection along side 1:
"6
000 [ '
o
where h = convection heat flow coefficient, Too = temperature of the air or other fluid
surrounding the body, and L 12 = length of side 1 of the element. For convection heat flow
along sides 2 or 3, the matrices are as follows:
Convection along side 2: e" =hL23[~

J.
' 6
,e" ~hI,,[~
0
2
0 1 n r" = hT~~3 0)
~); ? - [~)
0
Convection along side 3: 0 r,,-
- -hT-ooL31
6
I' 1 0 - 1
where L23 and L31 are lengths of sides 2 and 3 of the element. The vector rq is due to
possible heat flux q applied along one or more sides of the element:
Applied flux along side 1: r, ~ q~" UJ
Applied flux along side 2: r,~ qi'[!j

Applied flux along side 3: r,~ qi' m
If convection or heat flux is specified on more than one side of an element, appropriate
matrices are written for each side and then added together. For an insulated boundary q = 0,
and hence insulated boundaries do not contribute anything to the element equations.
As mentioned in the previous section, we cannot solve for nodal temperatures by simply
solving the equations for one eiement. We must consider contributions of all elements and
specified boundary conditions before solving for the nodal unknowns. These procedures
are discussed in detail in later sections in this chapter.
model of the heat flow through the L-shaped solid shown in Figure 1.7.
The element is situated between nodes 4, 10, and 5. We can choose any of the three
nodes as the first node of the element and define the other two by moving counterclockwise
around the element. Choosing node 4 as the first node establishes line 4-10 as the first side
of the element, line 10-5 as the second side, and line 5-4 as the third side. The origin of
the global x-y coordinate system can be placed at any convenient location. Choosing node
1 as the origin, the coordinates of the element end nodes are as follows:
Node 1 (global node 4) = (O., 0.0225) m; XI =0.; YI =0.0225

Node 2 (global node 10) = (O.015, 0.03) m; x2 = 0.015; Y2 = 0.03
Node 3 (global node 5) = (O., 0.03) m; x3 = 0.; Y3 = 0.03
Using these coordinates, the constants bi' ci , and I, and the element area can easily be
computed as follows:
b, =0.; b2 = 0.0075; b 3 = -0.0075

c I = -0.015; c2 = 0.; c3 =0.015
II = 0.00045; 12 =0.; 13 = -0.0003375
Element Area.= 0.00005625
From the given data the thermal conductivities and heat generated over the solid are as
follows:
Q = 5000000
Substituting these numerical values into the element equation expressions, the matrices lck
and r Q can easily be written as follows:
45. 93.75]
lck =
(
O. "a = ( 93.75
-45. 93.75
There is an applied heat flux on side 3 (line 5-4) of the element. The length of this side of
the element is 0.0075 m and With q = 8000 (a positive value since heat is flowing into the
body) the r q vector for the element is as follows:
Heat flux on side 3 with coordinates ({O., 0.0225) (O., 0.03)),
L = 0.0075; q = 8000
rq
30.)
=[ a ,
30.
The side 2 of the element is subjected to heat loss by convection. The convection term
generates a matrix kh and a vectorrho
Substituting the numerical values into the formulas,
these contributions are as follows:
Convection on side 2 with coordinates ((0.015, 0.03) (0.,0.03}),
L = 0.015; h = 55; Too = 20
kh=[~a 0.1375
~.275 0.275
~.1375);rh=[8.~5)'
8.25
Adding matrices kk and k h and vectors r Q , rq , and rh , the complete element equations are
as follows:
45.
O.
O.
11.525
-45.
-11.1125
)[TT
4 )
=
[123.75)
102.
IO
[
-45. -11.1125 56.525 Ts 132.
• MathematicalMATLAB Implementation 1.2 on the Book Web Site:
Triangular element for heat flow
1.1.3 General Remarks on Finite Element Discretization

The accuracy of a finite element analysis depends on the number of elements used in
the model and the arrangement of elements. In general, the accuracy of the solution im-
proves as the number of elements is' increased. The computational effort, however, in-
creases rapidly as well. Concentrating more elements in regions where rapid changes in
solution are expected produces finite element discretizations that give excellent results
with reasonable computational effort. Some general remarks on constructing good finite
element meshes follow.
1. Physical Geometry of the Domain. Enough elements must be used to model the
physical domain as accurately as possible. For example, when a curved domain is to be
discretized by using elements with straight edges, one must use a reasonably large number
of elements; otherwise there will be a large discrepancy in the actual geometry and the dis-
cretized geometry used in the model. Figure 1.8 illustrates error in the approximation of a
curved boundary for a two-dimensional domain discretized using triangular elements. Us-
ing more elements along the boundary will obviously reduce this discrepancy. If available,
a better option is to use elements that allow curved sides.
2. Desired Accuracy. Generally, using more elements produces more accurate results.
3. Element Formulation. Some element formulations produce more accurate results
than others, and thus formulation employed in a particular element influences the num-
ber of elements needed in the model for a desired accuracy.
Actual boundary
Figure 1.8. Discrepancy in the actual physical boundary and the triangular element model geometry
x
Valid mesh Invalid mesh
Figure 1.9. Valid and invalid mesh for four-node elements
4. Special Solution Characteristics. Regions over which the solution changes rapidly
generally require a large number of elements to accurately capture high solution gradients.
A good modeling practice is to start with a relatively coarse mesh to get an idea of the
solution and then proceed with more refined models. The results from the coarse model are
used to guide the mesh refinement process.
5. Available Computational Resources. Models with more elements require more com-
putational resources in terms of memory, disk space, and computer processor.
6. Element Interfaces. J;:~ements are joined together at nodes (typically shown as dark
circles on the finite element meshes). The solutions at these nodes are the primary variables
in the finite element procedure. For reasons that will become clear after studying the next
few chapters, it is important to create meshes in which the adjacent elements are always
connected from comer to comer. Figure 1.9 shows an example of a valid and an invalid
mesh when empioying four-node quadrilateral elements. The reason why the three-element
mesh on the right is invalid is because node 4 that forms a comer of elements 2 and 3 is
not attached to one of the four comers of element 1.
7. Symmetry. For many practical problems, solution domains and boundary conditions
are symmetric, and hence one can expect symmetry in the solution as well. It is impor-
tant to recognize such symmetry and to model only the symmetric portion of the solution
domain that gives information for the entire model. One common situation is illustrated
in the modeling of a notched-beam problem in the following section. Besides the obvious
advantage of reducing the model size, by taking advantage of symmetry, one is guaran-
teed to obtain a symmetric solution for the problem. Due to the numerical nature of the
16 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD: THE BIG PICTURE
Figure 1.10. Unsymmetrical finite element mesh for a symmetric notched beam
501b/in2
Figure 1.11. Notched beam
finite element method and the unique characteristics of elements employed, modeling the
entire symmetric region may in fact produce results that are not symmetric. As a simple
illustration, consider the triangular element mesh shown in Figure 1.10 that models the
entire notched beam of Figure 1.11. The actual solution should be symmetric with respect
to the centerline of the beam. However, the computed finite element solution will not be
entirely symmetric because the arrangement of the triangular elements in the model is not
symmetric with respect to the midplane.
A general rule of thumb to follow in a finite element analysis is to start with a fairly
coarse mesh. The number and arrangement of elements should be just enough to get a good
approximation of the geometry, loading, and other physical characteristics of the problem.
From the results of this coarse model, select regions in which the solution is changing
rapidly for further refinement. To see solution convergence, select one or more critical
points in the model and monitor the solution at these points as the number of elements
(or the total number of degrees of freedom) in the model is increased. Initially, when the
meshes are relatively coarse, there should be significant change in the solution at these
points from one mesh to the other. The solution should begin to stabilize after the number
of elements used in the model has reached a reasonable level.
1.1.4 Triangular Element for Two-Dimensional Stress Analysis

As a final example of the element equations, consider the problem of finding stresses in the
notched beam of rectangular cross section shown in Figure 1.11. The beam is 4 in thick in
the direction perpendicular to the plane of paper and is made of concrete with modulus of
elasticity E = 3 x 1061b/in2 and Poisson's ratio v = 0.2.
Since the beam thickness is small as compared to the other dimensions, it is reasonable
to consider the analysis as a plane stress situation in which the stress changes in the thick-
ness direction are ignored. Furthermore, we recognize that the loading and the geometry
are symmetric with respect to the plane passing through the midspan. Thus the displace-
ments must be symmetric and the points on the plane passing through the midspan do not
experience any displacement in the horizontal direction. Taking advantage of these simpli-
y Element numbers
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
x
0 10 20 30 40 so
y
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
x
0 10 20 30 40 so
Figure 1.12. Finite element model of the notched beam
fications, we need to construct a two-dimensional plane stress finite element model of only
half of the beam. As an illustration, a coarse finite element model of the right half of the
beam using triangular elements is shown in Figure 1.12. All nodes on the right end are fixed
against displacement because of the given boundary condition. The left end of the model
is on the symmetry plane, and thus nodes on the left end cannot displace in the horizontal
direction. Once again, in an actual stress analysis a much finer finite element mesh will
be needed to get accurate values of stresses and displacements. Even in the coarse model
notice that relatively small elements are employed in the notched region where high stress
gradients are expected.
A typical triangular element for the solution of the two-dimensional stress analysis prob-
lem is shown in Figure 1.13. The element is defined by three nodes with nodal coordinates
indicated by (XI' YI)' (x 2' Y2)' and (x3' Y3)' The starting node of the triangleis arbitrary, but
we must move counterclockwise around the triangle to define the other two nodes. The
nodal degrees of freedom are the displacements in the X and Y directions, indicated by
u and v. On one or more sides of the element, uniformly distributed load in the normal
direction qn and that in the tangential direction qr can be specified.
The element is based on the assumption of linear displacements over the element. In
terms of nodal degrees of freedom, the displacements over an element can be written as
follows:
u(x, y) = N I u l + N2 u2 + N3 u3
vex, y) = N I VI + N2v2 + N3v3
ul
VI
~J
( u(x, y) ) = (NI 0 N2 0 N3 u2 =NTd
vex, y) 0 NI 0 N2 0 v2
u3
v3
-------------x
Figure 1.13. Plane stress triangular element
where the Ni , i = 1, 2, 3, are the same linear triangle interpolation functions as those used
for the heat flow element:
C j = X3-XZ; C =X -X
z I 3; C3 = Xz -Xl
II = XZY3 - X3Yz; I z = X3Yl - X lY3; I 3 =XlYz - XZYI
The element area A can be computed as follows:
Using these assumed displacements, the element strains can be written as follows:
o bz 0 b3
o Cz 0
Cz bz c3
where Ex and <;, are the normal strains in the X and Y directions and 'Yxy is the shear strain. The
corresponding stresses are denoted by 0;" OJ, and T.t}" respectively. The vector of stresses
is denoted by CT and is related to the strain vector through Hooke's law as follows:
DISCRETIZATION AND ELEMENT EQl'iATIONS 19
where C is the appropriate constitutive matrix. For homogeneous, isotropic, and elastic
materials under plane stress conditions,
,~, ]
1 v
C- E v 1
-1- V2( 0 0
where E = Young's modulus and v = Poisson's ratio.

The finite element 'equations for this element are derived in Chapter 7 and are as follows:
kd=rq
where k is the element stiffness matrix given by
where h = element thickness. The vector rq represents equivalent nodal load due to any
applied distributed loads along one or more sides of an element. For a uniformly distributed
load on side 1 of the element with components q" and q/ in the normal and tangential
directions of the surface, the equivalent load vector is as follows:
T hL I2
rq =T ( l 1 xq ll - l1yq/ l1yq" + nxq/ I1xq" - nyq/ l1yq" + I1xq/ 0 0)
where L I2 = ~ (x2 - xJ + (Y2 - YI)2 is the length of side 1 and I1x and l1y are the compo-
nents of the unit normal to side. Note that r q is a 6 x 1 column vector. It is written as a row
to save space. The components of the unit normal to the side can be computed as follows:
n =-Y2- Y l. 11 =__x2_-x_1
x L ' Y L I2
12
A pressure component is considered positive if it is along the positive direction of the

normal or tangent to the side. As shown in Figure 1.13, while moving counterclockwise
around the element, the positive normal vector points in the outward direction. The positive
0
tangent vector is 90 counterclockwise from the positive normal vector.
For a uniformly distributed load on side 2,
hL
rTq = ~(O
2 0 q -
nX" 11 q
Y t
where L 23 = ~ (x3 - x 2 )2 + (Y3 - Y2)2 is the length of side 2 and
n = Y3 -Y2. .;1:"3 -x
11
Y
=, - -L - -2
x L 23 '
23.
For a uniformly distributed load on side 3,
T hL31
rq = -2-( nxq" - l1yq/ l1yq" + I1xqt 0 0 I1xq" - l1yqt l1yq" + I1xq/ )
n = YI -Y3.
x ~l'
If loads are specified on more than one side of an element, appropriate vectors are.written
for each side and then added together. As mentioned with the plane truss element, any con-
centrated applied load at a node is added directly to the global equations during assembly.
This will be illustrated in a later section. Furthermore, we cannot solve for nodal displace-
ments by simply solving the equations for one element. We must consider contributions
of all elements and specified boundary conditions before solving for the nodal unknowns.
These procedures are discussed in detail in later sections in this chapter.
model of the notched beam shown in Figure 1.12.
The element is connected between nodes 4, 7, and 11. We can choose any of the three
nodes as the first node of the element and define the other two by moving counterclockwise
around the element. Choosing node 4 as the first node establishes line 4-7 as the first side
of the element, line 7-11 as the second side, and line 11-4 as the third side. The origin of
the global x-y coordinate system can be placed at any convenient location. Choosing the
origin as shown in Figure 1.12, the coordinates of the element end nodes are as follows:
Node 1 (global node 4) = (0., 12.) in; Xl =0.; YI = 12.

Node 2 (global node 7) = (5., 9.66667) in; . x2 =5.; Y2 = 9.66667
Node 3 (global node 11) = (6., 12.) in; x 3 =6.; Y3 = 12.
,I
Using these coordinates, the constants in the B matrix can easily be computed as follows:
bl = -2.33333; b2 =0.; b3 = 2.33333

ci = 1.; c2 = -6.; <s = 5.
Substituting the given data, we have
A = 7.; h = 4; E = 3000000; V= 0.2
BT =[
- 0.166667
0 0.0714286 0
oO. o
-0.428571
0.166667 0
0 0.357143
1
0.0714286 -0.166667 -0.428571 O. 0.357143 0.16{i667
3.125 X 106 625000.
Plane stress C = 62500~. 3.125 x 106
[
o
ASSEMBLY OF ELEMENT EQUATIONS 21
Thus the element stiffness matrix. is
2.60913 -0.625 -1.07143 1.25 -1.5377 -0.625

-0.625 1.41865 2.5 -2.67857 , -1.875 1.25992
-1.07143 2.5 6.42857 o -5.35714 -2.5
1.25 -2.67857 o 16.0714 -1.25 -13.3929
-1.5377 -1.875 -5.35714 -1.25 6.89484 3.125
~0.625 1.25992 -2.5 -13.3929 3.125 12.1329
There is an applied load in the negative outer normal direction on side 3 (nodes (11, 4}) of
the element. The equivalent nodal load vector rq for the element is computed as follows:
Specified load components: qn = -50; qt = 0
End nodal coordinates: «(6., l2.) (0., l2.}), giving side length L = 6
Components of unit normal to the side: Hx = 0.; Hy = 1.
Using these values, we get r~ = (0. -600. 0 0 O. -600.)
Thus the complete element equations are as follows:
2.60913 -0.625 -1.07143 1.25 -1.5377 -0.625 u4 O.

-0.625 1.41865 2.5 -2.67857 -1.875 1.25992 v4 -600.
-1.07143 2.5 6.42857 0 -5.35714 -2.5 u7 O.
106
1.25 -2.67857 0 16.0714 -1.25 -13.3929 v7 O.
-1.5377 -1.875 -5.35714 -1.25 6.89484 3.125 u ll O.
-0.625 1.25992 -2.5 -13.3929 3.125 12.1329 v ll -600.
• Mathematica/MATLARImplementation :R..3 on the Book Web Site:

Triangular element for plane stress
1.2 ASSEMBLY OF ELEMENT EQUATIONS
The finite element discretization divides a solution domain or structure into simple ele-
ments. For each element the finite element equations can be written by substituting nu-
merical values into the formulas for appropriate element type. In the assembly process, we
must put the split-up solution domain back together before proceeding with the solution.
The key concept in the assembly process is that at a node common between several ele-
mentsthe nodal solution is the same for all elements sharing this node. Thus contributions
to that degree of freedom from all adjacent elements must be added together.
To illustrate the assembly process, consider the lO-node and 8-element finite element
mesh for the heat flow problem shown in Figure 1.14. The nodal degrees of freedom are
the temperatures at the nodes. Since there are 10 nodes, the global system of equations is
10 x 10. Thus we start the assembly process by initializing a 10 x 10 system of equations
111 201
201 222 301)[T!)
232 Tz = (11)
12
[
301 232 333 Ts 13
Now we consider the assembly of element 1 into the global system. This element con-
tributes to the nodal degrees of freedom (1,2,5). Since the element involves degrees of
freedom Tl' Tz' and Ts, these equations will be added to global equations 1, 2, and 5, re-
spectively. Written in expanded form, the first equation of this element is
lIlT! + 20lTz + 30lTs = 11
. Expanding it to include al1lO degrees offreedom in the model, we have

In the global system this is the first equation, and therefore the equation can be inserted
into the global system as follows:
111 201 0 0 301 0 0 0 0 0 t; 11

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T4 0
0 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T5 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T6 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T? 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ts 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T9 0
O' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TIO 0
The other two equations for the element are expanded in a similar manner.
Element Global
Equation Equation
Number Number Equation
2 2 201Tj + 222T2 + OT3 + OT4 + 232Ts + OT6 + OT?
+ OTs + OT9 + OTIO = 12
3 5 301Tj + 232T2 + OT3 + OT4 + 333Ts + OT6 + OT?
+ OTs + OT9 + OTIO = 13
Placing these equations in the second and fifth rows, the global equations after assembly
of element 1 are as follows:
222 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
232_0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The above procedure of reordering and expanding element equations is quite tedious. For-
tunately, it is not necessary to formally carry out these steps in detail. The appropriate
locations of the entries in the global equations can be determined simply by taking the list
of degrees of freedom to which the element is contributing. This list is called the location
vector. For element 1 the location vector is as follows: .
For assembling into a global vector (right-hand side), the entries in the location vector
directly indicate the locations where the corresponding element quantity will contribute:
Locations for element 1 contributions to a global vector:

[;1]
To determine the global locations of the entries in an element matrix (left-hand-side coef-
ficient matrix), we simply take all combinations of the indices in the location vector. For
the first row, the locations have the row index of 1 and column indices are 1,2, and 5. For
the second row, the row index is 2 and the column indices are 1,2, and 5. For the third row,
the row index is 5 and the column indices are 1,2, and 5. Thus the locations in the global
matrix where the corresponding element quantities are added are as follows:
Locations for element 1 contributions to the global matrix:

[1, 1] [1,2]
[2, 1] [2,2]
[1,5])
[2,5]
[ [5,5]
[5, 1] [5,2]
This indicates that 111 from the element matrix goes to the location [1, 1] in the global
matrix, 201 into the [1,2], etc. Clearly, this gives us exactly the same global matrix after
assembly of this element as before.
Each element in a finite element model is processed in exactly the same manner. As a
further illustration, consider assembly of element 2. Assume that the equations for element
2 are as follows:
80 ;' 80
77 8890
100 )[TT2
6
)
= [21)
22
[
90 100 99 Ts 23
The location vector and the locations to which this element contributes in the global matrix
are as follows:
Element 2 location vector:

[ 2~ )
[~)
/
Locations for element 2 contributions to a global vector:
Locations for element 2 contributions to a global matrix:

[[2,[6,2]2] [2,6]
[6,6]
[2,5])
[6,5]
[5,2] [5,6] [5,5]
This indicates that 77 from the element matrix is added to the location [2, 2] in the global
matrix, 80 into the [2,6], etc. Thus the global equations after assembly of this element are
as follows.
111 201 0 0 301 0 0 0 0 0 t, 11

201 222 + 77 0 0 232+ 90 80 0 0 0 0 Tz · 12+ 21
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T4 0
301 232+ 90 0 0 333 + 99 100 0 0 0 0 Ts 13 +23
0 80 0 0 100 88 0 0 0 0 T6 22
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T7 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ts 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T9 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 TIO 0
The equations for the remaining six elements can be assembled in exactly the same manner.
The following examples,involving plane truss, heat flow, and plane stress elements, further
illustrate the assembly procedure. ~
~ MathematicalMATLAB Implementation 1.4 on the Book Web Site:

Finite element assembly procedure
Example 1.4 Five-Bar Truss Write element equations and assemble them to form
global equations for the five-bar plane truss shown in Figure 1.15. The area of cross section
for elements 1 and 2 is 40 em", for elements 3 and 4 is 30 crrr', and for element 5 is 20 cnr'.
The first four elements are made of a material with E = 200 GPa and the last one with
E =70 GPa. The applied load P = 150 kN.
Each node in the model has two- displacement degrees of freedom. They are identified by
the letters u and v with a subscript indicating the corresponding node number and are shown
in Figure 1.16, Without considering the specified zero displacements at the supports, the
model has a total of eight degrees of freedom. Thus the global equations will be a system
of eight equations in eight unknowns.
\
5 l· 30----4-----::;;0
4
.. \-;;,
3
p
2
o 2 3 4
Figure 1.15. Five-bar plane truss
Figure 1.16. Five-bar plane truss finite element model
The next step is to get finite element equations for each element in the model. We simply
need to substitute the appropriate numerical values into the plane truss element equations.
The concentrated nodal load is added directly into the global equations at the start of as-
sembly. Since the load is acting downward and the displacements are assumed positive
along the positive coordinates, the load at node 2 is (0, -ISO kN). Since the displacements
are usually small, it is convenient to use newton-millimeters. The displacements will come
~ITIillimeters and the stresses in megapascals. .
For each element we substitute the numericar-aata into the plane truss stiffness matrix
and assemble them into the global equations using the assembly procedure discussed ear-
lier. The complete computations are as follows. All numerical values are in newtons and
millimeters.
The specified nodal loads are as follows:
Node dof Value

2 u2 0
112 -150000
The global equations at the start of the element assembly process are
t
,I
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 uj 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 vj 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 112 -150000
:=:
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 113 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u4 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 114 0
The equations for element 1 are as follows:

E :=: 200000; A :=: 4000
Element Node Global Node Number x Y
1 1 0 0
2 2 1500. 3500.
xj :=: 0; Yj :=: 0; x 2 :=: 1500.; Y2 :=: 3500.
L :=: ~ (x2 - X j)2 + (Y2 - Yj)2 :=: 3807.89
Direction cosines'. Is = X z L- xI ,;, 0393919'

. 's
m = Yz L- YI = 0.919145
Substituting into the truss element equations, we get
32600.2
76067.2
76067.2 -32600.2
177490.
-76067.2] j '] [0.]
-76067.2 -177490. vI _ O.
[U
-32600.2 -76067.2 32600.2 76067.2 Uz - O.
[
-76067.2 -177490. 76067.2 177490. v2 O.
The element contributes to [1,2, 3, 4) global degrees of freedom:
Locations for element contributions to a global vector: [ ~]

[1, 1] [1,2] [1,3] [1, 4]]
. [2, 1] [2,2] [2, 3] [2,4]
and to ago
1 ba1 matnx: [3, 1] [3,2] [3,3] [3,4]
[
[4,1] [4,2] [4,3] [4,4]
Adding element equations into appropriate locations, we have
32600.2 76067.2 -32600.2 -76067.2 o 0 0 0 uj o

76067.2 177490. -76067.2 -177490. o 0 0 0 VI o
-32600.2 -76067.2 32600.2 76067.2 0 0 0 0 u2 o
-76067.2 -177490. 76067.2 177490. o 0 0 0 v2 -150000.
o o o o 0000 u3 o
o o o o o 0 0 0 v3 o
o o _0 o o 0 0 0 u4 o
o o o o o 0 0 0 v4 o
E = 200000; A = 4000
1 2 1500. 3500.
2 4 5000 5000
xj= 1500.;YI= 3500.; x2 = 5000; Yi = 5000
L = ~ (x2 - xji + (Y2 - y1i = 3807.89
Direction cosines: Is = X2 ~ X = 0.919145; ms = Y2 ~ YI. = 0.393919

j
177490. 76067.2 -177490.

76067.2 -32600.2 [U2]
32600.2 -76067.2 -76067.2] v2 _ [0.]
O.
-177490. -76067.2 177490. 76067.2 u4 - O.
[
-76067.2 -32600.2 76067.2 32600.2 v4 O.
The element contributes to (3, 4, 7, 8} degrees of freedom:
Locations '0' element contributions to a global vector: [!]

[3.8 1]
[3,4] [3,7]
[[3.3]
. [4,3] [4,4] [4,7] [4,8]
and to a global matnx: [7, 3] [7,7] [7,8]
[7,4]
[8,3] [8,4] [8,7] [8,8]
32600.2 76067.2 -32600.2 -76067.2 0 0 0 0 ul 0

76067.2 177490. -76067.2 -177490. 0 0 0 0 VI 0
-32600.2 -76067.2 210090. 152134. 0 0 -177490. -76067.2 u2 0
-76067.2 -177490. 152134. 210090. 0 0 -76067.2 -32600.2 v2 -150000.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v3 0
0 0 -177490. -76067.2 0 0 177490. 76067.2 u4 0
0 0 -76067.2 -32600.2 0 0 76067.2 32600.2 v4 0
The remaining elements can be processed in exactly the same manner. After assembling
all elements, the global equations for the model are as follows:
32600.2 76067.2 -32600.2 -76067.2 0 0 0 0 "I 0

76067.2 297490. -76067.2 -177490. 0 -120000 0 0 VI 0
-32600.2 -76067.2 243089. 119136. -32998.3 32998.3 -177490. -76067.2 "2 0
-76067.2 -177490. 119136. . 243089. 32998.3 -32998.3 -76067.2 -32600.2 v2 -150000.
0 0 -32998.3 32998.3 1.~i998. -32998.3 -120000 0 "3 0
0 -120000 32998.3 -32998.3 -32998.3 152998. 0 0 v3 0
0 0 -177490. -76067.2 -120000 0 297490. 76067.2 "4 0
0 0 -76067.2 -32600.2 0 0 76067.2 32600.2 v4 0

Five-bar plane truss assembly
Example 1.5 Heat Flow through a Square Duct The cross section of a 20 X 20-cm
duct made of concrete walls 20 ern thick is shown in Figure 1.17. The inside surface of
the duct is maintained at a temperature of 300'C due to hot gases flowing from a furnace.
On the outside the duct is exposed to air with an ambient temperature of 20'C. The heat
conduction coefficient of concrete is 1.4 W/m . 'C. The average convection heat transfer
coefficient on the outside of the duct is 27 W1m . 'C.
Because of symmetry, we can model only one-eighth of the duct as shown in Figure
1.18. There cannot be any heat flow across a line of symmetry, and hence a symmetry
line is equivalent to a fully insulated boundary. The solution domain is discretized into
four triangular elements. This model is very coarse and therefore we do not expect very
accurate results. However, showing all calculations for a larger model will be too tedious.
ASSEMBLY OF ELEMENTEQUATIONS 29
Figure 1.17. Cross section of a square duct
y 3
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
o
o0.050. 10.150.l
Figure 1.18. Model of eighth of a square duct
For each element we substitute the numerical data into the triangular element equations
for heat flow and assemble them.into the global equations using the assembly procedure
discussed earlier. There is no heat generation, thus the Q term is O. We need to compute the
lck matrix for each element. Convection boundary conditions are specified on the outside
surface. Thus the convection terms in the element equations will only affect element 2.
Assuming this element is defined by starting with node 2, the convection term is on side 1
of the element. On the topand bottom sides, due to symmetry, there is no heat flow. They
behave as insulated sides and do not require any special consideration during the finite
element solution. The complete computations of element equations and their assembly
follow.
The global equations at the start of the assembly of the element equations are
0 0 0 0
o 0 0 0
000 0
[ 000 0
000 0

lex = 1.4; ky = 1.4; Q = 0
Nodal coordinates:
Element Node Global Node Number x y

1 1 O. O.
2 2 0.2 O.
3 5 0.1 0.1
Xl = 0,;x2 = 0.2;x3 = 0.1

Yj = 0.;Y2 = 0';Y3 = 0.1
Using these values, we get
bj = -0.1; b2 ~ 0.1;
c j ::;-0.1; c2 =-0.1;
Element area, A = 0.01
Substituting these values, we get
Complete element equations:
/
The element contributes to (1,2, 5} degrees of freedom:
Locations for element contributions to a global vector: [~ ]

and to a global matrix:
[1, 1] [1,2]
[2, 1] [2,2]
[1,
[2,5]
5]]
[
[5, 1] [5,2] [5, 5]
0.7 0
o 0.7
o 0
[ o 0
-0.7 -0.7

k., = 1.4; ky = 1.4; Q = 0
Nodal coordinates:

1 2 0.2 '0.
2 3 0.2 0.3
3 5 0.1 0.1
Xl = 0.2; x2 = 0.2;'x 3 = 0.1

Yl = 0.; Yz = 0.3; Y3 = 0.1
b j =0.2; bz = 0.1;
c j = -0.1; Cz =0.1;
Substituting these values, we get
1.16667 0.233333 -1.4]

Tek = 0.233333 0.466667 -0.7 ;
[ -1.4 -0.7 2.1
Convection on side 1 (nodes (2, 3D with h = 27 and Too = 20

End nodal coordinates: ({0.2, O.) (0.2,0.3}), giving side length L = 0.3
2.7 1.35 0] 81.]

Te" = [ ~.35 ~.7 ~; r, = [ 8~.
[ ~:~~~~~~:i~~~~ =~:~][.~]s = [~i:]

-1.4 -0.7 2.1 T 0
The element contributes to (2, 3, 5) degrees of freedom:
Locations for element contributions to, global v"tocm

[2, 2] [2,3] [2, 5]]
and to a global matrix: [3, 2]
[ [5,2]
n, 3] [3, 5]
[5, 3] [5, 5]
0.7 0 0 0 -0.7 T1 0
0 4.56667 1.58333 0 -2.1 T2 81.
0 1.58333 3.16667 0 -0.7 T3 81.
0 0 0 0 0 T4 0
-0.7 -2.1 -0.7 0 3.5 Ts 0
all elements the global equations for the model are as follows:
-0.7
[8~]
1.4 0 0 -0.7 T1
0 4.56667 1.58333 0 -2.1 T2
0 1.58333 3.51667 0.35 -1.4 T3 = 81.
-0.7 0 0.35 3.15 -2.8 T4 0
-0.7 -2.1 -1.4 -2.8 7. Ts 0
• MathematicafMATLAB Implementation 1.6 on the Book Web Site:

Heatflow example assembly
Example 1.6 Stress Analysisof a Bracket The top surface of a thin cantilever bracket
is subjected to normal pressure q = 20 lb/in", as shown in Figure 1.19. The bracket is 4 in
long and is 2 in wide at the base and 1 in wide at the free end. The thickness of the bracket
!
perpendicular to the plane of pap~r is .in. The material properties are E = 104lb/in2
and v = 0.2. A very coarse four-element finite .element model using plane stress triangular
elements is shown in Figure 1.20. For each element we substitute the numerical data into
the element equations given in the previous section and then assemble them into the global
equations using the assembly procedure discussed earlier.
Figure 1.19. Cantilever bracket subjected to normal pressure
y Element numbers y 2 Node numbers

2 2 4
1.5 1.5 6
1 1
0.5 0.5 5
0 0
x x
0 2 3 4 0 2 3 4
Figure 1.20. Finite element model of the cantilever bracket
The pressure will be accounted for in elements 2 and 4. Choosing node 4 as the first
node for element 2, the pressure 'term will be applied to side 1 of the element. The normal
pressure is in the direction opposite to the outer normal to the surface and therefore it must
be assigned a negative sign. For element 4, node 6 is chosen as the first node and thus the
. pressure on this element is also on side 1. The complete computations of element equations
and their assembly are as follows. All numerical quantities are in pounds and inches.
h = 0.25; E = 10000; v = 0.2
Plane stress constitutive matrix, C =

10416.7
208~.33
2083.33
10416.7
0
0
1
[ o 4166.67
Nodal coordinates:
1 1 O. O.
2 3 2. O.
3 4 2. 1.5
xI = 0.;x2 = 2.;x3 = 2.
YI = 0.;Y2 = 0';Y3 = 1.5

b l=-1.5; b2 = 1.5; b3 = O.
c j =0.; c2 = -2.; <s = 2.
BT =
- 0.5
0
0
o.
0.5
0
0
-0.666667
O.
0
o·
0.666667
1
[ 0.·· -0.5 -0.666667 0.5 0.666667 O.
Thus the element stiffness matrix is:
976.563 0 -976.563 260.417 0 -260.417
0 390.625 520.833 -390.625 -520.833 0
-976.563 520.833 1671.01 -781.25 -694.444 260.417
lc = hABCB T :::;
520.833 -1736.11
260.417 -390.625 -781.25 2126.74
0 -520.833 -694.444 520.833 694.444 0
-260.417 0 260.417 -1736.11 0 1736.11
976.563 0 -976.563 260.417 0 -260.417 llj O.

0 390.625 520.833 -390.625 -520.833 0 vI O.
-976.563 520.833 1671.01 -781.25 -694.444 260.417 ll3 O.
260.417 -390.625 -781.25 2126.74 520-,833 -1736.11 v3 O.
0 -520.833 -694.444 520.833 694.444 0 ll4 O.
-260.417 0 260.417 -1736.11 0 1736.11 v4 O.
The element contributes to (1,2,5,6,7,8) degrees of freedom.

1
2
5
Locations for element contributions to a global vector: 6
7
8
[1, 1] [1,2] [1,5] [1, 6] [1,7] [1, 8]
[2, 1] [2,2] [2, 5] [2, 6] . [2,7] [2, 8]
[5, 1] [5,2] [5,5] [5,6] [5,7] [5,8]
and to a global matrix: [6, 1] [6,2] [6,5] [6,6] [6,7] [6,8]
[7, 1] [7,2] [7,5] [7,6] [7,7] [7,8]
[8, 1] [8,2] [8,5] [8,6] [8,7] [8,8]
976.563 0 0 0 -976.563 260.417 0 -260.417 0 0 0 0 ul 0
0 390.625 0 0 520.833 -390.625 -520.833 0 0 0 0 0 VI 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 U2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v2 0
-976.563 520.833 0 0 1671.01 -781.25 -694.444 260.417 0 0 0 0 u3 0
260.417 -390.625 0 0 -781.25 2126.74 520.833 -1736.11 0 0 0 0 v3 0
o. -520.833 0 0 -694.444 520.833 694.444 0 0 0.' 0 0 U4 0
-260.417 0 0 0 260.417 -1736.11 0 1736.11 0 0 0 0 V4 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u5 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v5 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 U6 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v6 0
The equations for element 2 are as fdllows:

h = 0.25; E = 10000; v = 0.2
[10416.7 2083.33
Plane stress constitutive matrix, C = 2083.33 10416.7
. 0 0 41J67 ]
Nodal coordinates:
"1 4 2. 1.5
2 2 O. 2.
3 1 O. O.
Xl= 2,;x2 = 0';X3 = O.

Yl= 1.5; Y2 = 2.; Y3 = O.
b, =2.; b2=-1.5; b3 = -0.5

(;1 =0.; c2 = 2.; c3 = -2.
Element area, A = 2.
0.5 0 -0.3750 -0.125
B1' = 0 O. 0 0.5 ·0 o J
-0.5
[ O. 0.5 0.5 -0.375 -0.5 -0.125
Thus the element stiffness matrix is
---~---~-----~------~-----------------------~-------------------------------------------- -!
1302.08 0 -976.563 260.417 -325.521 -260.417

0 520.833 520.833 -390.625 -520.833 -130.208
-976.563 520.833 1253.26 -585.938 -276.693 65.1042
k =hABCB1' = 260.417 -390.625 -585.938 1595.05 325.521 -1204.43
-325.521 -520.833 -276.693 325.521 602.214 195.313
-260.417 -130.208 65.1042 -1204.43 195.313 1334.64
Load vector due to distributed load on side 1 (nodes (4, 2)):

Specified load components: qn = -20; qt = 0
End nodal coordinates: ( {2., 1.5} (O., 2.}), giving side length L = 2.06155
Components of unit normal to the side: nx = 0.242536; ny = 0.970143
r~=(-1.25 -5. -1.25 -5. 0 0)
1302.08 0 -976.563 260.417 -325.521 -260.417 u4 -1.25

0 520.833 520.833 -390.625 -520.833 -130.208 v4 -5.
-976.563 520.833 1253:26 -585.938 -276.693 65.1042 Uz -1.25
260.417 -390.625 -585_.938 1595.05 325.521 -1204.43 Vz -5.
-325.521 -520.833 -276.693 325.521 602.214 195.313 ul O.
-260.417 -130.208 65.1042 -1204.43 195.313 1334.64 - VI O.
The element contributes to {7,8, 3, 4, 1, 2} degrees of freedom.

7
8
3
Locations for element contributions to a global vector: 4
1
2
[7,7] [7, 8] [7,3] [7,4] [7, 1] [7,2]
[8,7] [8,8] [8,3] -[8,4] [8, 1] [8,2]
and to a global matrix: [3,7] [3,8] [3,3] [3,4]' [3, 1] [3,2]
[4,7] [4,8] [4,3] [4,4]. [4, 1] [4,2]
[1,7] [1,8] [1, 3] [1,4] - [1, 1] [1,2]
[2,7] [2, 8] [2,3] [2,4] [2, 1] [2,2]
1578.78 195.313 -276.693 325.521 -976.563 260.417 -325.521 -781.25 0 0 0 0 1/, 0

195.313 1725.26 65.1042 -1204.43 520.833 -390.625 -781.25 -130.208 0 0 0 0 v, 0
-276.693 65.1042 1253.26 -585.938 0 0 -976.563 520.833 0 0 0 0 1/2 -1.25
325.521 -1204.43 -585.938 1595.05 0 0 260.417 -390.625 0 0 0 0 v2 -5.
-976.563 520.833 0 0 1671.01 -781.25 -694.444 260.417 0 0 0 0 1/3 0
260.417 -390.625 0 0 -781.25 2126.74 520.833 -1736.11 0 0 0 0 v3 0
-325.521 -781.25 -976.563 260.417 -694.444 520.833 1996.53 0 0 0 0 0 1/4 -1.25
-781.25 -130.208 520.833 -390.625 260.417 -1736.11 0 2256.94 0 0 0 0 v4 -5.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/5 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 "s 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/6 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v6 0
all elements, the global equations for the model are as follows:
1578.78 195.313 -276.693 325.521 -976.563 260.411 -325,521 -781.25 0 0 0 0 "I 0
19S.313 1725.26 65.1042 -1204.43 520.833 -390.625 -781.25 -130.20B 0 0 0 . 0 VI 0
-276.693 65.1042 1253,26 -585.938 0 0 -976.563 520.833 0 0 0 0 1/2 -1.25
325.521 -1204.43 -585.938 1595.05 0 0 260.417 -390.625 0 0 0 0 '2 -5.
-976.563 520.833 0 0 312.5. -520.833 -lI7I.8S 520.833 -651.042 260.417 -325.521 -781.25 "3 0
260.417 -390.625 0 0 -520.833 4166.67 520.833 _3385.42 520.833 -260.417 -781.25 -130.208 '3 0
-325.521 -181.25 -976.563 260.417 -1111.88 510.833 3125. -520.833 0 0 -651.042 5~O.833
"4
= -~5
-781.25 -130.208 520.833 -390.625 520.833 -3385.42 -520.833 4166.67 0 0 260.417 -260.417 v4 -10.
0 0 0 0 -651.042 520.833 0 0 169271 -781.25 -1041.67 260.417 "5 0
0 0 0 0 260.417 -260.417 0 0 -781.25 2864.58 520.833 -2604.17 v5 0
0 0 0 0 -325.52J -781.25 -651JM2 260,417 -1041.67 520.833 2018.23 0 "6 -1.25
0 0 0 0 -781.25 -130.208 520.833 -260.417 260.417 -2604.17 0 2994.79 v6 -5.

Plane stress example assembly
1.3 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND NODAL SOLUTION

;'
A variety of boundary conditions were specified for the problems considered in the previ-
ous two sections. For the truss problem, some nodes were located at the supports, which
means that the displacements at these nodes must be zero. For the heat flow problem con-
ditions to be satisfied along the boundaries involved specified temperature, convection,
insulation, or heat flux. For the stress analysis problem, on some surfaces loading was.
applied while other surfaces were attached to fixed supports.
In the finite element analysis, some of the boundary conditions are incorporated directly
into the element equations. These are known as the natural boundary' conditions. Examples
of natural boundary conditions encountered in the previous sections are convection, insu-
lation, and heat flux boundary conditions for the heat flow problem and applied surface
loading for the structural problems. A review of element equations and assembly proce-
dures discussed in the previous sections should make it clear that these types of boundary
conditions have been taken into account while formulating and assembling the element
equations ..
The boundary conditions that are not incorporated directly into the element equations
are known as the essential boundary conditions. For heat flow problems these involve
specified temperatures along some boundaries. For stress analysis problems nodal sup-
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND NODAL SOLUTION 37
purts represent essential boundary conditions. Once again, a review of element equations
and assembly procedures discussed in the previous sections should clearly indicate that
these types of boundary conditions have not been taken into account while formulating
and assembling the element equations. .
Precise reasoning for splitting the boundary conditions into two categories-natural and
essential-will become clear after studying the mathematical foundations of the finite el-
ement method in the following chapter. At this stage our main concern is to see how to
actually incorporate boundary conditions into the finite element equations. Obviously we
must take care of all applicable boundary conditions when solving a given problem. We
start with the element equations and their assembly. The boundary conditions that can be
incorporated through the element equations are handled first. The remaining boundary con-
ditions are the essential boundary conditions. that are taken into account using procedures
discussed in this section.
In the assembly process it is assumed that all nodal degrees of freedom (dot) are un-
known, However, due to essential boundary conditions, some of these degrees of freedom
may have a zero or some other specified value. Therefore, introduction of essential bound-
ary conditions into the global equations involves substituting the known values into the
vector of nodal variables and malting appropriate changes to the equations.'
There are three methods for accomplishing this. The first method involves rearrange-
ment of equations but has an advantage that the final system of equations is smaller than
the global system. The second method keeps the original order of variables but does re-
quire several modifications to the equations. The third method is an approximate method
but requires the fewest changes to the equations. On some computers rearranging a large
system of equations is very inefficient and hence the approximate method may be more
economical. For hand calculations obviously the first method is preferred. Most examples
presented in this text use this first approach. The details of these methods follow.
1.3.1 Essential Boundary Conditions by Rearranging Equations

As an illustration, assume that a finite element model from a heat flow problem results in
the following global systerrrof equations: .
1000 10 20 30 40 50 100
10 2000 21 31 41 51 110
20 21 3000 32 42 52 120
30 31 32 4000 43 53 130
40 41 42 43 5000 54 140
50 51 52 53 54 6000 150
Consider the situation when some of the nodes are located on sides over which the tem-
peratures are known. As an illustration, say T1 = 5, T4 = -7, and Ts = O. Thus we only
have three nodal unknown temperatures remaining, namely 0.,7;, and T6 • These three un-
knowns can be obtained by solving the corresponding equations, 2, 3, and 6. Introducing
the known values in the nodal degrees of freedom vector and retaining only the equations
Since there are only three unknowns, these equations can be rearranged by moving the
known values to the right-hand side. The first column is multiplied by 5, the fourth column
by -7, and the fifth column by 0, and hence we get
2000 21
21 3000
[ 51
51
52 )[TT2
3
) + 5 [10)
20 - 7 [31)
32 + 0 [41)
42 = [110)
120
52 6000 T6 50 53 54 150
Moving all constant vectors to the right-hand side, we have
2000 21
21 3000 51
52 )[TT 2
3
)
=[110)
120 + [-50)
-100 + [217)
224
[
51 52 6000 T6 150 . -250 371
Adding all terms on the right-hand-side, the final 3 X 3 system of equations is as follows:
2000 21 51
21 3000 52
)[TT 2
3
)
= [277)
244
[ 51 152 6000 T6 271
The solution of this system of equations gives
(T2 -? 0.136559, T3 -? 0.0796266, T6 -? 0.0433158)
Note that in these computations, when the specified value is zero, nothing gets added to the
right-hand side. Thus imposing a zero value for a nodal degree of freedom simply requires
removing both the corresponding row and the column from the system of equations. In this
case it is not necessary to even assemble the corresponding rows and columns and therefore
such degrees of freedom can be eliminated even before the assembly process begins. This
is an important observation to save computational effort, especially for structural problems
where zero nodal displacements are common due to supports.
You may be curious as to why we retained equations 2, 3, and 6 and removed the other
three. We have three unknowns left but why can we not use any three equationsto solve for
the three remaining unknowns? For a precise answer to this question one needs to study
the mathematical basis of the finite element method presented in the following chapter.
However, a simple reasoning based on physical grounds is as follows. When a temperature
is specified at a node, there must be a corresponding unknown heat source at that node
to maintain that temperature. Similarly, for a structural problem, when a displacement is
specified at a node, there actually is an unknown reaction corresponding to this degree of
freedom. Thus, when we insert known values into the nodal variables vector, for equa-
tions to remain consistent, unknown heat source or reaction terms must be inserted into
the right-hand-side vector for every specified nodal degree of freedom. Denoting theses
unknowns as R 1, R4 , and R s for the illustrative example, a consistent system of equations
after introducing given essential boundary conditions is as follows:
1000 10 20 30 40 50 5 R 1 + 100
10 2000 21 31 41 51 t; 110
20 21 3000 32 42 52 T3 120
30 31 32 4000 43 53 -7 R 4 + 130
40 41 42 43 5000 54 0 s, + 140
50 51 52 53 54 6000 T6 150
This system represents six equations in six unknowns, and if we want, we can solve these
equations directly for the six unknowns. However, since we do not need the newly intro-
duced unknowns, it is advantageous to reduce the system of equations to three for com-
puting the three unknown temperatures. However, the only way to solve for the remaining
nodal unknowns is to use equations 2, 3, and 6. Any other combination of three equations
will not yield the desired result. The first three equations, as an example, will have four
unknowns R p Tz, T3 , and T6 and thus are not suitable for the required solution .
• MathematicafMATIAB Implementation 1.8 on the Book Web Site:

Imposing essential boundary conditions
1.3.2 Essential Boundary Conditions by Modifying Equations

The method ofrearrangement of equations to handle essential boundary conditions is at-
tractive because the final system of equations is smaller than the global system. However,
on some computers rearranging a large system of equations is very inefficient, and thus it
is desirable to develop a method of incorporating essential boundary conditions that does
not require rearrangement of equations.
A simple alternative is to modify each equation that corresponds to a specified nodal
value as follows:
(i) Insert 1 at the diagonal location and zero at all off-diagonal locations in the row
corresponding to the specified degree of freedom.
(ii) Insert the known nodal value to the corresponding location in the right-hand side.
Using this approach for the illustrative example used in the previous section, we get the
following system of global equations:
1 0 o 0 0 o t; 5
10 2000 21 31 41 51 t; 110
20 21 3000 32 42 52 T3 :::: 120
o 0 o 10 o T4 -7
o 0 001 o Ts 0
50 51 52 53 54 6000 T6 150
Solving this system of equations for all six nodal values gives the following solution that
is exactly the same as before:
{Tl :::: 5., Tz :::: 0.136559, T3 :::: 0.0796266, T4 :::: -7., Ts :::: 0, T6 :::: 0.0433l58}
One drawback of the procedure so far is that the resulting coefficient matrix is not sym-
metric anymore. For large problems this is a serious drawback. It is possible to rectify the
situation by making the corresponding column entries 0 and subtracting the products of
terms in these columns with the known values from the right-hand side in a manner similar
to that done in the previous case:
1 0 0 0 0 0 T1 5 0 0 0 5
0 2000 21 0 0 51 t; 110 10 31 41 277
0 21 3000 0 0 52 T3 120 20 32 42 244
:::: -5x ': (-7) x -Ox ::::
0 0 0 1 0 0 T4 -7 0 0 0 -7
0 0 0 0 1 0 Ts 0 0 0 0 0
0 51 52 0 0 6000 T6 150 50 53 54 271
{Tl :::: 5., Tz :::: 0.136559, T3 :::: 0.0796266, T4 :::: -7., Ts :::: 0, T6 :::: 0.0433158}
For imposing zero values of the nodal variables the process works very well because no
modifications to the right-hand side ~re necessary. However, for nonzero values the proce-
dure loses some of its simplicity. The following procedure, though approximate, is much
simpler to implement.
1.3.3 Approximate Treatment of Essent.ial Boundary Conditions

The previous two methods may. be inefficient to implement on some computers because
they require several modifications to the system of equations. A simple but approximate
alternative is to modify each equation corresponding to a specified nodal value as follows:
(i) Insert a large number at the diagonal corresponding to the known degree of free-
dom.
(ii) Add a value equal to this large number times the known nodal value to the right-
hand side.
Using this approach for the illustrative example used in the previous section and with 1010
as an arbitrarily chosen large number, we get the following system of global equations:
10 10 10 20 30 40 50 T! 5 X 10 10
10 2000 21 31 41 51 Tz no
20 21 3000 32 42 52 13 120
30 31 32 1010 43 53 T4 -7xlO lO
40 41 42 43 1010 54 Ts '0
50 51 52 53 54 6000 T6 150
Solving this system of equations for all six nodal values gives the following solution that
is essentially the same as before:
(T! = 5., Tz = 0.136559, T3 = 0.0796266, T4 = -7., Ts = 8.97177x10-9, T6 = 0.0433158)

To see the reason why this procedure works, consider the first equation of the modified
system:
, '
10000000000T! + lOTz + 20T3 + 30T4 + 40Ts + 50T6 = 50000000000
The two large terms dominate the equation and contribution of remaining terms is negligi-
ble. Thus the equation is effectively
10000000000T! '" 50000000000

giving
Similar reasoning shows that the fourth equation gives T4 = -7 and the fifth equation
Ts = O. The other equations give the remaining unknowns. The method gives reasonable
answers as long as the large number added to the diagonal is at least an order of magnitude
greater than the largest element in the coefficient matrix. Using the number 106 instead of
1010, we get the following solution that shows little more error in the specified values but
may still be considered reasonable:
(T! = 5.0002, Tz = 0.136559, T3 = 0.0796257,

14 = -7.56016, 15 = 0.0000897165, T6 = 0.0433147)
1.3.4 Computation of Reactions to Verify Overall Equilibrium

For structural problems, reactions at the supports provide a quick and simple check on the
validity of the analysis. For these problems the finite element equations represent equilib-
rium equations. Thus for overall equilibrium the sum of applied loads must be equal and
opposite to the sum of all reactions at the supports. Common blunders, such as employing
wrong or inconsistent units or careless computational errors, can easily be discovered if
reactions are available.
The concept of equilibrium is also applicable to heat flowproblems where the total heat
flowing into the body must be equal to that going out of the body.
After solving for the nodal unknowns, the reactions can be computed by using the equa-
tions that were deleted when the essential boundary conditions were being imposed. Thus
for the illustrative example the reactions can be computed from the first, fourth, and fifth
equations. Retaining these rows and inserting all nodal values, the reactions are obtained
from the following computation:
5
0.136559
(1000
30
10 20 30 40
31 32 4000 43 53
50] 0.0796266
=(R' + 100]
R4 + 130
-7
40 41 42 43 5000 54 R s + 140
0
0.0433158
Rearranging and performing computations, we get the following reactions:
5
0.136559
1~ ;~J
10 20 30
R I ) [1000 0.0796266 100)
(
R 4 = . 30 31 32 4000
-7
-
[
130 = (4695.12)
-27970.9
Rs 40 41 42 43 5000 54 140 -229.718
o
0.0433158
The following examples illustrate the use of reactions in validating solution consistency.

Imposing essential boundary conditions
Example 1.7 Five-Bar Truss The following global equations for five-bar plane truss
were developed in Example 1.4. Incorporate essential boundary conditions into the system
and obtain the final reduced system/of equations in terms of the remaining unknowns.
Solve for nodal values. Compute reactions and verify overall equilibrium.
32600.2 76067.2 -32600.2 -76067.2 0 0 0 0 III 0

76067.2 297490. -76067.2 -177490. 0 -120000 0 0 VI 0
-32600.2 -76067.2 243089. 119136. -32998.3 32998.3 -177490. -76067.2 112 0
-76067.2 -177490. 119136. 243089. 32998.3 -32998.3 -76067.2 -32600.2 v2 -150000.
0 0 -32998.3 32998.3 152998. -32998.3 -120000 0 113 0
0 -120000 32998.3 -32998.3 -32998.3 152998. 0 0 v3 0
0 0 -177490. -76067.2 ..:..120000 0 297490. 76067.2 114 0
0 0 -76067.2 -32600.2 0 0 76067.2 32600.2 v4 0
Nodes 1 and 4 of the truss have pin supports. Thus the essential boundary conditions are
as follows:
Node dof Value
1 ul 0
VI 0
4 u4 0
v4 0
After deleting equations (1, 2, 7, 8), we have
0
0
=[ -15~~]
[ -32600.2 -76067.2 243089. 119136. -32998.3 32998.3 -177490. -76067.2] ll2
-76067.2 -177490. 119136. 243089. 32998.3 -32998.3 -76067.2 -32600.2 v2
0 0 -32998.3 .32998.3 152998. -32998.3 -120000 0 ll3
0 -120000 32998.3 -32998.3 -32998.3 152998. 0 0 v3
0
0
/'
"
Since all entries in columns (1,2,7, 8) are multiplied by zero nodal values, they can be
removed. The final global system of equations is thus as follows: II {j ~.'
'{J 'y:P;'i' -
243089. 119136. -32998.3 32998.3] [U2] [ 0 ]

119136. 243089. 32998.3 -32998.3 v2 = -150000.
[ -32998.3 32998.3 152998. -32998.3 u3 0
32998.3 -32998.3 -32998.3 152998. v3 0
Solving the final system of global equations, we get the following nodal values:
(U
2
= 0.538954, v2 = -0.953061, u3 = 0.264704, v3 = -0.264704)
Complete Table of Nodal Values
_ U v
1 0 0
2 0.538954 -0.953061
3 0.264704 -0.264704
4 0 0
Computation of Reactions
Equation numbers of dof with specified values: (1,2,7, 8)
Extracting equations (1,2,7, 8) from the global system, we have
llj
VI
76067.2 -32600.2 -76067.2 0 0 0 ll2
[32600.2 -120000 0 [R' +0]
_ R2 +0.
76067.2
0
0
297490.
0
0
-76067.2
-177490.
-76067.2
-177490.
-76067.2
-32600.2
0
-120000
0
0
0
297490.
76067.2
7606t]
32600.2
V2
ll3
v3
- R3 +0.
R4 +0.
ll4
v4
Substituting the nodal values and rearranging,
o
o
o o o
7606~'2]
76067.2 -32600.2 -76067.2 0.538954
R1] [32600.2
R2 _ 76067.2 297490. -76067.2 -177490. o -120000 o -0.953061
R
[ 3
- 0 o -177490. -76067.2 -120000 o 297490. 0.264704
R4 0 o -76067.2 -32600.2 o o 76067.2 32600.2 -0.264704
o
o
Carrying out computations, the reactions are as follows:
Label dof Reaction

RI ul 54926.7
R2 vI 159927.
R3 u4 -54926.7
R4 v4 -9926.67
Sum of reactions:
dof: u 0
dof: v 150000.
There is no applied load in the x direction. Since the sum of reactions in the horizontal
direction is zero, the equilibrium is satisfied in this direction. There is an applied load of
150000 in the -y direction which balances with the sum of reactions in the y direction,
indicating that equilibrium is satisfied in this direction as well. Hence the solution satisfies
the overall equilibrium.
/
Example 1.8 Heat Flow through a Square Duct The following global equations for
heat flow through a square duct are developed in Example 1.5. Incorporate essential bound-
ary conditions into the system and obtain the final reduced system of equations in terms
of the remaining unknowns. Solve for nodal values. Compute reactions and verify overall
energy balance:
-07] T'] 8~]

1.4 0 0 -0.7
0 4.56667 1.58333 0 -2.1 T2
0 1.58333 3.51667 0.35 -1.4 T3 = 81.
-0.7 0 0.35 3.15 -2.8 T4 0
-0.7 -2.1 -1.4 -2.8 7. Ts 0
Nodes 1 and 4 are on the inside face that is maintained at a temperature of 300·C. Thus the
essential boundary conditions are as follows:
Node dof Value

1 300
4 300
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND NODALSOLUTION 45
Incorporating these boundary conditions means setting TI = T4 = 300 and removing equa-
tions 1 and 4 from the global system:
300
~1)
4.56667 1.58333 0 -2.1) Tz
( 00 1.58333 3.51667 0.35 -1.4 T3 ['1
-0.7 -2.1 -1.4 -2.8 7 300
=
Ts
Multiplying the first column by 300 and the fourth column by 300, the equations can be
written as follows:
4.56667 1.58333
1.58333 3.51667 -1.4
-2.1)(TTz ) + 300 [0)
3
(0) [81)
0 + 300 0.35 = 81
( -2.1 -1.4 7 Ts -0.7 -2.8 0
Moving constant vectors to the right-hand side, we get the final system of equations as
follows:
4.56667 1.58333
1.58333 3.51667 -1.4
-2.1)(TTz ) = [81.)
-24.
3
(
-2.1 -1.4 7. Ts 1050.
(Tz = 93.5466, T3 = 23.8437, t; = 182.833}

T
I 300
2 93.5466
3 23.8437
4 300
5 182.833
Computation of Reactions
Equation numbers of dof with specified values: (1, 4)
Extracting these equations from the global system (the one prior to adjustment for es-
sential boundary conditions), we have
1.4 0 0 -0.7
( -0.7 0 0.35 3.15
300 ]
R1
( R2
)=(-0.7
1.4
o
o
0 -0.7 -07) 93.5466
0.35 3.15 -2'8
.
23.8437
300 .
182.833
Table of reactions:
Label dof Reaction
s, T1 82.0171
R2 T4 231.414
Sum of reactions: 313.431

The sum of reactions represents the total heat energy put into the system. This must be
balanced by the heat loss due to convection. The convection heat loss takes place only on
side 2-3 of the model. The average temperature of this side is
Tavg = !(T2 + T3 ) = 58.695

Assuming this temperature to be constant for the entire O.3-m length of the side,
Convection heat loss from side 2-3 = hL(Tavg - T,,,) = 313.43

This heat loss is exactly the same as the sum of reactions, indicating that the solution
satisfies overall energy balance.
Example 1.9 Stress Analysis of a Bracket The following global equations for stress
analysis of a bracket are developed in Example 1.6. Incorporate essential boundary con-
ditions into the system and obtain tllli" final reduced system of equations in terms of the
remaining unknowns. Solve for nodal values. Compute reactions and verify overall equi-
librium:
1578.78 195.313 -276.693 325.52t -976.563 260.417 -325.521 -781.25 0 0 0 0 "I 0
195.313 1725.26 65.1042 -1204.43 520.833 -390.625 -781.25 -130.208 0 0 0 0 VI 0
-276.693 65.IO'l2 1253.26 -585.938 0 0 -976.563 520.833 0 0 0 0 "2 -1.25
-325.521 -1204.43 -585.938 1595.05 0 0 260.417 -390.625 0 0 0 0 V2 -5.
-976.563 520.833 0 0 3125. -520.833 -1171.88 520.833 -651.042 260.417 -325.521 -781.25 "3 0
26OA17 -390.625 0 0 -520.833 4166.67 520.833 -3385.42 520.833 -260.417 -781.25 -130.208 '3 0
-325,521 -781.25 -976.563 260.417 -1171.88 520.833 3125. -520.833 0 0 -651.042 520.833 1/4 -25
-781.25
0
-130.20B
0
520.833
0
-390.625
0
520.833
-651.042
-3385.42
520.833
-520.833
0
4166.67
0
0
1692.71
0
-781.25
260.417
-1041.67
-260.411
260.417
v"
"5
-10.
0
0 0 0 0 260.417 -260.417 0 0 -781.25 2864.58 520.833 -2604.17 '5 0
0 0 0 0 -325.521 -781.25 -651.042 260.417 -1041.67 520.833 2018.23 0 -1.25
"6
0 0 0 0 -781.25 -130.208 520.833 -260.417 260.417 -2604.17 0 2994.79 "6 -5.
Nodes 1 and 2 are on the fixed end of the bracket. Thus the essential boundary conditions
are as follows:
Node dof Value
1 uj 0
vj 0
2 u2 0
v2 0
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND NODALSOLUTION 47
Incorporating these boundary conditions means removing equations 1,2,3, and 4 from the
global system. Furthermore, since the specified values are 0, the corresponding columns
carralso be removed. Thus, after incorporating the essential boundary conditions, the final
system of equations is as follows:
3125. -520.833 -1171.88 520.833 -651.042 260.417 -325.521 -781.25 u3 0

-520.833 4166.67 520.833 -3385.42 520.833 -260.417 -781.25 -130.208 v3 0
-1171.88 520.833 3125. -520.833 0 0 -651.042 520.833 u4 -2.5
520.833 -3385.42 . -520.833 4166.67 0 0 260.417 -260.417 v4 -10.
-651.042 520.833 0 0 1692.71 -781.25 -1041.67 260.417 Us 0
260.417 -260.417 0 0 -781.25 2864.58 520.833 -2604.17 )/5 0
-325.521 -781.25 -651.042 260.417 -1041.67 520.833 2018.23 0 u6 -1.25
-781.25 -130.208 520.833 -260.417 260.417 -2604.17 0 2994.79 )/6 -5.
{U3 = -0.0103553, v3 = -0.0255297, u4 = 0.00472765, v4 = -0.0247357,

u5 = -0.0131394, "s = -0.0554931, u6 = 0.0000838902, "e = -0.0555664}
u v
1 0 0
2 0 0
3 -0.0103553 -0.0255297
4 0..00472765 -0.0247357
5 -0.0131394 -0.0554931
6 0.0000838902 -0.0555664
Computation of Reactions - .
Equation numbers of dof with specified values: {I, 2, 3, 4}

Extracting equations {I, 2, 3, 4} from the global system, we have
"I
VI
U2
V2
[""'" !] ". ['", ]

195.313 -276.693 325.521 -976.563 260.417 -325.521 -781.25 0 0 0 "3
195.313 1725.26 65.1042 -1204.43 520.833 -390.625 -781.25 -130.208 0 0 0 V _ Rz + O.
3
-276.693 65.1042 1253.26 -585.938 0 0 -976.563 520.833 0 0 0 - R3 -1.25
325.521 -1204.43 -585.938 1595.05 0 0 260.417 -390.625 0 0 0 v. R. -5.
"5
Vs
"6
v6
o
o
o
o
-276.693
O~o)
195.313 325.521 -976.563 260.417 -325.521 -781.25
RI )
Rz _ (1578.78
195.313 1725.26 65.1042 -1204.43 520.833 -390.625 -781.25 -130.208 oo 00 00 -0.0103553
-0.0255297 [0 O· )
( R3 - -276.693 65.1042 1253.26 -585.938 o o -976.563 520.833 o 0 0 0.00472765 - -_1.
R4 325.521 -1204.43 -585.938 1595.05 o o 260.417 -390.625 o 0 0 -0.0247357 52.5
-0.0131394
-0.0554931
0.0000838902
-0.0555664
Table of reactions:
Label dof Reaction

Rj uj 21.25
Rz vj 4.10648
R3 Uz -16.25
R4 Vz 15.8935
Sum of reactions:
dof: U 5.
dof: v 20.
The sum of reactions must be balanced by the applied loading. The loading is applied
normal to the top surface. To determine the total load and its components in the horizontal
and vertical directions, we need its length and normal vector. The end nodal coordinates of
this line are
Yz =2
The length and components of the unit normal to the line are computed as follows:
L = ~(xz _xj)z + (yz - Yjf= 4.12311

nx = (yz - Yj)/L = 0.242536; ny = -(xz - xj)IL = 0.970143
The total applied load and its components in the coordinate directions can now be deter-
mined as follows:
= qhL = -20.6155
Total load
Horizontal component = qhLnx =-5.
Vertical component = qh:Ln y = -20.
These are equal and opposite to the sum of reactions. Hence the solution satisfies the overall
equilibrium.
ELEMENTSOLUTIONS AND MODELVALIDITY 49
1.4 ELEMENT SOLUTIONS AND MODEL VALIDITY
Once the solution for all nodal degrees of freedom is available, we can go back to the
element equations and develop a complete solution over each element. The process simply
requires substituting computed nodal values into the assumed element solution defined
during derivation of element equations. Any secondary quantities, such as derivatives or
integrals involving the solution, can be obtained by performing necessary computations
on the element solutions. The examples presented in the following sections clarify the
procedure for different elements introduced earlier in this chapter.
1.4.1 Plane Truss Element

As will be seen in Chapters 2 and 4, the fundamental assumption made in deriving the plane
truss element equations is that the axial displacement varies linearly over the element. This
means that, in terms of nodal degrees of freedom, the displacement along the element axis
is written as follows:
O:5,S:5,L
where, as shown in Figure 1.21, s is a local coordinate that runs along the element length
with s = 0 at the first node of the element to s = L at the second node and L = length
of the element. The terms d l and dz are the axial displacements at the element ends. The
relationship between the local axial displacements and the global nodal degrees offreedom
is as follows.
(~~) = (~ o
["'~] -
Ins 0 VI = Td
Axial displacements:
0 Is m')
~J
Ins 0
Transformation matrix: T-Cs
- 0 0 Is
where Is and Ins are the direction cosines of the element axis as defined earlier. The axial
strain is simply the first derivative of the axial displacement, giving constant strain over the
element as follows:
Using Hooke's law, the axial stress is obtained by multiplying strain by the modulus of
elasticity:
(F = EE
y
Global dof Local dof
x
Figure 1.21. Global and local degrees of freedom for a plane truss element
Since axial stress is equal to axial force divided by the area, the axial force in the element
is
F =erA
The sign convention used in these equations assumes that the tension is positive and the
compression is negative.
Example 1.10 Five-Bar Truss The following nodal values for a five-bar plane truss
were obtained in Example 1.7. Determine axial strains, axial stresses, and axial forces in
different elements of the truss. ,/
u v
1 0 0
2 0.538954 -0.953061
3 0.264704 -().264704
4 0 0
The displacements are in inches, loads in pounds, and stresses in pounds per inch squared.
The solution for element 1 is as follows:
Element nodal coordinates: first node (node #1): (0,0); Second node (node #2):
(1500.,3500.)
Xl= 0; YI = 0; x2 = 1500.; Y2 =3500.
L = ~ (x2 - x l )2 + (Y2 - YI)2 = 3807.89
Direction cosines: Is = x 2 - Xl = 0.393919; Ins = Y2 - YI = 0.919145

. L L
. r:
....
, .:
ELEMENT SOLUTIONS AND MODEL VALIDITY 51
Global to local transformation matrix,
T _ (0.393919 0.919145 0 0 )
- 0 0 0.393919 0.919145
Element nodal displacements in gl~al coordinates, d = [~] =[ 0.53~954 ]

v2 -0.953061
Ele~en~ nodal displacements in 10Calc~~~i~.~!eS, dL=':.~~-0.6~·3697 ) £. I

Axial displacements at element ends, d~ ~d? = ::Q:!!63§27J':"d. e if'0
Axial strain,E'=(d d, )/L -0.000174'295 r;(C.'-J cL,._.j I) (1- Cd q~\.l
2 - = \L i)
E=200000;A=~ I
'/"
Axial stress, ap.:= J{@!: -34.8591; Axial force = (J"A = -139436..
v ~ . '
For any other elementthe calculations follow exactly the same pattern.
The solution summary is as follows:
Stress Axial force

1 -34.8591 -139436.
2 -629994 -25199.8
3 -10.5881 -31764.4
4 -10.5881 -31764.4
,5 22.4608 44921.7
~ MathematicafMATLAB Implementation 1.10 on the Book Web Site:

Plane truss element results

Complete solution ofa plane truss
1.4.2 Triangular Element for Two-Dimensional Heat Flow

The finite element equations for a triangular element for two-dimensional steady-state heat
flow are based on the assumption of linear temperature distribution over the element. In
terms of nodal temperatures, the temperature distribution over a typical element is written
as follows:
where
CI = X 3 - X 2; C2 = X t - X 3; C3 =X2 -XI;
11 = X 2Y3 - X 3Y2; 12 =x 3Yt - x 1Y3; 13 =XI Y2 - X2YI;
The quantities N i , i = 1, 2, 3, are linear triangle interpolation functions. The vector d is

the vector of nodal quantities that are all known at this stage. Knowing the coordinates at'
the three element nodes, the interpolation functions can easily be written for each element.
Multiplying these interpolation functions by the nodal temperature computed from the so-
lution of global equations gives the temperature distribution T(x, y) over each element. This
expression can be differentiated or integrated in a usual manner to obtain other quantities
of interest.
Note that for each element a different expression for the solution T(x, y) is obtained.
The finite element assembly process matches the degrees of freedom at the common nodes
between the elements. Therefore, T must be continuous across common element bound-
aries. However, since T is a linear function of X and y, its derivatives are constant. Thus
over each element the derivative values could be different, and in general two different
derivative values will be computed at a common interface between the two elements. The
magnitude of this discontinuity can be used as a guide to determine if the finite element
discretization is suitable or needs further refinement.
Example 1.11 neat Flow through a Square Duct The following nodal temperature
values for heat flow through a square duct were obtained in Example 1.8. Determine the
temperature distribution over each element and its x and y derivatives. By comparing the
magnitudes of these derivatives across common element interfaces, comment on suitability
of the finite element mesh.
Node Temperature
1 300
2 93.5466
3 23.8437
4 300
5 182.833
The temperature is in degrees Celsius and heat flow in watts per meter.
Element nodes: First node (node #1): {O., O.}; Second node (node #2): {O.2, O.}; Third
node (node #5): {O.I, O.I}
XI = 0.;x2 = 0.2;x3 = 0.1
YI = 0.;Y2 = 0';Y3 = 0.1

bl = -0.1; bz = 0.1; b3 = O.
cj = -0.1; Cz = -0.1; c3 =0.2
II = 0.02; I z =0.; u, = O.
Element area, A =.0.01
Substituting these into the formulas for triangle interpolation functions, we get
Interpolation functions, NT = (-5.x - 5.y + 1., 5.x - 5.y, 1O.y)
From a global solution the temperatures at the element nodes are
(from nodes (I, 2, 5)), d T = {300, 93.5466, 182.833}

Thus the temperature distribution over the element, T(x, y) = NTd = -1032.27x-
139.406y + 300.
Differentiating with respect to x and y, aT/ax = -1032.27 and oT/oy = -139.406
For any other element the calculations follow exactly the same pattern.
T(x,y) aT/ox oT/oy

1 -1032.27x - 139.406y + 300. -1032.27 -139.406
2 -1125.2x - 232:343y + 318.587 -1125.2 -232.343
3 -1171.67x - 209.109y + 320.911 -1171.67 -209.109
4 300. -1171.67x -1171.67 o
As seen from the model shown in Figure 1.18, elements 1 and 2 have a common side
between them. However, the derivative values for the two elements show significant dif-
ference. Elements 3 and 4 also share a side. The x derivatives for the two elements are the
same; however, their y derivatives are vastly different. TIns large difference in the deriva-
tive values shows thatthe finite element mesh used for the analysis is very coarse. A much
finer mesh is needed for any meaningful results. As mentioned earlier, this coarse mesh is
used here to illustrate all necessary computations in detail.

Heat flow element results .

Complete solution of a heat flow problem
1.4.3 Triangular Element for Two-Dimensional Stress Analysis

The derivation of the plane stress triangular element equations is based on the assumption
of linear displacements over the element. In terms of nodal quantities, the displacements
over an element can be written as follows.
U(x, y)=N, u + N2u2 + N3u3

j
V(X,y) = Njv I +N2v2 +N3v3
Uj
vI
~J
( U(X, y) ) =( n, 0 N2 0 N3 U2'
=.NTa
V(X,y) 0 Nj 0 N2 0 V2
U3
V3
where Nj , i = 1, 2, 3, are the triangle interpolation functions (same as those used for the
triangular element for heat flow). Knowing the coordinates at the three element nodes,
the interpolation functions can easily be calculated for each element. Multiplying these
interpolation functions by the nodal displacements computed from the solution of global
equations gives the horizontal and vertical displacement distributions u(x, y) and vex, y)
over each element. These expression can be differentiated or integrated in a usual manner
to obtain other quantities of interest. ' .
As discussed later in Chapter 7, the three components of in-plane element strains are
computed directly by differentiating displacement functions as follows:
o b2 0 b3
cj 0 c2 0
bj c2 b2 c3
The stresses can be computed as follows:
a =C€
where C is the appropriate constitutive matrix. For homogeneous, isotropic elastic materi-
als under plane stress conditions
C=
E 1 v
v 1
0]
0
1- [o 0 l;:v
where E = Young's modulus and v = Poisson's ratio.
For plane stress' problems, the three out-of-plane strain and stress components are as
follows:
ELEMENTSOLUTIONS AND MODEL VALIDITY 55
v(~ + oy)
EZ=-·E; 'YyZ =0; 'Yix = 0
~=O; TZ.T =0
The complete vectors of strains and stresses are ordered as follows:
(J" = (~ oy
From a design point of view, one is often interested in principal stresses or effective (von
Mises) stress. The principal stresses can be computed by determining eigenvalues of the
following 3 x 3 matrix of stress components:
Principal stresses = eigenvalues[S]
The effective (von Mises) stress can be computed from the component stresses using the
following equation:
a;, = ~~ (a:T - oy)2 + (oy - ~)2 + (~- ~)2 + 6(-s, + T;z + T~T)
Similar to the heat flow problem, for each element different expressions for displacements
u(x, y) and vex, y) are obtained. The finite element assembly process matches the degrees of
freedom at the common nodes between the elements. Therefore, the displacements must be
continuous across common element boundaries. However, since displacements are linear
functions of x and y, their derivatives, and hence strains and stresses, are constant. Thus
over each element the stress values could be different, and in general two different stress
values will be computed at a common interface between the two elements. The magnitude
of this discontinuity can be used as a guide to determine if the finite element discretization
is suitable or needs furtherrefinement,
Example 1.12 Stress Analysis of a Bracket The following nodal displacement values
for the bracket problem were obtained in Example 1.9. Determine displacement distribu-
tion over each element. Using these, compute element strains, stresses, principal stresses,
and effective stress. By comparing the magnitudes of stresses across common element in-
terfaces, comment on the suitability of the finite element mesh.
u v
1 0 0
2 0 0
3 -0.0103553 -0.0255297
4 0.00472765 -0.0247357
5 -0.0131394 -0.0554931
6 0.0000838902 -0.0555664
Solution for Element 1

h = 0.25; E = 10000; v = 0.2
10416.7 2083.33 0 1
Plane stress constitutive matrix, C =[ 2083 10416.7 0
0.33 o 4166.67
Element nodes: first node (node 1): {O., O.}; second node (node 3): {2.,O.}; third node
(node 4): {2., 1.5}
XI =0.; X2 =2.;
YI =0.; Y2 =0.;
bl = -1.5; b2 = 1.5; b3 = O.
c I =0.; c2 = -2.; c3 = 2.
II 3.; 12 =0.; 13 =0.
Element area: A = 1.5
~. ~.5 -~.666667~· ~0. 6666671"\

- 0.5
BT = 0
[ O. -0.5 -0.666667 0.5 0.666667 )
/
Interpolation functions, {I. - 0.5x, 0.5x - 0:666667y, 0.666667y}
NT =( 1. - 0.5x O' 0.5x - 0.666667y 0 0.666667y 0 )
o 1. - 0.5x 0 0.5x 0.666667y o 0.666667y
From a global solution the displacements at the element nodes are
{displacements at nodes (I, 3, 4)):

dT ={O,0, -0.0103553, -0.0255297, 0.00472765, -0.0247357}
The displacement distribution over the element is
U(X, Y)) NTd = ( 0.0100553y - 0.00517764X)

( vex, y) 0.000529362y - 0.0127648x
In-plane strain components, €=BTd = (-0.00517764 0.000529362 -0.00270956)

In-plane stress components, a = C€ = (-52.8309 -5.27256 -11.2898)
Computing out-of-plane strain and stress components using appropriate formulas, the
complete strain and stress vectors are as follows:
€T = (-0.00517764 0.000529362 0.00116207 -0.00270956 0 0)

aT =( -52.8309 -5.27256 0 -11.2898 0 0)
Substituting these stress components into appropriate formulas,
Principal stresses = (0 -2.72856 -55.3749)

Effective stress (von Mises) = 54.0623
Proceeding in exactly the same manner, we can get solutions for all elements. A summary
of the solution at element centers follows:
Coordinate Displacement Stresses Principal Stresses Effective Stress

1 1.33333 -0.00187588 -52.8309 0 54.0623
0.5 -0.0167551 -5.27256 -2.72856
0 -55.3749
-11.2898
0 0
2 0.666667 0.00157588 24.6232 67.2393 92.0659
1.16667 -0.00824522 4.92464 0
0 -37.6915
-51.5326
0
0
3 3.33333 . -0.0078036 -14.6533 0 18.3167
0.333333 -0.0455297 -3.66334 0
0 -18.3167
-7.32667
0
0
4 2.66667 -0.00184791 3.10223 26.3357 38.0742
0.833333 -0.0352772 5.91407 0
0 ·-17.3194
-21.7822
0
0
As seen from the model shown in Figure 1.26, elements 1 and 4 have a common side
between them. However, the effective stress values for the two elements show significant
difference. Elements 3 and 4 also share a side. The effective stresses for these two elements
are quite different as well. This large difference in the stress values shows that the finite
element mesh used for the analysis is very coarse. A much finer mesh is needed for any
meaningful results. As mentioned earlier, this coarse mesh is used here to illustrate all
necessary computations in detail.

Plane stress element results

Complete solution ofa plane stress problem
1.5 SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
As seen from the previous section, the global system of equations after boundary conditions
consists of n equations in n unknowns:
Kd=R
Most scientific calculators have functions for solving linear system of equations. These
are useful for solving small textbook problems. Computer algebra systems (Mathematica,
MATLAB, MAPLE, etc.) have sophisticated built-in functions for solving large systems
of linear equations. For example, using Mathematica, a system of equations can be solved
by first defining matrix K and right-hand-side vector R and then issuing the following
command:
LinearSolve [K, RJ
For completeness two basic methods fbr solution of a large-scale linear system of equations
are briefly discussed in this section. Detailed treatment of these methods is beyond the
scope of this text.
1.5.1 Solution Using Choleski Decomposition

An efficient method to solve the system of equations is to first decompose the matrix K
into a product of lower and upper triangular matrices. For symmetric matrices the so-
called Choleski decomposition is very efficient. In this decomposition a symmetric matrix
K is decomposed into a product of a lower triangular matrix L and its transpose L T in the
following form:
K=LL T
[,n '., ]
0 0 III 121 131
121
L = 1~1
122
1~2
0
1~3
0]o .
0
LT =
0
0
122
0
132
1~3
In2
In3
.; .: In3 1~, ' 0 0 0 l~n

SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 59
Such a decomposition is always possible for nonsingular symmetric matrices. Assuming

this decomposition is known, wecan solve the system of equations in two steps as follows:
Kd = R =? LLT d = R
If we define LTd =y, then
1 0 0
, 1:: l 0 zz
T
LL d = R =? Ly = R =? 1~1 1~2 133
[
1111 l l1z 1113
Since L is a lower triangular matrix, the first row gives the solution for the first variable
as YI = r/l l l · Knowing this, we can solve for Yz = (r z - lzIYI)llzz from the second equa-
tion. Thus, proceeding forward from the first equation, we can solve for all intermediate '
variables Yi' This is known asforward elimination.
_ ri "i-II
- LJk-1 ikYk.
Yi - 1.. ' i = 1,2, ... , Ii
II
n
Now we can solve for the actual unknowns di as follows:
lz1 131 ...
LTd =y =?
[In_~ lzz 132
0 1~3
...
... 1.,]["']
l l1z
1113
dz
d3 =
Yz
Y3
'.
1 ~1I d
:
0 0 0 ... ll
' ;11
In this system the last equation has only one unknown, giving dll = y/l,l1l • The second
to the last equation is used-next to get dll _ l , and thus, working backward from the last
equation, we can solve for all unknowns. This is known as backward substitution.
i = n, n - 1, ... , 1
The procedure is especially efficient if solutions for several different right-hand sides are
needed. Since in this case the major computational task of decomposing the matrix into
LLT form is not necessary for every right-hand side, one simply needs to perfortn a forward
elimination and a backward substitution for each different right-hand side.
ChoJeski Decomposition The Choleski decomposition algorithm can be developed

by considering direct multiplication of terms in the Land L T matrices and equating them
to the corresponding terms in the K matrix:
k 11 k21 k31 k"l III 0 0 121 131 ...

... I", ]
I~"]['!'
1'21 ~2 k32 k"2 121 122 0 122 132 1,,2
J( =LL T ::=} k~1 k~2 k33 k"3 = I~I 1~2 1~3 0 1~3 ... 1"2
:
k"l ",,2 k"3 I'd 1"2 1"3 0 0 ... I,:"
k""
By direct multiplication we can see that the entries in the first row of the L matrix can be
established as follows:
Row 1: kl l = Iii::=} III = {k::

. _ _ k21
~I - 111/ 21 ::=} 121 - 1
-II
ki!
lei! = II IIi! ::=} Ii! =
_
t:
11
i = 2, ... , n
Once entries in row 1 are known, we can proceed to row 2 and establish the entries there
by direct multiplication as follows:
Row 2: le22 = I~I + 1~2 ::=} 122 = ~ le22 -/~1

/31
k32 =121'31 + '22/32 ::=} 132 = k~--,,--"-''-''''-
3 -'21 ?
22
J, - _ k "2 -'2I'i! . 3, ... , n

'i2 - .J2I' i! + '22/1"2 ::=} '1"2 - ' , '
22
Proceeding in a similar manner, we canwrite the following general formulas for entries in
the ith row of the L matrix: I -
Notice that the procedure requires taking the square root of terms corning from the diagonal
of the J( matrix and then division by this term to establish other terms in a given row. This
is called the pivot element. Clearly these operations will fail if there is a negative or zero
pivot. However, as long as the matrix J( is nonsingular, it is always possible to rearrange
the system of equations to avoid a negative or zero pivot.
The computational steps can be written in the form of the following algorithm:
Choleski Decomposition Algorithm
For i = 1, n
For j = 1, i-I
end
Example 1.13 Find the solution of the following system of equations using Choleski
decomposition:
[; l~
6 2
3 -10
~ -l~][~~]_
11
-5
-5
21
[~]7
d3
a,
-
8
We first generate the LL T decomposition of the coefficient matrix using the above algo-
rithm:
o
K
3
= LL T = 1 -{IT
0
o o ][30 -{IT 1] = [93
1 20 --{IT 3
12 6 3]
2 -10
2 0 ..;7 o 0 0 ..;7 -..;7 6 2 11 -5
[ -10 -5 21
1 --{IT -{7 {io 00 {i 3
Using the L matrix, the solution for intermediate variables (forward elimination) is as fol-
lows: .
3 0 o
1 -{IT o
2 0 ..;7
[
1 --{IT -..;7
Row 1: 3Yl = 5 ===:> Y1 = ~

Row 2: lYI + -{ITh = 6 ===:> h = 3m
Row 3: = 7 ===:> Y3 = 3~
2Yl + 0Yz + ..;7Y3
Row 4: lYI + (--{IT)y:i + (-..;7)Y3 + {iY4 = 8 ===:> Y4 = 3~
Using the L T matrix, the solution for actual variables (backward substitution) is as follows:
5
3"
13
3 {IT
11
3-17
43
3-{i
Row 4: - (;;2d
-y -.-:!1. ---- d - 11
L. 4 - 3-12 --.' 4 - 6
Row 3: - '7d
-y I 3
+ (--v'7)d
I 30 ====> d 3 =
4 =.l.L 323
4Z
Row 2: {fidz + Od3 + (-{fi)d 4 = 3~ ====> dZ = ':rt

Row 1: 3d l + 1dZ + 2d 3 + Id 4 = ~ ====> d, = -7i~
1.5.2 Conjugate Gradient Method

The well-known conjugate gradient method for solution of unconstrained optimization
problems can be used to develop an iterative method for solution of a linear system of
equations. The method has been used effectively for solution of nonlinear finite element
problems that require repeated solutions of large systems of equations. Consider a sym-
metric system of n X n linear equations expressed in matrix form as follows:
Kd=R
k'"r] ["]
k JZ
['":,1'
kZJ kF
"liZ
10.11
.. cL
dz _ rz
I~I
Finding the solution of this system of equations is equivalent to minimizing the following
quadratic function:
minf(d) = 4dTKd - dTR

,/
This can easily be seen by using the necessary conditions for the minimum, namely, the
gradient of the function must be zero:
where
Since K is a symmetric matrix, the transpose of the first term in each row is same as the
second term. Thus the gradient can be expressed as follows:
Noting that
ef] [101···0
0 ... 0] . .
'eI: = : : -. : =.
identity matnx
re T
II
0 0 ... 1
we see that the gradient of the quadratic function is
g(d) = Kd-R
A condition of zero gradient implies Kd - R = 0, which clearly is the given linear system of
equations. Thus solution of a linear system of equations is equivalent to finding a minimum
of the quadratic function f.
Basic Conjugate Gradient Method In the conjugate gradient method, the minimum
of f is located by starting from an assumed solution d(O) (say with all variables equal to
zero) and performing iterations as follows:
k = 0, 1,...
where a(k) is known as the step length and h(k) is the search direction. At the kth iteration
the search direction h(k) is determined as follows:
The scalar multiplier fJ determines the portion of the previous direction to be added to
determine the new direction. According to the Fletcher-Reeves formula,
After establishing the search direction, the minimization problem reduces to finding a(k) in
order to
For the quadratic function f we have

Expanding,
!Cd(k) + (P)h(k)) = ~Cd(k){ Kd(k) + ~a(k)(d(k){ Kh(k)

+ ~a(k)(h(k){Kd(k) + ~(a(k))2Ch(k){Kh(k) - (d(k){R - a(kJch(k){R
For the minimum the derivative of this expression with respect to a(k) must be equal to
zero, giving the following equation for the step length:
Noting the symmetry of K, the first two terms can be combined and moved to the right-hand
side to give
giving
Since f3 is usually small, h(k) "" _g(k), and thus for computational efficiency the step length
expression is slightly modified as follows: "
Basic Conjugate Gradient Algorithm The computational steps can be organized

into the following algorithm.
Choose a starting point d(O). Compute g(O) = Kd(O) - R. Set h(O) = _g(O). Compute
reO) = (g(O){g(O). Choose a convergence tolerance parameter E. Set k O.
1. If -,J-k) .s E, stop; d(k) is the desired solution. Otherwise, continue.

2." Compute the step length:
3. Next point:
4. Update the quantities for the next iteration:

g(k+l) = K(d(k) + o:(k)/z(k») _ R == g(k) + o:(k)Z(k)
,.(k+l) = (g(k+l){g(k+l)
fP) = ,.(k+l)h·(k)
/z(k+1) = -s"'" + (3(k)/z(k)

5. Set k = k: + 1 and go to step 1.
Example 1.14 Find the solution of the following system of equations using the basic
conjugate gradient method:
Starting point, d(O) = (0,0,0, O)

g(O) =Kd(O) -R = (-5., -6., -7., -8.)
/z(0) = _g(O) = (5.,6.,7., 8.)
,.(0) = g(O)Tg(O) = 174.; (3(0) = 0
Iteration 1:
z(O) = Klz(O) :::; {129.,21., 79.,88.)
Step length, 0:(0) = ,.(O)/h(O)Tz(O) = 0.0857988

Next point, d(1) =d(O) + 0:(0)/z(0) == (0.428994,0.514793,0.600592,0.686391)
g(l) = g(O) + o:(O)z(O) = (6:06805,-4.19822, -0.221893, -0.449704)
,.(1) = g(I)Tg(l) = 54.6978
(3(1) = ,.(1)/,.(0) = 0.314355
/z(l) = -g(l) + (3(0)/z(0) = (':4.49627,6.08435,2.42238, 2.96454)
Iteration 2:
z(l) =KIz(l) = (1.21451,34.7228, -2.98549, -24.1888)
Step length, o:m = ,.(I)/Iz(l)Tz(l) = 0.431153
Next point, d(2) = d(1) + o:(I)/z(l) = (-1.50959, 3.13808, 1.64501, 1.96456)
g(2) =g(l) + o:(I)Z(I) = (6.59169, 10.7726, -1.50909, -10.8788)
,.(2) =gC2)TgC2) = 280.125
(3(2) = r(2)/,.(I) = 5.12132
1z(2) = _g(2) + (3(l}Jz(l) = (-29,6185, 20.3873,13.9149,26.0612)
Iteration 3:
Z(2) =KIz(2) = (-43.7321,-76.9897,-114.179, 184.981)
Step length, 0:(2) = ,.(2)//z(2)T z(2) = 0.0947098
Next point, d(3) == d(2) + OP)h(2) == (-4.31475,5.06896,2.96288, 4.43281)

g(3) == g(2) + (1'(2)Z(2) == (2.44982, 3.48091, -12.323, 6.64076)
r(3) == g(3)Tg<3) == 214.073
/3(3) == r(3)/r(2) == 0.764207
h(3) == _g(3) + /3(2)h(2) == {-25.0845, 12.0992,22.9568, 13.2754]

Iteration 4:
z(3)== [(h(3) == (-11.8961, -16.903, 59.8392, -32.2469]
Step length, (1'(3) == r(3)/h(3)TZ(3) == 0.205934
Next point, d(4) == d(3) +(1'(3)h(3) == {-9.48052, 7.56061, 7.69048, 7.16667}
g(4) == g(3) + (1'(3)Z(3) == (7.10543 X 10- 15, -9.76996 X 10- 15,0.,2.57572 x 10- 14 )
r(4) == g(4)Tg(4) == 8.09371 X 10- 28
/3(4) == r(4)/r(3) == 3.78081 X 10- 30
h(4) == _g(4) + /3(3)h(3)

== {~7.10543 x 10- 15,9.76996 X 10- 15,8.67954 X 10- 29, -2.57572 x 1O-14 }
Solution converged after four iterations:
g == {7.10543 X 10- 15, -9.76996 X 10- 15,0.,2.57572 x 10- 14 1
r == gTg == 8.09371 X 10- 28
Solution, d == {-9.48052, 7.56061, 7.69048, 7.16667}
Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient When the coefficient matrix K is ill-

conditioned, the convergence of the conjugate gradient method could be very slow. In-
troducing a suitably chosen preconditioning matrix P improves convergence. To see this,
we multiply both sides of the system of equations by the inverse of the preconditioning
matrix to get ;'
Clearly, if P == K, we have the solution of the system of equations. Thus, intuitively, we

can expect that, if P is a matrix that is reasonably close to K, then the method will converge
faster. The matrix P is known as the preconditioning matrix. Several different techniques
have been proposed for establishing this matrix, Two popular choices will be discussed
later in the section. First we develop the computational procedure for the solution of equa-
tions when the preconditioning matrix is included.
In general, the product P"! K does not produce a symmetric matrix, even if both matrices
are individually symmetric. In order to get a symmetric system of equations, we introduce
the following decomposition of the P matrix,
and a new vector of intermediate variables y,

SOLUTldN OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 67
Introducing these, the original system of equations is modified as follows:
Thus we have a system of equations as follows:
where K =E- 1!W- T and k =E-1R.

The matrix K is a symmetric matrix, At this point we can use the standard conjugate
gradient method to find a solution for intermediate variables y:
g(k) =Ky(k) _ R; ii(k) = _g(k) + j3(k)h(k-l)

rn(k){ -(k) fn(k){ -(k)
j3(k) = l.5 g . a(k) = 15 g
[g(k-J){g(k-l) , (h(k){iih(k)
y(k+l) =y(k) + a(k)h(k)
Multiplying vector y(k+l) by E- T gives the solution of the original problem:
A serious drawback of the procedure so far is that it requires a decomposition of the pre-
conditioning matrix p-l = E-TE-l, which is a very time consuming task for a general
matrix. Fortunately, it is possible to rewrite the above expressions so that only p-l appears
in the equations and thus there is no need to explicitly carry out the decomposition.
Substituting for K and k into the g(k) expression, we have
Using this, we can write ii(k) as follows:

ii(k) = -=..::g(k) + j3(k)h(k-l) = _E-1g(k) + j3(k)h(k-l)
Multiplying both sides by E- T ,

E-Tii(k) == h(k) = _E-TE-1g(k) + j3(k)E-Th(k-l) => h.(k) = _p-lg(k) + j3(k)h(k-l)
Similarly, other expressions in the algorithm can be rewritten as follows:
, [g(k) { g(k) [g(k) { E-TE-1g(k) . [g(k) { p-lg(k)

j3(kl = = = --=::...........:-:;;--=---
[g(k-J){glk-l) [g(k-J){E-TE-1g(k-l) [g(k-J){ p-lg(k-J)
(g(k){g(k) [g(k){p-l g(k) '[g(kl]T r:

I g(k)
a(k) = = = .:::::--=...,,,,--..:::--
(h(k){E-lKE-Ti'L0') (E-Th(kl { !W-Tii(k) (h (k){ Kh(k)
y(k+1) =y(k) + a(k)h(k)

Multiplying the expression for the intermediate variables by E-T , we have
Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient (PCG) Algorithm The computational steps

can be organized into the following algorithm:
Initialization
Choose a starting point d(D). Set g(D) =Kd(D) - R.
Solve for W(D): Pw(D) = g(D).
Set h(D) = -W(D).
Compute r(D) = (g(D){ W(D).
Choose a convergence tolerance parameter E. Set k = O.
1. If ,J.k) ~ E, stop; d(k) is the desired solution. Otherwise, continue.

2. Compute the step length:
3. Next point:
d(k+l) = d(k) + a(k)h(k)

I'
4. Update the quantities for the next iteration:
g(k+l) =g(k) + a(k)z(k)

Solve for W(k+l): PW(k+l) =g(k+l)
r(k+l) = (g(k+l){W(k+l)
j3(K) = ,J.k+I)/,J.k)
h(k+l) = _W(k+l) + j3(k)h(k)
5. Set k = k + 1 and go to step 1.
Jacobi Preconditioning One of the simplest choices of the preconditioning matrices

is the so-called Jacobi preconditioning. Here the P matrix is a diagonal matrix with entries
. equal to the diagonal elements of the J( matrix. Thus p-I is established as follows:
-I _ 1.
Pii - k ..' P:-
IJ
·1 =0'' i =1= j; i, j = 1,... , n
II
Example 1.15 Find the solution of the following system of equations using the peG
method with Jacobi preconditioning:
9 3
3 12
6· 2
[
3 -10
9. 0 0 0 ]
Preconditioning matrix, P =.
[
~ Tl~. 2~.
Starting point, d(O! =. (0,0,0, O)
g(O) =. Kd(O) -R =. (-5, -6, -7, -8)

Solving Pw(O) =. g(O), we have w(O) = {-0.555556, -0.5, -0.636364, -0.380952}.
h(O) = _w(O) = (0.555556,0.5,0.636364, 0.380952)

r(O) =. g(O)T w(O) = 1.10873; /3(0)= 0
Iteration 1:
z(O) = Kh(O) =. {11.461,5.12987, 9.42857, 1.48485}
Step length, a(O) = r(O)/h(O)T z(O) =. 0.85689
Next point, d(l) =. d(O) + a(O)h(O) = (0.47605,0.428445,0.545294, 0.326434}
g(l) =g(O) + a(O)z(O) = (4.82085, -1.60426,1.07925, -6.72765)
Solving PW(I) =. g(l), we have w(l) = {0.53565, -0.133689, 0.0981136, -0.320364}

r(l) =. g(l)Tw(1) = 5.05795
/3(l) =. r(l)/r(O) =. 0.380871

h(l) =. -s'" +/3(OWO) =. {-0.324055, 0.324124, 0.144259, 0.465458}
Iteration 2:
z(1) =Kh(l) = (0.317806, :::1.44873, -2.03652, 4.83991}
Step length, a(1) =. r(l)Ih(l)Tz(l) = 3.64817
Next point, d(2) =d(J) + a(l)h(l) =. (-0.706158, 1.61091, 1.07158, 2.02451)
g(2) = g(1) + a(J)z(l) = {5.98026, -6.8895, -6.35033, 1O-.9292}
Solving PW(2) =. g<2), we have W(2) =. (0.664474, -0.574125, -0.577303, 0.520438}

r(2) =. g(2)T liP) =. 17.2832
/3(2) = r(2)lr(l) = 3.41704

h(2) = _g(2) + /3(l)h(J) =. (-1.77178, 1.68167, 1.07024, 1.0i005}
Iteration 3:
Z(2) =. Kh(2)= (-1.26943,6.30468, -0.84494, -5.01222)
Step length, a(2) =. r(2)lh(2)TZ(2)·= 2.62505
Next point, d(3) =. d(2) + a(2)h(2) = (-5.35718, 6.02538, 3.881O~, 4.83344)
g(3) =g(2) + aP)z(2) = (2.64795,9.66064, -8.56835, -2.22814)

Solving Pw(3) = g(3), we have W(3) = (0.294216,0.805053, -0.778941, -0.106102)
r(3) =g(3)T w(3) = 15.467
/3(3) = r(3)lr(2) = 0.894918
h(3) = _g<3) + /3(2) h(2) = (-1. 87982, 0.699903, 1.73672, 1.06371 j
Iteration 4:
Z(3) =Kh(3) = (-1.20719, -4.40425, 3.90628,1.0158)
Step length, aP) = r(3) Ih(3)Tz(3) = 2.19348
Next point, d(4) =d(3) +,aP)h(3) = (-9.48052,7.56061,7.69048, 7.16667j
g(4) =g(3) + aP)z(3)
= (-7.99361 X 10- 15, 1.42109 X 10- 14,8.88178 X 10- 15, -3.73035 x 1O-14j
Solving PW(4) = g(4), we have W(4) = (-8.88178 X 10- 16,1.18424 X 10- 15,8.07435 X
10- 16, -1.77636 x 10- 15 )
r(4) =g(4)T w(4) = 9.73646 X 10- 29
/3(4) = r(4)jr<3) = 6.29497 x 10- 30
h(4) = _g(4) + /3(3lh<3)
= (8.88178 X 10- 16, -1.18424 X 10- 15 , -8.07435 X 10- 16,1.77636 x 1O-15j
The solution converged after four iterations:
g = (-7.99361 X 10- 15, 1.42109 X 10- 14,8.88178 X 10- 15, -3.73035 x 1O-14j
r =gTg = 9.73646 X 10- 29
Solution, d = (-9.48052,7.56061,7.69048, 7. 16667j
I
Incomplete Choleski Preconditioning Currently the most popular preconditioning
method is that based on partial or incomplete Choleski factorization of the K matrix. In this
method a lower triangular matrix L is constructed by considering only elements in a limited .
band around the main diagonal of matrix K. Denoting this band by m, the incomplete
Choleski decomposition algorithm is as follows:
For i = 1, n
For j = 1, i-I
If (i - j :$ m) then
= ( leij - I:k=II
Iij
j-I )/
ikI jk I jj
Otherwise Iij = o
end
Iii = ~ leii - I:i-:,11 Itk
end
With this lower triangular L matrix, the vector h in the PCG algorithm is established using
forward elimination and backward substitution as follows:
Ph. =g :::::::> LLT/z =g

Forward elimination for intermediate variablesy: Ly =g
Back substitution for h: LTh =y
Example 1.16 Find the solution of the following system of equations using the PCG
method with incomplete Choleski decomposition:
[ ~ 1;
6
3
2
-10
~ -1~][~~] = [~]
11
-5
-5
21
x3
x4
7
8
The solution using a band m = 2 (two terms in each row around the diagonal) for generating
the preconditioning matrix is as follows:
Lower triangular factor of preconditioning matrix,
3. 0 o
L _ 1. 3.31662 o o ]
- 2. O. 2.64575 0,
[
o -3.01511 -1.88982 2.8875
d(O) = {O, 0, 0, O}
Starting point,
g(O)=Kd(O) -R = (-5, -6, -7, -8}
Solving LLTw(O) =g(O), we have w(O) = {1.28557, -1.98131, -1.77103, -1.74611}
/z(0) = _w(O) = {-1.28557, 1.98131, 1.77103, 1.74611}
r(O) =g(O)TW(O) = 11.7637;(3(0) =.0
Iteration 1:
z(O)= K/Z(O) = {10.2383, 6., 7., 4.1433}
Step length, a(O) = r(O)1/z(O)Tz(O) =, 1.73367 .
Next point, d(1) = d(O) + a(O)h(O) = {-2.22874, 3.43493, 3.07037, 3.02717}
g(l) =g(O) + a(O)z(O) = {12.7498, 4.402,5.13567, -0.816894}
Solving LLT W(1) = g(l), we have W(l) = {2.02045, -0.322185, -0.744609, -0.369609}
r(l) = g(1)T w(l)= 20.82
(3(1) = r(1)lr(0) = 0.654181
/z(l) _g(l) + (3(O)h(O) = (-2.86144,1.61832,1.90318, 1.51188}
Iteration 2:
z(l) = K/z(l) = {-4.9433, -0.476917, -0.556404, -2.53399}
Step length, a(l) = r(l)lh(l)T z(l) = 2.45428
Next point, d(2) = d(1) + a(l)/z(l) = (-9.25152, 7.40674, 7.7~131, 6.73774}
g(2) =g(l) + a(l)z(1) = {0.617597, 3.23151, 3.7701, -7.036}

Solving LLT W(2) = g(2), we havew(2) = {-0.166593, 0.0693565, 0.318143, -0.226273}
r(2) g(2)TW(2) = 2.91273

=
/3(2)= r(2)/r(1) = 0.1399
h(2) = _g(2) + /3(1)h(1) = (-0.233724, 0.157047, -0.0518876, 0.437785)
Iteration 3:
Z(2) = Kh(2) = (-0.630348, -3.29823, -3.84794, 7.18128)
Step length, aP) = r(2)/h(2)Tz(2) = 0.979771
Next point, d(3) = d(2) + aP)!l'2) = (-9.48052, 7.56061, 7.69048, 7.16667)
g(3) =g(2) + a(2)z(2)
= (1.77636 X 10- 15, -1.77636 X 10- 15,8.88178 X 10- 16,4.44089 X 10- 151
Solving LLT w(3) = g(3), we have ",(3) = (1.03298 X 10- 16, 1.10676 X 10- 17, 1.35579 X
10- 16,2.49022 X 10- 16 )
r(3) = g(3)T W(3) = 1.39013 X 10- 30
/3(3) = r(3)/r(2) = 4.77262 x 10- 31
h(3) = _g(3) + /3(2)h(2)

= (-1.03298 X 10- 16 , -1.10676 X 10- 17, -1.35579 X 10- 16 , -2.49022 x 10- 16 )
The solution converged after three iterations:
g = (1.77636 X 10- 15, -1.77636 X 10- 15,8.88178 X 10- 16,4.44089 x 10- 15 )
r =gTg = 1.39013' X 10- 30
Solution,d = {-9.48052, 7.56061, 7.69048, 7.166671
1.6 MULTIPOiNTCONSTRAINTS
/!
In some finite element modeling situations it becomes necessary to introduce constraints
between several different degrees of freedoms. Such constraints are known as multipoint
constraints and in general are expressed as follows:
c n d 1 + c12d2 + + c 1n dn = ql
C21d 1 + c 22d2 + + c 2n dn = q2
where cij ' i, j = 1,2, ... , and qi' i = 1, 2, ... , are specified constants and d.; i = 1, 2, ... ,
are the nodal degrees of freedom. In matrix form the constraints equations can be expressed
as follows:
Cd=q
where with m constraints C is an m X n matrix and q is an m x 1 vector.

A common situation is modeling an inclined roller support. As is clear from Figure
1.22, in this case the displacement component normal to the incline is zero but neither
MULTIPOINT CONSTRAINTS 73
y
2
------------ x
Figure 1.22. Inclined roller support
its horizontal or vertical displacement is zero, and hence this boundary condition cannot
be incorporated using techniques discussed earlier. With the support malcing an angle a
with the horizontal, the component of u l normal to the support is u l sin(a) and that of VI is
vI cos(a). Thus we must solve the global system of equations with the following multipoint
constraint between the degrees of freedom at this node:
UI sin(a) + vI cos (a) =0

Another common use of multipoint constraints is in creating valid meshes when tran-
sitioning from a coarse to a fine mesh. As discussed earlier, the mesh consisting of three
four-node quadrilateral elements in Figure 1.23 is invalid because node 4, which forms a
corner of elements 2 and 3, is not attached to one of the four corners of element 1. A valid
mesh can be obtained if the displacements at node 4 are related to the displacements at
nodes 3 and 5. For the case when the node 4 is located at the midway point on line 3-5
the mesh compatibility can be achieved by defining two multipoint constraints defining
displacements at node 4 as averages of the displacements at nodes 3 and 5. Thus we solve
the system of equations with..the two following multipoint constraints:
U 3 + Us
u4 = --2- ===? u3 - 2u 4 + Us =0
v3 +vs
v4 = --2- ===? v3 - 2v 4 + vs-= 0
y 2 5 8
---------x
Figure 1.23. Multipoint constraints to create valid mesh in transition region
Figure 1.24. Rigid element in a finite element mesh
As a final example that requires use of multipoint constraints, we consider a situation

in which some portions of a finite element model are much stiffer as compared to the rest.
To avoid numerical difficulties in solving the resulting system of equations, it generally is
more efficient to treat the stiff regions as completely rigid. Figure 1.24 shows a simple ex-
ample in which the dark shaded triangle is assumed to be rigid. The nodes at the comers of
this triangle must displace in such a manner that the original shape is maintained. A planar
rigid body has only three degrees offreedom (two translations and a planar rotation). Thus
.the six degrees of freedom of the element must be related by three constraint equations.
For a triangle the three constraint equations can be written by recognizing the fact that
the lengths of the sides of the triangle must remain unchanged between the initial configu-
ration and the deformed configuration. In the initial configuration coordinates of the nodes
of the rigid triangle are (x" YI)' (x2, Y2)' and (x3, Y3 ). In the deformed configuration these
coordinates will be (XI + UI' Yl + VI)' (x2 + £1 2, Y2 + v 2), and (x3 + u 3' Y3 + v3)' Equating
lengths of sides obtained from these coordinates gives us the following three equations:
/
(-£1 1+£12 XI +X2)2 + (-VI +V2 -YI + y2f = (X 2 _x l)2 + (Y2 - YI)2.
(-£1 2 + U3 - X2 + x 3)2 + (-V 2 + V3 - Y2 + y3f = (X 3 - x 2)2 + (Y3 - y2f

(U I - U3 + XI - x 3)2 + (VI - V3 + YI - Y3)2 = (XI X 3)2 + (YI - Y3)2
Expanding these equations and for small displacements neglecting the displacement
squared terms (uI, U I U2'" .), we get the following equations:
2u 1x I - 2u 2x I - 2U IX 2 + 2U 2X2 + 2v IYI - 2v2YI - 2V IY2 + 2V 2Y2 = 0 ,

2U 2X2 - 2U 3X2 - 2U 2X3 + 2U 3X3 + 2V2Y2 - 2V 3Y2 - 2V 2Y3 + 2V 3Y3 = 0
2u lxI - 2u 3x I - 2U IX3 + 2U 3X3 + 2v I yi - 2v3YI - 2V IY3 + 2V 3Y3 = 0
-Choosing £II' VI' and u2 as the three independent degrees of freedom (usually called the
master degrees of freedom), we can solve these equations for the remaining three degrees
of freedom (called the slave degrees of freedom). The resulting equations are written in the
uz=l, Ul=VI=a
3
Figure 1.25. Rigid-body modes for a plane triangle
form of the following multipoint constraints:
or
Xl -X z z X -Xl
- - - U l + VI + - - - U z - Vz = a
YI - Yz YI - Yz
Y3 -Yz Yl -Y3
---Ul + ---Uz - U3 =a
YI -Yz Yl - Yz
X -X
_I_ _3U + v + X_3_-X
_ 1 U? - V
3
= a
YI - Yz: I Yl - Yz -
The first column of this transformation matrix represents a rigid-body mode that sets u l = 1
and vI =Uz = a.Similarly, the second column represents a mode with VI = 1, ul = Uz = a
and the third column U z = 1, u l = vI = a. These three rigid-body modes are shown in
Figure 1.25.
An arbitrary rigid zone in a finite element model can be handled by breaking the shape
into rigid triangles and then using the constraints for each of the triangles. The idea can
also be extended to three-dimensional tetrahedrals each consisting of four triangular faces.
1.6.1 Solution Using Lagrange Multipliers

In the presence of multipoint constraints, the solution of global equations obviously be-
comes complicated. The minimization form introduced in the previous section allows us
to use standard optimization techniques for constrained problems. Thus we set up the fol-
lowing optimization problem for solution of nodal degrees of freedom:
Findd to
Minimize f = !dT Kd - d T R
Subject to Cd - q = 0
76 FINITEELEMENT METHOD:THE BIG PICTURE
4 4
3
5
o
-3 p
(m)
o 5
Figure1.26. Five-bar truss with inclined support
A standard optimization technique for solution of this problem is to introduce m Lagrange

multipliers Ai' one for each equality constraint, and define an equivalent unconstrained
problem as follows (for details see Bhatti [95]):
Find d and A to
Minimize L = !dT[(d -dTR + AT(Cd - q)
where L is known as the Lagrangian. The necessary conditions for a minimum of the La-
grangian are that its derivatives with respect to d, and Ai be zero. Carrying out differentia-
tions, the resulting equations are as follows:
aL
-=O~[(d-R+CTA=O
ad .
aL /
-=O~Cd-q=O
aA
Writing the two sets of equations together, the complete system of linear equations can be
expressed as follows:
This system of linear equations can be solved using any of the methods discussed previ-
ously in this chapter. For structural problems a Lagrange multiplier can be interpreted as
the force necessary to apply the specified constraint.
Example 1.17 Truss with an Inclined Support Consider the five-bar pin-jointed
structure shown in Figure 1.26. All members have the same cross-sectional area and are of
the same material, E = 70 GPa, and A = 10-3 m2 . The load P = 20 leN. The dimensions in
meters are shown in the figure.
For numerical calculations, the N . mm units are convenient. The displacements will be
in mm and the stresses in MPa. The complete computations are as follows:
specified Nodal Loads
Node dof Value

3 u3 20000.
Equations for Element 1
E = 70000; A = 1000
1 1
2 3 5000. -3000.
Xl = 0; YI = 0; Xz = 5000.; Yz = -3000.
L = ~ (xz - xI)z + (yz - YI)Z = 5830.95
Direction cosines:
1S = Xz -xl
L = 0.857493', m
S
= Yz L-YI = -0514496
.
8827.13 -5296.28-8827.13 5296.28](U I ] (0.]

-5296.28 311'J.77
5296.28 -3177.77 vI _ O.
( -8827.13 5296.28 8827.13 -5296.28 u3 - O.
. 5296.28 -3177.77 -5296.28 3177.77 v3 O.
The element contributes tQ{I, 2, 5, 61 global degrees offreedom.

8827.13 -5296.28 0 0 -8827.13 5296.28 0 0 ul 0

-5296.28 3177.77 0 0 5296.28 -3177:77 0 0 vI 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Uz 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 V z 0
-8827.13 5296.28 0 0 8827.13 -5296.28 0 0 u3 = 20000.
5296.28 -3177.77 0 0 -5296.28 3177.1'7 0 0 v3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u4 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v4 0
Processing the other four elements in exactly the same manner, we get the following equa-
tions:
78 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:THE BIG PICTURE
17654.3 0 0 0 -8827.13 5296.28 -8827.13 -5296.28 !II 0

0 29688.9 0 -23333.3 5296.28 -3177.77 -5296.28 -3177.77 VI 0
0 0 14000. 0 0 0 -14000. 0 !l
z 0
0 -23333.3 .0 23333.3 0 0 0 0 Vz 0
-8827.13 5296.28 0 0 . 8827.13 -5296.28 0 0 !l
3 20000.
5296.28 -3177.77 0 0 -5296.28 14844.4 0 -11666.7 v3 0
-8827.13 -5296.28 -14000. 0 0 0 22827.1 5296.28 !l 4 0
-5296.28 -3177.77 0 0 0 -11666.7 5296.28 14844.4 v4 0
The essential boundary conditions are
Node dof Value

2 112 0
v2 0
Then we remove (3,4) rows and columns. After adjusting for essential boundary condi-
tions, we have
17654.3 0 -8827.13 5296.28 -8827.13 -5296.28 ul 0

0 29688.9 5296.28 -3177.77 -5296.28 -3177.77 vI 0
-8827.13 5296.28 8827.13 -5296.28 0 0 u3 20000.
5296.28 -3177.77 -5296.28 14844.4 0 -11666.7 v3 0
-8827.13 -5296.28 0 0 22827.1 5296.28 u4 0
-5296.28 -3177.77 0 -11666.7 5296.28 14844.4 v4 0
The multipoint constraint due to inclined support at node 1 is u l sin(7f/6)+ VI cos(7f/6) = O.

The augmented global equations with the Lagrange multiplier are as follows:
17654.3 0 -8827.13 5296.28 -8827.13 -5296.28 1/2 ul 0

.,f3
0 29688.9 5296.28 -3177.17 -5296.28 -3177.77- T vI 0
-8827.13 5296.28 8827.13 -5296.28 0 0 0 u3 20000.
5296.28 -3177.77 -5296.28 14844.4 0 -11666.7 0 v3 = 0
-8827.13 -5296.28 0 0 22827.1 5296.28 0 u4 0
-5296.28 -3177.77 0 -11666.7 5296.28· 14844.4 0 v4 0
.,f3 it 0
1/2 2
0 0 0 0 0
Solving the final system of global equations, we get
{U I= 5.14286, vI = -2.96923, u3 = 16.8629, v3 = 12.788,

u4 = -1.42857, v4 = 11.7594, it = 80000.}
Solution for Element 1

Nodal coordinates
1 1 0 o
2 3 5000. -3000.
XI == 0; Yj == 0; X2 = 5000.; Y2 zi: -3000.

L = ~ (x 2 - X I)2 + (Y2 - YI)2 = 5830.95
Direction cosines:
Is = T-x
X
= 0.857493; In
s
= Y2 L-Yj = -0514496
.
Global-to-local transformation matrix:
T = (0.857493 -0.514496 0 0 )
o 0 0.857493 -0.514496
Element nodal displacements in global coordinates:
d = Ut] (5.14286]
vI = -2.96923
( u3 16.8629
v3 12.788
Element nodal displacements in local coordinates:
d
I
= Td == (5.93762)
7,88048
E = 70000; A = 1000
Axial strain, E = (d2 - dj)IL = 0.000333197
Axial stress, o: = EE = 23.3238
Axial force, erA = 23323.8
In a similar manner, we can compute the solutions over the remaining elements:
.Stress Axial Force
1 23.3238 23323.8
- .2 23.3238· 23323.8
3 69.282 69282.
4 -20. -20000.
5 -12. -12000.
1.6.2 Solution Using Penalty Function

The Lagrange multiplier method of imposing constraints has two drawbacks. First, it
requires adding new rows and columns to the global system of equations that for large
systems may be inefficient. Second, the resulting system has zeros on the diagonal corre-
sponding to the constraint equations. Some simple equation. solvers that assume nonzero
diagonal terms may not work for this system. Another standard technique of imposing
constraints, the so-called penalty function approach, does not have these two drawbacks.
In this method a large penalty number f1 is chosen and the equivalent unconstrained
problem is defined as follows (for details see Bhatti [95]):
Findd to
Minimize ¢ = ~dTKd - dTR + ~fJ.(Cd - ql (Cd - q)
With fJ. being large, the minimization process forces the constraints to be satisfied. The
necessary conditions for the minimum result in the following system of equations:
Rearranging terms, the system of linear equations can be expressed as follows:
This system of linear equations can be solved using any of the methods discussed previ-
ously in this section.
The performance of the method depends on the value chosen for the penalty parameter
u. Large values, say of the order of fJ. = 10 10 , give accurate solutions; however, the resulting
system of equations may be ill-conditioned. IT fJ. values are small as compared to other
terms in the global equations, the solution will not satisfy the constraints very accurately.
A general rule of thumb is to set fJ. equal to 105 times the largest number in the global K
matrix.
Example 1.18 Truss Supporting a Rigid Plate A plane truss is designed to support a
rigid triangular plate as shown in Figure 1.27. All members have the same cross-sectional
area A = 1 in2 and are of the same material, E = 29,000 ksi. The load P = 20 kips. The
dimensions in ft are shown in the figure. Note there is no connection between the diagonal
members where they cross each other.
The model consists of five nodes and thus the global system of equations before bound-
/ '
ary conditions will be 10 x 10. The equations for the six truss elements are written as in
the previous examples and assembled in the usual manner to give the following system of
equations:
2
20
r~
'"J
o
(ft)
o 25 50
Figure 1.27. Truss supporting a rigid plate

I 142.693 36.8215 0 0 -96.6667 0
MULTIPOINT CONSTRAINTS
-46.0268 -36.8215 0 0 "1 0

81
36.8215 150.29 0 '-120.833 0 0 -36.8215 -29.4572 0 0 vI 0

0 0 142.693 -36.8215 -46.0268 36.8215 -96.6667 O. 0 0 "2 0
0 -120.833 -36.8215 150.29 36.8215 -29.4572 O. O. 0 0 v2 0
-96.6667 0 -46.0268 36.8215 142.693 -36.8215 O. : o. 0 0 "3 0
0 0 36.8215 -29.4572 -36.8215 150.29 O. -120.833 0 0 v3 0
-46.0268 -36.8215 -96.6667 O. O. O. 142.693 36.8215 0 0 "4 0
-36.8215 -29.4572 O. O. O. -120.833 36.8215 150.29 0 0 v4 -20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 "5 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v5 -20
The essential' boundary conditions at node 1 (u l = vI = 0) are incorporated by removing

the corresponding rows and columns in the usual way. Node 3 also has zero vertical dis-
placement. However! since this node is connected to the rigid plate as well, the boundary
condition v3 = 0 will be imposed later as part of the multipoint constraints. Removing the
first two rows and columns, the global system of equations is as follows: .
Kd=R ~
142.693 -36.8215 -46.0268 36.8215 -96.6667 O. 0 0 u2 O.

-36.8215 150.29 36.8215 -29.4572 O. O. 0 0 "2 O.
-46.0268 36.8215 142.693 -36.8215 O. O. 0 0 u3 O.
36.8215 -29.4572 -36.8215 150.29 O. -120.833 0 0 v3 O.
-96.6667 O. O. O. 142.693 36.8215 0 0 u4 O.
O. O. O. -120.833 36.8215 150.29 0 0 v4 -20.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Us O.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vs -20.
The rigid plate is connected between nodes 3, 5, and 4. Treating u3 ' "s- and Us as indepen-
dent degrees offreedom, the multipoint constraints are as follows:
Expanding and rearranging, we have
To this list we must also add the roller support constraint that "3 = O. Thus the complete set
of constraint equations, expanded to include all degrees of freedom present in the global
equations, are
Uz
Vz
[0 oo -~ 0 0 ~
~] t1 =m
-1
. 0 o
Cd=q~ ~ o
1 0 -1
0 -1 0 1 0
o 0 1 0 0 0
Us
Vs
To use the penalty function approach, we choose the penalty parameter j1 equal to lOs times
the largest number in the global K matrix:
j1 = 150.29 X lOs = 1.5029 X 107
Incorporating the constraints into the global equations with this value of u, the final system
of equations is as follows:
(K+pCTCjd=R+pCT q=
0.00142693 -0.000368215 -0.000460268 0.000368215 -0.000966667 O. 0 0 "2 O.

-0.000368215 0.0015029 0.000368215 -0.000294572 O. O. 0 0 "2 O.
-0.000460268 0.000368215 -234.827 -187.863 O. O. 234.829 187.863 1/3 o.
0.000368215 -0.000294572 -187.863 -450.87 O. 150.289 187.863 150.29 O.
liP -0.000966667 O. O. O. -150.289 0.000368215 150.29 0
"3
O.
"4
O. o. O. 150.289 0.000368215 -150.289 0 0 "4 -20.
0 0 234.829 187.863 150.29 0 -385.119 -187.863 1/5 O.
0 0 187.863 150.29 0 0 -187.863 -150.29 "5 -20.
Solving this system of linear equations, we get
(U z = 0.172845, Vz = 0.076446, u3 =-0.139174, v3 = 3.99227 X 10- 6,

U4 = 0.292292, v4 6.0391~·X 10-6, Us = 0.29229, Vs = -0.539324)
Substituting these values into the constraint equations, we can see that the constraints are
reasonably satisfied:
6
1.33076 x 10- 6 ] [0]
Cd = 1.66345 x'1O- ", 0
6
[ 2.0469 X 10- 0
3.99227 X 1O~6 0
Knowing the nodal values, the element solutions can be computed in the usual manner:
Strain Stress Axial Force

1 0.000318525 9.23722 9.23722
2 -0.000463913 -13.4535 -13.4535
3 0.000594098 17.2289 17.2289
4 0.000398156 11.5465 11.5465
5 -0.000509888 -14.7868 -14.7868
6 8.52877 x 10-9 0.000247334 0.000247334
UNITS 83
Using the Lagrange multiplier method, the solution is obtained as follows:

Augmented system of equations:
142.693 -'-36.8215 -46.0268 36.8215 -96.6667 O. 0 0 0 0 0 0 dl O.

-36.8215 150.29 36.8215 -29.4572 O. O. 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ O.
-46.0268 36.8215 142.693 -36.8215 O. O. 0 0 s 0 0 0 d3 O.
-4
36.8215 -29.4572 -36.8215 150.29 O. -120.833 0 0 -1 0 -1 1 d4 O.
-96.6667 O. O. O. 142.693 36.8215 0 0 0 1 0 0 ds O.
O. O. O. -120.833 36.8215 150.29 0 0 0 0 1 0 d6 -20.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 s -1 0 0 d7 O.
4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 dB -20.
0 0 s -1 0 0 s 1 0 0 0 0 it! 0
-4 4
0 0 0 0 1 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0 A2 0
0 0 0 -1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1\3 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A4 0
Solution:
(d l= 0.172849, dz = 0.0764461, d3 = -'-0.139174, d4 = -4.68418 X lO- IS,

ds = 0.292296, d6 = -1.62088 X 10- 17, d7 = 0.292296, d s = -0.539337,
AI = -20., Az = -25., A3 = -30.7628, A4 = -60.)
1.7 UNITS
It is important to use a consistent system of units during finite element calculations. When
using the U.S. customary system of units, it is convenient to use the pound-inch (PI) units.
Thus, the nodal coordinates will be entered in inches, the modulus of elasticity in pounds
per square inch (psi), mass density in pounds per inch cubed (lb,/in3) , thermal conductivity
in British thermal units per hour-inch-degrees Fahrenheit [Btu/(hr . in . OF)], and coefficient
of thermal expansion in inch per inch per degrees Fahrenheit (in/in/°F). When using the
International System of Units, it is recommended to use the newton-millimeter (N . mm)
units. Thus the nodal coordinates will be entered in millimeters, the modulus of elasticity in
megapascals (MPa), mass density in metric tonnes per millimeter cubed (mt/mm"), thermal
conductivity in watts per millimeter-degrees Celsius [W/(mm· °C)),"and coefficient of
thermal expansion in millimeters per millimeter per degrees Celsius (mm/mm/°C). Typical
numerical values for these quantities for concrete, steel, and aluminum are as follows:
Concrete (medium strength)
Quantity PI System N -rnm System

Modulus of elasticity 4.64 X 106 psi . 0.32 X lOs MPa
Mass density 2.24 x 1O-4 1b,/ in3 '2.4 x 10-9 mt/rnm''
Thermal conductivity 0.048 Btu/(hr . in . OF) 0.001 W/(mm· 0c)
Coefficient of 6.1 x 10-6 in/in/T' i 1 x 1O-6 mm/mm/' C
thermal expansion
Steel (carbon and alloys):
Quantity PI System N· mm system

Modulus of elasticity 30'x psi 2.1 x MPa
Mass density 7.32 x 1O-4 1b,/ in3 7.83 x 10-9 mt/mm''
Thermal conductivity 2.07 Btu/(hr· in- OF) 0.043 W/(mm· 0C)
Coefficient of 6.5 x 10- 6 in/in/T' 12 X 10-6 mm!mm!°C
thermal expansion
Aluminum alloys:
Quantity PI System N -rnm System

Modulus of elasticity 10.4 x psi 0.72 x MPa
Mass density 2.62 x 1O-4 1bll/ in3 2.8 x 10- 9 mt/mnr'
Thermal conductivity 10.11 Btu/(hr· in . OF) 0.21 W/(mm' °C)
Coefficient of 12.8 x 10- 6 in/in/OF 23 X 10- 6 mm!mm!°C
thermal expansion
Commonly used conversion factors:
Given in Multiply by To get

Length in 25.4 mm
Force or weight Ib! 4.4484 N
Weight to mass Ib! 1/386.4 Ibm
Weight to mass. /N 1.02 x 10- 4 mt
Mass Ibm 0.17524 mt
Mass density Ib,/in3 1.0694 x 10- 5 mt/mm"
Power Btu/hr 0.2931 W
Temperature OF ("F - 32)/1.8 °C
Coefficient of thermal in/in/OF 1.8 mm!mm!°C
expansion
Thermal conductivity Btu/(hr . in . ~F) 0.02077 W/(mm·°C)
Convection coefficient Btu/(hr . in2 • OF) 6.411 x 10-3 W/(mm2 • 0C)
Modulus of elasticity psi 6.895 x 10-3 MPa
or stress
PROBLEMS
Element Equations
1.1 A triangular finite element for a 2D heat flow problem is shown in Figure 1.28.
Write the finite element equations for this element. Assume that the heat conduction
PROBLEMS 85
coefficient is 1.4 W/m· °C. The convection heat loss takes place along side 2-3 of
the element. The average convection heat transfer coefficient is 20W/m' °C and the
surrounding air temperature is 2YC. There is no heat generation inside the element.
y(m)
3
0.2
0.15
0.1
- - - - - - - x(m)
o 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Figure 1.28. Triangular element
1.2 A triangular finite element for a plane stress problem is shown in Figure 1.29. Write
the finite element equations for this element. Assume E = 20 X 106 Nzcm", v = 0.3,
thickness = 2 em, and a uniform pressure of 300 N/cm 2 normal to side 1-3 of the
element.
y(cm) y(m) 3
3 0.1
0.1
o
o -0.05
o 0.01
Figure 1.29. Triangular element Figure 1.30. Triangular element
1.3 A triangular finite element for a 2D heat flow problem is shown in Figure 1.30.
Write the finite element equations for this element. Assume that the heat conduction
coefficient is 1.17 W/m' "C. The convection heat loss takes place along side 3-1 of
the element. The average convection heat transfer coefficient is 17 W/m' °C and the
surrounding air temperature is 32°C. There is no heat generation inside the element.
1.4 Consider two-dimensional steady-state heat flow in a V-grooved solid body with
a cross section as shown in Figure 1.31. A hot liquid flowing through the groove
maintains the surface at a temperature of 170°F. The thermal conductivity of the
material is k = 0.04 Btu/hr- in- "F, The bottom surface is insulated. The sides have
a convection coefficient of h = '0.03 Btu/hr . in 2 • OF with 'the outside temperature
of 70°F. Determine the temperature distribution in the solid. Taking advantage of
symmetry and using only two triangular elements, the model is as shown in the
figure. Develop finite element equations for element 1.
86 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:THE BIG PICTURE
Insulated
Figure 1.31. V-grooved solid
1.5 Develop finite element equations for element 2 of the model shown in Figure 1.31.
1.6 The cross section of a long concrete dam (thermal conductivity = 0.6 W/m . DC)
with base = 3 m and height = 4 m is shown in Figure 1.32. The face of the dam
is exposed to heat flux qo = 800 W/m2 from sun. The vertical face is subjected to
convection by water at 15DC with convection heat transfer coefficient 150 W/m2.DC.
It is proposed to determine the temperature distribution in the dam using only one
triangular element. Set up the system of finite element equations.
Figure 1.32. Concrete dam
Assembly of Element Equations

1.7 A three-bar truss is shown in Figure 1.33. Write the element equations and carry out
the assembly of the element matrices to form the global system of equations. The
area of cross section of each element is 500 mm 2 and E = 210 GPa. Use N . mm
units in your calculations.
PROBLEMS 87
10 leN
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
(m)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Figure 1.33. Plane truss
1.8 A three-bar truss is shown in Figure 1.34. Write the element equations and cany out
the assembly of the element matrices to form the global J( matrix and the R vector.
The area of cross section of each element is 500 mm 2 and E = 210 GPa. Use N . mm
units in your calculations.
0.6
0.5
0.4
45° 20 leN
0.3
0.2
0.1
2
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
1.9 A finite element model employs triangular plane stress elements and consists of only
six nodes. Each node has two degrees of freedom. The first element is connected to
the model through nodes 1,4, and 6 and has the following coefficient matrix and the
right-hand-side vector:
246 198 221 179 188 194 10

198 273 182 242 221 186 6
221 182 215 167 198 185 9
k= 183 r = 10
179 242 167 243 225
188 221 198 225 266 180 8
194 186 185 183 180 201 7
Carry out the assembly of the element matrices to form the global K matrix and the
R vector. Note that this is the first element that is being assembled, and hence the
global matrices are all zeros prior to assembly of this element.
1.10 Form the global system of equations for the two-element finite element model
shown in Figure 1.35. The equations for the individual elements are as follows:
0.04
Element I: -0.04 -0.04
0.53 00.23 ][TT
1
3
]
=[0
50.4]
[
o 0.23 0.49 T4 50.4
Element 2:
0.04
0.02
0.02 -0.06][TT = [0]0
0.02 -0.04
1]
4
[ -0.06 -0.04 0.1 T2 0
Figure 1.35: Two-element model
Handling Essential Boundary Conditions and Solution for Nodal Unknowns

I
1.11 In Problem 1.7 you were asked to obtain a global system of equations for a plane
truss. Continue further with the analysis and obtain the reduced system of equations
after adjusting for specified displacement boundary conditions. Solve the resulting
system for the unknown nodal displacements. Compute reactions at the supports
and verify that your solution satisfies overall equilibrium. .
1.12 The global K matrix and the R vector for a finite element system are as follows:
63993.2 79991.4 0 0 0 0 -63993.2 -79991.4

79991.4 99989.3 0 0 0 0 -79991.4 -99989.3
0 D O. O. 0 0 O. O.
0 0 O. 210000. 0 0 O. -210000.
K=
0 0 0 0 239682. -59920.6 -239682; 59920.6
0 0 0 0 -59920.6 14980.1 59920.6 -14980.1
-63993.2 -79991.4 O. O. -239682. 59920.6 303675. 20070.9
-79991.4 -99989.3 O. -210000. 59920.6 -14980.1 20070.9 324969.
RT =(0. O. O. o. O. O. 14142.1 -24142.1)

PROBLEMS 89
Obtain the reduced system of equations after imposing the following essential
boundary conditions:
dl = -0.1; dz = 0.2; d3 = d4 = d s = d 6 = 0
Solve the final system of equations for the remaining two nodal unknowns.
1.13 After assembly a finite element model yields the following global system of equa-
tions:
358815 -447 -2060 -60 -1053 365 dl 2
-447 553547 -1916 -85 -313 931 dz 3
-2060 -1916 182342 -1 1479 239 d3 -8
-60 -85 -1 435603 -1321 1501 = d4 5
-1053 . -313 1479 -1321 277735 -1056 ds -7
365 931 239 1501 -1056 33134 d6 -4
Get the reduced system of equations after imposing essential boundary conditions
d l = -1, d z = 0, and d4 = 4. Solve the reduced system for remaining nodal un-
knowns.
1.14 A typical truss to support a highway is as shown in Figure 1.36. Because of a con-
struction error, the support a~de 5 rom too tall. The contractor is con-
sidering using jack hammers to force the truss to fit it into place. You are asked to
conduct a finite element analysis to make sure that the stresses in the truss elements
will remain within allowable limits under the given loading and the forced fit. A
colleague of yours has started the analysis already and has obtained the following
global stiffness matrix after assembly of the first eight elements (N . rom units are
used):
7560. -1920. -5000. 0 0 0 0 0 -2560. 1920. 0 0 III
-1920. 1440. 0 o· 0 0 0 0 1920. -1440. 0 0 VI
-5000. 0 12560. -1920. -5000. 0 0 0 0 0 -2560. 1920. u2
0 0 -1920. 8106.67 0 0 0 0 0 -6666.67 1920. -1440. v2
0 0 -5000. _. 0 10000. 0 -5000. 0 0 0 0 0 u3
0 0 0 0 0 6666.67 0 0 0 0 0 -6666.67 v3
0 0 0 0 -5000. 0 5000. 0 0 0 0 0 114
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 v4
-2560. 1920. 0 0 0 0 0 0 7560. -1920. -5000. 0 liS
1920. -1440. 0 -6666.67 0 0 0 0 -1920. 8106.67 0 0 Vs
0 0 -2560. 1920. 0 0 0 0 -5000. 0 7560. -1920. 116
0 0 1920. -1440. 0 -6666.67 0 0 0 0 -1920. 8106.67 v6
(a) Form the equations for element 9 and assemble them to form the global system
of equations. Use the following numerical values:
E = 200000N/romz; A = 100rom2; P = 20000N

(b) Taking boundary conditions into consideration, determine the final system of
equations to solve for nodal displacements.
p p
4
o
-3
(m)
o 4 8 12
Figure 1.36. Bridge truss
Complete Solution over Each Element

1.15 The following nodal temperatures are obtained for the heat flow problem in the V-
grooved solid shown in Figure 1.31. Compute the temperature distribution and its x
and y derivatives over each element. By comparing the temperature derivatives over
the two elements, comment on the quality of the solution.
Node Temperature
1 99.4118
2 170
3 28.8235
/4 170
1.16 The correct nodal displacements, in mm, for the three-bar in Problem 1.7 are as
follows:
u v
1 0 o
2 0 o
3 0 o
4 0.0506837 -0.0736988
Compute axial strains, axial stresses, and axial forces in each element. Using the
computed axial forces, draw a free-body diagram of all forces acting at node 4.
By summing forces in the horizontal and vertical directions, show that the joint
equilibrium is satisfied.
1.17 Determine joint deflections, stresses in each member, and support reactions for the
plane truss shown in Figure 1.37. The members have a cross-sectional area of 8 cm2
and are made of steel (E == 200 GPa). Show all calculations.
PROBLEMS 91
1.5
10kN
0.5
o
(m)
o 0.5 1.5
1.18 Determine the temperature at the centroid of the concrete dam cross section shown
in Figure 1.32, assuming the temperatures at the nodes are 10, 20, and 30°C, respec-
tively.
Solution of Linear Equations

1.19 Solve the following system of equations using Choleski decomposition:
-; -~ ~
oo 000 x
][Xl]
2
[2
-2
]
[ 04· 9
0 0 .. -1.5
000
-1.5
1.25
0.5
0.5
3.25
x =
x4
X
3
s
8
0.5
-3.25
1.20 Solve the following system of equations using Choleski decomposition:
1.21 Factor the following matrix using Choleski decomposition:
2 -1 0 000
-1 2-1 o 0 0
o -1 3 -1 O' 0
o 0-1 3 -1 0
o 0 0 -1 2-1
000 o -1 2
Using the factored matrix, obtain solutions for the following right-hand sides:
~l ~l ~l
0 2 2
b(l) = 0 b(2) = 0 b(3) = 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 ~2
1.22 Factor the following matrix using Choleski decomposition:
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 -1 0
1 12 3 1 2 0 1 2 1 2
1 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 1 2
1 1 1 5 2 2 1 2 3 2
0 2 1 2 6 3 2 0 5 4
0 0 1 2 3 4 2 1 5 3
1 1 2 1 2 2 7 2 -1 4
0 2 2 2 0 1 2 9 2 5
-1 1 1 3 5 5 -1 2 24 4
0 2 2 2 4 3 4 5 4 7
Using the factored matrix, obtain solutions for the following right-hand sides:
0 15 6
-8 43 10
-3 43 8
14 27 12
r
b(l) = 39 ,/
b(2) = 12 b(3) = 7
32 14 0
1 59 29
-45 79 19
56 -2 -24
1 63 21
1.23 Solve the system of equations in Problem 1.19 using the basic conjugate gradient
method.
1.24 Solve the system of equations in Problem 1.20 using the basic conjugate gradient
method.
1.25 -Solve the system of equations with the given coefficient matrix and the first right-
hand side in Problem 1.21 using the basic conjugate gradient method.
1.26 Solve the system of equations with the given coefficient matrix and the first right-
hand side in Problem 1.22 using the basic conjugate gradient method.
1.27 Solve the system of equations in Problem 1.19 using the conjugate gradient method
with Jacobi preconditioning.
PROBLEMS 93
1.28 Solve the system of equations in Problem 1.20 using the conjugate gradient method
with Jacobi preconditioning.
hand side in Problem 1.21 using the conjugate gradient method with Jacobi precon-
ditioning.
hand side in Problem 1.22 using the conjugate gradient method with Jacobi precon-
ditioning. .
hand side in Problem 1.21 using the conjugate gradient method with incomplete
Choleski preconditioning with 112 == 1. The solution should converge in one iteration.
Why?
hand side in Problem 1.22 using the conjugate gradient method with incomplete
Choleski preconditioning with 112 == 1.
Multipoint Constraints
1.33 A finite element system results in the following system of global equations:
2 -2 0 o
-2 6 4 o -2
049 -1.5 28 ]
[ o 0-1.5 1.25 0.5
o 0 0 0.5 -3.25
Using the Lagrange multiplier approach, solve for the nodal unknowns if the model
requires the following multipoint constraint: .
dl+d z == 1
1.34 A finite element system results in the following system of global equations:
2· -1 0 0 0 0 dl -1
-1 2 -i 0 0 0 dz 2
0 -1 3 -1 0 0 d3 0
0 0 -1 3 -1 0 d4 0
0 0 0 -1 2 -1 ds 0
0 0 0 0 -1 2 d6 0
Using the Lagrange multiplier approach, solve for the 'nodal unknowns if the model
requires the following multipoint constraints:
1.35 Solve Problem 1.33 using the penalty function approach.

1.36 Solve Problem 1.34 using the penalty function approach.
Computational Projects
1.37 Using a finer mesh and the available finite element software, determine the temper-
ature distribution through a solid with a V-groove as shown in Figure 1.31. Take
advantage of symmetry and model only half of the domain.
1.38 Determine the temperature distribution through a solid with a circular groove as
shown in Figure 1.38. ,A hot fluid flowing through the groove keeps the temperature
of the circular surface at 150°C. The bottom surface of the solid is in contact with
a coolant that maintains it at DoC. The top and side surfaces are well insulated. The
solid is made of two different materials, with thermal conductivities k1 =: lOW/rn- "C
and k2 =: 20 Wlm . DC. Take advantage of symmetry and model only half of the
domain.
f
10 m
~I
Figure 1.38. Solid with a circular groove
1.39 Heating wires are embedded in a concrete slab, as shown in cross section in Figure
1.39, to keep snow from accumulating on the slab. In a proposed design wires are
placed at 2 em from the top and at 4-cm intervals. The heat generated by each wire
is 10 Wlm length. The bottom of the slab is insulated. T):J.e top is exposed to a
convection heat loss with a convection coefficient of h =: 30 W1m2 • DC. The thermal
conductivity of concrete is 1.2 Wlm . DC. Determine the slab surface temperature
when the air temperature is -SOC. Note that, because of symmetry, we need to model
T
6cm
1
Figure 1.39. Heating wires embedded in concrete
PROBLEMS 95
only the 2 ern x 6 em dark shaded area. There will be no heat flow across the sides
of this area. The heating wire represents a concentrated point heat source.
1.40 Steps of a staircase are supported by two identical trusses made of 2-in-nominal-
diameter pipes (outside diameter = 2.375 in, wall thickness =. 0.154 in). One side E::o 'l qi e.G("l 5;
truss is shown in Figure 1.40. There are 12 steps each with 7.5 in rise and 11.5 in
run. The load from the steps is assumed to be applied as concentrated downward
loads of 100 lb at each nodal point. Determine nodal deflections, stresses in each
member, and support reactions.
Verify computer results by performing the following calculations by hand:
(a) Use computed reaction forces and applied external forces to check over all
equilibrium of forces.
(b) Isolate a typical node in the truss and draw a free-body diagram of the forces
acting at that node. Verify that the equilibrium is satisfied at the node.
(c) Pass a vertical section through the truss. Draw the free body diagram of the
truss on the right-hand section. Verify that the section is in equilibrium.
Figure 1.40. Staircase truss
1.41 The lower portion of an aluminum step bracket, shown in Figure 1.41, is subjected
to a uniform pressure 'of 20 Nzrnrrr'. The left end is fixed and the right end is free.
The dimensions of the bracket are thickness = 3 rum, L = 150 rum, b = 10 rum,
Figure 1.41. Step bracket

X
~( .. ~
~
'0~lJ ,t:J I and h = 24 mm. Fillets of 3 mm radius are provided at the two reentrant comers.
'.<. l.:J" The material properties are E = 70,000 N/mm 2 and v = 0.3. Determine stresses
M~ ,.J in the bracket using a planar finite element model (using say Plane42 element of
R ':f':- ANSYS). Compare solutions based on plane stress and plane strain assumptions.
(.0 (The situation can also be modeled using bearn/frame elements, three-dimensional
solid elements, and plate elements.)
1.42 The top surface of an S-shaped aluminum block, shown in Figure 1.42, is subjected
to a uniform pressure of 20 N/mm2 . The bottom is fixed. The dimensions of the
block are t = 3 mm, L = 15 mm, b = 10 mm, and h = 24 mm. The material
properties are E =70,000N/mm 2 and v. = 0.3. Determine stresses in the block using
a planar finite element model (using say Plane42 element of ANSYS). Compare
solutions based on plane stress and plane strain assumptions. (The situation can
also be modeled using bearn/frame elements, three-dimensional solid elements, and
plate elements.)
Figure 1.42. S-shaped aluminum block
1.43 Design optimization. Aluminum fins are to be used to cool an integrated circuit (IC)
chip as shown in Figure 1.43. On~ side of the chip is insulated. The chip dissipates
electrical energy at a rate of 150 W1m. The thermal conductivity of aluminum is
170 W1m . K. The convection coefiicient of the fin surface is 55 W1m2 • K, and the
ambient air temperature is 30·C.
ooling fms
C Chi
sulatiEn
Figure 1.43. Aluminum fins for cooling IC chip

PROBLEMS 97
Since the length of the fins is long, we can take a cross section and model as a
plane problem. Furthermore, taking advantage of symmetry, we need to model half
of the section, as shown in Figure 1.44. The bottom of the fin receives heat flux from
the IC chip. Because of symmetry, no heat can flow across the left side. Convection
heat loss takes place along the remaining exposed sides.
Figure'1.44. Planar model for aluminum fins for cooling Ie chip
The dimensions d, w, and t are fixed as follows:
d= 3mm; w=3mm; t=lmm
The design goal is to determine the optimum height h of the fins so that the temper-
QC.
ature ofthe IC chip does not exceed 70 Assume a starting value of h = 5 mm.
CHAPTER TWO
MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF THE

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
From a mathematical point of view the finite element method is a special form of the
well-known Galerkin and Rayleigh-Ritz methods for finding approximate solution of dif-
ferential equations. In both methods the governing differential equation first is converted
into an equivalent integral form. The Rayleigh-Ritz method employs calculus of variations
to define an equivalent variational or energy functional. A function that minimizes this en-
ergy functional represents a solution of the governing differential equation. The Galerkin
method uses a more direct approach. An approximate solution, with one or more unknown
parameters, is chosen. In general, this lassumed solution will not satisfy the differential
equation. The integral form represents the residual obtained by integrating the error over
the solution domain. Employing a criteria adopted to minimize the residual gives equations
for finding the unknown parameters.
For most practical problems solutions of differential equations are required to satisfy
not only the differential equation but also the specified boundary conditions at one or more
points along the boundary of the solution domain. In both methods some of the boundary
conditions must be satisfied explicitly by the assumed solutioris while others are satisfied
implicitly through the minimization process. The boundary conditions are thus divided
into two categories, essential and natural. The essential boundary conditions are those that
must explicitly be satisfied while the natural boundary conditions are incorporated into the
integral formulation. In general,therefore, the approximate solutions will not satisfy the
natural boundary conditions exactly.
The basic concepts will be explained with reference to the problem of axial deformation
of bars. The derivation of the governing differential equation is considered in the next sec-
tion. Approximate solutions using the classical form of Galerkin and Rayleigh-Ritz meth-
ods are presented. Finally the methods are cast into the form that is suitable for developing
finite element equations.
98
AXIAL DEFORMATION OF BARS 99
2.·1 AXIAL DEFORMATION Of BARS
2.1.1 Differential Equation for Axial Deformations

Consider a bar of any arbitrary cross section subjected to loads in the-axial direction only,
as shown in Figure 2.1. The area of cross section is denoted by A and it could vary over
the length of the bar. The modulus of elasticity is denoted by E. The bar may be subjected
to a distributed axial load q(x, t) along its length. The load can vary over the bar length and
may also be a function of time. The axial displacement is denoted by u(x, t).
The governing differential equation can be written by considering equilibrium of a dif-
ferential element as shown in Figure 2.2. Note the sign convention adopted in drawing the
free-body diagram assumes that the tension in the bar is positive. The axial force at x is
denoted by F. The axial force at x + dx is F + (aFlax) dx based on the Taylor series expan-
a
sion. The acceleration is indicated by ii == 2 ul at 2 . From Newton's second law of motion
a force, called the inertia force, is produced that is proportional to the mass of the element
and acts in the direction opposite to the direction of motion. Denoting the mass density
by p, the mass per unit length is ni = Ap dx and thus the inertia force is mii = Ap dx ii.
The only other force acting on the element is the applied axial load q(x, t). Considering
summation of forces in the x direction, we have
..
A(x)p dx u(x, t) + F = q.dx + F + aF ..
ax dx =? Apu = q +
aF
ax
The axial force is related to the axial stress 0:.: as follows:
F = ACT'.r
Axial load, q(x,t)
x, u(x,t)
EA(x)
Figure 2.1. Axially loaded bar
m=Apdx
I--dx ---l
Figure 2.2. Forces acting on a differential element in an axially loaded bar

100 MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF THE FINITE ELEMENTMETHOD
Assuming linear elastic material, axial stress is related to the axial strain Ex through the
modulus of elasticity. Thus
Assuming small displacements, the axial strain is related to the first derivative of the axial
displacement. Thus the axial force is related to displacement as follows:
F =AE
au
ax
Substituting this into the equilibrium equation, the governing differential equation for axial
deformation of bars is as follows:
au
axa (AE ax ) +q =Apu..
This is a second-order partial differential equation. Since the equation involves second-
order derivatives with respect to both x and t, we need two boundary conditions and two
initial conditions for a proper solution. The initial conditions are specified displacement
and velocity along the bar at time t = 0:
it(x,O) = V o
where U o and Vo are the specified values. The boundary conditions involve specification of
displacement or its first derivative at the ends. Since the first derivative of displacement is
related to the axial force, the derivative boundary condition is expressed in terms of the
applied force. The possible boundary conditions at the right end of the bar x = XI are as
follows:
/
or XI -? right end of the bar
where u; is a specified displacement and Pxf is a specified force. Both these quantities could
'~l
be functions of time. Care must be exercised in assigning proper signs to force boundary
condition terms. Applied forces are considered positive when they act in the positive co-
ordinate direction. From the free-body diagram in Figure 2.2, it should be clear that, if a
force is specified at the left end of a bar, then the appropriate force boundary condition
must include a negative sign as follows:
X
o -? left end of the bar
If the forces and displacements do not vary with time, we have a static analysis situation
and the equilibrium equation is an ordinary second-order differential equation as follows:
d( dU) + q(x) = 0;
dx AE dx Xo < x < XI
with the boundary conditions of the form
or
or
An integration of the second-order differential equation, if possible, would yield two arbi-
trary constants, and we would need two conditions to evaluate these constants. Thus at least
two boundary conditions must be specified for a unique solution. On physical grounds, it is
easy to see that we must specify displacement at least at one point along the bar to prevent
the whole bar from moving as a rigid body. The second bouridary condition could be either
of the displacement or the force type. Note that at the same point both a displacement and
a force cannot be specified independently. The reason for this is that, if a displacement is
specified, then the corresponding force represents a reaction at the point and ingeneral is
2.1.2 Exact Solutions of Some Axial Deformation Problems

It is possible to directly integrate the differential equation to obtain exact solutions for the
axial deformation problems in which the loading and the area of cross section are simple
functions of x. Solutions for a uniform bar and a tapered bar subjected to linearly varying
load are presented in this section. In later sections these exact solutions will be used to
check the quality of the approximate solutions that are obtained using the Galerkin, the
Rayleigh-Ritz, and the finite element methods.
Axial Deformation of a Uniform Bar Consider a uniform bar fixed at one end and
subjected to a static point load at the other end, as shown in Figure 2.3. The bar is also
subjected to a linearly varying axial load q(x) = ex, where e is a given constant. The
problem is described in terms of the following boundary value problem:
O<x<L
u(O) = 0; EA du(L) =P
dx .
'}---I»-P
L £!>/
Figure 2.3. Uniform axially loaded bar

An exact solution of the problem can easily be obtained by integrating the differential
equation twice and then using the boundary conditions to evaluate the resulting integration
constants. Integrating both sides of the differential equation once, we get
2 .
EA du + ex =C
dx 2 I
where C1 is an integration constant. Integrating once again, we get
c;2
EAu(x) + (5 = C1x + C2
where C2 is another integration constant. Rearranging terms,
Using the boundary conditions
£1(0) = 0 ~ C2 = 0
and
Thus the exact solution of the problem is
_ x(6P + 3eL 2 - ex 2 )
)
u(x - , 6EA
!
Axial Deformation of a Tapered Bar Consider a tapered bar fixed at one end and
subjected to a static point load at the other end, as shown in Figure 2.4. The bar is also
subjected to a linearly varying axial load q(x) = ex, where e is a given constant. The
problem is described in terms of the following boundary value problem:
d ( EA(x) dU)
dx dx + ex = 0; O<x<L
A(x) =A o - A -A LX
_O_ _
L
dueL) _
£1(0) = 0; EA L
t;lx
-P
where A o is the area of cross section at x = 0 and A L is that at x =L.

Integrating both sides of the differential equation once, we get
Ao-AL)dU ex?_C
E(A o - - -L- x -
dx
+2
-- 1
Figure 2.4. Tapered axially loaded bar
where C1 is an integration constant. Straightforward integration once again is not possible

because of the presence of the x du/dx term. However, using more advanced techniques
for solution of ordinary differential equations, it is possible to obtain the following general
solution in terms of two integration constants C1 and C2 :
Using the boundary conditions, the integration constants are evaluated as follows:
The exact solution of the problem can now be written as follows:

1 .
u(x)=- 3 (L(c(-1+r)x(-2L+(-1+r)x)
4(-1 + r) EA o
+ 2(2P('-1 + :)2 + cL2(-2 + r)r) log[L]
- 2(2P(-1 + r)2 + cL2(-2 + r)r) log[L + (-1 + r)xJ))
where r =AJAo' the ratio of areas at two ends of the bar:

The only difference between this example and the previous one is that here the area
of cross section of the bar varies linearly. The solution is much more difficult to obtain
and the final solution expression is quite complicated as well. This example demonstrates
how quickly analytical solutions become difficult to obtain and shows the importance of
numerical methods for practical problems.
As should be expected, by taking the limit as Ao -) AL == A, i.e., r -) 1, it can be shown
that this solution reduces to the one for a uniform bar presented in the previous section.
Also note that, when c = 0 (no distributed axial load), the axial force at any point in the
bar is equal to P, which obviously should be the case from statics.
104 MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF THE FINITEELEMENTMETHOD
u(x)
2 r=0.2
r=O.4
1.5
r=0.6
r=0.8
r=1.2
r=2
0.5
r=6
r=10
x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 2.5. Solutions of tapered axially loaded bar subjected to end load
Solutions for several values of r are plotted in Figure 2.5 with the following numerical
values:
c = 0; p= 1; A o = 1; L= 1; E=1
2.2 AXIAL DEFORMATION OF BARS USING GALER KIN METHOD
The governing differential equation for axial deformation of bars is the following second-
order differential equation: ./
d( dU)
dx AE dx + q =:= 0;
where X o and XI are the coordinates of the ends of the bar. The primary unknown is the axial
displacement u(x). Once the displacement is known, axial strain, stress, and force can be
computed from the following relationships: .
du
E
x
=-'
dx' F =AD;:
At the ends either a displacement or an axial force can be specified. Thus the boundary
conditions for the problem are of the following form:
or
or
. AXIAL DEFORMATION OF BARS USING GALERKIN METHOD 105
WhBre uxQ' P.tO' ... are appropriate specified values. Mathematically spealcing, for a second-
order differential equation either u is specified or its first derivative du/dx is specified. Both
u and du/dx cannot have specified values at the same point.
2.2.1 Weak Form for Axial Deformations

In the Galerkin method we assume a general form of the solution. This assumed solution
must contain some unknown parameters whose values are determined so that the error
between the assumed solution and the exact solution is as small as possible. The assumed
solution can be of any form. As an example, we will consider a solution in the form of a
polynomial:
where ao' a l , ..• are the unknown parameters. In general, this assumed solution will not sat-
isfy the differential equation for all values of x. When this assumed solution is substituted
into the differential equation, the error in satisfying the governing differential equation is
e(x) ;=
d( dft)
dx AE dx + q(x) '* 0
The tilde (~) over u is used to emphasize that it is an assumed solution and not necessarily
the same as the exact solution of the differential equation. In the following development we
. will have to perform several mathematical operations, such as differentiation and integra-
tion, on the assumed solution. Carrying the tilde symbol through all these manipulations
becomes tedious. Since we are dealing primarily with the approximate solutions, for nota-
tional convenience, we will drop the tilde and use only u instead to indicate an approximate
solution. An occasional reference to the exact solution will be indicated by using the word
exact explicitly..
The total error, called the residual, for the entire solution domain can be obtained by
integrating e(x) over the domain. However, in a straight integration of e, the negative and
positive errors at different points may cancel each other. To avoid error cancellation, e(x) is
multiplied by a suitable weighting function and then integrated over the solution domain.
Since there are n unknown parameters, we need n weighting functions to establish weighted
residual equations as follows:
i =0, 1, ... , n
where wi(x) are suitable weighting functions. This form is known as the weak form. The
differential equation is the strong form because it requires error term e(x) to vanish at every
x. The integral form makes the total error go to zero but does not necessarily satisfy the
governing differential equation for all values of x.
In a method known as the least-squared weighted residual method the error term is
squared to define the total squared error as follows:
The necessary conditions for the minimum of the total squared error give n equations that
can be solved for the unknown parameters:
.i = 0, 1,...
Thus in the least-squares method the weighting functions are the partial derivatives of the
error term e(x).
Least-squares weighting functions:
i =0, l, ... .n
A more popular method in the finite element applications is the Galerkin method. In this
method, instead of taking partial derivatives of the error function, the weighting functions
are defined as the partial derivatives of the assumed solution.
Galerkin weighting functions:
i = 0,1, ... , n
Thus the Galerkin weighted residual method defines the following n equations to solve for
the unknown parameters:
i = 0,1, ...
It turns out that for a large number of engineering applications the Galerkin method gives
the same solution as another popular method, the Rayleigh-Ritz method, presented in a
later section. Furthermore, since the least-squares method has no particular advantage over
the Galerkin method for the kinds of problems discussed in this book, only the Galerkin
method is presented in detail.
So far in developing the residual we have considered error in satisfying the differential
equation alone. A solution must also satisfy boundary conditions. In order to be able to
introduce the boundary conditions into the weighted residual, we use mathematical manip-
ulations involving integration by parts.
AXIAL DEFORMATION OF BARS USINGGALERKINMETHOD 107
'I'he integration-by-parts formula is used to rewrite an integral of a product of a deriva-

tive of a function, say f(x), and another function, say g(x), as follows:
Note that the integrand must involve the product of a function and the derivative of
another function. The application of the formula produces two terms that are evaluated
at the ends of integration domain and another integral in which the derivative shifts from
one function to the other.
For a second-order differential equation, we know that the boundary conditions specify
either u or du/dx at the ends. Thus we are looking for a way of introducing these terms into
the weighted residual. Since the integration-by-parts formula gives rise to boundary terms,
it is precisely the tool that we need. Note that the highest derivative term in the residual
e(x) involves a second derivative on u. Using integration by parts on this term will result
in two terms evaluated at the integration limits that are nsed to incorporate the boundary
conditions into the residual. .
For the axial deformation problem, the weighted residual is
L:I e(x)w/(x)dx = LXI (~ (AE~~) + q(X))W/(X) dx = 0; i=O,l, ...
Note that, in general, A and E could be functions of x, and therefore, care must be taken
when carrying out differentiation and integration. Also q(x) and w/(x) are arbitrary func-
tions of x at this stage and cannot be taken out of the integral. Writing the two terms in the
weighted residual as separate integrals, we have
XI d(dU)
. dx AE dx wi(x)dx +
LXI q(x)wi(x) dx. = 0; i = 0,1, ...
LXo Xo
The first integral contains the second-order derivative on u and is written exactly in the
form to which integration by parts is applicable with f(x) = AE(du/dx) and g(x) = w/(x).
Thus the application of integration by parts to the first integral gives
(XI (XI
du(x) du(xo)
A(x/)E(x/) d/ wi(x/)-A(xo)E(xo)~w/(xo)-
du dw.
Jxo AE dx dx l dx + J
Xo
q(x)w/(x)dx= °
The first two terms in the weak form give us a way to incorporate the specified force or
derivative boundary conditions into the weak form. If a force PxO is applied at end xo' then
du(xo)
-A(xo)E(xo) ~ = P.to:=;. Second term in the weak form: P.to w;Cxo)
If a force px / is applied at end xI' then
A(x/)E(x/) dL~~/) = PXI:=;. First term in the weak form: P.t Wi(x/)
l
Thus, when a force is specified, the boundary condition can be naturally incorporated
into the weak form. Hence this type of boundary condition is called a natural boundary
condition (NBC).
The situation is very different if the u is specified at one or both ends. The derivative
du/dx at the corresponding point is unknown. (Physically AE du/dx at the point represents
the unknown reaction.) The specified displacement boundary condition therefore cannot
be incorporated into the weak form directly. The assumed solutions must satisfy this type
of boundary condition explicitly, and thus such a boundary condition is called the essential
boundary condition (EBC). An assumed solution that satisfies the EBC is known as an
admissible solution. Since the weighting functions are partial derivatives of the assumed
solution, with an admissible assumed solution, all weighting functions corresponding to
the location of an EBC are zero. Therefore, the boundary term in the weak form vanishes
at the point where anEBC is specified. Thus we must deal with the boundary terms as
follows:
Boundary Specified Boundary Term in Requirement on the

Condition Term Value the Weak Form Assumed Solution 'IYpe
-A(xo)E(xo)C!Ld;o) P.to P.towj(xo) None NBC
A(x/)E(x/) dL~~/) Px, PX,wj(x/) None NBC
u(xo) uXo None Must satisfy EBC

!t(x/) None Must satisfy EBC
For structural problems, the weak form can be interpreted as the well-known principle of
virtual displacements. To see this, assume we have specified force boundary conditions at
the ends. Then the weak form can be Written as follows:
Rearranging terms, we have
If we interpret wj(x) as a virtual displacement, then the right-hand side is the virtual work
done by the applied forces. The left-hand side is the total internal virtual work, since
E du/dx == 0:;, is the axial stress and dw.rdx is axial virtual strain. Thus the weak form
implies that when a bar is given a virtual displacement, then the external virtual work is
equal to the total internal virtual work, which is a statement of the principle of virtual
displacements. Since this principle is widely used in structural mechanics, it is one of the
main reasons why the Galerkin weighted residual. method is more popular in developing
finite element equations. Also recall that the virtual displacements are required to satisfy
the displacement (i.e., essential) boundary conditions.
AXIAL DEFORMATION OF BARS USING GALERKIN METHOD 109
From the final weak form we note that another advantage of the integration by parts is
that the order of the derivative on the terms remaining inside the integral sign is reduced
by 1. Thus for a second-order problem the weak form involves only first-order derivatives.
It may not appear to be a big deal here, but it has important consequences in develop-
a
ing simple finite elements for practical problems. It will be seen in later example that,
when dealing with a fourth-order problem, integration by parts must be carried out twice
to reduce the highest order derivative to 2.
2.2.2 Uniiorm Bar SUbjected to linearly Varying Axial load

We now use the Galerkin method to find approximate solutions for a uniform bar (EA
constant) fixed at one end and subjected to a static point load at the other end, as shown
in Figure 2.3. Thebar is also subjected to a linearly varying axial load q(x) = ex, where
e is a given constant. The problem is described in terms of the following boundary value
problem:
O<x<L
u(O) = 0; EA dueL) =P
dx
The following exact solution of the problem was obtained in Section 2.1:
_ x(6P + 3eL2 - ex2)
u(x) - 6EA .
With the solution domain fromIf), L), the EA constant, q(x) = ex, the essential boundary
condition u(O) = 0 => w(O) = 0, and the natural boundary condition EAu' (L) = P, the weak
form specific to this problem is as follows:
Pw;(L) + lL (~AE~: ~:i + eXWi(X))dX = 0
EBC: u(O) =0
This weak form can now be used to find a variety of approximate solutions to the problem.
Linear Solution The simplest possible solution that we can assume is a linear poly-
nomial. An approximate solution of the problem is obtained using the following starting
solution:
u(X) = a o +xa l
To satisfy the essential boundary condition, we must have
u(O) = 0 ==> ao + Oal = 0 ==> ao = 0

Thus the admissible assumed solution is
u(x) = xa l giving
Substituting into the weak form, we have
Pw;CL) + Jo(L( -AE(a 1) dw i )

dx + cxw dx = 0 j
There is only one unknown parameter left in the solution and therefore we need only one
equation to find it. The Galerkin weighting function is
aWl
ax -1'
- ,
Substituting this into the weak:form, we have
PL + lL(-AEa l + c2)dx = 0,
Carrying out integration and simplifying, we get
Solving this equation for a p we get
-CL2 - 3P
3EA
Thus a linear approximate solution for the problem is as follows:
(cL 2 + 3P)x
u(x) = ~r1: = 3EA
Quadratic Solution A better solution can be obtained if we start with a quadratic poly-
nomial:
Substituting into the weak form; we have

'AXIAL DEFORMATION OF BARS USINGGALERKIN METHOD 111
There are two unknown parameters left in the solution and therefore we need two equations
to find them. We get these equations by using the two Galerkin weighting functions
aWl = I: WI(O) = 0;
ax '
ow
_ 2 =2.:c W 2 (0) = 0;
ax '
Substituting WI into the weak form, we have
Substituting w 2 into the weak form, we have
Solving the two equations, we have
-7cL2 -12P
l2EA
Thus a quadratic approximate solution is as follows:
1)- 2+ x-- cL 2_ -7cL2-l2P (12P+cL(7L-3x))x

I (x - a2A a l - 4EA x l2EA x_
- l2EA
Cubic Solution The exact solution of the problem is a cubic polynomial. As demon-
strated below, the Galerkin method finds an exact solution if we start with a cubic polyno-
mial:
Substituting into the weak form, we have

There are three unknown parameters left, which we find by using the three Galerkin weight-
ing functions into the weak form, giving the following equations:
au aWl -1'
wI = - =x; ax - , WI(O) = 0; wI(L) = L
aa l
au awz _ 2x'
Wz= - =xz. ax - , Wz(O) = 0; wz(L) = LZ
aaz '
au aw
W3 = - =x3 . _3 =3xz; W3(0) = 0; w3(L) = L3
aa3 ' ax
Substitute admissible solution and weights into the weak form and perform integrations to
get the following: .
Weight Equation
t(e - 3EAa3)L3 - EAazL2 + PL-EAaIL= 0
~(e - 6EAa3)L4 -1EAa2L3 + PL2 - EAa IL2 = 0
!(e - 9EAa3)L5 - ~EAa2L4 + PL3 - EAa IL3 = 0
Solving these equations,
-eL2 -2P
al =- 2EA
Thus a cubic solution is as follows:
Since this is the exact solution, trying any higher order polynomial will not make any
difference.
Carefully note the distinction between the two types of boundary conditions. To make
the assumed solution admissible, we required it to satisfy only the displacement boundary
condition [u(O) = 0]. We never explicitly require the assumed solution to satisfy the force
boundary condition. We can easily see that for this example the linear and quadratic solu-
tions in fact do not satisfy this boundary condition. Only the cubic solution satisfies this
condition exactly.
u(x) au/ax au(L)/ax EA au(L)/ax

(eL2 + 3P)x eLz + 3P eL2 + 3P eL2
Linear -+P
3EA 3EA 3EA 3
(12P + eL(7L - 3x))x 12P + eL(7L - 3x) eLx 4eL2 + 12P eL2 eL2
Quadratic
12EA 12EA 4EA 12EA 4EA 12+ P
x(3eL - ex2 + 6P)
2 2
3eL - ex2 + 6P ex2 2eL2 + 6P eL2
Cubic P
6EA 6EA 3EA 6EA 3EA
AXIAL DEFORMATION OF BARS USINGGALERKIN METHOD 113
The logic in using the terminology essential and natural boundary conditions should now
be clear. Essential boundary conditions are those that must explicitly be satisfied by the as-
sumed solution while the natural boundary conditions are only implicitly satisfied through
the weak form. A solution that satisfies the differential equation and all boundary condi-
tions is obviously the exact solution.
2.2.3 Tapered Bar SUbjected to linearly Varying Axial Load

Consider now the tapered bar fixed at one end and subjected to a static point load at the
other end, as shown in Figure 2.4. The bar is also subjected to a linearly varying axial load
q(x) : ex, where e is a given constant. The problem is described in terms of the following
boundary value problem:
d( dU)
dx EA dx + ex : 0; 0 <x <L
A(x) : A _ A o - A Lx: (L + (-1 + r)x)A o

o L L
u(O): 0; ErA dueL) : P
o dx
where A o is the area of cross section at x : 0, A L is that at x: L, and r : ALIA o. The weak
form specific to this problem is the same as that for the uniform bar in the previous section,
except that A is now a function of x:
.PwJL) + Jo(L(_-AE du dw. )

dx d; + exwj(x) dx: 0
EBC: u(O): 0
Linear Solution Starting~ssumed solution: u(x) : ao + xa 1
The admissible solution must satisfy EBC:
EBC Equation
u(O) ~ 0 ao : 0
Thus the admissible assumed solution is u(x) : xa 1•

Weighting function -7 {x}
Substitute into the wealeform and perform integrations to get:
Weight Equation
4/3
LP + eL - (l/2)rEa 1A oL2 - (l12)Ea 1A oL2 : 0
x
L
Solving this equation,
_(CL3/3) - PL
a - --:-:-:::-:-=-'::::-:---''-:-:--:-:-.-::-=-:-
1 - -(l/2)LEAo - (1/2)LrEA o
Substituting into the admissible solution, we get the following solution of the problem:
2cxL2 + 6Px
u(x)=-----
. 3rEA o + 3EA o
Quadratic Solution Starting assumed solution: u(x) = a2x2 + a1x + ao
The admissible solution must satisfy the EBC:
EBC Equation
u(O) =0
Thus the admissible assumed solution is u(x) = a2x2 + a1x.
Weighting functions -} (x, x2)
Substitute into the weak form and perform integrations to get:
Weight Equation
/
-cL2 - 6crL2 - 12Pr -CL2 + 7crL 2 - 12P + 12Pr

2(r2 + 4r + I)EA o ' 4L(r2 + 4r + I)EA o
x(c(2L(6r + 1) - Trx + x)L2 + 12P(2Lr - xr + x))

ux=-'--'--'----'----;;--'-----'------'-'-
()
. 4L(? + 4r + I)EA o
.The exact solution of the problem was derived earlier. The linear and quadratic solutions
are compared with the exact solution in Figure 2.6. The following numerical values are
used:
c = 0; P= 1; Ao = 1; L= 1; E = 1; r -- 12
The quadratic solution is reasonably close to the exact solution. Of course the solution can
be improved further by starting with a cubic or a higher-order polynomial.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL BVP USINGGALERKIN METHOP 115
u(x)
1.75
1.5
1.25
1
0.75 - - Quadratic
0.5
0.25 - - Exact
x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 2.6. Solutions of tapered axially loaded bar subjected to end load
2.3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL BVP USING GALERKIN METHOD
So far only the axial deformation problem has been used to illustrate the Galerkin method.
The method in fact is applicable to any differential equation. It is particularly well suited
to boundary value problems (BVPs) in which a solution must satisfy differential equations
and several boundary conditions over the domain. This section first summarizes the overall
solution procedure and then presents several examples of finding approximate solutions of
one-dimensional boundary value problems.
2.3.1 Overall Solution Procedure Using Galerldn Method

Given a boundary value problem, the overall procedure for obtaining an approximate so-
lution using the Galerkin method is summarized here. Several examples in this section
further clarify the details.
(i) Construct the wealcform.

1. Move all terms in the differential equation to the left-hand side. With an as-
sumed solution the left-hand side now represents the residual e(x).
2. Define the total weighted residual. It consists of integral of the left-hand side of
the differential equation multiplied by a weighting function Wi'
3. Use integration by parts to incorporate boundary conditions. For a second-order
problem, all terms involving second-order derivatives are integrated by parts
once. The highest order of remaining terms in the residual should therefore
be 1. For a fourth-order problem integration by parts is used twice on all terms
involving fourth-order derivatives and once' on the terms involving third-order
derivatives. The highest order of remaining terms in the residual should there-
fore be 2.
4. Identify essential and natural boundary conditions.For second-order problems
boundary conditions involving first-order derivatives are natural because they
can be incorporated into the weak form. For fourth-order problems boundary
conditions involving second- and third-order derivatives are natural. All other
boundary conditions are essential. Incorporate natural boundary conditions into
the weak form.
(ii) Construct an admissible assumed solution.
1. Start with an assumed solution with some unknown parameters and enough
terms in it so that it is possible to evaluate the residual. Any suitable function
can be used for the assumed solution. However, since polynomials are easy to
differentiate and integrate, it is convenient to start with a polynomial of desired
order.
2. Set some of the parameter values such that the essential boundary conditions
are satisfied regardless of the values of the remaining unknown parameters.
If there are no essential boundary conditions, then the solution already is an
admissible solution and we can go to the next step. Otherwise set up equations
to satisfy essential boundary conditions. Solve these equations for some of the
parameters. Substitute these parameter values back into the starting solution to
get an admissible assumed solution.
(iii) Set up equations and solve for the unlmown parameters.
1. Determine a set of weighting functions by differentiating the admissible solu-
tion with respect to the unknown parameters.
2. Set up a system of equations by substituting each weighting function in tum
into the weak form.
3. Solve the system of equations for the unlmown parameters.
(iv) Approximate solution.
1. Substitute computed values of the parameters into the admissible solution to
get the approximate solution,
2. Check the quality of the solution by substituting it into the differential equation
and the natural boundary conditions to see how well it satisfies them.
For convenience the prime and superscript notations for derivatives will be used fre-
quently in the following examples. Thus the first and second derivatives of a function
u(x) will be denoted as u'(x) == du(x)/dx and ul/(x) == d 2u/dr. When third- or higher
order derivatives are written, the prime notation becomes cumbersome and therefore a
superscript notation will be adopted. For example, the third and fourth derivatives of a
function u(x) will be denoted as u(3)(x) == d3u/d~ and u(4)(x) == d 4u/dx4.
Example 2.1 Second-Order Equation Find an approximate solution of the following

rul/ + 2xu' +x = 1; 1<x<2

u(l) = 2; u' (2) + 2u(2) = 5
ONE-DIMENSIONAL BVP USING GALER KIN METHOD 117
The weak form is derived first followed by detailed calculations of quadratic and cubic
approximate solutions.
With u(x) as an assumed solution, the residual is
e(x) = u"(x)x'l + 2u' (x)x + x-I

Multiplying by w;(x) and writing integral over the given limits, the Galerkin weighted
residual is
Using integration by parts, the order of derivative in x'lwju" can be reduced to 1 as follows:
Combining all terms, the weighted residual now is as follows:
Consider the boundary terms
4wP)u'(2) - wj(l)u'(l)
Given the NBC for the problem:

2u(2) + u'(2) - 5 =0
Rearranging: (u'(2) -7 5 - 2u(2))
Given the EBC for the problem:
u(l) - 2 = 0
Therefore with admissible solutions (those satisfying the EBC): (wj(l) -7 0)
Thus the boundary terms in the weak form reduce to
4(5 - 2u(2))w i(2)
and assuming admissible solutions, the final weak form is as follows:
4(5 - 2u(2))wi(2) + 1 2
«x - l)w i - x'lu'w;}dx =0
EBC: u(l) - 2 = 0
Quadratic Solution Starting assumed solution: u(x) = a2x2 + alx + ao

EBC Equation
u(l) - 2 =0
Solving this equation, a o = -al - a 2 + 2
Thus the admissible assumed solution is u(x) = a2x2 + alx - al - a 2 + 2.
Weighting functions .... [x - 1, x 2 - l}
Weight Equation
x-I -~ - j~, + 4(5 - 2(a[ + 3a 2 + 2)) + ~ = 0
x2 - 1 -~ - l2~a, + 12(5 - 2(a l + 3a 2 + 2)) + H= 0
Solving these equations, at = [i6~; a2 = -lstf3
-1090x2 + 4533x + 2329

u(x) = 2886
Cubic Solution Starting assumed solution: u(x) = a 3 x3 + a 2x2 + alx + ao

The adrriissible solution must satisfy the EBC:
,/
EBC Equation
Solving this equation, a o = -a j - a 2 - a 3 + 2

Thus the admissible assumed solution is u(x) = a 3 x3 + a 2x2 + ajx - a l - a2 - a3 + 2.
Weighting functions .... {x - 1, x2 - 1, x3 - I}
Substitute into the weak form and perform integrations to 'g~t:
Weight Equation
x - 1 -~ - ~ - ~ + 4(5 - 2(a j + 3a 2 + 7a 3 + 2)) + ~ =0

x2 - 1 -~ - l2~a2 - 63a 3 + 12(5 - 2(a l + 3a 2 + 7a 3 + 2)) + H= 0
x3 - 1 .:-~ - 63a 2 - ll~al + 28(5 - 2(a j + 3a 2 + 7a 3 + 2)) + ¥o = 0
Solving these equations, a l = 8J?;a

2g69 2 = - n~6~; a3 = is4g554
ONE-DIMENSIONAL BVP USINGGALERKIN METHOD 119
e(x)
- - Quadratic
0.5
1.2
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Figure 2.7. Error in satisfying the differential equation
u(x) = 22365i3 - 144070x

2
+ 322764x + 13765
107412
Substituting these approximate solutions into the differential equation, we get the error in
satisfying the differential equation. This error is plotted in Figure 2.7.
u(x) Error, e(x)

Quadratic _ 545.t'! + 1511.< + 2329 _ 1090..' + 1992x _ 1
1443 962 2886 481 481
Cubic 7455x3 _ 72035i' + 26897x + 13765 22365x3 _ 72035.. ' + 62745x _ 1

35804 53706 8951 107412 8951 8951 8951
To demonstrate convergence, solutions up to fifth order are computed. All solutions and
their derivatives are compared in Figure 2.8. The higher order solutions are almost on top
of each other, indicating the solution convergence. The first derivatives of solutions show
greater discrepancy, but they also converge as more terms are included in the assumed
solution .

Second-order BV? using the Galerkin method
2.3.2 Higher Order Boundary Value Problems

The example problems considered so far in this chapter have all been second-order dif-
ferential equations. They are called second order because the highest derivative present
in the differential equatiori is 2. For the second-order problems, a boundary condition in
which only u is specified is essential, and the one involving first derivative of u is called
natural. The assumed solutions are not required to satisfy the natural boundary conditions.
They are actually incorporated into the weak form and are satisfied approximately with
the approximation getting better as the number of parameters in the assumed solution is
increased.
120 MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
------ U2
u(x)
- - U3
2.4
2.3
- - U5
2.2
2.1
x
1.2 . 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
du zdx
- - U3
1
~.
0.8-..'.......
--U5
0.6
0.4
0.2
x
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Figure 2.8. Comparison of solutions and their first derivatives

!
The Galerkin method applies to higher order differential equations as well. For example,
consider a fourth-order differential equation of the following form:
4u
d + 1= Q.
dx 4 '
or
The superscript (4) over u(x) indicates fourth derivative of u(x) with respect to x.
With u(x) an assumed solution, the residual is
e(x) = u(4)CX) + 1
Multiplying by wi(x) and writing the integral over the given limits, the Galerkin weighted
residual is
ONE·DIMENSIONAL BVP USINGGALERKIN METHOD 121
Using integration by parts, the order of derivative in W iu(4) can be reduced to 2 as follows:
Each one of these terms gives rise to two possibilities:
-W
i(XO)U(3)(XO)
Either -u(3)(xO) is known or wi(xO) = 0
wi (xo)u" (x o) Either u"(xo) is known or wi (xo) = 0
W/X,)U(3) (x,) Either u(3)(x,) is known or wi(x,) =0
-Wi (x,)u" (x,) Either -u"(x,) is known or wi (x,) = 0
From these requirements the possible boundary conditions are as follows:
NBC EBe
1 -u(3)(xO) is given or w/xo)= 0 ===> Must satisfy u(x o) boundary condition
2 £I" (xo)is given or =
wi(xo) 0 ===> Must satisfy u'(xo) boundary condition
3 u(3)(x,) is given Of- ...w/x,) = 0 ===> Must satisfy u(x,) boundary condition
4 -u"(x,) is given or wj(x,) = 0 ===> Must satisfy u'(x,) boundary condition

Thus for a fourth-order problem boundary conditions involving £I and £I' both are essential
while those involving £I" and u(3) are natural. A practical problem governed by a fourth-
order differential equation is that of beam bending. As will be seen in Chapter 4, for beams,
the bending moment is proportional to £I" while the shear force is proportional to £1(3). Thus
specified bending moments and shear forces represent natural boundary conditions and
displacements and slopes represent essential boundary conditions.
The generalization to further higher order differential equations should now be obvious.
For a general boundary value problem in which the highest derivative present is of the
order 2p (an even order), we should be able to carry out integration by parts p times.
Each integration by parts introduces boundary terms that give rise to essential and natural
boundary conditions. For the general case the classification of boundary conditions is as
follows:
122 MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF THE FINITEELEMENT METHOD
. Those with the order from 0 to p - 1 are the essential boundary conditions .
. Those with the order from p to 2p - 1 are the natural boundary conditions.
The assumed solutions must satisfy all essential boundary conditions for any value of the
unknown parameters. Solutions that satisfy the essential boundary conditions and have the
necessary continuity for required derivatives are called admissible solutions.
Example 2.2 Fourth-Order Equation Find an approximate solution of the following

fourth-order boundary value problem:
U(4)(X) + 8u"(x) + 4u(x) = 10; O<x<S
with the boundary conditions u(O) = 0; u'(O) = 1; u(S) = 2; u'(S) = O. The superscript
(4) on u indicates its fourth derivative. The weak form is derived first followed by detailed
calculations of fourth- and fifth-order solutions.
With u(x) as an assumed solution, the residual is
e(x) = 4u(x) + 8u" (x) + u(4)(x) - 10
Multiplying by w;(x) and writing the integral over the given limits, the Galerkin weighted
residual is
Using integration by parts, the order of derivative in w;u(4) can be reduced to 2 as follows:
./
i 5
(w;u(4»)dx = w;(S)u(3)(S) - w;(0)u(3)(0) + i 5
(-w;u(3)) dx
i 5
(-W;U(3») dx = w;(O)u"(O) - w;(S)u"(S) + i 5
(u"w;') dx
w;(O)u" (0) - w;(S)u" (S) - w;(O)zP)(O) + w;(S)u(3) (S) + i 5

(2w;(2u + 4u" - S) + u" w;') dx =0
Given the EBC for the problem:
u(O) = 0; u'(O) -1 = 0; u(S) - 2 = 0; u'(S) =0

ONE-DIMENSIONAL BVP USINGGALERKINMETHOD 123
Therefore, with admissible solutions (those satisfying EBe)
w;(O) -7 0;
Assuming admissible solutions, the final weak form is as follows:
is (2wpu + 4u" - 5) + u" W;/) dx =0
Fourth-Order Solution Starting assumed solution: u(x) = a4x4 + a3 x 3 + azxz + a l x + ao

The admissible solution must-satisfy the EBC:
EBC. Equation
u(O) 0 = aO = 0
u'(O) -1 =0 al -1 = 0
u(5) - 2 =0 ao + 5a l + 25a z + l25a 3 + 625a4 - 2 =0
u' (5) =0 a l + 10a z + 75a3 + 500a4 = 0
Solving these equations, ao = 0; a] = 1; a z = 25a4 - ~; a3 = ]~5 -10a4

.x3 . 4xz
10a 4.x3 + 125 + 25a4~ -
4
u(x) = a4x - 25 + x
Weighting function -7 {x4 - 10x3 + 25xz}
Weight Equation
]88750a4 _ 23875 - 0
63 4Z-
· th'IS equation,
So1vmg . a =_}QZO
573
4
u(x) = x(14325x3 - 142646x2 + 346045x + 75500)

75500
Fifth-Order Solution Starting assumed solution: u(x) = a5x5 + a4x4 + a3x3 + a2x2 +
alx+ ao
EBC Equation
=
u(O) 0 aO = 0
u'(O) -1 = 0 a] -1 = 0
u(5) - 2 = 0 ao + 5a] + 25a z + 125a3 + 625a4 + 3l25a5 - 2 =0
u' (5) =0 a] + lOa2 + 75a 3 + 500a4 + 3125a5 = 0
Weighting functions -7 {X
4- 1Ox3 + 25x2,.x5 - 75x3 + 250x2 }
Weight Equation
x4 - 1Ox3 + 25x2 188750a. + 2359375a, _ 23875 - 0

63 63 42-
.x5 - 75x3 + 250x2 2359375"4 + 319843750a, _ 873625 - 0

63 693 126-
· these equations,
SoIvmg . - 120581. - 3817
Q 4 - - 883350' Q 5 - 146250
u(x) = x(576367x4 - 3014525x3 - 12905605x2 + 65195225x + 22083750)

22083750
Substituting these approximate solutions into the differential equation, we get the error in
satisfying the differential equation. A plot of the error shown in Figure 2.9 indicates that
both solutions have significant error. Since the differential equation is quite complicated,
we need a fairly high-order polynomial to get reasonable solution. To demonstrate conver-
gence, solutions up to 12th order are computed. These solutions are compared in Figure
e(x)
_._- 4th order
100
80 - - 5th order
60 \.
40 \
\
20\"
x
Figure 2.9. Error in satisfying differential equation

ONE-DIMENSIONAL BVP USINGGALERKINMETHOD 125
'-'-'-' u6
ujx)
- - Us
6
--'UlO
5
4 - - Ul2
3
2
x
2 3 4 5
du jdx
- - Us
--UlO
- - U12
\
-2
f\\\r--"',r
\ jil/If
x
~
\ I
\, .~/'
-4
Figure 2.10. Comparison of solutions and theirfirstderivatives
2.10. The LOth- and 12th-order solutions are fairly close to each other, indicating that they
represent good solutions to the problem.
. Error, e(x)
14325x4-l42646x'+689845i'-1636252x+ 1281380
Fourth-order 18875
2(576367i'-3014525x4+10149075.t'l-7153375i'-115492500x+187484375)
Fifth-order 11041875

Fourth-order BVP using the Galerkin method
Example 2.3 Third-Order Equation The even-order equations, such as the second
and the fourth order, are common in engineering applications. However, the Galerki~
method can be applied to odd-order equations as well. To demonstrate this, we consider
the following third-order boundary value problem:
U(3)(X) + 2u(x) = ~; O<x<l

with the boundary conditions u(O) = 1; u(I) = 2; u'(I) = 3. The superscript (3) on u
indicates its third derivative.
The weak form is derived first followed by detailed calculations of a quadratic solution
in Mathematica.
With u(x) as an assumed solution the residual is
e(x) = -:t? +2u(x) + u(3)(x)

Multiplying by wi(x) and writing the integral over the given limits, the Galerkin weighted
residual is
1 1
(-w ix2 + 2uw j + w ju(3))dx = 0
Using integration by parts twice on the W j u(3) term, we have
1 1
(Wiu(3))dx = wi(I)ul/(I) -wj(O)ul/(O) + 1 1
(-w;'ul/)dx
1 1
(-W;'Ul/) dx =u'(O)w;'(O) - u'(I)w;'(I) + 1 1
(u'w/,)dx
u'(O)w;'(O) - u'(I)w;'(l) - wj(O)ul/(O) + wi(I)ul/(l) + 1 1

(u'w/, - (:t? - 2u)w j) dx =0
The boundary condition u' (1) = 3 can be directly incorporated into the weak form, giving
.
u'(O)w;(O) - 3w;(l) - wj(O)ul/(O)

.
+ )'vi(l)ul/(l) + 1
1
(u'w;' - (:t? - 2u)w)dx =0

•
The other two boundary conditions are considered essential:

WeakForm[w_, u_] ;=
Simplify[«D[u, x] D[w, x])/.x-?O)- «3D[w, x])/.x-? 1)
- «D [u , {x , 2}] v) I. x -? 0) +( (D Iu, {x , 2}] w) I. x -? 1)
+ Integrate [D[u , x] D[w, {x , 2}] - (x-2 - 2u)w, {x , 0, 1}]]
We start with a quadratic polynomial ux with three parameters aD' aI' and a2 as follows:
ux = aO + a1 x + a2 x-2;
The first task is to make it an admissible solution. We must satisfy the two essential bound-
ary conditions:
ebc1 = (uxz . x-« 0) == 1
aO == 1
ebc2= (ux/vx-» 1) ==2
aO + al + a2 == 2
ONE-DIMENSIONAL BVP USING GALERKIN METHOD 127
Solving these equations, we get

sol = Solve [{ebc1, ebc2} , {aO, a1}J
({aO ~ 1, a1 ~ 1 - a2)}
Substituting the solution into ux gives an admissible solution as follows:
u=ux/. so l I [1J J
a2x2 + (l - a2)x + 1
Now we can set up the equation needed to find the remaining coefficient:
w=D[u, a2J; eq1=WeakForm[w, uJ ==0
1 - .
60 (64 a2 - 147) == 0
sol = Solve [{eqf.} , {a2}J
{{a2~ l;:n
Substituting the solution into the assumed admissible solution, we have a quadratic ap-
proximate solution of the problem as follows:
ux = Simplify [ul . sol [[1J J J
1
64(147x2 - 83x + 64)
It is possible to obtain an exact analytical solution of the problem as follows:

Clear[uJ; soi=DSolve[uJ' [xJ +2u[xJ ==x-2, u Ixl , x] [[1, 1, 2JJ;
exactSol = Simplify [soli . Solve [{ (5011. x ~ 0) == 1,
(soli .x~ 1) ==2, D[sol, xJI .x~ 1) ==3}J [[1]JJ
u(x)
2 - - - - Approximate
1.8
1.6
- - - Exact ;/
1.4
1.2
%'
0.6
/ 0.8
Figure 2.11. Comparison of the approximate and the exact solutions
{D[exactSol, {x, 3}] + 2 exactSol, exactS 011 . x -70,

exactSol/ . x -7 1, D[exactSol, xl 1. x -7 1}1ISimplify
{x2 , 1,2, 3}
As can be seen from Figure 2.11, the quadratic approximate solution compares very well
with the exact solution. A cubic solution will almost be indistinguishable from the exact
solution:
Needs ["Graphics 'Legend' "] ; __
Plot [{ux, exactSol}, {x , 0, 1}, PlotStyle -7 {Hue [0.6] , Hue [0. 9]},
AxesLabel-7 {"x", "u Cx) "}, PlotLegend -7 {"Approx", "Exact"},
LegendPosition -7 {-1/2, O}, Legendshadow -7 None,
PlotRange -7 All] j
2.4 RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD
As is the case with the Galerkin method, the Rayleigh-Ritz method also requires an equiv-
alent integral formulation. However, the derivation of this equivalent integral form is based
on fundamentally different concepts. For many practical problems,the integral form is
based on energy considerations. For structural problems, the potential energy is an example
of such an integral form that has been used successfully in developing a large number of
finite elements. Similar energy-based integral forms are available for other applications.
If the energy function is not known from physical considerations, it may still be possible
to derive an equivalent integral formulation using mathematical manipulations. However,
such manipulations involve a branch of calculus known as the calculus of variations. A
review of basic calculus of variations and mathematical manipulations to derive integral
formulations is presented in Appendix B. In the main body of this text the use of the
Rayleigh-Ritz method will be restricted to structural problems for which the potential en-
ergy function is well known.
RAYLEIGH·RITZ METHOD 129
"Once the equivalent integral form is known, the steps in the Rayleigh-Ritz method are
siillilar to those in the Galerkin 'method. A solution is assumed with some unknown pa-
rameters. The assumed solution is made admissible by requiring that it explicitly satisfy
the essential boundary conditions. The energy form reduces to a function of unknown pa-
rameters once the assumed solution is substiiuted into the energy function. The necessary
conditions for the minimum of this function then give the required equations for finding
suitable values for the unknown parameters.
2.4.1, Potential Energy for Axial Deformation of Bars

Consider a linear elastic bar of any arbitrary cross section subjected to loads in the axial
direction only, as shown in Figure 2.1. The area of cross section is denoted by A(x) and
could vary over the Iength of the bar. The modulus of elasticity is denoted by E. The bar
may be subjected to distributed axial load q(x) along its length. In addition, there may be
concentrated axial loads Pi applied at some locations Xi on the bar. The axial displacement
'is denoted by u(x). Denoting the axial stress by 0:, and corresponding strain by Ex, the axial
strain energy is defined as follows:
where the integration is over V, the volume of the bar. For axial deformations stress and
strain are assumed to be constant over a cross section, and thus the volume integral can be
expressed as a one-dimensional integral
U=lLx'a:EAdX
2 x xl:.1.
Xo
where Xo and x, are end coordinates of the bar. Using Hooke's law and the strain-
displacement relationship 0:, = EE., = E du/ dx yields
The potential of the applied loads is equal to the negative of the work done by all external '
applied forces:
x,
W =
LXo
qu dx + Ipiu(x)
where u(x) is the axial displacement at the location of the concentrated applied load Pi'
Using these expressions, the potential energy for axial deformation of bars is defined as
follows: .
(X, (X, :
II = U - W = 1L
Xo
(du)2
EA(x) dx dx - },. q(x)u(x) dx -
Xo
I Piu(x)
Using calculus of variations, it is possible to show that a function u(x) that minimizes the
potential energy is a solution of the differential equation governing the axial deformation
of bars.
2.4.2 Overall Solution Procedure Using the Rayleigh-Ritz Method

Given a boundary value problem, the overall procedure for obtaining an approximate solu-
tion using the Rayleigh-Ritz method is as follows:
(i) Obtain the equivalent energy form. For structural problems use the potential en-
ergy. For general boundary value problems use calculus of variations to construct
an equivalent energy form (see Appendix B). Clearly identify the essential and
natural boundary conditions.
(ii) Construct an admissible assumed solution.
I. Start with an assumed solution with some unknown parameters and enough
terms in it so that it is possible to evaluate the terms in the energy form. Any
suitable function can be used for the assumed solution. However, since poly-
nomials are easy to differentiate and integrate, it is convenient to start with a
polynomial of desired order.
2. Set some of the parameter values such that the essential boundary conditions are
satisfied regardless of the values of the remaining unknown parameters. If there
are no essential boundary conditions, then the solution already is admissible
and we can go to the next step. Otherwise set up equations to satisfy essential
boundary conditions. Solve these equations for some of the parameters. Substi-
tute these parameter values ~ack into the starting solution to get an admissible
assumed solution. '
(iii) Set up equations and solve for the unknown parameters.
1. Substitute the admissible assumed solution into the energy form and carry out
the integration. The resulting expression should be a function only of the un-
known parameters.
2. Set up a system of equations by using necessary conditions for the minimum of
the energy form. Since the minimum of the energy function corresponds to the
solution of the boundary value problem, we get a system of equations by setting
to zero the partial derivatives of the energy function with respect to unknown
parameters.
3. Solve the system of equations for the unknown parameters.
(iv) Approximate solution.
I. Substitute computed values of parameters into the admissible solution to get the
approximate solution.
2. Check the quality of the solution by substituting it into the differential equation
and the natural boundary conditions to see,how well it satisfies them.
RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD 131
2.-4.3 Uniform Bar Subjected to Linearly Varying Axial Load

We now use the Rayleigh-Ritz method to find approximate solutions of a uniform bar (EA
constant) fixed at one end and subjected to a static point load at the other end, as shown in
Figure 2.3. The bar is also subjected to a linearly varying axial load qEx) = ex, where e is a
given constant. The potential energy for the problem is as follows:
I
n = 2"EA Jo r (du)2
dx dx - e Jor
L
xu dx - Pu(L)
EEC: u(O) = O.
The simplest possible solution that we can assume is a linear polynomial. Using this as the
starting solution, an" approximate solution of the problem is obtained as follows:
Linear Solution Starting assumed solution: u(x) = ao + xa 1

The admissible solution must satisfy the EEC:
EEC Equation
u(O) =0 ao =0
Thus the admissible assumed solution is u(x) =xa 1•
Substituting the admissible solution into IT and carrying out integration,
For the miriimum of IT, set its derivatives with respect to parameters to 0:
(eL2 + 3P)x
u=
3EA
A better solution can be obtained if we start with a quadratic polynomial:

Quadratic Solution Starting assumed solution: u(x) == a2x2 + alx + ao
EEC Equation
u(O) == 0
Thus the admissible assumed solution is u(x) == a2x2 + alx.

Substituting the admissible solution into Il and carrying out integration,
For the minimum of Il, set its derivatives with respect to parameters to 0:
CL3
an == 0: -3 + EAa2L2 - PL + EAalL == 0
Ba,
cL4
an == O:.
aa -4 + 1EAa2L3 - PL2 + EAa lL 2 == 0
2
-7cL2 - 12P
12EA
u == (l:?? + cL(7L - 3x))x

12EA
The exact solution is a cubic polynomial. As demonstrated below, if we start with a cubic
polynomial, the Galerkin method finds this exact solution:
Cubic Solution Starting assumed solution: u(x) == a3x3 + a2x2 + alx + ao
EEC Equation
u(O) == 0
Thus the admissible assumed solution is u(x) == a3x3 + a2x2 + alx.

\ \
Substituting the admissible solution into n and carrying out integration,
n == foa3(9EAa3 - 2c)L5 + ia2(6EAa3 - c)L4 + ~(2EAa~ - cal + 3EAa la3)L3

+ EAa la2L2 + ~EAaiL - P(a3L3 + a2L2 + alL)
RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD 133
.For the minimum of IT,set its derivatives with respect to parameters to 0:
aIT = 0:
oa l
aIT = 0:
aa 2
aIT = 0: .'l.EAa L5 + ..L(9EAa - 2e)L5 + 2.EAa L4 - PL3 + EAa I L3 = 0
aa3 10 3 10 3 2 2
-eL2 - 2P
2EA
x(3eL2 - ex2 + 6P)

u> 6EA
Since this is the exact solution, trying any higher order polynomial will not make any
difference. Also note that exactly the same solutions were obtained by using the Galerkin
method earlier.
2.4.4 Tapered Bar SUbjected to Linearly Varying Axial load

Consider a tapered bar fixed at one end and subjected to a static point load at the other end,
as shown in Figure 2.4. The bar is also subjected to a linearly varying axial load q(x) = ex,
where e is a given constant. The potential energy for the problem is as follows:
IT =!E
2
rLA(X)(dl~)2dx_e
Jo dx Jo
r xudx-Pu(L)
EBC: u(O) =0
where
A( ) _ A Ao -AL _ (L + (-1.+ r)x)Ao
x - 0 - --L- -x L
where Ao is the area of cross section at x = 0, AL is that at x = L, and r =AJA o·

Linear Solution Starting assumed solution: u(x) = ao + xa l
EBC Equation
u(O) =0 ao =0
Thus the admissible assumed solution is u(x) = xa l.

Substituting the admissible solution into II and carrying out integration,
For the minimum of II, set its derivatives with respect to parameters to 0:
(cL3/3) + PL }
{al -'; (l12)LEA o + (l/2)LrEA o
Quadratic Solution Starting assumed solution: u(x) =a2x2 + alx + ao

EBC Equation
u(O) = 0 ao = 0
Thus the admissible assumed solution is u(x) = a2x2 + alx.

Substituting the admissible .solution into II and carrying out integration,
II -- -4I ca2L 4 - 3I c al L3 + 'ir

I E a2A0 L 3 + 6IE a2A0L 3 + 3'
2 2 2 Ea A L2
la2 0
+ !Ea la 2AoL2 + !rEaiAoL + !EaiAo L - P(a 2L2 + alP

For the minimum of II, set its derivatives with respect to parameters to 0:
all = 0:
Ba,
all = 0:
aa2
-cL2 - 6crL2 - l2Pr -cL2 + 7crL2 - 12P + 12Pr

2(? + 4r + 1)EA o ' 4L(? + 4r + 1)EA o
COMMENTS ON GALERKINAND RAYLEIGH·RITZ METHODS 135
x(c(2L(6r + 1) - trx + x)L Z + 12P(2Lr - xr + x))

u::::--------;;----------
4L(? + 4r + l)EA O
Exactly the same solutions were obtained by using the Galerkin method and are com-
pared with the exact solution in Figure 2.6.
~ MathematicalMATLAB Implementation 2.3 on the Book Web Site:

Tapered bar using the Rayleigh-Ritz method
2.5 COMMENTS ON GALERKIN AND RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHODS
2.5.1 Admissible Assumed Solution

It has been mentioned several times already that the assumed solutions must satisfy the es-
sential boundary conditions. This requirement is not difficult to fulfill for one-dimensional
problems. As was done in several examples, we simply start with a polynomial of a cho-
sen degree and use the essential boundary conditions to evaluate as many coefficients as
possible. Substituting these coefficients into the starting polynomial gives us an admissible
assumed solution for the problem.
Unfortunately this straightforward procedure does not work for two- and three-dimen-
sional problems. For example, consider a simple situation of a rectangular plate fixed at
i.fefi'the end and subjected to loads at the right end, as shown in Figure 2.12. The problem
is two dimensional and therefore the displacements are functions of x and y. Similar to
the case for one-dimensional problems, we start with an assumed solution for horizontal
displacement u(x, y) as a two-dimensional polynomial as follows:
The essential boundary condition is that displacements along the vertical line atx :::: 0 must
be zero. To satisfy this requirement, we get the following equation:
u(O, y) :::: ao + azy + asi + .., :::: 0
This is the only equation we have, and thus there is no unique way to find coefficients that
will satisfy the equation. One possibility for this example is to set ao :::: az :::: as :::: '" ::::
O. This will give us an admissible solution but it may not result in a good approximate
solution, because it eliminates a large number of y terms from the assumed solution.
. The problem of finding suitable admissible assumed solutions is one of the biggest
drawback of the classical methods. This example is'still very simple. Imagine if the support
was along an inclined line. How would you find suitable values of coefficients to satisfy the
essential boundary condition? As will be seen in the following section, the finite element
form of the assumed solution overcomes this difficulty by expressing the solution in terms
of nodal unknowns,
, Figure2.12. Rectangular plate
2.5.2 Solution Convergence-the Completeness Requirement

Several examples presented in this chapter have demonstrated that the solutions obtained
by using the Galerkin and the Rayleigh-Ritz methods converge to .the exact solution as
more terms are added to the' assumed solution. One of the requirements for convergence
is that the assumed solutions must be capable of representing all terms in an exact solu-
tion. The solution will not converge if a term that is present in the exact solution is not
included in the assumed solution. For example, the exact solution for a uniform bar sub-
jected to linearly varying axial load and concentrated tip loading is a cubic function of x.
In Section 2.2, the solution of this problem converged to the exact solution when we used a
cubic assumed solution. Any complete polynomial of degree larger than 3 would also give
exactly the same solution. However, if we start with an assumed solution that skips over,
say, the cubic term, as more terms are added, the solution may get better but will never
converge to the exact solution. Thus one of the fundamental convergence requirements is
that polynomials used in the assumed solutions must be complete.
It should also be pointed out that, even though we have considered only polynomial
assumed solutions in the examples, there is no reason to restrict ourselves to polynomi-
als. We can use any complete set of functions that satisfies essential boundary conditions.
Given enough terms and with a complete set offunctions, the approximate solutions should
converge to the exact solution.
Example 2.4 As an illustration of lack of convergence, when an incomplete polynomial

is assumed, consider the following example:
u"(x) + X = 0; O<x<:l
u(O) = u(l) = 0
It can easily be verified that the following is an appropriate weak form for the problem:
1 1
(xw; - u' w;') dx = 0
We first obtain a solution using a complete cubic polynomial:

COMMENTS ON GALERKIN AND RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHODS 137
'Starting assumed solution: u(x) = a3x3 + azxz + ajx + ao

. The admissible solution must 'satisfy the EBC:
EBC Equation
u(O) =0 ao = 0
u(l) =' 0 ao + a1 + az + a3 =0
Solving these equations, lao -7 0, a 1 -7 -az - a3 }
Thus the admissible assumed solution is u(x) = a3x3 + azx2 - azx - a3x.
Weighting functions -7 {xz ..;x, x3 - x}
Weight Equation
Z
x -x tz(-4a z - 6a3 -1) = 0
x3-x fo(-15a z-24a3-4) = 0
Solving these equations, we get az = 0; a 3 =- ~

u(x) = ~(x - x3)
By substituting it into the differential equation and the boundary conditions, it can easily
be verified that this is the exact solution of the problem. Using complete polynomials, any
higher order polynomial will give the same solution. However, if we use an incomplete
polynomial, the solution will not be exact. For example, consider a fourth-order polynomial
with the linear term missing:
Starting assumed solution: u(x) = + + +
EBC Equation
u(O) =0 ao = 0
u(l) =0 ao + az + a3 + a4 = 0
Solving these equations, lao -7 0, az -7 -a 3 - a4}

Thus, the admissible assumed solution is u(x) = a4x 4 + a3x3 - a3xz - a4x2·
Weighting functions -7 {x3 - x Z, x4 - x Z }
Weight . Equation
x3 -x2 tD(-8a 3 -14a4 - 3) = 0

x4 - XZ 4io (-98a 3 - 176a4 - 35) = 0
Solving these equations, we get a3 :::: -H; a4 :::: is

u(x) :::: -{gx2(7x2 - 19x + 12)
Clearly this is not the exact solution. For this example, since we know the exact solution, it
is obvious that we can obtain an exact solution by starting with a polynomial having linear
and cubic terms only. However, in general, we do not know what terms are present in the
exact solution. Therefore, we must use complete polynomials for solutions to converge to
the exact solution as more terms are included in the polynomial.
2.5.3 Ga,lerkin versus Rayleigh-Ritz

The Rayleigh-Ritz method requires that given differential equations must first be converted
to their equivalent energy form. However, it may not always be possible to obtain this
equivalent variational form. For example, the third-order problem in Example 2.3 does
not have an equivalent energy form. This apparent disadvantage is not of great concern in
actual applications. As pointed out earlier, for a large class of engineering problems the
functional form is well known. In fact, in the energy methods of structural mechanics, the
functional (usually the potential energy) is used as a basis for developing the governing
differential equations.
The Galerkin method is clearly the more general of the two methods. It can be applied
to any boundary value problem. Furthermore, for those problems for which an equivalent
variational form does exist, the Galerkin method gives the same solution as the Rayleigh-
Ritz method. Thus the Galerkin method is the obvious choice for general applications.
The variational methods remain popular in practice because of the large body of existirig
literature on the energy methods. For stress analysis applications the governing differential
equations are fairly complex. However, the equivalent functional is very straightforward to
I
write. In these situations the Rayleigh-Ritz method is preferred because it can be applied
directly. The Galerkin method would require one to first develop the weak form starting
from fairly complex governing differential equations.
2.6 FINITE ELEMENT FORM OF ASSUMED SOLUTIONS
Both the Galerkin and the Rayleigh-Ritz methods are powerful tools for finding approxi-
mate solutions to boundary value problems. The quality of the approximation depends on
the choice of the assumed solution. However, there are no guidelines for an appropriate
choice of assumed solutions, especially for two- and three-dimensional problems. Further-
more, to be admissible, these assumed solutions must satisfy essential boundary conditions.
As mentioned before, for complicated problems it may be difficult, if not impossible, to
come up with appropriate admissible solutions. Furthermore, since the assumed solutions
are defined over the entire solution domain, often a large number of terms must be included
in order to represent the solution accurately.
The finite element method overcomes these difficulties by introducing two fundamental
concepts:
FINITE ELEMENTFORMOF ASSUMED SOLUTIONS 139
, (i) Solution Domain Is Discretized into Elements. The solution domain is divided into
several simpler subdomains called elements. Bach element has a simple geometry so that
appropriate assumed solutions can easily be written for an element. The only restriction on
the element shape is that it should be possible to carry out the required differentiations and
integrations of the assumed solutions over each element. Since each element covers only
a small portion of the solution domain, a low-degree polynomial can usually be used to
describe the solution over an element. The integral in the weak or the functional form can
be evaluated separately over each element and added (assembled) together as follows:
l~ l~ (···)dx+···
l
i o
(···)dx=
x,=O
(···)dx+
X2
(ii) Coefficients in Assumed Solution over an Element Represent Solution and Its Ap-
propriate Derivatives at the Nodes. In the classical methods the unknown coefficients in
the assumed solution do not have any physical meaning. They are just mathematical quanti-
ties which when substituted into the assumed solution give an approximate solution. In the
finite element method the polynomial coefficients are defined in terms of unknown solu-
tions at some selected points over the element. The locations chosen to define the assumed
solution are called nodes. Usually element ends and comers are chosen as nodal locations.
The solutions at the nodes are called nodal degrees offreedom. The choice of these nodal
degrees of freedom is dictated by the order of derivatives in the essential boundary condi-
tions. Since for a second-order problem the essential boundary conditions do not involve
any derivatives, the nodal unknowns for these problems are simply the solution variables.
For a fourth-order differential equation, at each node we must choose the solution and its
first derivative as degrees of freedom because these are the terms in the essential boundary
conditions for this problem. With this choice of nodal degrees of freedom it becomes al-
most trivial to make the assumed solutions admissible. All that one has to do is to set the
corresponding nodal value equal-to the value specified by the essential boundary condition.
Nodal degrees of freedom: quantities needed for BBe

Second-order problem: u
Fourth-order problem: u and ut
Sixth-order problem: u, u', and u"
In the following sections, these ideas are illustrated by writing assumed element solu-
tions for second- and fourth-order ordinary differential 'equations. The solution domain for
these one-dimensional problems is a line; therefore the elements for these problems are
simply line elements.
2.6.1 linear Interpolation Functions for Second-Order Problems

A two-node line element for a second-order problem is shown in Figure 2.13. The element
extends from xl to x 2 and has a length I = Xz - xl' The circles represent nodes. For a second-
order problem the nodal degrees of freedom are the unknown solutions at the nodes and
are indicated by u j and uz.
Xl
X
Figure 2.13. A simple two-node element for second-order problems
Since there are two nodes on the element, a linear solution can be written over the
element by starting from a'linear polynomial with two coefficients and then evaluating
these coefficients in terms of the nodal unknowns as follows:
U(X) = a o + ajx
atx = x j; = u j =::} u j = ao .+ ajx j
u(x l )
at x = x z; u(xz) = Uz =::} Uz = a o + ajxZ
Solving the two equations for a o and ai' we get
U -u
a l = - z- - -l
Xl -X z
Thus linear solution over the element in terms of nodal degrees of freedom is as follows:
Collecting together terms involving u j and uz' we can write this solution as follows:
This is the finite element form of a linear solution. It clearly is equivalent to the linear
polynomial. However, unlike the polynomial coefficients a o and ai' which do not have
any physical meaning, the coefficients u l and U z are the solutions at the two nodes of the
element. This is the key feature of the finite element form of the assumed solution and has
the following three major advantages:
(i) In order to make the solution admissible in the polynomial form, we had to use
the essential boundary conditions to set up equations and then solve them to find
values for one or more parameters. However, in the finite element form, making
the solution admissible is trivial. For example, if the essential boundary condition
is u(xz) = 5, then all we have to do is to set U z = 5 and we are done.
FINITE ELEMENT FORM OF ASSUMED SOLUTIONS 141
Element 1 Element 2
-------------- x
Figure 2.14. A simple two-element model
(ii) The finite element form is suitable for direct assembly of element equations. As-
sume we -are using two elements to model a solution domain, as shown in Figure
2.14. The node 2 is common between the two elements. We can get a piecewise
linear solution for the entire domain just by making sure that at the common node
the two elements use the same nodal value. This simple observation makes it possi-
ble to perform computations independently for each element and then simply add
the contributions from each element. During this so-called assembly process the
nodes common between different elements are assigned the sarrie nodal degree of
freedom.
(iii) In order to add more terms to the assumed solution, we have two options now. We
can use higher order polynomials to derive higher order finite element solutions by
following exactly the same procedure used for deriving the linear solution. Alterna-
tively, we can simply use a large number oflinear elements. By using a sufficiently
large number of simple elements, we can get reasonably accurate solutions to even
complicated differential equations.
The finite element assumed solutions are usually written using a matrix notation. A
matrix notation is not necessary for this simple element. However, for more complicated
elements it is almost impossible to write element solutions concisely' without using the
matrix notation. The linearfinite element solution can be written as follows:
where
The Nj(x) are known as interpolation or shape functions and u j are the nodal unknowns
and N is a 2 x 1 column vector of interpolation functions. The superscript T denotes the
transpose of vector N to make it into a row vector for matrix multiplication with the 2 X 1
vector d of nodal degrees of freedom. .
Note that the interpolation function N1 is 1 at node 1 and 0 at node 2 while N2 is 1
at node 2 and 0 at node 1. The function N1 therefore defines the influence of u1 on the
assumed solution and N2 that of u2 . Because of this, the interpolation functions are also
known as influence functions.
2.6.2 Lagrange Interpolation

An interpolation function is a smooth function that passes through all data points in a
given data set. Thus, treating the nodal locations and unknown solutions at these locations
as data points, the problem of writing a finite element solution for second-order differential
equations boils down to choosing an appropriate interpolation technique.
There are a variety of interpolation methods available in the literature. One simple and
well known technique is the Lagrange interpolation. If we have n data points {Xi' u;},
i = 1,2,.:., n [where u(x i) == ui], then the Lagrange interpolation formula for passing
a polynomial of degree n - 1 through these points can be written as follows:
I!
u(x) =I Li(x)U i == (L I L2 L3
i=1
where Li(x) are the Lagrange interpolation functions given by the following formula:
·x)
L(
I
-N -
=.-
I.
nI!
x-x
j
--=
Xi-Xl'
- x-xI
- - x - - x2· · · x - - -i_x
Xi-XI
1 x-x
- - -i x
1
Xi-x2 '
···x--
x-X
xi-xi_ l
x-x +
Xi-Xi+ 1
x-xI!
Xi-XI!
1=1
~ .
The symbol ITindicates a product of terms. For writing the ith interpolation function, the
product includes all terms except the ith. Thus there are n - 1 terms in the product and each
interpolation function is of degree n - 1, where n is the number of data points.
Using this formula, a linear interpolation (n = 2) can be written as follows:
U(X) = N 1(x)u 1 + N2(x )u2

x-x X-
N (x ) = _ _
1
2; N2 (x ) =
XI -X2 X2 -Xl
These are the same shape functions derived in the previous section. A quadratic polynomial
(n = 3) can be written as follows:
U(X) = N1(x)u 1 + N2(x )u2 + N3(x )u3

x-x x-x x-x x-x
N (x)
1
= __2 X _ _3 ; N (x)
2
=__ 1 X __ 3 ; _ X - Xl. X - X2
( ) ---X--
N3X
~-~ ~-~ ~-~ ~-~ X3 -Xl X3 -X2
Example 2.5 Write Lagrange interpolation functions to pass a polynomial through four
points. Plot the resulting function if the nodal values and coordinates are as follows:
FINITEELEMENTFORM OF ASSUMED SOLUTIONS 143
Point Data Value

o
1 1
2 3
5 I
2: -2:
We have four data points; therefore n = 4. Each Lagrange interpolation function will be a
cubic function. Using the Lagrange interpolation formula, the four interpolation function
are
N _ (x - xz)(x - x 3)(x - x 4) . N _ (x - XI)(X - X3)(X - X4)
I - (xI - xZ)(xI - x 3)(x l - x 4) , z - (xz - xI )(x z - X3)(XZ - X4)
(x .: xl )(x - xz)(x - x 4) N _ (x - XI)(X - Xz)(x - X3 )
N- .
3 - (X3 - Xl )(x3 - .xz)(x3 - X4) , 4 - (X4 - XI)(X4 - .xz)(X4 - X3 J
'Substituting the numerical values of the coordinates, xl = 0, Xz = 1, x3 = 2, and x4 = ~,

we get
Nl = -!(x - ~)(x - 2)(x - 1); Nz = Hx - ~)(x '- 2)x
N3 = -(x - ~)(x -1)x; N4 = !sex - 2)(x - l)x
Multiplying these interpolation functions with the given nodal values, u l = ~, U z = 1,

u3 = 3, and Lt4 = :-~, we get the following cubic function that passes through the given
data point:
z
U(X) = _27x3 + l77x _ l13x + ~
10 20 20 2
The interpolated function is plotted in Figure 2.15. The given data points are shown on the
graph with large dots. The function clearly passes through all four data points.
2.6.3 Galerldn Weighting Functions in Finite Element Form

As seen in the previous sections, the finite element assumed solution is expressed in the
following form:
u(x) = (N, N, ... ) ( ~ J" N'd

The weighting functions in the Galerkin method are the derivatives of the assumed solution
with respect to the unknown coefficients. The unknown coefficients in the finite element
u(x)
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
x:
1.5 2
-0.5
Figure 2.15. Interpolated function passing through given data points
fonn.are the nodal degrees of freedom. Therefore
du
w·= -.EN
I du, I
Thus the interpolation functions also play the role of weighting functions when using the
Galerkin method.
From this definition of weighting functions, it is easy to see that, if a particular nodal
value is specified because of an essential boundary condition, then that degree of freedom
is not a variable and hence there is no weighting function corresponding to that degree
of freedom. As discussed in Chapter 1, the essential boundary conditions are typically
ignored at the element level, and thus all interpolation functions for an element are used
as weighting functions to obtain the element equations. It is only after assembly that we
tum our attention to imposing essential boundary conditions. The equation corresponding
to a specified nodal value clearly does not make sense because of the way the weighting
functions are defined. Hence the equations corresponding to specified nodal values must
be removed from the global equations before solving for the actual nodal unknowns.
2.6.4 Hermite Interpolation for Fourth-Order Problems

Essential boundary conditions for a fourth-order differential equation consist of the solu-
tion and its first derivative. To satisfy these essential boundary conditions at the ends of an
element, we must choose the solution and its first derivative as nodal degrees of freedom:
Thus the simplest two-node line element for a fourth-order problem has a total of four de-
grees of freedom, as shown in Figure 2.16. The element extends from xl to x 2 and has.a
length 1 = x 2 - xl' For simplicity the left end of the element is assumed at X = 0 and the
right end is at x =1.
The Lagrange interpolation formula cannot be used to interpolate when we have the so-
lution and its first derivative specified at each data point. We can generate two independent
interpolations between (Xl' UI), (X 2' u2 ) } and (Xl' UJ), (X 2' u~)} if we like. However, then
there will be no connection between the solution and its first derivative. The appropriate
method to interpolate between data values and their first derivatives at each point is known
FINITE ELEMENTFORMOF ASSUMED SOLUTIONS 145
Ul,UI uz,uz
6--------------<@
Xj =0 x2=f
x
Figure2.16. A two-node element for fourth-order problems
as Hermite interpolation. For this two-node element this interpolation is derived by using
the basic principles. A general Hermite interpolation formula is given later.
Derivation of Hermite Interpolation for a Two-Node Element Since we have

four nodal unknowns, we can derive the finite element form of the solution (i.e., the shape
functions) by starting from a cubic polynomial with four coefficients and then evaluating
these coefficients in terms of nodal unknowns as follows:
U(x) = ao + ajx + az:? + a3x3

u'(x) =a j + 2xaz + 3:?a3
atx = 0: ~ u] = a o; u 1= a l
atx = I: ~ Uz = ao + la, + zZa z + Pa3 ;
The first two equations give two of the coefficients. Solving the other two equations for az
and a3 , we get
a - -
3u] - 3llz + 21uI
..
+ lu~ -2u j + 2uz -luI-Iu~
z- zZ ' 13
Thus a cubic solution overthe element in terms of nodal degrees offreedom is as follows:
, X
3 (-2u] + 2uz - '
hI] -Iuz)
I
xZ(3u] - 3uz + 21uI + lu~)
u( x) =u j + xU 1 -
1
3
zZ
Collecting terms involving the degrees of freedom together, we can write this solution as
follows:
The four interpolation functions are
General Formula for Hermite Interpolation Given function values ui and their first
derivatives ui at 12 data points xI' x 2" •. , x"' a polynomial of degree 212 - 1 that fits all data
can be written as follows:
UI
I
UI
"
u(x) = Ipi(x)U +I
" QJx)u; == (PI QI ... P" Q,,) = NTd
i
i=1 i=1
where Pi(x) and Qi(x) are polynomials of degree 212 - 1. These polynomials are expressed
in terms of Lagrange interpolation functions Li(x) as follows:
P;(X) = (1 - 2L;(x)(x - xi))Lf(x)
Qi(x) = (x - x)Lf(x)
Recall that the Lagrange interpolation functions are as follows:
The complete vector of interpolation functions is denoted by N and the corresponding

vector of nodal values by d. The functions Pi interpolate between the data values and Qi
between the derivative values. Each interpolation function is of degree 212 - 1, where 12 is
the number of data points. Note that functions Pi(x) are 1 at the ith data point and zero at
. all other data points. The first derivatives of Pi' i = 1, ... , are zero at all data points. On the
other hand, the functions Qi(x) are zero at all data points while their first derivatives are 1
at ith point and zero everywhere else. That is,
P;(xj ) = oij; P[(x j ) =0

Qi(x j ) = 0; Qi(x j ) = oij
where oij is the so-called dirac delta function, which is equal to 1 when i = j and equal to
ootherwise.
Example 2.6 Using Hermite interpolation, obtain a function that passes through the fol-
lowing two points with the slopes at these points as given in the following table:
FINITE ELEMENT FORM OF ASSUMED SOLUTIONS 147
Point, Data Value, Derivative Value, u;

o 1 o
1 2 -1
Data point locations: (0, 1I

Lagrange interpolation functions for these points:
(L 1 = 1 - x, L z = x]
Derivatives of Lagrange interpolation functions:
Derivatives at the given points:
Using these, the Hermite interpolations for data values are
Those for derivative values are
Vector of Hermite interpolation functions
These are the same interpolation functions derived earlier with 1 = 1. The vector of given
nodal data values and theirderivatives is
Thus the function that interpolates between these values-is as follows:
u(x) = (z.x3-3x z+ 1 x 3 - 2x2+x 3x 2 - 2x3 x3-X2 ) [ ~/]=-3~~+4X2+1

. -1
The interpolated function is plotted in Figure 2.17. The given data points are shown on
the graph with large dots. The function clearly passes through both data points and has the
specified slope of 0 at x = 0 and -1 at x = 1..
148 MATHEMATIQAL FOUNDATION OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
u(x)
2
-1
1.5
0.5
x
0.2, 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2
Figure 2.17. Interpolated function
Example2.7 Using Hermite interpolation, obtain a function for the following set of data:
Point, Xi Data Value, !Ii Derivative Value, u;

o 1 0
1 2 0
3 0 1
The Hermite interpolation functions to pass a polynomial through three data points and
their first derivatives located at x = 0, 1, 3 are as follows:
Data point locations: (0, 1, 3}
(L J = l(x - 3)(x 1), Ll= -~(x - 3)x, L 3 = ~(x l)x}
x-3 x-I 3-x x x-I X}

{ i; = -3- + -3-,L; = -2- - 2,L; = -6- + 6"
p _ S.:2 _ 6lx4 152x3 _ 14x2 __ .:2 2x4 _ 21x3 9x2

{ J - 27 27 + 27 3 + 1, P2 - 4 + 4 + 2'
4
5.:2 7x 41x3 x 2 }
P3 = - lOS + ?5 - lOS + 6"
FINITEELEMENT FORMOF ASSUMEDSOLUTIONS 149
Those for derivative values are
{Q = x' _ SX4 + 2zil _ SX + x

2
Q= x' _ 7x 4
+ 15i! _ 9x
2
1 9 9 9 3 '2 4 4 4 4'
4 2
x' 5x 7i! X }
Q3 = 36 - 36 + 36 - 12
Vector of Hermite interpolation functions:
NT
.
= {Sx'27 _61x27 4
27 3
2
+ 152i! _ 14x + 1 x' _ Sx + 2zil _ sx2 +x
'9
4
9 9 3 '
2
x5 4 21i! 9x2 x' 7x 4 15i! 9x
--+2x - - - + - - - - + - - - -
4 4 2'4 4 4 4'
2
5x' 7x 4 41i! x2 x' 5x4 7i! x }
-lOS + 27 - lOS + 6' 36 - 36 + 36 - 12
The vector of function values and their derivatives is ( I 0 2 0 0 I). Thus we have
19x' 173x4 505x 3 17x 2

. u(x) = N l + 2N3 + N6 = - - - + - - - - - + - - + 1
lOS lOS lOS 4
The interpolated function is plotted in Figure 2.1S. The given data points are shown on the
graph with large dots. The function clearly passes through all three data points and has the
specified slope at these points. .
u(x)
1.5
0.5
x
0.5 1.5 2 3.5
-0.5
-1
Figure 2.18. Interpolated function
2.7 FINITE ELEMENT SOLUTION OF AXIAL DEFORMATION PROBLEMS
As mentioned earlier, using the assumed solution in the form of interpolation functions, it
is possible to perform computations independently for each element and then simply add
the contributions from different elements. Thus we can employ the standard six-step finite
element procedure to obtain approximate solutions:

Except for the derivation of element equations, all steps have been discussed in detail in
Chapter 1. In this section the procedure for deriving element equations is illustrated consid-
ering a two-node element for axial deformation problem. Several numerical examples are
then presented that use these equations to solve a variety of axial deformation problems.
2.7.1 Two-Node Uniform Bar Element for Axial Deformations

The simplest element for axial deformations of bars is a two-node line element, as shown
in Figure 2.19. The element extends from xl to x 2 and has a length L := x 2 - xl' The
circles represent nodes. The unknown solutions at the nodes are indicated by u l and u2 • In
addition to the distributed load q(X), the element may be subjected to concentrated axial
loads Pi applied at the ends of the element.
With these assumptions the governing differential equation over an element is
,I
~
dU
(AE ) +q o., :=
dX dX
Any possible concentrated loads at element ends form natural boundary conditions. With
the sign convention explained earlier we have
_AEdu(x l ) _ . AE du(x 2 ) := P.
dx -PI' dx 2
q
Pi P2
XI X2
I.. L ~I
X
'.;'
Figure 2.19. A simple two-node element for axial deformation
FINitE ELEMENTSOLUTION OF AXIAL DEFORMATION PROBLEMS 151
The primary unknown is the axial displacement u. Once the displacement is known, axial
strain, stress, and force can be computed from the following relationships:
d£l
Ex = dx;
Linear Assumed Solution The assumed solution is a linear interpolation between the
nodal unknowns. Thus
X - X?
£l(x)= ---
( xl -X
z
We will need u'(x) in the later derivation. Differentiating with respect to x, we g~t
£l'(x) = d£l(x) = (_1__l_)(£l l ) (Nf N2)(u l) =BTd

dx Xl -Xz Xz -Xl £lz -
£lz
Ni =_1_ = _~; Nz= _1_ = ~
Xl -X z L Xz -Xl L
Element Equations Using Galerkin Method The weak form can be written using
standard steps of writing the weighted residual, integration by parts, and incorporating the
natural boundary conditions. The weighting functions are the same as the interpolation
functions Nj •
With u(x) an assumed solution the residual is
d
e(x) = q + dx (AE£l')
Multiplying by Nj(x) and writing the integral over the given limits, the Galerkin weighted
residual is
-L X
x,
2 ( qN j + -.(AE£l')Nj
d
dx
) dx =0
Using integration by parts,
AENi(xz)£l'(xz) -AENj(xl)£l'(x l) + r'2 (qNi-AEu'N[)dx =0

Jx,
Given the NBC for the problem,
Rearranging,
p
u't» ) -7 1 .
__
J AE'
Thus the boundary terms in the weak form reduce to
Assuming admissible solutions, the final weak form is as follows:
With the two interpolation functions, the two equations for the element are as follows:
t: (qNj(x) - A~U'(X)N;(x))dx + PjNj(x,) + P2N1(X2 ) =.0

lx,
xz
r
Jx,
(qN
2(x) - AEu'(x)N~(x))dx + P,N2(x j) + P2N2(X2 ) = 0
Noting the property of the Lagrange interpolation functions that N j (xj ) = 1, N, (x 2 ) = 0,

N2 (x j ) = 0, and N2 (X 2 ) = I and writing the two equations together using matrix notation,
we have
Substituting for u'(x), we have
Jx,r"2 ((NN~ )q - (N'

N~) AE(~1
or
where rp is the 2 x 1 vector of element nodal loads (Pj , P2 l and 0 is a 2 x 1 vector of zeros.
Rearranging terms and taking nodal degrees of freedom out of the integral sign because
they are not functions of x, we have
where
FINITE ELEMENT SOLUTION OF AXIAL DEFORMATION PROBLEMS 153
Note the careful arrangement of terms when the two equations were written together. Since
AEu'(x) is a scalar, the second term inside the integral of the weak form can be written in
two different ways as follows:
JXI('<2 (N'
N~ ) AEu'(x)dx or Jx('<2 AEu'(x) (N') ,
N~ dx
l
The first form was usedabove to get the equations in the convenient form presented. With
the second form we have the following situation:
r:
JX -AEu'(x) N~ (N') dx = Jx("? AEB dB dx-
T
I l
Notice that now d cannot be tal<enout of the integral sign (recall that with matrices dB '*
Bd) and thus the form is not suitable for writing element equations in a compact form as a
system of linear equations. We must use the first form and take unknown nodal values out
so that the remaining terms can be integrated to give element equations.
To write explicit equations, we must substitute derivatives of the interpolation functions
and carry out integrations. For simplicity, it is assumed that EA and q are constant over an
.element. Thus we have
X
X
r 2 AE -L12 dx - AE -L12 dX] AE ( 1
L
2 [ L'2
k = BAEB T dx = Jxl • ':1 =_
Jr
X
XI
-
Jr'2 AEJ.. d
L2 X
2 AEJ..
L2 X
d . L -1
XI XI
rq
Jx.r'2 Nqdx =
XI
[.r -r
rX2~d
JX I L ':I X
q dX
] = qL
21
(1)
We now have the two-node element equations for the axial deformation problem:
AE ( 1
L -1
. =
k -( 1
AE
L -1
-1).
1 ' rq
qL
= 'T (1) . 1 ; r
P
= (PI)
P2
Element Equations Using Rayleigh-Ritz Method The Galerkin method was used
to derive element equations in the previous section. The same equations can also be de-
rived using the Rayleigh-Ritz method. The potential energy function for the element is as
follows: .
The square of the first derivative of the assumed solution must be written carefully so that
the nodal unknowns can be taken out of the integral sign. In order to achieve this goal we
proceed as follows:
u'(x) =BTd
(u'(x))z = (U'(XnTU'(X) = (B Td{B Td = dTBB Td
where we have used the rule for the transpose of a product of two matrices (ABl = B TAT.
The strain energy term can now be evaluated as follows:
U= ! i
XI
X2
AEdr BB Td dx = !dT ("2 AEBBT dx d ;:

~l
!dTkd
where
The work done by the distributed load can be evaluated as follows:
Wq = ("2 qudx= ("2 qNTddx=':;;d;:dTrq

JX1 JX I
where
r~ = ("2 qNT dx => r q =

2
(X Nqdx = (L~:2-!qdX] = q~ (i)
JX1 Jx, . 11 qdxL
,/
The work done by the concentrated loads applied at element ends is
Wp =PIu l - Pzuz = (PI (UI) ;: r~d ;: d Tr

Pz)
Uz
p
The potential energy can now be written as follows:
The necessary conditions for the minimum of the potential energy give (see details below)
an
ad
= (!kd
2
_ r - r ) + !kd = 0
qp 2
Rearranging terms, we get the same element equations as those obtained by using the
Galerkin method:
kd =rq + rp => AE
L
(1-1 -1)(
1 zI) = 2 11) + (PI)
U
U
qL (
Pz
FINITEELEMENTSOLUTION OF AXIAL DEFORMATION PROBLEMS 155
The detailed justification for the way the differentiation of the potential energy with respect
to the nodal variables is carried out is as follows:
Using the product rule of differentiation,
~~ =(i O)Uk(::~)-rq-rp)+(UI UZ)Uk(~))=O

~~ =(0 1)Uk(::~)-rq-rp)+(UI UZ)uk(n)=O
Combining the two equations together, we have
or
Since k is a symmetric matrix, dtGk) = 4kd, and we have
Thus, even though d is a vector, in the compact matrix form, the expression for the deriva-
tive of II with.respect to d appears as if d is a scalar variable. Based on this observation,
in the remainder of the book, after writing the energy function, its derivatives with respect
to the nodal variables will be written directly without going through a detailed justification
every time.
2.7.2 Numerical Examples

Example 2.8 Column in a Multistory Building An interior column in a multistory
building is subjected to axial loads from different floors, as shown in Figure 2.20. Deter-
mine axial displacements at the story levels. Using these displacements, compute the axial
strain and stress distribution in the column. Use the following data:
Story height, h = 15 ft
Story loads: PI = 50,000 lb, Pz = P3 = 40,000 lb, P4 = 35,000 lb
T
h 4
t
h 3
t
h 2
t
h
x
1 UI
Figure 2.20. Column in a multistory building and a four-element model
Modulus of elasticity, E = 29 X 106 Ib/irr'

Area of cross section, A = 21.S in2
Since during.the derivation of element equations it was assumed that the concentrated loads
can only be applied at the element ends, we must divide the column into elements at the
story levels. Thus the simplest possible finite element model is the four-element model
shown in Figure 2.20. .
The concentrated nodal loads will be added directly to the global equations after assem-
bly. All elements have the same length and other properties. Thus the element equations
are as follows:
Use pound-inches. The computed nodal displacements will be in inches and the stresses in
pounds per square inch.
Nodal locations: (0, isn 360, 540, 720)
ElementI:
3.51222 x 10
( -3.51222 X 106
6
-3.51222 x 10
6
)(£1 1) = (0)
3.51222 X 106 £1 2 0
Element 2:
6 6
3.51222 X 10 -3.51222 X 10 ) (£1 2 ) = (0)
( -3.51222 X 106 3.51222 X 106 £13 0
Element 3:
6 6
3.51222 X 10 . -3.51222 X 10 ) (£1 3 ) = (0)
( -3.51222 X 106 3.51222 X 106 £14 0
FINITE ELEMENT SOLUTION OF AXIAL DEFORMATION PROBLEMS 157
. Element 4:
3.51222 X 10
( -3.51222 X 106
6
-3.51222
3.51222
X
X
6
10 )
106
(u4)
Us
= (0)
. 0
Global equations after assembly and incorporating the NBC (placing concentrated ap-
plied loads):
3.51222 X 106 . -3.51222 X 106 o o
[.
-3.51222 x 106 7.02444 X 106 -3.51222 X 106 o o ] -50~00'
~:
III
o -3.51222 X 10
6 7.02444 X 106 -3.51222 X 106 = -40000.
o o -3.51222 X 106 7.02444 X 106 J.51222 X 106 -40000.
o o o -3.51222 X 106 3.51222 x 106 liS -35000.
Essential boundary conditions:
dof Value
ul 0
Since the EBC is 0, we simply remove the first row and column to get the final system
of equations as follows:
7.02444 X 1'06 -3.51222 X 106 o Z]

-3.51222 X 106 7.02444 X 106 -3.51222 X 106 o. ](Ll
u3 _ (-50000.]
-40000.
o -3.51222 X 106 7.02444 X 106 -3.51222 X 106 U4 - -40000.
[
o 0 -3.51222 X 106 3.51222 X 106 Us -35000.
Solution for nodal unknowns:
dof x Solution
ul 0 0
Uz 180 -0.0469788
u3 360 -0.0797216
Ll4 540 -0.101076
Us 720 -0.111041
Once the nodal displacements are known, the displacement over any element is obtained
from the linear interpolation functions as follows:
x-xz
u(x)= ( - -
XI -xz
Element 1:
Nodes: {XI -7 0, X z -7 180)
Interpolation functions: NT = (1 - I~O' I~O}
Nodal values: d T = (0, -0.0469788)

Solution: NTd = -0.000260993x
Element 2:
Nodes: (xl -? 180, x 2 -? 360)
Interpolation functions: NT = {2 - I~O' I~O - 1)
Nodal values: d T = (-0.0469788, -0.0797216)
Solution: NTd = -0.000181904x - 0.014236
Element3:
Nodes: (Xl -? 360, x 2 -? 540)
Interpolation functions: NT ={3 - I~O' I~O - 2)
Nodal values: d T = (-0.0797216, -0.101O76)
Solution: NTd = -0.000118633 X - 0.0370136
Element 4:
Nodes: (xl -? 540, x 2 -? 720)
Interpolation functions: NT = {4 - I~O' I~O - 3)
Nodal values: d T = (-0.101076, -0.1110411
Solution: NTd = -0.0000553622x - 0.07118
Solution summary:
Range u(x)
1 0::; x s 180 -0.000260993x
2 180::;x::;360 -0.000181904x - 0.014236
3 360::; x::; 540 -0.000118633x - 0.0370136
4 540::; x::; 720 -0.0000553622x - 0.07118
/
From these displacements we get the following axial strains, stresses, and axial forces:
dL!
Ex = dx; 0:-, = EEx ; F Ao;,
Range. E F
1 0::; x s 180 -0.000260993 -7568.81 -165000.
2 180::; x s 360 -0.000181904 -5275.23 -115000.
3 360::; x s 540 -0.000118633 -3440.37 -75000.
4 540::; x s 720 -0.0000553622 -1605.5 -35000.
The negative sign indicates compression. The problem is statically determinate, and thus
simple application of the static equilibrium condition indicates that the computed axial
forces are exact. .
Example 2.9 Tapered Bar Consider solution of the tapered axially loaded bar shown
in Figure 2.21. Use a two-node uniform axial deformation element to model the bar and
determine the axial stress and force distribution in the bar. Compute the support reactions
FINITEELEMENT SOLUTION OF AXIAL DEFORMATION PROBLEMS 159
Figure 2.21. Tapered bar
from the axial force and see whether the overall equilibrium is satisfied. Comment on the
quality of the finite element solution. Use the following numerical data:
E =70 GPa; F = 20kN; L= 300mm;
where AI and Az are the areas of cross section at the two ends of the bar. The area of cross
section can be expressed as a linear function of x using the Lagrange interpolation formula
as follows:
Since the displacements are generally small, numerically it is convenient to use newton-
millimeters. Then the computed nodal displacements are in millimeters and the stresses in
megapascals.
A four-element model is as shown in Figure 2.22. Since the element equations derived
earlier are based on the assumption of a uniform cross section, we must assign an average
area to each element in the finite element model. Denoting the area of cross section at the
left end of an element by Al and that at the right end by A r , the average area for each
element is (AI + A r)l2. The concentrated nodal loads will be added directly to the global
equations after assembly. Thus, with 1 the length of an element, the element equations are
as follows:
Nodal locations: {O, 150.,300.,450., 600.}

Areas at the nodes: {2400., 1950., 1500., 1050., 600.} ,
Average area for each element: (2175., 1725., 1275., 825.)
1---_-_-_---1
2
L
2
L
2
L
2'
Figure 2.22. Four-element model for the tapered bar

Element 1:
Element 2:
805000. -805000.) (U2) :=: (0)

( -805000. 805000. u3 0
Element 3:
595000. -595000.) (U3) :=: (0)

( -595000. 595000. u4 0
Element 4:
385000. -38500,0.) (U 4) :=: (0)

( -385000. 385000. Us 0
Global equations after incorporating the NBC:
-1.015 X 106 0 0 ul 0
[ 1.015 X 10'6
-1.015 X 10 ,1.82 X 106 -805000. 0 u2 0
0
0
0
-805000.
0
0
1.4 X 106
-595000.
0
-595000.
980000.
-38,5000.
-38Jj
385000.
u3
u4
Us
:=: 20000
0
0
dbi Value
UI 0
Us 0
Incorporating the EBC, the final system of equations is
~805000.
1.82 X 10
6
-805000.
'1.4 X 106
0 ] [U 1[
-595000. u~:=: 20000.
0 1
( o -595000. 980000. u4 O.
dof x Solution
ul 0 0
u2 150. 0.0129577
u3 300. 0.0292958
u4 450. 0.0177867
,us 600. 0
FINITEELEMENTSOLUTION OF AXIAL DEFORMATION PROBLEMS 161
'Solution over element 1:

Nodes: {xl -7 0,x 2 -7l50.}
Interpolation functions: NT = {I. - 0.00666667x, 0.00666667x}
Nodal values: aT = {O, 0.0129577}
Solution: NTa = 0.000086385x
Solution over element 2:
Nodes: {xl -7 150., x 2 -7 300.}
Interpolation functions: NT = {2. - 0.00666667x, 0.00666667x - I.}
Nodal values: aT = {0.0129577, 0.0292958}
Solution: NTa = 0.00010892t - 0.00338028
Nodes: {Xl -7 300.,x2 -7450.}
Interpolation functions: NT = {3. - 0.00666667x, 0.00666667x - 2.}
Nodal values: aT = {0.0292958, 0.0177867}
a
Solution: NT = 0.0523139 - 0.000076727x
Nodes: {xl -7 450.,x 2 -7 600.}
Interpolation functions: NT = {4. - 0.00666667x, 0.00666667x - 3.}
Nodal values: aT = {0.0177867, O}
Solution: NTa = 0.0711469 - 0.000118578x
Solution summary:
Range Solution
1 0:::;x:::; 150. 0.000086385x
2 150.:::; x:::; 300.. 0.00010892x - 0.00338028
3 300.:::; x :::; 450. 0.0523139 - 0.000076727x
4 45Q.,:::; x :::; 600. 0.0711469 - 0.000118578x
From these displacements we get the following axial strains, stresses, and axial forces:
du
Ex = dx; ,0;, =EEx ; F:;= Ao:,
Range E (T F
1 0:::; x:::; 150. 0.000086385 6.04695 13152:1

2 150. :::; x:::; 300. 0.00010892 7.62441 13152.1
3 300. :::; x :::; 450. -0.000076727 -5.370,89 -6847.89
4 450. :::; x :::; 600. -0.000118578 -8.30047 -6847.89
The axial forces at the ends must balance the support reactions. With the sign convention
for axial forces discussed earlier, the reaction at the left support is the negative of the axial
162 MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF THE FINITEELEMENT METHOD
Axial force
10000
5000
1------1------ x
100 200 3 0 400 500 600
-5000
Figure 2.23. Four-element solution for the tapered bar-e-axial force distribution
CT
7.5
5
2.5
+-~---+-----x
-2.5 100 200 3< 0 400 500 600

. -5
-7.5
Figure 2.24. Four-element solution for the tapered bar-stress distribution
force at this point and that at the right support is equal to the axial force. Thus from the
axial forces we get the support reactions as
Reactions = {-13152.1, -6847.89}

Sum of reactions = -20000.
,I"
The sum of reactions is equal and opposite to the applied load, and therefore the overall
equilibrium is satisfied. Plots of the axial stress and axial force are shown in Figures 2.23
and 2.24. The axial force plot looks reasonable. In the stress plot we expect a discontinuity
at the middle because of the concentrated applied force. However, the stress at nodes 2 and
4 should be continuous. A large discontinuity in the stress at these locations indicates that
the solution is not very accurate.
The following solution is obtained using eight equal-length elements:
Range .E CT F
1 0::; x::; 75. 0.0000824431 5.77101 13201.2
2 75. ::;x s 150. 0.0000914369 6.40058 13201.2
3 150. -s x ::; 225. 0.000102633 7.18432 13201.2
4 225. ::; x ::; 300. 0.000116954 8.18679 13201.2
5 300. -s x ::; 375. -0.0000700005 -4.90004 -6798.8
6 375. s x ::; 450. -0.000083549 -5.84843 -6798.8
7 450. ::; x ::; 525. -0.000103601 -7.25206 -6798.8
8 525. ::; x ::; 600. -0.000136317 -9.54218 -6798.8
PROBLEMS 163
7.5
5
2.5
-1--~-~-t------x
-2.5 100 200 3 0 400 500 600
-5
-7.5
Figure 2.25. Eight-element solution for the tapered bar-stress distribution
The stresses are plotted in Figure 2.25. Because of the constant-area assumption over each
element, we still have discontinuities in the stress. However, if we take the average of the
stresses from the two elements at common nodes, the solution is very close' to the exact
solution: .
avg=Map[Apply[Plus, #]/2&,
{cr [[{1, 2}]] , o: [[{2, 3}]] , o:[[{3, 4}]] , a [[{5, 6}]] ,
cr[[{6, 7}]], cr[[{7, 8}]]}]
{6.0858, 6.79245, 7.68556, -5.37424, -6.55024, -8.39712}

Solution ofaxial deformation problems
PROBLEMS
Exact Solution of Differential Equations

2.1 A uniform bar is subjected to uniform axial load along its length. The bar is fixed
at the left end but there is a gap g between the support and the right end before the
load is applied, as shown in the Figure 2.26. Assuming that the applied load is large
enough to close the gap, write the governing differential equation with appropriate
boundary conditions. Use direct integration to determine the exact solution of the
r Gap=g
I -
L
--1
problem. Plot the axial force along the bar. Use the following numerical values:
L = 800 mm; g =0.25 mm; E =200 GPa; A =200 mm2 ; q = 100 Nlmm
2.2 Consider a large plane wall, shown in Figure 2.27, with thickness = 0.4 m, surface
area = 20 m2 , and thermal conductivity k = 2.3 W/m . DC. The inside of the wall is
maintained at a constant temperature of To = 80DC while the outside loses heat by
convection to the surrounding air at Too = IYC with a heat transfer coefficient of
h = 24 W/m2 • DC. The governing differential equation for the problem is
d2T
k
dr =0'
' 0< x < L = 0.4
-k dT(L) =h(T(L) - T )
dx 00
Use direct integration to determine an expression for temperature distribution

through the wall. What is the rate of heat transfer through the wall?
Inside wall
Outside air
Temperature = 80 0 e
. Temperature =15°e
Figure 2.27. Heat conduction through a wall

/
2.3 Steady-state heat flow through long hollow circular cylinders can be described by
the following ordinary differential equation:
:r (leA d~~)) +AQ =0;

T(r) = 71; T(I) = To
where r is the radial coordinate, T(r) is the temperature, k is the thermal conduc-
tivity, Q is the heat generation per unit area, A = Znrl: is the surface area, L is the
length of the cylinder, rj is the inner radius, and ro is the outer radius. The bound-
ary conditions specify the temperature on the inside and outside of the cylinder,
respectively.
(a) Show that the following represents an exact solution for the problem for the
case when Q = 0:
In(r/r)
T(r) = 71 - (71 - To) In(r: /.)
r,
PROBLEMS 165
(b) Show that the following is an appropriate weak form for obtaining an approx-
imate solution using the Galerkin weighted residual method:
ro (
l r,
dT dw , )
-kA dr d: +AQw j dr = O'
(c) Using the weak form given in (b), find an approximate solution of the problem
with a trial solution of the form T(r) = ao + a j r + a2 ? Assume the following
numerical values:
ri=lin; r o = 4 in; 1f =400°F; To = 100°F
L = 100 in; Q = 0; k = 0.04 Btu/(h· ft"F)·
'Approximate Solutions Using Galerkin Method

2.4 An engineering analysis problem is formulated in terms of the following ordinary
differential equation:
d 2u du 'I
- +x- =)£1-1; O<x<l
d~ dx """
£1(0) = 2; u(l) = duel)

dx
(a) What is the order of the differential equation?

(b) Is the boundary condition at x = 0 a natural or an essential boundary condi-
tion?
(c) Is the boundary condition at x = 1 a natural or an essential boundary condi-
tion?
(d) Obtain a suitable wealeform for the problem.
(e) Starting with a linear polynomial, obtain an approximate solution of the prob-
lem.
2.5 An engineering analysis problem is formulated in terms of the following ordinary
differential equation:
-£I" + ilu - 2rc2 sin(rcx) = 0; O<x<l

u(O) = u(l) = 0
Exact solution: u(x) = sin(rcx)'
Starting with a quadratic polynomial, obtain an approximate solution of the prob-
lem. Compare your solution with the exact solution.
2.6 An engineering analysis problem is formulated in terms of the following second-

order boundary value problem:
Zxu" + 3u' = 4; l<x<2

u'(l) =1 and u(2) - 2 =0
(a) Derive a suitable weak form for use with the Galerkin method. Clearly indicate
how the boundary conditions will be handled.
(b) Starting with a solution of the form u(x) = ao + a1x, obtain an approximate
solution of the problem.:
2.7 Consider the following boundary value problem:
u" sin(x) + u' cos(x) + u sin (x) = 0; 7f/4 < x < 7f/2
u(7f/4) =1 and u'(7f/2) = 2
(a)- Verify that the differential equation can be written as follows:
;~ [u' sin(x)] + u sin(x) 0
(b) Using the Galerkin weighted residual method, obtain an approximate solution
of the boundary value problem using a trial solution of the form u(x) = ao+ajx.
u" + xu' - 2u = 1; 0<x < 1

;'
u'(O) - u(O) = 1; u'(l) =2
Construct a suitable weak form. Using this weak form, obtain a quadratic approxi-
mate solution of the problem.
ul/+u+x=O
with the boundary conditions u(O) = 0, u(l) = O. Construct a suitable weak form.
Using this weak form, obtain a quadratic approximate solution of the problem.
u" +xu'-u = 1; O<x<l

u'(O) - u(O) = 1; u'(l) =1
Construct a suitable weak form. Using this weak form, obtain a quadratic approxi-
mate solution of the problem.
PROBLEMS 167
2.11 An engineering analysis problem is formulated in terms of the following second-

order boundary value problem:
u(x) - u'(x) + u"(x) = 1; 0<x<2

u'(O) = u(O) and u(2) =1
Derive a suitable weak form for use with the Galerkin method. Clearly indicate
how the boundary conditions will be handled. Starting with a solution of the form
u(x) = ao + a1x, obtain an approximate solution of the problem.
2.12 Use the Galerkin method to find a quadratic solution of the axially loaded bar of
Problem 2.1. Verify that this is the exact solution of the problem.
2.13 Use the Galerkin method to find an approximate solution of a uniform bar fixed at
both ends and subjected to an axial load q(x) = cx2 leN/m, as shown in Figure 2.28.
Assume a quadratic polynomial solution. Determine the axial force distribution in
the bar. Plot this force distribution. Determine the support reactions from the force
distribution and see whether the overall equilibrium is satisfied. Comment on the
quality of the solution. Use the following numerical data:
E = 70 GPa; c = 200; L = 600mm; A = 600mm2
- - - - - - i... X
L --~
2.14 Consider the problem of finding the axial displacement of a truncated solid cone of
length L hanging under its own weight and subjected to a downward load F at the
tip, as shown in Figure 2.29. The diameter at the top is do and changes linearly to dL
at the bottom. The problem is described in terms of the following boundary value
problem:
:x (EA(X) ~;) + pA(x) = 0; 0 <x <L

n d - d
A(x) = 4d(x)2; d(x) = do - ¥ x
u(O) = 0; EA dueL) =F
dx
where p is the weight density and E is the modulus of elasticity. Obtain a quadratic
approximate solution using the Galerkin method. Compare this solution with the
exact solution (which can be obtained using Mathematica's NDSolve function). Use
the following numerical data:
do= I in; d L = 1/4 in; L = 100 in; F = 10001b;

E = 10 lb/irr':
6
p = l lb/irr'
F
Figure 2.29. Hanging bar
2.15 Derive a weak form for the following sixth-order differential equation. Clearly iden-
tify the essential and natural boundary conditions.
4u(x)
d 6u(x) d _ O'
--6-+--4-+ x -
dx dx .
, X o < x < x,
!
2.16 The governing differential equation for the torsion of a thin-walled section with
warping restraint can be written as follows:
El,/f/III - Glorf/' t(x) = 0; O::;,x::;,L
where E is the modulus of elasticity, G is the shear modulus, lw is the warping

constant, 10 is the torsional constant, t is the thickness of the section, and ¢ is the
angle through which the cross section rotates. Derive an equivalent weak form and'
indicate appropriate natural and essential boundary conditions.
2.17 A slider bearing with linear profile is shown in Figure 2.30. The two surfaces shown
are moving relative to each other at a constant velocity U and are separated by a
viscous fluid with viscosity fl. The governing differential equation for determining
pressure in the fluid under the bearing can be written as follows:
~ (h 3dP) + 6fl U dh = O.' O<x<L

dx dx . dx
p(O) = peL) = Po
PROBLEMS 169
:'where p(x) is pressure in the fluid and hex) is the thickness of the fluid film. De-
rive a suitable weak form. Starting with a cubic polynomial, obtain an approximate
solution using the Galerkin method. Use the following numerical data:
L = 8 in; ho = 0.0001 in; U = 12 in/s; Po = 14.7 psi
pressure, Po pressure, Po
x=o x=L
I
Figure2.30. Slider bearing with linear profile
Approximate Solutions Using Rayleigh-Ritz Method

2.18 Repeat Problem 2.12 using the Rayleigh-Ritz method.
2.19 Repeat Problem 2.13 using the Rayleigh-Ritz method.
2.20 Repeat Problem 2.14 using the Rayleigh-Ritz method. Note that the potential energy
for the problem is as follows:
I1p =U - W
U ILL
=-2 0
EA -(du)2 dx;
dx
w= LL pAu dx + Fu(L)
Lagrange and Hermite Interpolations

2.21 For a viscous fluid the velocities at various depths are measured as follows:
Velocity, m/s 3.75 4 3.75 3 1.75

Depth below the surface, m a 1 1.4 1.9 2.3
Use Lagrange interpolation to obtain an expression for fluid velocity as a function

of depth. Plot this relationship and verify that the function passes through all data
points.
2.22 The thickness of a concrete dam at various heights, starting from the bottom, is
measured as follows:
Thickness, m 2.81 1.79 1.39 1.07 0.8

Height, m 0 7.9 13.7 18.3 22
Use Lagrange interpolation to obtain a relationship for dam thickness as a function

of height. Plot this relationship and verify that the function passes through all data
points.
2.23 Use Hermite interpolation to obtain a function for the following set of data:
Point, xi Function Value, Derivative Value, u;

o 0.1 o
2 0 -1.3
Plot the resulting function and show that it passes through the given points and has
the desired slopes at these points.
2.24 Use Hermite interpolation to obtain a function for the following set of data:
Point, Xi Function Value, Derivative Value, u;

o 1 o
2.5 0 1.5
Plot the resulting function and show that it passes through the given points and has
the desired slopes at these points.
2.25 A flat aluminum bar has constant thickness of 10 mm and a variable profile as shown
in Figure 2.31. Use Lagrange interpolation to determine an expression for its area
of cross section.
I~ 6 @ 15 = 90 rnrn
--1
Figure 2.31.
Two-Node Uniform Bar Element for Axial Deformations

2.26 Find the axial force distribution using only two linear axial deformation elements
for the axially loaded bar of Problem 2.1.
PROBLEMS 171
2.27 :' A bar of constant cross section A and modulus of elasticity E is attached at both
ends to rigid supports and is loaded axially by force P as shown in Figure 2.32. Find
axial displacement and force distribution using only two linear axial deformation
elements. Use the following numerical values:
a = 300 mrn; b = 600 mrn; E = 200 GPa; A = 200 mrrr'; P = 10 kN
2.28 Find the axial force distribution using five linear axial deformation elements for the
axially loaded bar of Problem 2.13. Assume the load for each element is constant
and is equal to the average of the loads at the two ends of the element.
2.29 Find the axial force distribution using three linear axial deformation elements for the
axially loaded bar of Problem 2.14. Assume the area for each element is constant
and is equal to the average of the areas at the two ends of the element.
2.30 Using the Galerlcin method, derive finite element equations for a two-node axial
deformation element assuming that the axial load q varies linearly over the element
as shown in Figure 2.33. Assume that EA is constant over the element and that there
may be concentrated axial loads Pi applied at the ends of the element.
Pz
x
Figure 2.33. Bar element with linearly varying axial load
2.31 A typical finite element for an axial deformation problem involving tapered bars is
shown in Figure 2.34. The area of cross section A(x) varies linearly from A[ to A r
over the length of the element. Similarly, the applied axial load q(x) varies linearly
from q[ to qr over the length of the element. Derive equations for a linear (two-node)
finite element using the Rayleigh-Ritz method.
MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF THE FINITE ELEMENTMETHOD
AI Ar
qr
I
Figure 2.34. Bar element with linearly varying cross section and load
2.32 A fiat aluminum bar has constant thickness of 10 rom and a variable profile as shown
in Figure 2.35. The left end of the bar is fixed. A tensile load of 6 leN is applied at
the right end. Determine the axial stress distribution in the bar. Assume the area of
cross section changes linearly over each element. Perform a solution convergence
study as the number of elements is increased. r-::"1 0 GPO\
I~ 6@"15=90mm
~I
Figure 2.35.
.i
'I
CHAPTER THREE
ONE-DIMENSIONAL
,BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEM
A large number of practical problems are governed by the one-dimensional boundary value
problem (lD BVP) of the following form:
d ( dU(X»)
dx k(x)~ + p(x)u(x) + q(x) =0;
where k(x), p(x), and q(x) are given functions of x and u(x) is the solution variable. Since
the differential equation is of second order, for a unique .solution, there must be at least
two specified boundary conditions, The boundary conditions of the following form may be
specified at one or more points: .
Essential boundary condi~ions (EBC):
u = specified
Natural boundary conditions (NBC):
du
- dx = au + fJ if specified at the left end (x =xo)
s:: au + fJ.
du
if specified at the right end (x =XL)
where a and fJ are some specified constants and u is the unknown solution at the point
where the NBC is specified. Observe that in the natural boundary condition at the left end
the negative of the derivative is specified. The same thing was done in the axial deformation
problem in Chapter 2 where the choice was based on the sign convention for the applied
nodal forces. In the present case the decision to put a negative sign for the derivative is
173
11
174 ONE·DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEM
arbitrary. However, with this decision, the finite element equations will come out in the
standard form with all terms having consistent signs. Furthermore, when applying this
element to physical problems, the sign will make sense with the usual sign convention
adopted for those problems.
A few selected applications that are govemedby the differential equation of this form
are presented in the first section. The second section presents a general finite elementfor-
mulation for the problem. The remaining sections in this chapter use this finite element.
formulation to obtain approximate solutions for a variety of problems.
3.1 SELECTED APPLICATIONS OF 1D BVP
3.1.1 Steady-State Heat Conduction

A simple one-dimensional heat conduction situation is encountered when considering heat
flow through large panels or walls. Considering a unit slice of the panel, the heat flow
problem through the thickness results in a situation shown in Figure 3.1. The governing
differential equation is as follows:
d (k,ft dT)
dx dx + QA = 0;
where kx = thermal conductivity, A = area of cross section perpendicular to the direction

of heat flow, and Q = internal heat source per unit volume. This equation is a special case
of the general form with
k(x) = k,ft; =
p(x) 0; q(x).= QA
,/
The boundary conditions of the following form may be specified at one or more points:
T = specified temperature
-kA ~~ = q specified heat flow
The specified heat flow is considered positive when the heat is flowing into the body and
negative if it is flowing out of the body. Thus with a heat flow in the positive x direction we
No heat flow
. Figure 3.1. One-dimensional heat conduction

SELECTED APPLICATIONS OF 1D BVP 175
have the following two situations:
dT dT q
At the left end: -kA- = q==-- - - = -
dx dx kA
dT dT q
At the right end: -kA- = -q ==-- - = -
dx dx kA
These boundary conditions are equivalent to the general form with a = 0 and f3 = q/kA.
3.1.2 Heat Flow through Thin Fins

Thin fins are employed to dissipate heat from a hot body into the surrounding fluid (usually
air). A typical situation with uniform fins is illustrated in Figure 3.2. The main mechanism
of heat transfer is convection from the large surface area provided by the fins. .
A single fin is isolated, and assuming temperature is uniform over the width w of the
fin, the problem can be described in terms of the following differential equation:
d (kx'1dx
dx dT) - hPT + QA + hPT = 0;
oo
where kx = thermal conductivity, h = convection coefficient, P = surface area per unit

length over which convection takes place, A = area of cross section, Too = temperature of
surrounding fluid, and Q = internal heat source per unit volume. For the situation shown
in Figure 3.2, A = wt, and since the convection takes place at the top, bottom, and sides of
the fin, P = 2W + 2t, where t is fin thickness. Generally, Q is zero for heat flow through
fins. Compared to the general form,
k(x) = k.~; p(x) = -hP; q(x) '::: QA + hPToo
The boundary conditions ofthe following form may be specified at one or more points:
T = Tb (specified temperature at the base)
Figure 3.2. Thin fins employed for heat dissipation

176 ONE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY VALUEPROBLEM
.Convection heat loss at the free end:
dT
.o..kA- = -hA(T-T) =} -
dT hA
= -T---
nsr;
dx 00 dx kA kA
Compared to the general form,
h hT
a=- and f3 =-~
k k
When designing fins, a key quantity of interest is the total heat dissipated by a fin. Once
the temperature distribution is known, the total heat loss from a fin can be computed by
integrating the heat lost due to convection from the surface of the fin. Thus we have
XL
Heat loss =
L
Xo
hP(T(x) - Too) dx
3.1.3 Viscous Fluid Flow between Parallel Plates-Lubrication Problem

Viscous fluids are used to reduce friction between moving parts. Actual lubrication prob-
lems involve quite complex geometries. However, for a simple one-dimensional analysis
the problem can be viewed as a viscous fluid flow between two surfaces that are moving
relative to each other. As shown in Figure 3.3, we can assume that the bottom surface is
fixed and the top surface is moving at a constant velocity U which is equal to the relative
velocity between the two surfaces. The two surfaces are usually at different temperatures,
and since the viscosity varies with temperature, the fluid viscosity is typically a function of
y. The analysis objective is to determine the fluid velocity profile u(y). .
The governing differential equation for .determining fluid velocity profile u(y) can be
-d ( p(y)--
dU) -dP =0
dy dy dx
y
u
Figure 3.3. Velocity profile of a viscous fluidflow between two surfaces

where j1(y) is the fluid viscosity and dP/dx is the pressure drop in the direction of flow. The
pressure drop is measured and must be known in order to determine the velocity' profile.
dP
k = j1; p=O; q=--
dx
The boundary conditions come from the assumption of no slip at the contact between plates
and fluid. Thus we have the following boundary conditions:
u(O) = 0 and u(h) = U
Note that both boundary conditions are of the BBC type.
3.1.4 Slider Bearing

A slider bearing with linear profile is shown in Figure 3.4. The two surfaces shown are
moving relative to each other at a constant velocity U and are separated by a viscous fluid
with viscosity j1. The governing differential equation for determining pressure in the fluid
under the bearing can be written as follows:
O<x<L
where p(x) is pressure in the fluid and hex) is the thiclmess of the fluid film. Compared to
the general form,
dh
k(x) = h3 ; - p(x) = 0; q(x) = 6j1U dx
Outside of the bearing the pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, Po. Thus the
boundary conditions are as follows (both are of the BBC type):
p(O) = peL) = Po
pressure • po pressure , Po
x=o : x=L
Figure 3.4. Linear slider bearing
Figure 3.5. Nonuniform axially loaded bar
3.1.5 Axial Deformation of Bars

As seen from Chapter 2, axial deformation of bars is also governed by a differential equa-
tion that has the same general form as the ID BVP presented in the first section. For
example, the governing differential equation for a nonuniform bar shown in Figure 3.5 is
as follows:
d(
dx EA(x) dx dU) + q(x) =0; O<x<L
where A(x) is the area of cross section, E is Young's modulus, and q(x) is applied distributed
load in the axial direction. Compared to the general form,
k(x) =EA; p(x) = 0; q(x) =q

The boundary conditions are zero displacement at x = 0 and applied axial load F at x = L:
U(O) = 0; EA(L) dueL) =F
! dx
Compared to the general form, the natural boundary condition at x = L implies a: = 0 and
f3 = FlEA.
3.1.6 Elastic Buckling of Long Slender Bars

Consider a long slender bar pinned at one end and simply supported at the other and sub-
jected to an axial load P as shown in Figure 3.6. Under the usual small-displacement as-
sumption, an axial load produces axial displacements only. However, because of small
imperfections, long slender bars tend to buckle in a transverse deflection mode. Taking this
phenomenon into consideration, the governing differential equation for transverse deflec-
tion vex) of slender bars subjected to end axial load P is as follows:
2V)
!!!...
d2
(El d2
V
d2
) + P(dd.-2 =0
where E is Young's modulus and I is the moment of inertia. This is a fourth-order differ-
ential equation in vIt can, however, be converted into a second-order differential equation
Figure 3.6. Buckling of a long slender bar
by defining a new variable y = d2v/dX2. In terms of y we have the following second-order

differential equation: .
d2
dX2 (Ely) + Py = 0
If EI is a function of z, then this equation is not in the form of the general boundary value
. problem being considered in this chapter. This can be seen more clearly by expanding the
first term by using the chain rule of differentiation, which gives
EI(d
2y)
dX2
+ 2 d (El) dy +
dx dx
(p + d2(EI))y
dX2
=0
The factor 2 in the second term is not present in the general form since, expanding the first
term of the general form of boundary value problem, we have
2U)
!!.-
dx dx
(kdU).= k(d
dX2
+ dkdu
dx dx
If EI is constant, we have
This is in the form of the general boundary value problem. Thus for a uniform bar compared
to the general form
k=EI; p=P; q=O

It is shown in Chapter 4 that the bending moment is related to the second derivative of the
transverse displacementas follows:
Since the moment is zero at a simply supported end, we get the following boundary condi-
tions for the second-order problem:
y(O) = 0; y(L) =0
If the axial load P is given, then the problem can be solved in a usual manner to get
y(x). However, a more interesting application is to find load P that will cause the bar to
buclde. To find the buclding load P, the finite element equations are written and assembled
in the usualmanner, However, the global equations result in an eigenvalue problem. The
eigenvalues are the buckling load values. The corresponding eigenvectors are the buckling
modes. The procedure is illustrated through a numerical example in a later section.
3.2 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION FOR SECOND-ORDER 1D BVP
Element equations for a general n-node element for the second-order ID BVP are derived
in this section. The procedure is exactly the same as that used in Chapter 2 for deriving
equations for a two-node element for axial 'deformations. Each element can have up to n
nodes, where n ~ 2. The element extends from Xl to xn and has a length L x n - Xl' The
circles represent nodes. The unknown solutions at the nodes are indicated by £II> £1 2 , ••• , £I",
as shown in Figure 3.7. Thus over an element we must satisfy
d ( dU(X))
dx k(x)~ + p(x)u(x) + q(x) = 0; Xl < X < X"
As discussed in Chapters I and 2, any essential boundary conditions will be imposed after
assembling all element equations by setting the corresponding nodal degrees of freedom to
the specified values. During the derivation of element equations we therefore do not have to
worry about the essential boundary conditions. Any specified natural boundary conditions
are included in the weak form, and thus during the derivation of element equations we rriust
allow for the possibility of an NBC at the ends of an element. Therefore, during derivation
of element equations we consider the following conditions at the ends of an element:
where we have used subscripts on the a and f3 terms to indicate the node number at which
an NBC is specified. It should be recognized that in actual numerical solutions of problems
any specified NBC 'Will affect the first node of the first element and the last node of the
lastelement. Most other elements in the model will have no contributions from these NBC
terms.
xi
L
·1
x
Figure 3.7. An n-node element for second-order BVP
FINITEELEMENT FORMULATION FOR SECOND-ORDER 10 BVP 181
Assumed Solution The assumed solution can easily be written using the Lagrange
interpolation:
u(x) = I:N;(x)u(x) = (NI Nz

i=1
where Ni(x) are the Lagrange interpolation functions
We will need u' (x) in the later derivation. Differentiating with respect to x, we get
UI]
u'(x) = (Nl Nz ... N~) L~Z == B T d
[
un
Element Equations Using Galerkin Method The 'weak form can be written using
standard steps of writing the weighted residual, integration by parts, and incorporating the
natural boundary conditions. The weighting functions are the same as the interpolation
functions Ni • .
With u(x) an assumed solution, the residual. is
e(x) = q(x) + p(x)it(x) + k' (x)u' (x) + k(x)u" (x)

-
Multiplying by Ni(x) and writing the integral over the given limits, the Galerkin weighted
residual is
1~>qNi + puN; + k' a'N, + ku"N;)dx = 0

Using integration by parts, the order of derivative in kN;u" can be reduced to 1 as follows:
1 x
1
" (kN;u")dx = k(x,,)N;(x ll)u'(x,)
- k(xl)Ni(xl)u'(x1) + 1
x
1
" (-u'(N;!,' + k Nf)) dx
k(x,.)N;Cxn)u'(x,,)- k(x1)N,·(xl)U'(x 1) + i'\qN; + puN; - ku'N[)dx =0

I
Specified values of u' at the end nodes of an element can be directly substituted into the
boundary terms to give
k(x ll )(f3" + a"u(xn))Ni(x,,) - k(x l)( -/31 - a l u(xl))N;(x l) + iX" (qNi + puNi - ku'N!) dx = 0
XI
182 ONE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEM
With the n interpolation functions NI' N2 , ... ,Nn , the system of n equations for the element,
written in the matrix form, is as follows: .
As noted earlier, the interpolation functions are such that N, = 1 at xi and 0 at all other
nodes. Thus in the boundary terms N] (x]) =Nn(x,) = 1 and all other interpolation functions
are zero, giving
Rearranging terms and moving all quantities not involving unknown u to the right-hand
side, we have .
Substituting the assumed solution u(x) and its first derivative u'(x), we have
FINITE ELEMENTFORMULATION FOR SECOND-ORDER 1D BVP 183
Each term in this equation is simplified separately as follows:
First term:
where
f" kNiNzdx
1
1:" kNzNzdx ...

"'J
Second term:
where
- f" pN1N] dx
XI - f" pN]NZdx "'J
XI
kp = - f" pNZN] dx - f" pNzNz dx ...

[ Xl
··
·
XI
.
.,
. ,
,
(x" qN dx
1.<1· I
L. x"
q(X)
(NIl
N.
:Z dx = JX1
r<" qNzd;
N" (X" N d
1.<1 q " X
Second term on the right side:
Thus the element equations are
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, the k a and TfJ terms will be present in the
element equations only if a natural boundary condition is specified for an element. Also for
most elements only either the first term or the last term will be nonzero because typically
the NBC will be specified at only one end of an element. The equations indicate that,
if there is a natural boundary condition specified at node 1 of the element, then a term
-<x\k(x\) must be added to the first diagonal term in the element k matrix and k(x\) f3\ is
added to the first entry in the element T vector. The same treatment applies for a natural
boundary condition-specified at the last node of the element except that last diagonal term
is modified. Thus, instead of dealing with the natural boundary condition terms at the
element level, it is easier to simply assign natural boundary conditions to the global nodes.
The element equations are therefore simply
During assembly, the natural boundary condition terms are incorporated directly into the
global equations as follows:
NBC atdofi:
Add to global k: k(i, i) := k(i, i) - <X/c(x)

Add to global r: rei) := rei) + k(x)f3i
This is a good place to reflect on the decision to arbitrarily assign a negative sign to
the derivative term specified at the left end. If it was not done, then it can easily be seen
from the above derivation that there will be a positive sign associated with the <x\k(x\) term
and a negative sign with the <xllk(xll) term. This would mean that while writing element
equations we would have to keep track of whether we are considering an NBC at the left
end or the right end of an element. By choosing the signs of derivatives the way we did,
at the element level, there is no need to switch signs in the NBC terms. Furthermore, as
seen from the applications presented in the previous section, the sign convention adopted
FINITEELEMENTFORMULATION FOR SECOND-ORDER 10 BVP 185
ill
I, L
x
Figure 3.8. A two-node linearelementfor second-order BVP
here conforms to the usually accepted physical notions (such as heat flowing into a body is
positive and that out of the body is negative).
Explicit integration of the terms in the element equations is possible after one has chosen
the number of nodes for an element and the functions k(x), p(x), and q(x) are known.
Explicit Equations for a Two-Node Linear Element For a two-node element,

shown in Figure 3.8, the interpolation functions are simple linear functions of x. Further-
more, if we assume that k, p, and q are constant over an element, then it is easy to carry
out integrations and write explicit formulas for element equations:
Element nodes: (xl' XI + L)

Interpolation functions, NT =( x1+Z-x
BT - dN _
-dx-
T
(_1L 1)
L
k k)
k = (XI+L(kBBT)dx =
k Jx
I
( -rLk _-r
rk
ip
k
p
= J(x,+L(_
x, P
NNT)d = -3
x_02 (
6
rTq = J(x,+L(
x, qN)d x = {!::L !::L}
2' 2
Thus explicit equations for a linear element are as follows:
Explicit Equations for a Three-Node Quadratic Element With reasonable effort,

it is possible to obtain explicit expressions for a three-node element; shown in Figure 3.9,
with the middle node placed at the center of the element. As was the case for the linear
element, it is also assumed that k, p, and q are constant over an element:
Element nodes: {XI' 4(2xl + L), XI + L}

Xl
L -j
Figure 3.9. A three-node quadratic element for second-order BVP
Thus explicit equations quadratic element are as follows:

/
_Jl!£ _.!d!.
3L 15
1.+&.]
3L 30 U
.= [!:fl.] 6
L~ LJ ~
16k _
3L
gp, _Jl!£ _
15 3L
&.15 ·U
I
2
?:!::!I.
3
_Jl!£ _
3L
&.
15 3L 15 6
3.2.1 Complete Solution Procedure

The approximate solution of any problem governed by a differential equation of the type
considered in this chapter can be obtained by using the element equations derived in this
section by following the usual finite element steps:

·FINITE ELEMENTFORMULATION FORSECOND-ORDER 1D BVP 187
. The simplest element is obviously the two-node linear element. Since the first derivative
of the assumed solution is constant over an element, one must use a fairly large number
of linear elements to get accurate solutions. With three-node quadratic elements one typ-
ically needs fewer elements. If desired, one can develop a four-node cubic element as
well that will require even fewer elements for accurate solution. However, each higher
order element obviously requires more effort, and thus, in practice, problems are solved
almost exclusively using linear or quadratic elements. Because of well-known difficulties
associated with the higher order Lagrange interpolation functions (see Chapter 9), it is not
recommended to use elements higher than a cubic based on the formulation presented here.
Solutions to many practical problems can be obtained by using the explicit element
equations which are based on the assumption of constant coefficients k, p, and q over an
element. When these coefficients are not constant, there are two choices. The simplest op-
tion is to assign average coefficient values to each element and use the explicit equations
given. As the number of elements is increased, the discrepancy between the ayeraged val-
ues and the actual coefficient values should diminish. Alternatively, one can include the
actual coefficients as functions of x and carry out integrations to establish appropriate ma-
trices in the element equations:
x"
L L
X"
kp = (-p(x))NNT dx; rq = q(x)N dx
Xl Xl
Several examples in the following sections illustrate the procedure.
Mathematica Functions for Solution of One-Dimensional Boundary Value

Problem For Mathematica solution of one-dimensional boundary value problems us-
ing a linear or quadratic element, the following functions can be defined and used in the
manner shown in Chapter 2 for the axial deformation problem:
BVPiDLinElement[k_, p_, q_, [xt., x2_)] := Module[(L = x2 - xi, ke, re},

ke = ((k/L - (L * p)/3, -(k/L) - (L * p)/6), (-(k/L) - (L * p)/6, k/L - (L * p)/3)};
re = ((L * q)/2, (L * q}!2); (ke, r-s]
BVPiDLinSolution[(xL, xz.}, [d.l., d2_)] := Module[(L = x2 - xi, u],

n = ((xi + L - x)/L, -(xi - x)/Lj; u = Expand[n.(di, d2)];
(xi ~ x ~ x2, ul]
BVPiDQuadElement[k_, p_, q..., (xL, x2_, x3_j] := Module[(L = x3 - xi, ke, rej,
. ke = (((7 * k)/(3 * L) - (2 * L * p)/i5, (-8 * k)/(3 * L) - (L * p)/i5,
k/(3 * L) + (L * p)/30j, ((-8 * k)/(3 * L) - (L * p)/i5,
(i6 * k)/(3 * L) - (8 * L * p)/i5, (-8 * k)/(3 * L) - (L * p)(i5j,
(k/(3 * L) + (L * p)/30, (-8 * k)/(3 * L) - (L * p)/~5,
(7 * k)/(3 * L) - (2 * L * p)/i5)};
re = ((L * q)/6, (2 * L * q)/3, (L * q)/6);
[ke, rej
BVP1DQuadSolution[{xL, x2_, x3_}, {dL, d2~ d3_}] :== Module[{L == x3 - xl,u},

n == {(2 * xl + L - 2 * x) * (xl + L - x)/L2 , 4 * (xl- x) * (-xl- L + x)/L2 ,
(2 * xl + L - 2 * x) * (xl - x)/L 2 ) ;
u == Expand[n.(dl, d2, d3)];
{xl.::; x .s x3, ull
MATLAB Functions for Solution of One-Dimensional Boundary Value Prob-

lem For MATLAB solution of one-dimensional boundary value problems using linear or
quadratic elements, the following functions can be defined and used in the manner shown
in Chapter 2 for the axial deformation problem:
MatlabFiles\Chap3\BVPIDLinElement.m
function[ke, reJ == BVPiDLinElement(k, p, q, coord)
% Eke,reJ == BVP1DLinElement(k, p, q, coord)
% Generates equations for a linear element for lD BVP
%k,p,q = parameters defining the BVP
% coord = coordinates at the element ends
L == coord(2) - coord(l);
ke == [k/L - (L * p)/3, -(k/L) - (L * pY6; -(k/L) - (L * p)/6, kIL - (L * p)/3J;
re == [(L * q)/2; (L * q)/2J;
Mat1abFiles\Chap3\BVPIDQuadEl~ment.m
function(ke, reJ == BVP1DQuadElement(k,p, q, coord)

% [ke, reJ = BVP1DQuadElement(k, p, q, coord)
% Generates equations for ~ qua~ratic element for lD BVP
% k,p,q = parameters defiriing the BVP
L == coord(3) - coord(l);
ke == [(7 * k)/(3 * L) - (2 * L '"p)/15, (-8 * k)/(3 '" L) - (L * p)/15, ...
k/(3 * L) + (L * p)/30;
(-8," k)/(3 * L) - (L * p)/15, (16 * k)l(3 * L) - (8 * L * p)/15, ...
(-8 * k)/(3 * L) - (L * p)/15;
k/(3 * L) + (L * p)/30, (-8 * k)/(3 * L) - (L * p)/15, ...
(7 * k)l(3 * L) - (2 * L * p)/15];
re == [(L * q)/6; (2 * L * q)/3; (L * q)/6J;
3.3 STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION
Example 3.1 Consider heat conduction through a 5-mm-thick base plate of a 900-W
household iron. The base area is 150 em? and the thermal conductivity k == 20 W/m' ·C.
The inner surface of the base plate is subjected to uniform heat flux generated by resistance
heaters inside, as shown in Figure 3.10. During steady state the outer surface temperature
STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION 189
Figure 3.10. Baseplate of a household iron
is measured to be 84°C. Determine the temperature through the base plate. What is the
temperature at the inside surface?
Heat generation in the base plate is zero. The outside surface has an essential boundary
condition. The inside surface has a natural boundary condition. The problem is described
in terms of the following differential equation and boundary conditions:
O<x<L
150 5
k = 20W/m. DC; A =--2 m2 ; L = -- m
100 1000
T(L) = 84 and _ kA dT(O) =900

dx
Compared to the general form, we have
3
k(x)=kA = 10; p(x) =0; q(x) = 0
NBC atx = 0: a=O; f3 = 900 = 3000

kA
The problem is very simple and an exact solution can readily be obtained by direct inte-
gration. However, for illustration purposes, a finite element solution is obtained using only
one two-node linear element. The finite element model is as shown in Figure 3.11. The ele-
ment equations are written by substituting numerical values into the explicit linear element
equations presented earlier. The complete one-element solution is as follows:
Tz
1 2
x=O x", 0.005
Figure 3.11. One two-node finite element model

190 ONE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY VALUEPROBLIi:M
Element nodes: (xl -7 0, Xz -7 0.005)
(-~g -~~: )(~) =( ~)

Global equations before boundary conditions are the same as the element equations.
Natural boundary conditions:
dof af3 dof k(x) -k(x) a k(x) f3
T1 0 3000 o 900
dof Value
Tz 84
(60.)(T1) = (5940.)
dof X Solution
TI 99.
Tz 0.005 84

Nodes: (Xl -70, Xz -7 0.005)
Interpolation functions: NT = (1. - 200. x, 200. x)
Nodal values: aT = (99., 84}
Solution: T(x) = NTa = 99. - 3000. X
A plot of the solution is shown in Figure 3.12. It can easily be verified that the solution
satisfies the differential equation and both the boundary conditions. Thus it is an exact
solution and there is no need to increase the number of elements.
3.4 STEADY-STATE HEAT CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION
Example 3.2 A 2-m-high and 3-m-wide plate is at a temperature of 100°C. It is to be

cooled by using 20-cm-long and 0.3-cm-thick aluminum fins (Tc = 237 W/m . 0C). The
fins extend over the entire width of the plate, as shown in Figure 3.13. Along the plate
STEADY-STATE HEATCONDUCTION AND CONVECTION 191
98
96
94
92
90
88
86
x
0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
Figure 3.12. Temperature distribution in the base plate
Figure 3.13. One-dimensional heat transfer through a fin
height the clear spacing between the fins is 0.4 em. The ambient air temperature is 2YC
and average convection coefficient is 30 W1m2 . DC. Determine the temperature distribution
through the fins. What is the rate of heat transfer from the entire finned surface of the plate?
Assuming that over the width of a fin the temperature is uniform and that it varies only
along its length, the problem can be treated as one dimensional. Heat generation in the fin is
zero. Since the convection takes place at the top, bottom; and sides of the fin, P = 2W + 2t,
where t is fin thickness. The base has an essential boundary condition. The outside end of
the fin surface has a convection boundary condition. The governing differential equation is
as follows:
d ( leA dT)
dx dx - hPT + hPToo = 0; O::::x<.L
P = 2(W + t); A =Wt;

T(O) = 100 and leA dT(L) = -M(T - T )
dx 00
k(x) =leA; p(x) = -hP; q(x) = hPToo

hA f3 = hAToo
NBC atx =L: a=-leA;
leA
Using the given numerical data,
W = 3 m; t= 0.3/100 m; L =201100 m; k =237; h = 30; Too = 30

P= 6.006; A =0.009
leA = 2.133; hP = 180.18; hPT = 4504.5 00
a =-0.126582; f3 =3.16456
(i) Solution Using Four Linear Elements

A finite element solution using four two-node linear elements is presented. The finite el-
ement model is as shown in Figure 3.14. For each element the equations are written by
substituting numerical values into the explicit linear element equations presented earlier.
The complete four-element solution is as follows:
Nodal locations: (0,0.05,0.1,0.15,0.2)
Element 1:
45.663
( -41.1585 45.663 T2
(T
-41.1585) 1 ) = (112.613)
112.613
Element 2:
,I
45.663
( -41.1585 45.663 T3
(T
-41.1585) 2 ) = ( 112.613)
112.613
Element 3:
45.663
( -41.1585 45.663 T4
(T
-41.1585) 3 ) = (112.613)
112.613
Element 4:
45.663
( -41.1585 45.663 Ts
(T
-41.1585) 4 ) = (112.613)
112.613
Ts
2 3 4
12345
x=O x=O.05 x=O.l x=O.15 x=O.2
Figure 3.14. Four-element model for the fin
STEADY·STATE HEAT CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION 193
Global equations before boundary conditions:
45.663 -41.1585 0 o
-41.1585 91.326 -41.1585 o oo
o
][TI]
t; 225.225
[112.613]
'T = 225.225
o -41.1585 91.326 -41.1585 3
[ o 0 -41.1585 91.326 -41.1585 T4 225.225
o 0 0 -41.1585 45.663 t; 112.613
dof a ~ k(x) -k(x)a k(x)~
Ts -0.126582 3.16456 2.133 0.27 6.75
Global equations.after incorporating the NBC:
45.663 -41.1585 0 o
-41.1585 91.326 -41.1585 o oo ][TI]
Tz 225.225
[112.613]
o -41.1585 91.326 -41.1585 o T = 225.225
3
[ o 0 -41.1585 91.326 -41.1585 T4 225.225
'0 0 0 -41.1585 45.933 Ts ' 119.363
dof Value
TI 100
91.326
-41.1585
-41.1585
91.326 o
-41.1585 0
0 ] T3 ] [T
Z
_ [4341.08]
225.225
[ o -41.1585 91.326 -41.1585 T4 - 225.225
0-0 -41.1585 45.933 Ts 119.363
dof x Solution
TI 0 100
Tz 0.05 73.8496
T3 0.1 58.3916
T4 0.15 50.2425
Ts 0.2 47.6187
. Solution over element 1:

Nodes: (Xl ~ 0, Xz ~ 0.05)
Interpolation functions: NT = (1. - 20. x,20. x)
Nodal values: d T = {100,73.8496}

Solution: T(x) =NTd = 100. - 523.009 x
Nodes: {xl ~ 0.05,x 2 ~ O.l}
Interpolation functions: NT = {2. - 20. x, 20. x - 1:}
Nodal values: d T = {73.8496, 58.3916}
Solution: T(x) =NTd = 89.3075 - 309.16x
Nodes: {xl ~ 0.1, ~ ~ 0.15}
Interpolation functions: NT = {3. - 20. x, 20. x - 2.}
Nodal values: d T ={58.3916, 50.2425}
Solution: T(x) = NTd = 74.6897 - 162.981 x
Nodes: {xl ~ 0.15, x2 ~ 0.2}
Interpolation functions: NT = {4. - 20. x, 20. x - 3.}
Nodal values: d T = {50.2425, 47.6187}
Solution: T(x) =NTd = 58.114 - 52.4766 x
A plot of the solution is shown in Figure 3.15. The heat loss over a fin is determined by
computing heat loss over each element and then summing element contributions:
= L:
L
XI+ !
Heat loss hP(T(x) - Too) dx
Xl
Range Temperature Heat Loss

1 0::; x::; 0.05 100. - 523.009x 557.88
2 0.05::; x::; 0.1 89.3075 - 309.16x 370.455
3 0.1::; x s 0.15 74.6897 -162.98lx 264.117
4 0.15::; x s 0.2 58.114 - 52.4766 x 215.591
Total heat loss ~ 1408.04
T
100
90
80
70
60
x
0.05 0.1 0.15 .2
Figure 3.15. Temperature distribution in the fin
STEADY-STATE HEATCONDUCTIONAND CONVECTION 195
To compute the heat loss from the entire plate surface, we need to determine the total
number of fins and multiply the heat loss per fin by this number:
plate height 2
Nurnb er 0 f fins = = -=-::c-:-.-:::-::--::--:-:-.-:-::-
fin thickness + fin spacing 0.31100 + 0.4/100
= 285.714, say 286 fins
Heat loss through all fins = 286 X 1408.04 = 402700 W
(ii) Solution Using Two Quadratic Elements

To see the effect of higher order elements, now consider a finite element solution using only
two quadratic elements. The finite element model still looks the same as shown in Figure
3.14. However, the first three nodes define the first element and the next three the sec-
ond element. For each element the equations are written by substituting numerical values
into the explicit quadratic element equations presented earlier. The complete two-element
solution is as follows:
Nodal locations: 10,0.05,0.1,0.15, 0.2}
Element 1:
Element 2:
52.1724 -55.6788 6.5094 o

-55.6788 123.37
6.5094 -55.6788
-55.6788 o
104.345 -55.6788
. o 0
6.5094
][Tl]
T, 300.3
[75.075]
T = 150.15
3
[ o 0 -55.6788 123.37 -55.6788 T4 300.3
o 0 6.5094 -55.6788 52.1724 Ts 75.075
dof Q! f3 le(x) :-le(x) Q! le(x) f3

-0.126582 3.16456 2.133 0.27 6.75
52.1724 -55.6788 6.5094 o o

-55.6788 123.37 -55.6788 o o T
TI]
2 300.3
[75.075]
6.5094 -55.6788 104.345 -55.6788 6.5094 T3 = 150.15
o o -55.6788 123.37 -55.6788 [ T4 300.3
o o 6.5094 -55.6788 52.4424 Ts 81.825
dof Value
TI 100
.Incorporating the EBC, the final system of equations is
123.37 -55.6788
-55.6788 104.345 o
-55.6788 0
6.5094 ][T2]
T3 =(5868.18]
-500.79
( o -55.6788 123.37 -55.6788 T4 300.3
o 6.5094 -55.6788 52.4424 Ts 81.825
dof x Solution
TI 0 100
T2 0.05 74.074
T3 /0.1 58.7352
T4 . 0.15 50.6042
Ts 0.2 47.9969

Nodes: (xl --70, x 2 --7 0.05, x 3 --7 0.1)
Interpolation functions: NT = (200. x2 - 30. X + 1.;40. x - 400. x2, 200. x2 - 10. x)
Nodal values: d T = (100,74.074, 58.7352}
Solution: T(x) =NTd = 2117.42x2 - 624.39i + 100.
Nodes: (xl --7 0.1,x 2 --7 0.15,x3':'" 0.2}
Interpolation functions:
NT = (200.2 -70. x + 6., -400. x2 + 120. x - 8.,200.2 - 50. x + 3.}
Nodal values: d T = (58.7352,50.6042, 47.9969}

Solution: T(x) = NTd = 1104.762 - 438.809x + 91.5686
STEADY-STATE HEATCONDUCTION AND CONVECTION 197
T
100
90
80
70
60
x
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Figure 3.16. Temperature distribution in the fin
A plot of the solution is shown in Figure 3.16. The heat loss over a fin is determined by
computing heat loss.over each element and then summing element contributions:
= L: r
X2
Heat loss hP(T(x) - Tc,,) dx

Jx,
Range Temperature Heat Loss
2
1 0::; x s 0.1 2117.42x - 624.39x + 100. 916.009
2 0.1::; x::; 0.2 1104.76x 2 - 438.809x + 91.5686 477.924
Total heat loss ~ 1393.93
(iii) Solution Convergence

The solution convergence can be demonstrated by evaluating solutions using increasing
numbers of elements. Figure 3. 17"shows solutions obtained using one through five linear
(two-node) elements. Figure 3.18 shows solutions obtained using quadratic (three-node)
elements. The convergence is much more rapid in the case of quadratic elements, where,
except for the one-element solution, all other solutions are practically indistinguishable
from each other.
T
100 ....... 1 element
- .. 2 elements
80
70
60
50
x
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Figure 3.17. Comparison of solutions using linear elements

T
-.-.- 1 element
100 ' \
- 2 elements
90 \.
'\'. - 3 elements
80 ,,~. - 4 elements
70 '\"
- 5 elements
~~""
60 <,
+---~--~-~-"""'-'-~!._':'~"":''''''''''~'~.'~'I':r_.,.", x
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Figure 3.18. Comparison of solutions using quadratic elements

Four-quadratic-element solution
3.5 VISCOUS FLUID FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES
Example3.3 Determine the velocity profile for flow between two fixed plates shown in
Figure 3.19. The fluid temperature varies linearly from 80°F at the bottom to 200°F at the
top. The fluid viscosity at different temperatures is as follows:
Temperature, OF J1 x 10-6
80 16
120 14
160 11
200 7
The governing differential equation for determining a fluid velocity profile u(y) is as fol-
lows:
!!- (J1(y) dU) _ dP = 0; 0<y <h

dy dy dx
u(O) =0 and u(h) =0
y
x
Figure 3.19. Velocity profile of a viscous fluid flow between two plates
VISCOUS FLUIDFLOWBETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES 199
J.l
0.000016
0.000014
0.000012
0.00001
-t-:---------~-----T
100 120 140 160 180 0
Figure 3.20. Viscosity as a function of temperature
Use the following numerical data:
h = 0.3ft; dP = -2 X 1O-5 1b/ ft3

dx '
In order to proceed with the solution, we need an expression for p(y). However, the
given data show viscosity as a function of temperature. Thus we first use curve fitting to
get the following equation for viscosity as a function of temperature:
tmData = ((80, 16 * 1Q-6}, (120, 14 * 1O-6}, (160, 11 * 1O-6}, (200,7 * 10-6}};

p[T] =Fit[tmData, (1,T, T2 }, T]
-3.125 x lO-IOTz + 1.25 x 1O-8T + 0.000017
The plot in Figure 3.20 shows very good agreement between this function and the given
data.
Assuming the temperature varies linearly from 80°F at the bottom to 200°F at the top,
the temperature as a function of yis as follows:
T(y) = 400y + 80
Substituting this into the viscosity-temperature relationship, we get the following expres-
sion for viscosity as a function of height:
p(y) = -0.00005l- 0.000015y ~ 0.000016
A finite element solution using four two-node linear elements is presented. The finite ele-
ment model is as shown in Figure 3.21. For convenience the model is shown horizontally.
Ul Uz 2 4
Us
12345
y =0 y =0.075 Y=0.15 Y=0.225 Y =0.3
Figure 3.21. Four-element model

Since J1 is not constant, we cannot use the explicit linear element equations given earlier.
We must either assign average values to the elements or derive a new k matrix by substitut-
ing the J1Cy) expression and carrying out integrations. Here we use the latter approach and
derive the specific element equations first.
Derivation of Element Equations

Element nodes: {Y1' Y2}
Interpolation functions, NT := ( ~
B T:=dNT/dx:=(-1-
Y'-Y2 Y2-Y'
1)
kCy) := J1Cy); pcy) := 0; qCy) := -dP/dx
~7 J1(y)dy ~7 J1(y)dy ]
kk := f2(j1Cy)BBT)dy := (Y'-Y2)2' (Y1-Y2)(Y2-Y,)
Y, [ ~7 J1(y)dy ~7 J1(y)dy
(Y1-Yz)(Y2 y,) (Y'-Y2)2
T _
rq -
f Yz( dP N) d _
Jy,-dx
dP
Y - 2dx
{1 1dP cy1 -Y2 )}
cy 1 -Y2') 2dx
The complete element equations are as follows:
J;;7 J1(y)dy
(Y1-Y2)2
( J;;7 J1(y)dy
(y, Yz)(Y2-y,)
The numerator in each term of the coefficient matrix is the same and can be written as
follows:
"
.
,
i Y2
y,
J1Cy) dy := 0.0000166667yI + 7.5 x 1O-6Yi - 0.000016Y1
- 0.0000166667y~ - 7.5 x 1O-6y~ + 0.000016Y2
Using these element equations, the complete four-element solution is as follows:

Nodal locations: {O, 0.075, 0.15, 0.225, 0.3}
Element 1:
7
0.000204583 -0.000204583)(£1 1 ) := (7.5X 10- )
( -0.000204583 0.000204583 £12 7.5 x 10- 7
Element 2:
7
0.000182083 -0.000182083)(£12 ) := (7.5 x 10- )
( -0.000182083 0.000182083 £13 7.5 x 10- 7
VISCOUS FLUID FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES 201
, Element 3:
0.000152083 -0.000152083) (U3) = (7.5 x 10-77 )

( -0.000152083 0.000152083 u4 7.5 x 10-
Element 4:
0.000114583 -0.000114583) (U4) = (7.5 x 10-77 )

( -0.000114583 0.000114583 Us 7.5 x 10-
dof Value
ul 0
Us 0

6
0.000386667 -0.000182083
-0.000182083 0.000334167
0
-0.000152083
J[llu~ J= [11:55 Xx 10-
10- J
6
[ o -0.000152083 0.000266667 u4 1.5 x 10-6
dof y Solution
ul 0 0
u2 0.075 0.0127967
-1l3 0.15 0.0189367
u4 0.225 0.0164248
Us 0.3 0

Nodes: {YI -? 0, Y2 -? 0.075}
Interpolation functions: NT = (1. - 13.3333y, 13.3333y)
Nodal values: aT = (0,0.0127967)
Solution: u(y) = NT a = 0.170623y
Nodes: {YI -? 0.075, Y2 -? 0.15}
Interpolation functions: NT = (2. - 13.3333y, 13.3333Y - I.}
Nodal values: aT = {O.0127967, 0.0189367}
Solution: u(y) = NT a = 0.0818665 Y + 0.0066567
Nodes: {YI -? 0.15, Y2 -? 0.225}
Interpolation functions: NT = (3. - 13.3333y, 13.3333Y - 2.}
y
0.3
0.2
0.1
u
0.005 0.01 0.G15
Figure 3.22. Computed velocity profile using four linear elements
Nodal values: d T = (0.0189367,0.01642481

Solution: u(y) =NTd = 0.0239604 - 0.0334914y
Nodes: (y\ -70.225, Y2 -70.3}
Interpolation functions: NT = (4. - 13.3333 y, 13.3333 y - 3.}
Nodal values: d T = (0.0164248,0)
Solution: u(y) = NTd = 0.0656993 - 0.218998 Y
Solution summary:
Range Solution
1 0:::; y s 0.075 0.170623y
2 0.075:::; y :::;0.15 0.0818665 y + 0.0066567
3 0.15:::; y s 0.225 0.0239604 - 0.0334914y
4 0.225:::; y :::; 0.3 0.0656993 - 0.218998y
The computed velocity profile is plotted in Figure 3.22. To demonstrate convergence, the
velocity profiles are computed using two to five linear and quadratic elements. The re-
sulting profiles are plotted in Figures 3.23 and 3.24. As expected, the quadratic element
solution converges much more rapidly.
3.6 ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS
Example 3.4 Compute buckling load for a column simply supported at both ends as
shown in Figure 3.25. The governing differential equation is as follows:
£1 (~~ ) + Py = 0; yeO) =y(L) = 0
The length L = 10 ft and £1 = 106 lb . in2 .

ELASTIC BUCKLING OF BARS 203
2 elements
3 elements
4 elements
5 elements
0.005 0.01 0.015
Figure 3.23. Computed velocity profile using linear elements
Y
0.3 2 elements
3 elements
0.2
4 elements
5 elements
0.1
-+==----~------- u
0.005 0.01 0.Ql5 0.02
Figure 3.24. Computed velocity profile using quadratic elements
k=EI; p e P; q=O
Since the buckling load P is unknown, the element matrices kk and k p are computed sep-
arately. The matrix k p is multiplied by the unknown load P. Each of the two matrices are
assembled in the usual maniier to form global matrices. The final global equations are
written in the following form:
This is a homogeneous system of equations and can be recognized as a generalized eigen-

value problem. A nonzero solution for the nodal degrees of freedom d is possible only
Figure 3.25. Buckling of a long slender bar

204 ONE·DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY VALUEPROBLEM
if the coefficient matrix cannot be inverted. Thus a necessary condition for a non-trivial
solution of the equations is that the determinant of the coefficient matrix be zero:
det(lck + Pk p) = °
For an n-degree-of-freedom system, evaluating this determinant gives an equation called
the characteristic equation that is a polynomial of degree n in terms of P. The roots of the
characteristic equation represent different budding loads (eigenvalues). Substituting each
budding load in the global equations, one can compute the corresponding nodal displace-
ments. These represent the budding modes (eigenvectors). Generally one is interested in
the lowest buckling load and the corresponding mode shape.
(i) Solution Using Four Linear Elements

For a two-node linear element the finite element equations are derived in the previous
section. Taking the unknown P outside as a common factor, the element equations are as
follows:
A finite element solution using four two-node linear elements is presented. The finite ele-
ment model is as shown in Figure 3.26. The element equations are written by substituting
numerical values into these element equations. The complete four-element solution is as
follows:
Nodallocations: to. 30.. , 60., 90., 120.)
Element 1:
/
33333.3 -33333.3) (VI) _P ( 10. 5.)(V1)_(0)

( -33333.3 33333.3 v2 5. 10. v2 - °
Element 2:
33333.3 -33333.3) 2 )
( -33333.3
(v _ p( 10. 5.)(V2) _(0)
33333.3 v3 5. 10. 0
v3 -
Element 3:
33333.3
( -33333.3
-33333.3)(V 3)_p(10. 5.)( V3) _ (0)0
33333.3 v4 5. 10. v4 -
y1 1 Y2 2 Y3 3 Y4 4 Y5
D a
12345
x =0 X =30 X =60 X =90 X = 120
· Element 4:
33333.3
( -33333.3
-33333.3)(V
33333.3
4)_p(1O.
Vs 5.
5.) (vs - (0)0
10, V
4) _
dof Value
vI 0
V s 0
Assembling and incorporating the EEC, the final system of equations is
66666.7 -33333.3 0 ]
lck = -33333.3 66666.7 -33333.3 ;
[ o -33333.3 66666.7
Solution of the eigenvalue problem:
Characteristic equation: det[kk - PkpJ = 0 gives
-7000.p3 + 9. X 107p2 -2.66667 X 101Ip+ 1.48148 X 1014 =0

Computing roots of the characteristic equation, we get the eigenvalues
(PI = 721.295, P2 = 3333.33, P3 = 8802.51}
Substituting these eigenvalues into the global equations, the corresponding eigenvec-
tors are as follows: -
Eigenvalue Eigenvector
1 721.295 (0 -0.5 -0.707107 -0.5 0)
2 3333.33 (0 -0.707107 0 0.707107 0)
3 8802.51 (0 -0.5 0.707107 -0.5 0)
Using the first eigenvalue,
Lowest budding load = 721.295

The example corresponds to the classical Euler buclding situation. The buclding load using
Euler's equation is
2 .
7f ~I = 685.389
L
The four-linear-element finite element solution is clearly not very accurate. To get a better
solution, we must either use more linear elements or employ higher order elements.
(ii) Solution Using Four Quadratic Elements

For a three-node quadratic element the finite element equations are derived in the previous
section. Taking the unknown P outside as a common factor, the element equations are as
follows:
ll. 8k
-:rr:
3L :rr:k v -15
-~ [V~)+P -15
] [ 2L
8k 16k
-:rr: 3L
[ k 8k 7k V3 L
sz -:rr: :rr: 30
Using four quadratic elements we get a solution that is practically the same as that given
by Euler's formula:
Nodal locations: (0,15.,30.,45.,60.,75.,90.,105., 12O.}
Element 1:
[ 777778
-88888.9
11111.1
-88888.9
177778.
-88888.9
'11l1I')
-88888.9
77777.8
v2 - P 2.
v3
[4
-1.
2.
16.
2.
-If) [0)
~: ~: ~ =
Element 2:
[ 77777.8
-88888.9
11111.1
-88888.9
177778.
-88888.9
11
-88888.9
77777.8
111I'J v4 - P 2.
Vs
[4
-1.
2.
16.
2.
-lfJ
~: ~: [O~J =
,/
Element 3:
( 77777.'
-88888.9
11111.1
-88888.9
177778.
-88888.9
"111I'J
-88888.9
77777. 8
v6 - P 2.
v7
(4
-1.
2.
16.
2.
-1. J(V
~: ~~
S)
=
(0)
~
Element 4:
[ 77777.8
-88888.9
11111.1
-88888.9
177778.
-88888.9
"1111')
-88888.9
77777.8
v8 - P 2.
vg
[4
-1.
2.
16.
2.
-lfJ-("]°°
2.
4.
v8 -
Vg
dof Value
VI
vg °°
.Assembling and incorporating the EBC, the final system of equations is
177778. -88888.9 0 0 0 0 0
-88888.9 155556. -88888.9 11111.1 0 0 0
0 -88888.9 177778. -88888.9 0 0 0
kk = 0 11111.1 -88888.9 155556. -88888.9 11111.1 0
0 0 0 -88888.9 177778. -88888.9 0
0 O' 0 11111.1 -88888.9 155556. -88888.9
0 0 0 0 0 -88888.9 177778.
16. 2. 0 0 0 0 0
2. 8. 2. -1. 0 0 0
0 2. 16. 2. 0 0 0
kp = 0 -1. 2. 8. 2. -1. 0
0 0 0 2. 16. 2. 0
0 0 0 -1. 2. 8. 2.
0 0 0 0 0 2. 16.
Solution of the eigenvalue problem:

Characteristic equation: det[kk - Pkp ] = 0 gives
-2.6112 x 107 p 7 + 3.48046 X IOI2p 6 - 1.67258 X 1017 p 5 + 3.64352 X I0 21p 4
- 3.75246 X I0 25p3 + 1.75502 X I0 29p2 - 3.19639 X IOnp + 1.47981 x 1035 = 0
Computing roots of the characteristic equation we get the eigenvalues
(PI = 685.74, P2 = 2762.18, P3 = 6373.94, P4 =11111.1,

P5 = 21406.4, -P6 = 35756.3, P7 = 55l94.}
Substituting these eigenvalues into the global equations, the corresponding eigenvec-
tors are as follows:
Eigenvalue Eigenvector
I 685.74 (0 -0.191327 -0.353581 -0.461903 -0.50004 -0.461903 -0.353581 -0.191327 0)
2 2762.18 (0 -0.353471 -0.500117 -0.353471 o 0.353471 0.500117 0.353471 0)
3 6373.94- (0 -0.467899 -0.348932 0.19381 0.493465 0.19381 -0.348932 -0.467899 0)
4 11111.1 (0 -0.5 0 0.5· 0 -0.5 o 0.5 0)
5 21406.4 (0 0.340986 -0.426486 -0.141241 0.603142 -0.141241 -0.426486 0.340986 0)
6 35756.3 (0 -0.249323 0.612924 -0.249323 o 0.249323 -0.612924 0.249323 0)
7 55194. (0 -0.125228 0.443236 -0.302327 0.62683 -0.302327 0.443236 -0.125228 0)
Buckling load using four quadratic elements = 685.74

This value compares very well with the buckling load obtained from Euler's formula.

Solution of buckling problem
3.7 SOLUTION OF SECOND-ORDER 1D BVP
As a final example, we consider solution of a second-order ordinary differential equation

that does not necessarily represent a physical system. If the coefficients in the differential
equation are constant, then we can use the explicit linear and quadratic element equations
given earlier. For variable coefficients, we can either use approximate values of the coef-
ficients by using average values over an element or derive specific element equations by
using the actual coefficients in the element equations and then carrying out exact integra-
tions. The latter procedure is used in the following example.
Example 3.5 Find the approximate solution of the following boundary value problem:
l<x<2
with the boundary conditions £l(I) = 1, £l'(2) = 1.

k(x) =x2 ; p(x) = 1; q(x) =1

NBC at x = 2: a = 0; fJ = 1
For this example k(x) is not constant; therefore, we cannot use the explicit expressions of
the finite element equations derived in Section 3.2. We must carry out integrations with
k =x 2 to establish the kk matrix in the element equations.
(i) Solution Using Two Linear Elements

A finite element solution using two linear elements is presented in detail. The finite element
model is as shown in Figure 3.27. TlIe complete solution details are as follows:
Derivation of element equations:
Element nodes: {xI' x 2 }
Interpolation functions, NT = ( .:'2;'
BT = dNT
dx
=( _1_
xl-x2
I)
x,-x t
p(x) = 1; q(x) =1
Ul Uz
2
e Q
1 2 3
x=l x = 1.5 x=2.
Figure 3.27. Two-element model
SOLUTION OF SECOND-ORDER 10 BVP 209
k
P
= f2(-INN T)dx = ( ~
XI
x.~·x- ~
T 3
¥)
r~ = J~2 (IN) dx = {X2;XI, X2;X I}
Two-element solution:
Nodallocatio~s: (1, 1.5,2)
Element 1:
Element nodes: (Xl -7 1, x 2 -7 1.5)
3. -3.25)(U 1 ) = (0.25)
( -3.25 3. u2 0.25
Element 2:
Element nodes: (x2 -7 1.5,x 3 -7 2)
6. -6.25) (U 2) = (0.25)
( -6.25 6. u3 0.25
3. -3.25
-3.25 _ 9.
°
-6.25
][Uu l] = [0.25]
0.5
[ ° -6.25 6. u3
2
0.25
dof a f3 dof k(x) -k(x) a k(x)f3
u3 ° 1
° 4
dof Value
9. -6.25)(U Z ) = (3.75)
( -6.25 6. u3 4.25
dof x Solution
U1 1 1
Uz 1.5 3.28452
u3 2 4.12971
Solution over element I:

Nodes: {XI --7 1, X z --7 1.5}
Interpolation functions: NT = {3. - 2. x, 2. X - 2.}
Nodal values: d T = {I, 3.28452}
Solution: u(x) = NTd= 4.56904x - 3.56904
Nodes: {xl --7 1.5, Xz --7 2}
Interpolation functions: NT = {4. - 2. x, 2. X - 3.}
Nodal values: d T = {3.28452,4.12971}
Solution: u(x) = NTd = 1.69038x + 0.748954
Solution summary:
Range. Solution
1 l~x~1.5 4.56904x - 3.56904
2 1.5 ~ X ~ 2 1.69038x + 0.748954
A plot of the solution is shown in Figure 3.28.
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
x
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Figure 3.28. Two-linear-element solution

SOLUTION OF SECOND-ORDER 1D BVP 211
1 2 3
x=l x = 1.5 x=2.
Figure 3.29. One-quadratic-element model
(ii) Solution Using One Quadratic Element

A finite element solution using only one quadratic element is presented in detail. The finite
element model is as shown in Figure 3.29. Note that the model consists of only one element
and all three nodes belong to the same quadratic element.
Element nodes: {Xl' x,;x, , x 3 }
I Iati fu . NT ( (x,+x 3-2<)(x3-X) 4(x,-x)(x-x3) (X'+X3-2x)(~,-X)-)
nterpo anon nctions, = (x,-x i
3
(X,-X3)2 (x,-x3)-
BT = dNT
dx
= (_X,+3X r;X
(x,-x
4(x,+x3-2x)
(.<,-x3)'
_ 3X'+'<3- 4X)
(X,-X 3)2
3)
le(x) =x 2; p(x) = 1; q(x) = 1
23x,2+9x,x,+3x," 26x,2+8x3x,+6x,' 3X,2_ X,X,+3x," ]
15x,-15x, 15x,-15x3 15x,-15.<,
k = (X'(ilBBT)dx = 26x,2+8x,x,+6.<,' 16(2x,2+x3x, +2x,2) 6.<,2+8x,x,+26x32

k Jx , 15x,-15.<, 15(x,-x3) 15x,-15'<3
[ 3X12_X3X,+3x32 6X,2+8x3x,+26x,2 3.<,2+9x,x, +23x,2
15'<3-15.<, 15.<,-15x, 15x,-15.<,
¥ X,-X 3
15
:cr.]
30
k
P
= J(X,
x,
( -INNT) dx = XI-Xl
~5
8(x,-x,)
15
~
15
.
( 31J x3-x, xl-X3
15
2(x,-x,)
15
_ {Xl-XI _;1,( _ ) X,-X'}
rTq _
-
(X'(lN)d
1.<, X - 6 ' 3 Xl x3 ' 6
The complete element. equations are as follows:

21x,2+13'<3x,+x,2 27x,2+6x3X,+7x32
15x,-15x, 15x,-15x,
27x,2+6x3x,+7x," _ 8(3x,2+4x3x,+3x,2)
15x,-15x, 15(x,-x3)
[ 7X,2_4x3X,+7x32 7X,2+6x,x,+27x,"
30x,-30x, 15x,-15x,
One-element solution:
Nodal locations: {I, 1.5, 2}
Element nodes: (Xl -) 1, x 2 -) 1.5, x 3 -) 2}
17
T -15 67 9]
TO u [ 61]
_QI
15
184
15
_127
15
[u 2 1
) _
-
;1,
3
[ 9 127 37 U3 1
TO -15 T 6
The global equations are the same as the element equations.

dof a (3 dof k(x) -k(x) a k(x) (3

U3 0 o 4
(1 ~H -~7][~ll-(~]
9
15
TO
U3 25-15
15
127
15
37
5"
2 - 3
"6
dof Value
_1~7)(U2)_(H)
37 U - 49
5" 3 is
dof x Solution
,I
ul 1
2954
£!t. 1.5 859
3759
u3 2 859
Solution over elements:

Nodes: (XI -? 1, x 2 -? 1.5, x3 -? 2)
Interpolation functions: NT ={2 x 2- 7x + 6, -4x2+ 12x - 8,2x 2- 5x + 3}
Nodal values: d T = {I, 2;;94, w:}
Solution: u(x) -
. -
NT d -- _2580i'
859
+ 10640x
859
_ 7201
859
Figure 3.30 shows a plot of this solution..
(iii) Solution Convergence

To demonstrate convergence, the solutions are computed using one to four linear and
quadratic elements. These solutions are plotted in Figures 3.31 and 3.32. As expected,
the quadratic element solution converges much more rapidly.
SOLUTION OF SECOND·ORDER 1D BVP 213
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
x
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Figure 3.30. One-quadratic-element solution
u
.._-_.,. 1 element
4
- - 2 elements
3.5
3 - - 3 elements'
2.5
- - 4 elements
2
1.5
x
1.2 1.4. 1.6 1.8 2
Figure 3.31. Comparison of solutions with one to four linear elements
u
4.5 ~ - - 1 element
4
- - 2 elements
3.5
3 - - 3 elements
- - 4 elements
x
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Figure 3.32. Comparison of solutions with one to four quadratic elements
3.8 A CLOSER LOOK AT THE INTERELEMENT DERIVATIVE TERMS
A sharp reader probably has noticed that in the finite element solutions presented in this
and the previous chapter, from a mathematical point of view, the boundary terms arising
from the integration by parts are not handled precisely. This was done deliberately to avoid
a potentially confusing discussion that actually does not impact the finite element solution
procedure. For completeness this discussion is taken up in this section.
Recall from Section 3.2 that, after integration by parts, the weighted residual over a
general n-node element is expressed as follows:
k(x,)N/xn)u'(Xn) - k(xl)Ni(xl)U'(x 1) + LX"(qNi + puNi - ku'Nf) dx = 0

x,
If there are specified values of u' at the end nodes of an element, then we have
u'(X,) =/3n + Q!IIU(X,)

Substituting these into the boundary terms, we obtained the following weak form:
Precisely speaking, this form is valid only if each element has natural boundary conditions
specified at both ends. If we look back at all the examples presented in the previous sec-
tions, it is not true even for one example. Some examples do not have any NBC terms at all
while others have an NBC specified at only one end of one element. Thus the question is
how do we justify this treatment of interelement boundary terms? The answer is that, dur-
ing assembly, when element equations are added together, these interelement terms from
adjoining elements cancel each other and we are left with terms only at the ends of the
solution domain. If an NBC is specified at an end, then we simply use that in the equa-
tions and we are in good shape. If an EBC is specified at the end, then the derivative term
remains unlrnown. However, since we do not use the equation that corresponds to the de-
gree of freedom with specified EBC, the term that is left out does not cause any problems.
For structural problems this unknown term is in fact the reaction corresponding to a node
where displacement is prescribed. This point was discussed using physical arguments in
Chapter I where we introduced the procedure for handling essential boundary conditions.
Here you see the mathematical reasoning for this treatment.
To see this more clearly, consider a two-node linear element with nodes at Xl and x 2 and
degrees of freedom ul and u2 . Without introducing the NBC terms in the weighted residual,
the two equations for the element are as follows:
A CLOSERLOOK ATTHE INTERELEMENT DERIVATIVE TERMS 215
-k(XI)UI(XI)) (X2 (NI) (NI) ( k(N;) '()d _

( k(xZ)u'(XZ) + J<, q NZ + P NZ U x) - N~ U x . x -
(0)°
The integral terms have been evaluated earlier in the explicit form, and thus we have the
following element equations:
where L is element length. To see cancellation of the boundary terms at intermediate nodes,
we use only two such elements to obtain a solution of the following boundary value prob-
lem:
ul/(X) + 1 = 0; O<x<I
u'(O) - 2u(0) =1; u(I) = 1
We clearly have a natural boundary condition specified at x

condition at x = 1. Compared to the general form, we have
= °
and an essential boundary
k = 1; p=O; q=I
NBC atx = 0: - u'(O) = -2u(0) -1 =} a = -2, fJ =-1
The two-element finite element model is as shown in Figure 3.33. Substituting the numer-
ical values, the finite element equations for the two elements are as follows:
I;ZI)(Uz) = (liZ)
I;Z + ( u' (! )
-uI (0) )
(_!;i
-112 ul '2
Element 1:
I/Z
+ (-U (!))
'I
Element 2: ( ~/i -I;Z)(U
.i, u
Z) = (I;Z)
112 u'(l)
I
I/Z 112 . 3 Z
Assembling the element equations, we get the following global system of equations:
Uz
a
1 2 3
x=O x=l
1
x=-
2
Clearly at node 2 the derivative terms from the two elements cancel each other. From the
EBC we know u(l) == u 3 = 1. However, u/(l) is not known. From the NBC at x = 0 we
know that -ul(O) = -2u(O) - 1 == -2u l - 1. Thus we have
(:2 -z ~21(~:~)=[i]+(-2Ub
o -2 2 1 1
-1) ul(l)
4
These equations involve only two unknown nodal degrees of freedom which can be solved
for by considering only the first two equations:
(-2 4 -2 L~2 =(!)1 + (-2U0 -1)

1)
2 -2 0)(U l
This clearly shows that in order to solve for the nodal unknowns we do not need to know
the derivative term at the location that corresponds to an essential boundary condition. For
actually solving for ul and u2 , we rearrange the two equations as follows:
Moving unknowns to the left side,
Thus the final system of equations, after incorporating all boundary conditions, is as fol-
lows: /
(-~ ~2 ) C:~) =( -l)

This example clearly demonstrates the validity of the procedures used in the finite element
solution and should dispel any lingering doubts that a reader might have about the nature
of finite element computations. Exactly the same arguments can be made by considering
two- and three-dimensional problems. However, in those situations we are obviously deal-
ing with line and surface integrals to evaluate boundary terms, and thus it is not easy to
demonstrate these details through simple calculations.
PROBLEMS
. Second-Order 1D BVP
3.1 An engineering problem is formulated in terms of the following boundary value

problem:
1<x<3
PROBLEMS 217
with the boundary conditions u'(l) = 1 and u(3) = 1. Express the problem in the
form of the general boundary value problem presented in this chapter. (Hint: By
expanding the derivative, you can easily see that (dldx)(~x2u') = ~x2u" + xu'.)
Clearly identify k.(x), p(x), and q(x) terms. Classify the boundary. conditions into the
essential and the natural types. For the natural boundary conditions identify the ex
and,B terms.
Selected Appllcationa of 1D BVP
3.2 The door of an industrial gas furnace is to be designed to reduce heat loss to no more
than 1200 W/m2 • A preliminary design calls for a 200-mm-thick insulation sand-
wiched between a 6.25-mm-thick stainless steel sheet on the interior surface and a
9.5-mm sheeton the outside. The thermal conductivity of steel is 25 W/m' K and
that of insulation is 0.27 W/m· K. The convection coefficient of the inside surface is
20 W1m2 • K and that of the outside surface is 5 W1m2 . K. The inside temperature of
the furnace is at 1200°C while the surroundings are at 20°C (Figure 3.34). Use three
linear elements, one through each layer, to determine the temperature through the
door. Does the design meet the stated heat loss goal? Use the simplest finite element
model possible based on linear elements.
1200"C 20"C
Figure 3.34. Furnacedoor
3.3 Circular pin fins are used to dissipate heat from an electronic device. A typical
fin is as shown in Figure 3.35. The length of the fin is 2.5 em and its diameter is
0.25 em. The thermalconductivity of fin material is 396 W/rn- K and the convection
coefficient around the circumference and the end is lOW 1m2 • K. The base of the fin
is at a temperature of 9SOC and the surrounding air temperature is 2SOC. Determine
temperature distribution in the fin. Calculate the heat loss through the fin.
(a) Use four linear elements.
(b) Use two quadratic elements.
Figure 3.35. Pin fin

3.4 A 5-cm-Iong turbine blade is exposed to combustion gases at 900·C (Figure 3.36).
The area of cross section of the blade is 4.5 cm2 and its perimeter is 12 em. The
blade is made of high-alloy steel with thermal conductivity k = 25 W1m . K. The
convection coefficient for the blade surface and the end is 500 W/m2 . K. The tem-
perature of the blade at the attachment point is 500·e. Determine the temperature
distribution in the blade.
(a) Use three linear elements.
(b) Use one quadratic element.
Figure 3.36. Turbine blade
3.5 Consider solution of the tapered axially loaded bar shown in Figure 3.37. Divide the
bar into two finite elements and determine the axial force distribution in the bar. Plot
this force distribution. Compute the support reactions from the force distribution and

PROBLEMS 219
see whether the overall equilibrium is satisfied. Comment on the quality of the finite
element solution. Use the following numerical data:
2
E = 70 GPa; F = 20 kN; L = 300 mm; AI = 2400 rnrn ; A 2 = 600 mrrr'
(a) Use two linear elements.

(b) Use two quadratic elements.
3.6 Consider solution of the axially loaded bar shown in Figure 3.38. The two end seg-
ments have linearly varying areas of cross section and the middle segment is of
uniform cross section. Divide the bar into four equal-length finite elements and
determine the axial stress and force distribution in the bar. Compute the support
reactions from the axial forces and check to see if the overall equilibrium is satis-
fied. Plot the stress distribution and comment on the accuracy of the finite element
solution. Use the following numerical data:
2
E = 70 GPa; P = 20 kN; L = 300 rnrn; AI = 2400 mm ; A 2 = 600 mrrr'
/I.ca--- L ~ L ~ 2L
3.7 Determine the axial stress distribution in a bar that is rotating at 500 rpm as shown
in Figure 3.39. The problem can be treated as one dimensional with the governing
differential equation as follows:
~ (EA dU) + pAxw2= 0; 0<x < L

dx: dx
u(O) = 0; EA dueL) =0
dx
Figure 3.39. Rotating bar

220 ONE·DIMENSIONAL BOUNDA,RY VALUEPROBLEM
where x is the coordinate along the axis of the bar, u(x) is the axial displacement,
L = length of the bar, E = Young's modulus, A = area of cross section, p = mass
density, and w = angular velocity in rad/s. The axial stress is ~ = E du/dx. An
exact analytical solution of the problem is
pw2
~,Exact =
2
2 (L - 2")
Compare solutions with one, two, and three elements. Use the following numerical
data:
L = 80cm; E = 200 GPa; A = 250mm2 ; p = 7850 kg/nr'

3.8 A slider bearing with stepped profile is shown in Figure 3.40. The two surfaces
shown are moving relative to each other at a constant velocity U and are separated by
a viscous fluid with viscosity u. The governing differential equation for determining
pressure in the fluid under the bearing can be written as follows:
3d P) dh
.:!--
dx
(h
dx
+ 6jJ.U
dx
= 0; O<x<L
p(O) = peL) = Po
where p(x) is the pressure in the fluid and hex) is the thickness ofthe fluid film. Ob-
tain an approximate solution using two linear elements. Use the following numerical
values:
jJ. = 1O-4 lb · s/ft2 ; L = 8 in; ho = 0.0001 in; U = 12 in/s; Po = 14.7 psi
pressure, Po pressure, Po
x=o x=L
Figure 3.40. Slider bearing with stepped profile
Solution of Second-Order 10 BVP.

3.9 Use three linear finite elements to find an approximate solution of the following
!u" - u - 4 =0; 1<x<4

with the boundary conditions u/(l) = 1, u(4) = 1.
PROBLEMS 221
3.io Find an approximate solution of the following boundary value problem:
? d(x 2u')
xt u" + 2xu' - xu + 4 =0 or - - - xu + 4
dx
= 0; l<x<3
with the boundary conditions u(I) = 1, u'(3) - 2u(3) = 2.

. 3.11 Find an approximate solution of the following boundary value problem using linear
and quadratic finite elements:
_utI + 1f2 U - 21f2 sinorx) = 0; O<x<I

u(O) = u(I) = 0
Exact solution: u(x) = sinorx)
3.12 In spherical coordinates the electromagnetic potential V is expressed as a function
of 8 by the following boundary value problem:
:8 (Sin8~~) = 0; a< < 8 1f12

V(a) = Vo; V(1fI2) = 0
where a is a given angle less than tt and Vo is the specified potential at this angle.
Assuming a = 1f/4 and Vo = 1 and using two linear finite elements, determine the
potential V at 8 = 31f/8.
CHAPTER FOUR
..
TRUSSES, BEAMS, AND FRAMES
Many structural systems used in practice consist of long slender members of various
shapes. Common examples are roof trusses, bridge supports, crane booms, and antenna
towers. Structural systems that are arranged so that each member primarily resists axial
forces only are usually known as trusses. Long slender members that are subjected to load-
ing normal to their longitudinal axis must resist bending and shear forces and are called
beams. A structural frame consists of members that must resist both: bending and axial
forces.
Finite element equations for analysis of trusses are obtained by a simple coordinate
transformation of the two-node axial deformation element developed in Chapter 2. Ele-
ments for both plane trusses and three-dimensional space trusses are generated using this
technique in the following two sections. The third section considers analysis of trusses
subjected to initial strain due to temperature changes or fabrication errors. For modeling
supports and various other constraints, it is often useful to introduce spring elements. The
axial and torsional spring elements are presented in the fourth section. Beams are .gov-
erned by a fourth-order differential equation. Section 4.5 contains a detailed derivation of
this equation, discussion of appropriate boundary conditions, and exact solutions for few
simple cases. A two-node finite element for beam bending is developed in Section 4.6
using the Hermitian interpolation functions. For beams subjected to distributed loading,
Section 4.7 describes a superposition procedure so that exact solutions for bending mo-
ment and shear force can be obtained using only one element per span. In Sections 4.8 and
4.9, the axial deformation and beam bending elements are combined together to develop
elements suitable for analysis of general structural frames.
222
PLANE TRUSSES 223
4.1 PLANE TRUSSES
A truss is a structure in which members are arranged in such a way that they are subjected
to axial loads only. The joints in trusses are considered pinned. Plane trusses, where all
members are assumed to be in the x-y plane, are considered in this section. The general
case of space trusses is considered in the following section.
A plane truss element is an axial deformation element oriented arbitrarily in a two-
dimensional space. As.shown in Figure 4.1, in a local coordinate s that runs along its axis
(0 :;; s :;; L), the element is exactly the same as the two-node axial deformation element
developed in Chapter 2. Thus in terms of s the assumed displacement over the element is
L- S
lI(S) = ( L O:;;s:;;L
and the element equations in the local coordinate system are as follows:
Local degrees of freedom:
Local applied nodal forces:
where E = elastic modulus of the material, A = area of cross section of the element,
L = length of the element, d l and d z are the displacements along the axis of the element,
and PI and Pz are possible axial loads applied at the bar ends. It is assumed that there is no
distributed axial load along the length of the element.
Using these expressions equations for any truss element can be written. However, when
there are several truss elements oriented arbitrarily, each element will have its own local
axis and the direct assembly-procedure discussed in Chapter 1 will not work. To be able to
Local element coordinates Global coordinates

dz V2
/
Figure 4.1. Local and global coordinates for an axially loaded bar
224 TRUSSES, BEAMS,AND FRAMES
assemble element equations, we must refer all elements to one common reference coordi-
nate system. Thus we define a global x-y coordinate system and locate all elements with
respect to this system. The components of the axial displacements in the global coordinate
system are the x displacements denoted by u and y displacements denoted by v. Each node
thus has two degrees of freedom in the global coordinate system. The possible applied
loads at the element ends are also decomposed into their x and y components. Thus in the
global coordinates we have
Nodal degrees of freedom:
Applied nodal forces:
From Figure 4.1, it can easily be seen the vector d l is related to vectors Ll I and VI as follows:
Ll I = d l cos a == dlls
VI = d l cos(90 - a) == d l sin a == d.m,
where Is is the cosine of the angle/between the element s axis and the global x axis and
ms is the cosine of the angle between the element axis and the global y axis and are called
the direction cosines. The angle is positive when measured from the positive x axis in the
counterclockwise direction. Denoting the coordinates of the ends of the element by (xl' YI)
and (x2' Y2)' we can determine the element length and the direction cosines as follows:
I = cos a = x2 - ~I .
s L '
ms = cos(90 - a) = sin a = Y2 L YI
Multiplying Ll I by Is and VI by ms and adding the two equations together give transforma-
tion from global to local degrees offreedom as follows:
The same relationship holds for the degrees of freedom at node 2. Thus the transformation
between the global and the local degrees of freedom can be written as follows:
PLANE TRUSSES 225
From global to local:
From local to global:
Using this transformation, the element equations in the local coordinates can be related to
the global coordinate system as follows:
k.d, =r ====> k.Td = r,

Multiplying both sides by TT, we get
r,
Noting that TT is the transformation of applied loads from the local to the global coordi-
nates, we have the following element equations in terms of global degrees of freedom and
applied nodal loads in the global directions:
led = r
where
and
Carrying out matrix multiplication, we get the following element equations:
EA
L
[ Is':ls
P
-Z;
-Isms
Isms
m;
-Isms
-m;
-1;
-lm,
z2s
Isms
-I,m,][
-m;
Isn~s
m;
] Ll i
Vi
LIZ
Vz
n Ix
FI
= ;~
Zy
As discussed in Chapter 1, it is convenient to add the concentrated loads directly to the

global equations at the start of the assembly. Thus in the element equations the right-hand-
n
side load vector is taken as all zeros:
z2s Isms -1; z .

EA Isms In; -lslns -I,m,]["']
-Ins VI _ 0
L -1; -Isms z2s Isins LI?- -. 0
-lsln s -m; Isms mZ Vz 0
s
These equations can be used to analyze any plane assemblage of bars in which individual
elements can be assumed to resist axial loads. The assembly and solution procedures have
226 TRUSSES, BEAMS.AND FRAMES
been discussed in detail in Chapter 1. After computing nodal displacements for each ele-
ment, the element solution is computed by first transforming the nodal displacements back
to the local coordinates as follows:
The axial displacement at any point along the element can be computed as follows:
L- S
u(s)= ( L O::5S::5L
The axial strain is simply the first derivative of the axial displacement, giving constant
strain over the element as follows:
The axial stress is a- = EE and axial force in the element is F = a-A. The sign convention
used in these equations assumes that the tension is positive and the compression is negative.
Example 4.1 Six-Bar Truss Consider the simple six-bar pin-jointed structure shown in
Figure 4.2. All members have the same cross-sectional area and are of the same material,
E = 200 GPa and A = 0.001 m2 • The load P = 20 kN and acts at an angle a = 30°. The
dimensions in meters are shown in the figure.
Each, node in the model has two .displacement degrees of freedom and thus there are a
total of ten degrees of freedom as shown in Figure 4.3. The displacements are identified by
the letters u and v with a subscript indicating the corresponding node number.
The calculations are similar to the truss examples presented in Chapter 1. Complete
calculations for this example can be found on the book web site.
3
2.5
2
1.5 p
1
0.5
o
o 2 3 4
Figure 4.2. Six-bar truss

SPACE TRUSSES 227
6 8
5 10 7
"'--'1-------'........ 3
Figure 4.3. Six-bartrussnodaldegrees of freedom
+ MathematicalMATLAB Implementation 4.1 on the Book Web Site:

Analysis of a plane truss
4.2 SPACE TRUSSES
By considering an axially loaded element to be arbitrarily oriented in a three-dimensional

space, we can easily develop an element that can be used to find joint displacements and
axial forces in any space pin-jointed framework. With the local s axis along the axis of the
element, the local element equations are still the same as the two-node axial deformation
element:
where E = elastic modulus of the material, A = area of cross section of the element,
L = length of the element, d, and d z are the displacements along the axis of the element,
228 TRUSSES, BEAMS, AND FRAMES
Figure 4.4. Local and global coordinates for an axially loaded bar in three dimensions
and PI and P2 are possible applied axial loads at the ends. In the global coordinates the
nodal displacements and applied forces are as shown in Figure 4.4 and are as follows:
III
VI
Nodal degrees of freedom: d= WI Applied nodal forces: r=

112
v2
w2
The transformation between the global to local degrees of freedom and vice versa is as
follows:
where the direction cosines and the length can be computed from the nodal coordinates as
follows:
1 = X2 -Xl. m = Y2 - Yl. n = Z2 -Zl
S L' S L' S L
Using this transformation, the element equations in the local coordinates can be related to
the global coordinate system as follows:
kid, =r, :::=? k,Td =r,

TTk/Td = TT r/
SPACE TRUSSES 229
Noting that TTl'/ is the transformation of applied loads from the local to the global coordi-
kd e r
where
and
Carrying out matrix multiplication, we get the following element equations for a space
truss element:
ps l1lis nis -1; -mis -nis
ul FIx
mis 11l; msns -mis -11l; -msns
VI r;
EA nis msns nZ
s -nis
ps
-l1lsns -n; WI
= r:
L -1; -l1lis -nis l1lis nis Uz Fzx
Vz FZy
-mis -11l; -msns mis m; »», Wz Fzz
-nis -l1lsns -n; nis I1l sns n;
Assuming that the concentrated loads are added directly to the global equations at the start
of the assembly, the element equations are
Ps msl s nis -1; -mis -nis

ul 0
mis m; msns -m/s -m; -msns VI 0
EA nis, I1l sns n; -nis -msns -n; WI 0
L -ps -mis -:nis ps mis nis Uz 0
-mis -m; -msns mis m; »», Vz
Wz
0
0
-nis -msns ·_n z nis msns 12;
s
The assembly and solution procedures are standard and are discussed in detail in Chapter 1.
After computing the nodal displacements, the element quantities can be computed in the
usual manner. The axial displacement at any point along the element is computed by first
transforming the global displacements into the local coordinates as follows:
UI
VI
~J :~
o
Vz
Wz
The axial displacement over the element is
O::;;s::;;L
The axial strain is simply the first derivative of the axial displacement, giving constant
strain over the element as follows:
The axial stress is o: :::: EE and axial force in the element is F :::: erA. The sign convention
used in these equations is that tension is positive and compression is negative.
Example 4.2 Three-Bar Truss Consider the simple three-bar pin-jointed structure
shown in Figure 4.5. The cross-sectional area of elements 1 and 2 is 200 mm2 and that of
element 3 is 600 mrrr'. All elements are made of the same material with E :::: 200 GPa. The
applied load is P :::: 20 kN. The nodal coordinates are as follows:
Node x(m) y(m) z(m)
1 0.96 1.92 0
2 -1.44 1.44 0
3 0 0 0
4 0 0 2
Each node in the model has three displacement degrees of freedom, and thus there are
a total of 12 degrees of freedom, as shown in Figure 4.5. The displacements are identified
by the letters u, v, and w with a subscript indicating the corresponding node number.
The calculation are similar to the plane truss examples presented in Chapter 1. Complete
calculations for this example can be found on the web site.
. !
Nodal Solution
x Coordinate y Coordinate z Coordinate Lt v w(mm)
1 960. 1920. 0 0 0 0
2 -1440. 1440. 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 2000. -0.178143 -2.46857 -0.367431
2.
v2
2
U2
Figure 4.5. Three-bar space truss

. TEMPERATURE CHANGES AND INITIALSTRAINSIN TRUSSES 231
Element Solution
Stress (MPa) Axial force (N)
1 101.873 20374.6
2 66.0725 13214.5
3 -38.5802 -23148.1

Analysis of a space truss
4.3 TEMPERATURE CHANGES AND INITIAL STRAINS IN TRUSSES
Stresses may be induced in indeterminate trusses due to temperature changes or because

of forced fit during construction if a truss member is fabricated too short or too long. If an
element of length L is fabricated too short by an amount M and is then stretched to make
it fit during construction, the element is clearly subjected to the following initial strain:
M
EO =L
Similarly, a temperature increase of IlT in a long slender bar causes a uniform expansion,
in which case the element is subjected to the following initial axial strain:
EO = ost
where 0: is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material. Thus in both situations an
element is subjected to an initial strain before any extemalloads are applied.
In order to account for these effects in trusses, we consider an axial deformation ele-
ment with an initial strain EO' The axial strain obtained from differentiating the axial dis-
placement u(x) is clearly the total strain. The stresses in the element will be caused by the
difference in the total strains and the initial strains. That is,
a:=E dU )
x ( --EO
dx
The strain energy function for the element is now as follows:
u=~ J" EA(~; - r ~ .(2 EA(~;r

EO dx = dx-l.
X2
EA ~; EO dx+
2
~ f,X EA(EO)2 dx
Following the derivation in Section 2.7 of Chapter 2, the assumed solution and its derivative
are
u(x) = (N} N2 ) C~):; NT d; N

}
= x-x'2.
L'
du(x) =(Nj N~)(UI):;BTd;

dx u2
The strain energy term can now be evaluated as follows:
or
where k is the usual stiffness matrix of an axial deformation element
AE ( 1
..k = l
XI
X,
AEBBT dx = -
L -1
and Te is the equivalent nodal load vector due to initial strains EO:
The last term in the strain energy involves the known initial strain and does not depend on
the assumed solution. This term will drop out when writing the necessary conditions for
the minimum of the potential energy. Thus the last term can be ignored, and therefore the
presence of initial strains results in simply an equivalent noda1load vector Te• For analysis
of plane and space trusses, this equivalentload vector is first transformed to the global
coordinates using the appropriate tr~Jlsformation matrix:
For a plane truss,
For a space truss,
-Is
-Ins
-ns
T =EAEO Is
Ins
ns
SPRINGELEMENTS 233
l:~ L- ----'=_ (ft)

o 16 32
The equivalent nodal load vectors from all elements that are subjected to initial strain
are assembled in the usual manner and global equations solved for nodal unknowns. The
element stresses are obtained from the net strains:
.=E (dU
o-x dx - ) = E(B
EO
T
d- EO) =E (-d tL+ dz - EO
)
Example 4.3 Plane Truss with Temperature Change Consider the five-bar pin-
jointed structure shown in Figure 4.6. All members have the same cross-sectional area
!
A = in2 and are of the same material with E = 29,OOOksi and a = 6.5 x 10-61°P' The first
element undergoes a temperature rise of lOO°F. The dimensions are shown in the figure.
Complete calculations for this example can be found Onthe web site.
Nodal Solution
£I v (in)
1 0 0
2 -0.0308148 -0.121333
3 0.0308148 -0.138667
4 0 0
Element Solution
Stress (ksi) Axial force (kip)
1 -5.8179 -2.90895
2 -4.65432 -2.32716
3 -5.8179 -2.90895
4 -4.65432 -2.32716
5 3.49074 1.74537
4.4 SPRING ELEMENTS
An axial deformation element can also be thought of as a liriear spring that is designed to
resist axial tension or compression. The spring constant, usually denoted by k, is defined as
the load that causes unit extension or compression in the spring. In the axial deformation
element, if we assume Uz = 0 and £II = 1, then we have a unit extension of the bar, and
Figure 4.7. An axial spring element
the finite element equations show that the axial load is PI = AE/L. Thus the term AE/L is
equivalent to the spring constant k for a linear spring. Therefore, we can incorporate linear
spring elements, such as the one shown in Figure 4.7, into a finite element model through
the following element equations:
k( -11
For an arbitrarily oriented element these equations can be transformed to global coordinates
using the same transformation matrices as those for the truss elements.
Rotational or torsional spring elements can be defined in an analogous manner. Denot-
ing the torsional spring constant by kT , the end rotations by 81 and 82 , and any applied
twisting moments at the ends by My: ' My; , the equations for a torsional spring element are
I 2
as follows: .,
Example 4.4 Find axial forces in the spring-bar assembly shown in shown in Figure 4.8.
Use the following numerical values:
L = 30 in; F = 15,000 lb; Spring constant, k = 100,000 lb/in
For the steel bar: E = 30 X 106 Ib/in"; A = 0.5 in2
For the aluminum bar: E = 107l1:J/in2 ; A = 1.2 in2
The assembly is modeled using one spring and two axial deformation elements as shown
in Figure 4.9. There are three nodes, each with one displacement degree of freedom.
Using pound-inches and following the usual steps, the solution is as follows:
Specified nodal loads:
Node dof Value

2 Lt:G 15000.
Steel
, , - - - i l - - - -.... F
Aluminum
L ·1
Figure 4.8. Spring-bar assembly
SPRINGELEMENTS 235
Figure 4.9. Three-elementmodel for the spring-barassembly
Element 1:
100000
( -100000
-100000)(U
100000
1)=(0)
liZ 0
Element 2:
400000. -400000.) (liZ) = (0)

( -400000. 400000. u3 0
Element 3:
500000. -500000.) (U z) = (0)

( -500000. 500000. u3 0
-90000~·][::~1 = [15~001
100000 -100000
Global equations: -100000 1. x 106
[ o -900000. 900000. lI 3 0
Node dof Value
Essential BC ~ 11 0
330
Global equations afterJIBC: 1. x 106 Uz = 15000
Nodal solution: (uz ~ 0.015}
The force in the spring is equal to the spring constant times its change in length:
Force in spring = k(uz - u 1) = 1500. lb (Tension)

The axial strain in the bars is
Axial strain = (u3 - uz)IL = -0.0005

The axial forces in each bar is equal to EAE, giving
In the steel bar = -7500. Ib (Compression)

In the aluminum bar = -6000. lb (Compression)
4.5 TRANSVERSE DEFORMATION OF BEAMS
A beam is a structural member that carries a load normal to its axis. The length of a beam
is large as compared to its cross-sectional dimensions. In general, the cross section can be
of any arbitrary shape and can vary along its length. However, the following discussion is
limited to beams whose cross sections are symmetric with respect to the plane of bending.
The x axis passes through the centroid of the cross section. Under these conditions, the
beam is subjected only to bending and there are no axial or twisting forces.
4.5.1 Differential Eq~ation for Beam Bending

Consider a beam with a symmetric cross section that is subjected to load in the transverse
direction, as shown in Figure 4.10. The moment of inertia is denoted by lex) and the mass .
of the beam per unit length is denoted by m(x). This mass is due to self-weight and any
additional weight distributed along the beam. The beam may be subjected to distributed
load q(x, t) along its length.
The governing differential equation can be written by considering the equilibrium of a
differential element, as shown in Figure 4.11. The shear force and moment at x are denoted
by V and M, respectively. Using the Taylor series expansion, these quantities at x + dx are
V +(8V/8x)dx andM + (8M/8x)dx. The transverse displacement is denoted by vex, t). The
acceleration is indicated by ii == 82v/8P. From Newton's second law of motion, a force,
called the inertia force, is produced that is proportional to the mass of the element and acts
in the direction opposite to the direction of motion. With the mass per unit length being
m(x), the inertia force is mdxii. The only other force acting on the element is the applied
transverse load q(x, t).
Note that the sign convention adopted in drawing the free-body diagram in Figure 4.11
assumes that the internal moments causing compression on the top of the beam are positive.
This means that along the left side of an element a clockwise moment is positive while on
the right side a counterclockwise moment is positive. On the left side the shear force along
the y axis is positive while on the right side the positive shear acts in the -y direction. As far
as the external loading is concerned, an external applied moment in the counterclockwise
direction is assumed positive while applied force is positive if it is acting along the +y axis.
Considering summation of forces in the y direction, we have
mdxii(x, t) == q(x, t)dx+ V - (V + ~~ dX) =* mii(x, t) + ~~ == q(x, t)
Figure 4.10. Beam bending

TRANSVERSE DEFORMATION OF BEAMS 237
qix.t)
U-LLJ
r:
\ aM
av
V+axdx
Figure 4.11. Forces acting on a differential beam element
Summation of moments about the right-hand side gives
-q(x, t)dxdx/2-M - V dx +M +
aM dx = 0
-a
x
Neglecting the higher order dY? term, we get
v=-
aM
ax
In order to relate forces to deformations, a fundamental assumption in beam bending is that
a plane section before bending remains plane and normal to the neutral axis after bending.
This assumption implies that the axial deformation at a point y above the neutral axis is
given by
dv
u(x) = -y dx
The axial strain Ex is
du dZv
E
x
=-dx =-y-z
dx
For a linear elastic material the axial stress 0:.: and strain are related by Young's modulus
E, giving
Thus the axial stress due to bending varies linearly over the cross section. The maximum
compression is at the top and the maximum tension is at the bottom. Taking the moment of
forces acting on a cross section, we get .
L
where A is the area of the cross section and 1 = l dA is the moment of inertia or second
moment of the area. Using this equation, we can relate moment and axial stress to get
~ = -EY(~~) =-~Y
Differentiating the moment, we can relate the shear force to displacement as follows:
V= ax = !.-ax (E1 ax
aM
a2v
2
)
Substituting the derivative of V into the first equilibrium equation, the governing differen-
tial equation can be written as follows:
mii(x, t) + :~ (E1:~) =q(x, t)

This is a fourth-order partial differential equation. The equation involves a fourth-order
derivative with respect to x and a second-order derivative with respect to t. We need four
boundary conditions and two initial conditions for a proper solution. The beam boundary
conditions are discussed in the following section. The initial conditions are the specified
displacement and velocity along the beam at time t = O.
V(x,O) = Vo
where Vo and Vo are specified displacement and velocity values.
For a static analysis situation, the inertia force is zero, and we have the following gov-
II erning differential equation:
II
a v)=
E1-
2 2
II
'11 a
-2 ( q(x)
III
:II
'II
ax ax 2
:11
/
4.5.2 Boundary Conditions for Beams
The boundary conditions for beam bending involve specification of displacement v or any
of its first three derivatives with respect to x. Some common beam boundary conditions are
shown in Figure 4.12. Since the second derivative of displacement is related to the bending
Simple Support Roller Support Internal Support

u=v=O v=O v=O
Fixed Support
u=v e=o~ Internal Hinge
M=O
=~
Figure4.12. Typicalbeam boundary conditions
moment and the third derivative to shear force, the boundary conditions at a point X o along
a beam are as shown in the following table. Carefully note the convention used in showing
these boundary conditions in the figures. Also note that the signs for internal moments and
shears depend on whether we are considering a left side or a right sid~ of a section.
Specified Quantity Left Side of Section at X o Right Side of Section at X o

Displacement v(xo) =v.tO v(xo) = V xO
Rotation ) = ov(xo) - B
Bexo-ox-xo BeX o) -= OV(X
ox
o) - B
- xO
Moment _E/ 02V(xo)

o.o?-
= MxO E/ 02v(XO)
o.o?-
=M.<0
Shear E/ 03V(xo)
ox'
= F.<0 03V(Xo) -
- E/ aT -
F
xO
Boundary conditions at a free end:
Bending moment: M=E/- =0'

a2 v
a~ , Shear force: v =~
ax [El2V]= a~
0
Boundary conditions at a fixed end:
Deflection: v = 0; Rotation: B= av =0
ax
Boundary conditions at a simple (pin) support:
Deflection: v = Q; Bending moment:
Boundary conditions at a guided (sliding) support:
Rotation:
av
B=·- =0'
ax ' Shear force: v =~
ax [Elax2V]=
2 0
More complicated boundary conditions are possible when beams are supported by
other elastic members. Such supports are typically represented by extensional or rotational
springs. The force in an extensional spring located at xo, with the spring constant k, is
This force must be balanced by the shear at the support. Using the free-body diagram
shown in Figure 4.13 and the sign convention for shear at the right end of asegment, the
appropriate boundary condition is
Right-end extensional spring support: ~ [~l2V] _kv = 0

ax a~
-"1
Extensional spring support
Rotational spring support
O~~ i
Figure 4.13. Spring-supported boundary conditions
A rotational spring generates a moment equal to kB, and therefore the boundary condition
at the right end of a beam supported by a rotational spring is .
[Pv
Right-end rotational spring support: EI aY} + kB = 0
From the free-body diagrams it is easy to see that, if the elastic supports are at the left end,
the appropriate boundary conditions are as follows:
Left-end extensional spring support:
II
IIII Left-end rotational spring support:
I"'
,,'i:
II' 4.5.3 Shear Stresses in Beams
The basic beam theory does not take into account the deformations due to shear forces.
Thus the shear stress does not enter into the governing differential equation. However,
knowing the shear forces, we can compute the corresponding shear stresses using the fol-
lowing equation from the mechanics of deformable bodies:
VQ
T=-
It
where V is the shear force, I is the moment of inertia, and Q and t are related to the point
in the cross section where the shear stress in being computed, t being the width of the cross
section at this point and Q the moment of the area above this point about the neutral axis.
See Example 4.5 for an illustration. .
4.5.4 Potential Energy for Beam Bending

For a linear elastic beam the axial strain and stress due to bending are
Thus the strain energy for a beam element with end coordinates at X o and Xl can be written
a& follows: '
u= ~ 1 CTxExdV = ~ L:'1EY(~~)Y(~~)dAdX = ~ L<~ El(~:~r dx

The potential of the applied loads is equal to the negative of the work done by the external
applied forces:
w = t" qvdx+ Lpiv(x)

Jxo
where v(x) is the transverse displacement at the location of the concentrated applied load
Pi' Thus the potential energy for beam bending can be written as follows:
2
.
II = U - W = -1 LX, E1 (d V)2dx- LX, qvdx- Lpiv(Xi)
-?
2 xo dx' X
o
Using calculus of variations, it is possible to show that a function v(x) that minimizes the
potential energy is a solution of the differential equation governing the bending of beams.
4.5.5 Transverse Deformation of a Uniform Beam

Consider a uniform beam simply supported at the left end and spring supported at the
right end, as shown in Figure 4.14. The beam is subjected to a linearly increasing load
q(x) = ax!L, where a is a given constant. The problem is described in terms of the following
d4v
E1 _ Cl.,,,(. 0<X <L
dx4 - L.'
v(O) = 0; . El2d~
V
(0) = 0
d 3v d2v
E1 (L ) _ kv(L) =O' E1 (L ) =0
-dx 3 ., d~
y
q(x) = a x(L
EI k
L
-I
Figure4.14. Uniform beam subjected to a linearly increasing load
An exact solution of the problem can be obtained by integrating the differential equation
four times and then using the boundary conditions to evaluate the resulting integration
constants. Integrating both sides of the differential equation, we get
d3 v ax 2
El dX3 - 2L = C1
d 2v ax3
El dx 2 - 6L = cjx+ C2
dv ax 4 x2
El dx - 24L = c1 "2 + C2X + C3
axS X3 x2 .
Elv- =CI"6+C2"2+C3X+C4
120L
where C1>"" C4 are integration constants. Using the boundary conditions,
v(O) =0 :::=} C4 =0
d 2v(O)
El d~ = 0 :::=} C2 = 0
d2v (L ) = 0 3
_ -20aL - l20L2 cj = 0 . = aL
El
d~ :::=} 120L :::=} c1 6
2 2
El d 3v(L) _ kv(L =0 :::=} _ -60aL - l20Lc I + k(-aL5 - 20L4 c1 - l20L c3) =0
dX3) l20L 120EIL
-120aEl -7akL3
360k
Thus the exact solution of the problem is
_ ax(120EIL + k(7L 4 - 10L2x2 + 3x 4))

(
v x) - 360ElkL
As k -7 00, the solution approaches that of a simply supported beam:
veX) = li (ax 0 20E IL + k(7L4 - lOL2x2 + 3X4))) = ax(7L4 - lOx

2L2
+ 30)
k->~ . 360ElkL 360EIL
Assuming El = 1, L = 1, and a = 1, the solution for various k values is as shown in

Figure 4.15. With increasing k the spring-supported end displacement is getting small, as
expected.
4.5.6 Transverse Deformation of a Tapered Beam Fixed at Both Ends

Consider a nonuniform beam in which the moment of inertia varies linearly along the span,
lex) = 100 + b:x/L), where 10 is a reference moment of inertia and b is a constant. The beam
vex)
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
k=500
+ __~ _ ~__~__~_~k=lOOO
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I
Figure 4.15. Exact solutions for spring-supported beam with various spring constants
is fixed at both ends, as shown in Figure 4.16. The beam is subjected to a linearly increasing
load q(x) = ax/L, where a is a given constant. The problem is described in terms of the
following boundary value problem:
2
~ (EI(X)d V) = ax. 0<x <L
d~ 2
dx L'
EI(x) = Elo (1 + ~)
v(O) = 0; dv(O) = 0
dx
v(L) = 0; dv(L) =0
dx
The actual derivation of the following solution is quite tedious. However, by direct substi-
tution, it can be verified that the solution satisfies the governing differential equation:
L -j
Figure 4.16. Nonuniform beam subjected to a linearly increasing load
v
12
10
8
6
4
2
+''--------~--~---'''-'- x
2 4 6 8 10
Figure 4.17. Solution of nonuniform beam
y} au?ax 4 x(aL3 + 6b2clElo)

vex) = Cz + XC3 + C4 - + 72bElo +
36bzElo 6b 4El
o
xlog[L + bx](aL + 6b lElo) log[L + bx](-aL4 - 6b 2Lc jE10 )
3 2c
- +--='------,-----'--"-
6b 4Elo 6b 5Elo
where C1"'" C4 are integration constants. Using the boundary conditions, the constants
can be evaluated and the solution expressed as follows:
IIII
III
"ll
vex) = (a((L - x)2(2( -1 + b)L 2 + 2(-2 + b + bZ)Lx + b(2 + b)Y}) log[L]
1111 +xz(-6Lz + 3b2Lz + 4Lx+ 2bLx- 2bx 2 - bZY})log[(1 + b)L]
IIll!I'"I:
Ill! - 2(bL3x - bZL3x - 3bL zy} + 2b zL2x2 + 2bLx 3 - bZx4 - L41og[L + bx]
1::1
I",
Il!' + bL4log[L + bx] - bL 3xlog[L + bx] + bZL3xlog[L + bx])))/
Ih.
(72b z(2b + (2 + b) log[.L] - (2 + b) log[(1 + b)LDE1 0 )
Figure 4.17 shows a plot of this solution with (b = 0.1, a = 1, L = 10, E10 = I}.
4.6 TWO-NODE BEAM ELEMENT
Recall from the discussion in Chapter 2 that for a fourth-order problem the essential bound-
ary conditions are the solution and its first derivative. For beam bending, therefore, both
e
the transverse displacement v and rotation == dv/dx are essential boundary conditions.
In order to be able to satisfy these boundary conditions during the assembly and solution
e
phase, we must choose both v and as degrees of freedom for each node. Thus the sim-
plest two-node beam element has four degrees of freedom, as shown in Figure 4.18. For
simplicity in integrations the moment of inertia and the distributed load are assumed con-
stant over each element. Furthermore, concentrated loads FI , Fz and moments M I , Mz are
allowed only at the ends of an element.
As demonstrated through examples later in the section, even this simple element is
enough to model most practical beam problems. For uniform beams only one element per
TWO-NODE BEAM ELEMENT 245
V2
Xl
S=o s=L
Figure 4.18. A two-node element for beam bending
span is needed to get exact solutions. For concentrated loads along the span or changes
in section dimensions, one simply needs to start a new element at the locations where
such situations occur. Even beams made up of different materials can be modeled, simply
by starting and ending elements at the material interfaces. Only for variable-cross-section
beams is it necessary to use a large number of constant moment-of-inertia elements to get
a good solution.
4.6.1 Cubic Assumed Solution

Since both displacement and rotation are used as degrees of freedom for each node, the
appropriate assumed solution is written using the Hermite interpolation. With the general
formula given in Chapter 2 it is possible to write shape functions for an element with arbi-
trary end coordinates xI and x2' However, the resulting expressions are very messy. More
convenient expressions are obtained by introducing the following change in coordinates:
O::;,s::;,L
dv
ds = dx ==} -
dx
=-dv
ds
The four interpolation functions in terms of s can easily be written as follows:
Data point locations: {O, L}


and those for derivative values are
Vector of Hermite interpolation functions:
NT = {2S 3 _ 2
3s + 1
2 2
.::=. _ 2s + S 3s _
3
2s s3 _:::}
L3 L2 'L2 L 'L2 L 3 'L2 L
Thus the assumed solution is
III
111I
1111
v(s) = (1$'
L'
_ 2
3s2
L
+1
III!
m:
Ih'
Ill'
::11
,I
4.6.2 Element Equations Using Rayleigh-Ritz Method

The potential energy for the beam element is as follows:
or
Differentiating the assumed solution twice with respect to s, we have

Squaring this (making sure that vectors d are on the outside),
where
36(L-2s)2 12(2L-3s)(L-2s) 36(L-2s)2 12(L-3s)(L-2s)
-L-6- -~ L'
L'
12(2L-3s)(L-2s) 4(1£-3s)2 12(2L-3s)(L-2s) 4(L-3s)(2L-3s)
T L' L4 L' L'
BB = _36(L-2s)2 12(2L-3s)(L-2s) 36(L-2s1' 12(L-3s)(L-2s)
L6 L' ~ IJ
12(L-3s)(L-2s) 4(L-3s)(2L-3s) 12(L-3s)(L-2s) 4(L-3d
-L-'-
L' L4 L'
Using this, the strain energy term can be written as follows:
where
IaL
( 12(2L-~~)(L-2S») ds
rL (4(2L-3S)2)
Jo L4
d
S ".
"'J
Carrying out integrations, we get
12 6L -12
k = El 6L 4L2 -6L
L 3 [ -12 -6L 12
_.. 6L 2L2 -6L
The work done by the distributed load can be evaluated as follows:
W
q
= Jor
L
qv ds = Jo r qNTd ds = rTq ddTrq
where
t(l- ~+ ZS)ds
r L
s3 ) ds
2s' + 'jJ
Jo ( s - T
rL (3s'
Jo L2 -:-
2s3)
L3 ds
= q;[jJ
L
r
Jo ( s'
- L s3 ) ds
+ 'jJ
Distributed load Equivalent nodal loads

q qL/2 qL/2
.---k .---k. qL
LLillLJ
2/12
qL2/12
po L '::~:~:: .:".: : :d "
f-'-L-...j f-'-L-...j
Figure 4.19. Equivalent nodal loads due to a uniformly distributed load on an element
Interpreting tenus in the vector rq , we see that a uniformly distributed load on an element is
actually applied as' nodal loads qV2 and moments qL2/l2. With the sign convention being
used, the equivalent nodal values are as shown in Figure 4.19.
The work done by the concentrated loads is
The potential energy can now be written as follows:
Ilill
11111
111111
III!I
The necessary conditions for the minimum of the potential energy give
1" 1,.
III:::
hUH
~l!!t
::111
J,,,..
ijljll'
Willi
Thus the beam element equations are as follows:
-12
-6L
12
-6L
Assuming that the concentrated loads are added directly to the global equations at the start
of the assembly, the element equations are .
12 6L -12
EI 6L 4L 2 -qL
L 3 [ -12 -6L 12
6L 2L2 -6L
For a given beam problem, the element equations can be assembled and nodal displace-
ments can be obtained in the usual manner. Once the nodal displacements are known, the
TWO·NODE BEAM ELEMENT 249
complete finite element solution can be obtained from the interpolation functions:
The bending moments and shear forces can be obtained by differentiating the displacement
and multiplying by E1:
d2v d 3v
M(s) =E1-'
di'
Yes) =E1-3
ds
If desired, the axial' and shear stresses can be computed from the bending moment and
shear forces by using the equations derived earlier. For a symmetric section with height h
the maximum stresses due to a given moment and shear are as follows:
M(h/2)
Maximum bending stress: O:"max = --1-
Maximum shear stress: VQmax
T max = -1-t-
where Q max is the moment of half of the area about the neutral axis and t is the width of
the section at the neutral axis.
Example 4.5 Find the deflection, bending moment, and shear force distribution in the
three-span continuous beam shown in Figure 4.20. The point load is acting at the center of
the middle span. Use the following numerical data:
L = 20ft; F = 20,000 lb; Section: W18 x 40
The W18 x 40 section is a ~t.qndard steel I-shape section with the moment of inertia 1 =
612 in" and the dimensions as shown in the figure.
---<>j<>--- L -I- L --l
h = 17.9
br = 6.015
t. = O>315J
tr = 0.525
. . w
[t.·.
1"
tr
r
.....br< :
Figure 4.20. Three-span beam with I-shape cross section

FJ2
~::c,,",:,c==.;;;-~
I- L ~/2-----<>j
Figure 4.21. Two-element model using symmetry
For maximum shear stress, Q is the moment of the area of half of the l-section about
the center. Using the given dimensions, we get
Q = ~ (~- tf)tlV(~ -tf) + (~- i)blJ = 38.6135 in3

Taking advantage of symmetry, we need to model only half of the beam as shown in Figure
4.21. Along the line of symmetry there is unknown vertical displacement but the rotation
must be zero. Thus this boundary condition can be represented as a guided support. Also,
only half of the load is carried by the symmetric half. The simplest model is a two-beam
element model as shown in the figure,
Use kips (1 kip = 1000 lb) and inthes. The displacements will be in inches, moments in
kip = inches, and stresses in ksi.
Node dof Value
3 -10
Equations for element 1:
15.4063 1848.75 -15.4063
1848.75 295800. -1848.75 147900. 1848.75][V8 1
1
] _ [0]
0
[ -15.4063 -1848.75 15.4063 -1848.75 v2 - 0
1848.75 147900. -1848.75 295800. 82 0
123.25 7395. -123.25 2
7395. 591600. -7395. 295800. 7395.][V8 2
] = [0]
0
[ -123.25 -7395. 123.25 -7395. v3 · 0
7395. 295800. -7395. 591600. 83 0
TWO-NODEBEAM ELEMENT 251
15.4063 1848.75 -15.40~3 1848.75 o o o

1848.75 295800. -1848.75 147900. o o o
-15.4063 -184~.75 138.656 5546.25 -123.25 7395. o
1848.75 147900. 5546.25 887400. -7395. 295800. o
o o -123.25 -7395. 123.25 -7395. -10
o o 7395. 295800. -7395. 591600. o
Node dof Value
1 VI 0
2 v2 0
3 83 0
Remove (1, 3, 6) rows and columns:
295800. 147900. 0 J[8 IJ

[
147900. 887400. -7395. 82 =[ 0 J
0
o -7395. 123.25 v3 -10.
(81 = 0.000811359, 82 = -0.00162272, "s = -0.178499)

Solution for element 1:
Left node: XI = 0; Right node: x 2 = 240.
Local coordinate: s = X -xI = x; Length, L = 240.
Using these sand L values, the interpolation functions in terms of x are
NT :::;; .(1.44676 X 10- 7~ - 0.0000520833;J + 1,

0.0000173611~ - 0.00833333~ +x,
0.0000520833~ - 1.44676 x 1O-7~,
0.0000173611~ - 0.00416667~)
Nodal values: aT = (0,0.000811359,0, -0.00162272)

vex) = NT a = 0.000811359x -
1.40861 x 1O-8x3
E = 29000; 1= 612; h = 17.9; Q = 38.6135; t = 0.315
M(x) = EI d 2v/dx 2 = -1.5x
Vex) = dM/dx = -1.5
tr=M(hl2)11 = -0.0219363x
T = VQ/(It) = -0.300447
v (in) Displacement V (kip) Shear force

10
0.05 8
6
-0.05 120 24
4
-0.1 2
-0.15
M (k-in) Moment £T (ksi) Bending stress

12.5
800 10
600 7.5
400 5
200 2.5
~~~
-200 -2.5
-5
Figure 4.22. Solution of three-span beam

Left node: xl = 240.; Right node: x2 = 360.
Local coordinate: s =X - XI = X - 240.; Length, L = 120.
Using these sand L values, the interpolation functions in terms of x are
NT = {1.15741 x 1O-6(x - 240.)3 - 0.000208333(x - 240l + 1,

0.0000694444(x - 240} - 0.0166667(x - 240.)2 + X - 240.,
6(x
0.000208333(x '7 240.)2 - 1.15741 x 1O- - 240.)3,
!
0.0000694444(x - 240.)3 - 0.00833333(x - 240.)2j
Nodal values: d T = (O, -0.00162272, -0.178499, OJ

vex) = NT d = 9.39073 X 1O-8x3 - 0.0000777552x2 + 0.0194726x - 1.4929
E = 29000; 1 = 612; h = 17.9; Q = 38.6135; t = 0.315
M(x) = E1 d 2v/dx2 = 10.x - 2760.
Vex) = dM/dx = 10.
o: = M(hl2)/1 = 0.146242x - 40.3627
T = VQ/(1t) = 2.00298
The deflection, shear force, bending moment, and bending stress diagrams are shown in
Figure 4.22. From direct integration of the governing differential equation, it can easily be
verified that this is the exact solution. Thus there is no need to use a refined model.
Example 4.6 An overhanging beam is connected to a cantilever beam through a simple

pin connection as shown in Figure 4.23. Analyze the beam if the right support settles
downward by 10 mm. Use L = 3 m and E1 = 180 MN . m2.
TWO-NODEBEAM ELEMENT 253
l
EI .
/ :::.::,.. :::: :--.-.. _..;;Z;;;;.
-I- L ,I· L---l

Figure 4.23. Beams connected through a pin connection
Constraint : v 3 =v 4
vI V3V4 V5
8
1
~~---=--21( 3 8
5
~
. 83 84
Figure 4.24. Finite element model of beams connected through a pin connection
A three-element model is adequate for this beam. Modeling the internal pin connection
requires special consideration because the rotations at either side of the pin are indepen-
dent. Placing only a single node at this location and using the usual assembly process will
imply continuity of rotations across the pin, which obviously is not the behavior of a pin
connection. A way to model the pin is to place two separate nodes at the pin location and
use a multipoint constraint to link the displacements at these two nodes while keeping the
rotations independent. Thus the finite element model consists of five nodes and three ele-
ments as shown in Figure 4.24. Nodes 2 and 3 are physically at the same location. Element
2 is connected to nodes 2 and 3 while element 3 is connected to nodes 4 and 5.
We use meganewton-millimeters units for numerical calculations. Substituting given
numerical values into the beam element equations, we have the following element equa-
tions:
Element 1:
[,25"
-- ~~
25
120
-120 2
2
-25"
240000 -120
25" -120 12~:t}(~] v2 0
120 120000 -120 240000 82 0
2 2
25" 120 -25"
Element 2:
120 240000 -120
2
-25" -120 2
25"
120 ](' 1= (0]
120000 . 8~
-120 v3
0
0
120 120000 -120 240000 83 . 0
4 4
240
24~~OO](~:l" (~]
25" -25"
240 480000 -240
Element 3: 4 4
-25" -240 25" -240 Vs 0
240 240000 -240 480000 8s 0
Assembling the elements equations in the usual way, the global equations are as follows:
2 2
25 120 -25 120 0 0 0 0 0 0
120 240000 -120 120000 0 0 0 0 0 0 vI 0
2
-120 4
0 2
120 0 0 0 0 ()I 0
-25 25 -25
V2 0
120 120000 0 480000 -120 120000 0 0 0 0 ()2 0
2 2
0 0 -25 -120 25 -120 0 0 0 0 V3 0
(). == 0
0 0 120 120000 -120 240000 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 4
240 4
240 v4 0
25 -25
()4 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 240 480000 -240 240000 0
Vs
4 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 -25 -240 25 -240 ()s 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 240 240000 -240 480000
The known boundary conditions are VI == ()I .== v2 == 0, "s == -10 rom, and ()s == O. The
zero boundary conditions are incorporated by simply removing corresponding rows and
columns to get
480000 -120 120000 o o o

o
-120 2
25 -120 o o o o
120000 -120 240000 o o o o
o o 4 240 4 o
o o ~. 25 -25
240 480000 -240 o
o
o o o -..±.
2S -240 4
25
Setting "s == -10 means we remove the last row and move -10 times the last column to
the right-hand side. Thus the final system of equations is as follows:
480000 -120 120000 o o

-120 2
25 -120 o o
120000 -120 240000 o o
o o o 25
4
240
o o o 240 480000
The solution for nodal unknowns can now be obtained by using the Lagrange multiplier
method to impose the multipoint constraint as follows:
V(X), mm
M(x),MN'mm
+-==-"'""--...:.--- X
-2 L 2L 3L 200
-4 100,
;f~"
-6
-100
-8 -200
-10
Figure 4.25. Displacement and bendingmomentplots
Augmented system of equations:
480000 -120 120000 0 0 0

2
82 0
-120 25 -120 0 0 1 v3 0
120000 -120 240000 0 0 0 83 0
0 0 0 4
240 -1 v4 = 8
-5
25
84 -2400
0 0 0 240 480000 0
it 0
0 1 0 -1 0 0
Solution:
The following complete solution over elements can be computed in the usual way. Note
that the magnitude of the Lagrange multiplier is equal to the shear force at the pin. This
is no coincidence. In structural problems a Lagrange multiplier is interpreted as the force
necessary to impose the constraint. Here the constraint is on the transverse displacement
across the pin. Thus the Lagrange multiplier will have an interpretation of force to maintain
the transverse displacement continuity, This force is exactly the shear force at this location,
and hence the value of the Lagrange multiplier is equal to the shear force. If a constraint
involved rotations, the corresponding Lagrange multiplier will be equal to the moment at
that location. Plots of displacement and bending moment are shown in Figure 4.25. The
displacement plot clearly shows that the slope is not continuous across the pin and hence
the internal hinge is modeled correctly:
Displacement, vex) Moment, M(x) Shear, V

x2 x3 400 2< 2
1 2700000 - 8100000000 3 - IS -IS
2 x3 x3 x 50 4x 1600 4
12150000000 - 675000 + 180 - "9 45 - -3- 45
3 x3 i' x 10 4x
45 -
1600 . 4
24300000000 - 1350000 + 300 - -3- 45
Example 4.7 Find the deflection, bending moment, and shear force distribution in the
nonuniform beam shown in Figure 4.26. Use the following numerical data:
L=2m; F = 18kN; q = lOkN/m; E = 210 GPa;

F q
1::;;;:;~:;;";'';;:;=;~1~~:~:~,:,Ll.1··jEJ-l·bL
r-- L -I- L -I- L----J
VI V2 V3 V4
el~ e2~ 2 e3~ 3

e4~
1 3 5 7
2t 4~ 6~ 8~
Figure4.26. Nonuniform beam and three-element model
Placing a node at the concentrated load location and at the location of change in cross
section, we have the three-element model shown in the figure.
Using kilonewtons and meters, the solution is as follows:
Node dof Value

2 v2 -18
n
( 252000. 252000. -252000.

252000. 336000.
/
-252000. -252000.
-252000. 168000.
252000. -252000.
25woo]n
(J] _
v2 -
0
0
252000. 168000. -252000. 336000. (J2 0
( 252000.
252000.
252000. -252000.
336000. -252000.
-252000. -252000.
168000.
252000. -252000.
. ~2000 r] (0]
(J2 _ 0
v3 - 0
252000. 168000. -252000. 33600Q ~ 0
.Equations for element 3:
1
E == 210000000; I == 2500; q==-l0
126000. 126000. -126000.

126000. 168000. -126000. 126000.](V3]
84000. (J3 _ ( -3.33333
-10. ]
[ -126000. -126000. 126000. -126000. v4 - -10.
126000. 84000. -126000. 168000. (J4 3.33333
TWO-NODE BEAMELEMENT 257
252000. 252000. -252000. 252000. o o o o VI o

252000. 336000. -252000. 168000. o o o o 81 o
-252000. -252000. 504000. o -252000. 252000. o o V2 -18
252000. 168000. o 672000. -252000. 168000. o o 82 o
o o -252000. -252000. 378000. -126000. -126000. 126000. v3 -10.
o o 252000. 168000. -126000. 504000. -126000. 84000. 83 -3.33333
o o o o -126000. -126000. 126000. -126000. v4 -10.
o o o o 126000. 84000. -126000. 168000. 84 3.33333

Node dof Value
o
o
4 o
Remove (I, 2, 7) rows and columns:
504000. 0 -252000. 252000.

o 672000. -252000. 168000. o ][V2]
o 82 [ 0
-18. ]
-252000. -252000. 378000. -126000. 126000. v3 = -10.
[ 252000. 168000. -126000. 504000. 84000. 83 -3.33333
o 0 126000. 84000. 168000. 84 3.33333
(v2= -0.000213152,82 = -0.000131378, "s = -0.00034127,

83 = 0.0000136054, 84 = 0.000268991)

Left node: Xl = 0; Rig~~ node: x 2 = 2.
Local coordinate: s = X - Xl = X; Length, L = 2.
Using these sand L values, the interpolation functions in terms of X are
NT = (0.25;2 - 0.75~ + 1, 0.25;2 - 1.~ + x, 0.75~ - 0.25;2, 0.25;2 - 0.5~)
Nodal values: d T = {O,O, -0.000213152, -0.000131378)

vex) =NT d = 0.0000204436;2 - 0.0000941752x2
M(x) = E1 d2V/d~ = 20.6071x - 31.6429
Vex) = dM/dx = 20.6071
vex) = NT d = 2.58645 x 10- 6;2 + 0.0000129677x2 - 0.000214286x + 0.000142857
M(x) = E1 d 2v/dx2 = 2.60714x + 4.35714 .
Vex) = dM/dx = 2.60714
v (m) Displacement
-1--<:---------,..
2 3 4 5
X
-0.00005
-0.0001
-0.00015
-0.0002
-0.00025
-0.0003
-0.00035
M (kN -m) Moment V (kN) Shear force

20
10 IS
x 10
-10 5
-20 x
-30 -5
Figure 4.27. Three-element solution of nonuniform beam

vex) = NTd = -0.0000146684X3 + 0.000283872x2 - 0.00155329x + 0.00226871
M(x) = EI d 2v/dx2 =47.6905 ~ 7.39286x
Vex) = dM/dx = -7.39286
The deflection, bending moment, and shear force diagrams are shown in Figure 4.27. The
exact solution in the distributed load segment should show a linear shear diagram and
a quadratic bending moment diagram. However, since the element is based on a cubic
interpolation, it gives a constant shear and a linear moment diagram, and therefore the
solution for moments and shears is not very good.
To get accurate results, we could use more elements in the segment with the distributed
load. Using five elements in the distributed load segment, we get the moment and shear
force diagrams shown in Figure 4.28 that are clearly a lot closer to the expected solution.
However, for uniform beams it is not necessary to use more than one element per span.
A simple superposition procedure is presented in the following section that gives exact
solution without having to use many elements in the loaded span. That procedure obviously
is preferred for practical applications.
M (kN -m~ Moment V (kN) Shear force

20
10 15
x 10
5
-10 x
-20 -5
-10
-30 -15
Figure 4.28. Solution with five elements in the distributed load segment
UNIFORM BEAMS SUBJECTED TO DISTRIBUTED LOADS 259
4.i' UNIFORM BEAMS SUBJECTED TO DISTRIBUTED LOADS
As seen in Example 4.7, the simple two-node beam element does not give correct moments
and shears for elements with distributed loads. The standard finite element approach for
improving a solution is to use more elements. As demonstrated in the previous example,
the approach works, and as. we increase the number of elements in the loaded span, the
results do get closer to the exact solution. However, for uniform beams there is a much
simpler alternative based on the principle of superposition.
The idea exploits the fact that the two-node beam element, based on the cubic interpo-
lation functions, gives exact solution for uniform beams subjected to concentrated loads.
This was demonstrated in Example 4.5. The finite element formulation converts the dis-
tributed load to equivalent loads and moments at the nodes. The finite element solution
is therefore exact for these equivalent concentrated loads and moments. The approxima-
tions are thus limited to the span that is loaded with the distributed load. This observation
suggests a two-step solution procedure. In the first step we follow the usual finite element
procedure, with only one element even for spans with distributed loads. In the second step
the span with the distributed load is isolated and analyzed separately.' Both ends of this
isolated span are assigned fixed-end boundary conditions so that the solution will not af-
fect the displacements outside of this span. This is known as the fixed-end beam solution.
The final solution is the superposition of the finite element solution and the fixed-end beam
solutions for spans with distributed loads.
In actual calculations, we do not even have to think of the process as a two-step process.
We simply create a finite element model based on the usual considerations of supports,
changes in the cross section, and concentrated load locations. After solving for the nodal
displacements in the usual way, we compute the displacement solution over an element
from the following equation:
v(s) = ( z:; - ~ + 1
where vf is a fixed-end beam solution due to a distributed load on an element. In the

following sections we derive fixed-end beam solutions for uniform and trapezoidal loading
and illustrate the process of computing element solutions,
Fixed-End Beam Solution with Uniform Loading For a fixed-end beam with uni-
formly distributed load q, shown in Figure 4.29, the exact solution can easily be obtained
by direct integration of the governing differential equation as follows:
d4v
Governing differential equation: EI-4 -q=O; O<s<L
ds
Boundary conditions: v(O) =0; dv(O) = 0; veL) = 0; dv(L) =0
dx dx
s=O s=L
Figure 4.29. A fixed-end beam subjected to uniformly distributed load
Integrating four times and introducing four integration constants c 1, ••• , c4 ' we have
Using the four boundary conditions, we have
Solving these equations, the integration constants are
Thus the exact solution for a fixed-end beam with uniformly distributed loading is as fol-
lows:
q(L - s)2s2
~tCs) = 24EI
The subscript f is used to indicate that this is the fixed-end beam solution.
Example4.8 For the beam in Example 4.7 use superposition with only three elements to
find the exact solution for the deflection, moment, and shear in the beam.
The first step is to perform a standard finite element analysis. The equivalent nodal
loads on the finite element model are shown in Figure 4.30. As shown through detailed
calculations in Example 4.7, the nodal solution is as follows:
CompleteTableof Nodal Values

v e
1 0 o
2 -0.000213152 -0.000131378
3 -0.00034127 0.0000136054
4 0 0.000268991
Using the two-node beam interpolation functions, the following displacements were
also computed in Example 4.7 for the three elements:
UNIFORM BEAMSSUBJECTED TO DISTRIBUTED LOADS 261
.•.
~I
L-<>J
Figure 4.30. Equivalent concentrated loading on the finite element model
VeX) =NTd = 0.0000204436.:2 - 0.0000941752x2
VeX) = NTd = 2.58645 X 10-6.:2 + 0.0000129677~ - 0.000214286x + 0.000142857
VeX) =NTd = -0.0000146684.:2 + 0.000283872x2 - 0.00155329x + 0.00226871
For the first two elements these are the exact solutions. For the third element, in order
to obtain the exact solution, we must add the fixed-end beam solution. Substituting the
numerical data, the fixed-end solution for this span is obtained as follows:
For the third element:

Left node: xl = 4.; Right node: :~2 = 6.
Local coordinate: s = x - xl = X - 4.; Length, L = 2.
Thus
Therefore the exact solution for this element is
VeX) = NTd + Vj(x) = -0.0000146684.:2 + 0.00028387~ - 0.00155329x
(6-X)2(X-4)2)
+ 0.00226871 + ( - 201600
giving
VeX) = -4.96032 X 1O-6x4 + 0.000084538x3 - 0.000450255~

+ 0.000827664x - 0.000588435
M (kN -m) Moment V (kN) Shear force

20
10 15
10
5
-10 x
-20 -5
-10
-30 -15
Figure 4.31. Exact three-element solution for beam with distributed load
This is a fourth-order solution and hence will result in a quadratic bending moment diagram
and linear shear force: .
M(x) :::El d 2v/dX2 ::: -5.x2 + 42.607lx -75.6429

Vex) ::: El d3v/dX: ::: 42.6071 - 1O.x
The bending moment and shear force diagrams are shown in Figure 4.31. They clearly
show that the solution is exact.
• MathematicafMATLA'B Implementation 4.3 on the Book Web Site:

Analysis of beams
Fixed-End Beam Solution with Trapezoidal Loading In examples so far only the
uniformly distributed beam loading has been considered. However, any other loading can
easily be handled in exactly the same manner. We must derive an equivalent load vector to
use in the finite element analysis. Also we must obtain an exact fixed-end beam solution
for use in the superposition to get exact solutions for loaded spans.
Consider a beam element with fuad varying linearly from a value qj at the first node
of the element to a value q2 at the second node, as shown in Figure 4.32. Using linear
Lagrange interpolation functions, this loading can be expressed as follows:
q(s) ::: sq2 _ (s - L)ql

L L
Using the beam interpolation functions and the above q(s), the equivalent load vector can
be obtained as follows:
L
Jor q(s)( 1 - 3s'
L' + 2$3 )
L3 ds ;}oL(7qj + 3q3)
L r L q(s)(s - T i3) ds
2s'- + "iJ
fo L2(3ql + 2q2)
Jro Nq ds
Jo
r ::: > :::
L
q
r q(s)(3s'-
Jo v - u2$3) ds ;}oL(3ql + 7q2)
IoL q(s)( - f: + f,:) ds -foL2(2ql + 3q2)
Interpreting terms in the vector rq , we see that a trapezoidal loading on an element is

actually applied as nodal loads and moments, as shown in Figure 4.32.
Distributed load Equivalent nodal loads
Figure 4.32. Equivalent nodal loads due to a trapezoidal distributed load on an element
For use in superposition, the fixed-end solution with trapezoidal distributed load q(s)
can be obtained by solving the governing differential equation as follows:
d 4v
Governing differential equation: EI-4 - q(s) = 0; O<s<L
ds
Boundary conditions: v(O) = 0; dv(O) = O. v(L) = 0; dv(L) =0

dx ' dx
Integrating four times and introducing four integration constants c 1, ... , c4 ' we have
Using the four boundary conditions, we have
Solving these equations, the integration constants are
-3q I L2 - 2q2
L2.
C2 = 0; C - _
3 - l20EI ' .
Thus the fixed-end beam solution for trapezoidal distributed loading is as follows:
The subscript f is used to indicate that this is the fixed-end beam solution.
Example 4.9 Consider a uniform beam subjected to triangular loading. The beam is sim-
ply supported at left end and is spring supported at the right end, as shown in Figure 4.33.
y
q(x) =a xfL
x
k
,. L ·1
VI Vz
61C 6z cJ
Figure 4.33. Uniform beam subjected to a linearly increasing load
Use superposition to get the exact solution using only one element. Assume the following
numerical data:
a = 5kN/m; L=5m; E =200 GPa; k= 275N/mm
Use kilonewton-meters:
k = 275 leNim
For the given triangular load ql = 0 and qz = 5. Thus the equivalent nodal load vector is
as follows:
/
(7ql + 3qz)L = (7 x 0 + 3 x 5)5 = 3 75 kN. (3ql + 7qz)L = 8.75 leN

20 20 ., 20
(3q I :~qz)Lz =4.16667 kN . m (2ql + 3qz)Lz = -6 ?5 kN .
60 .- m
Element ends = (0,5.); Length, L =5.

19.2 48. -19.2 1
48. 160. -48. 80. e1 ]
48.][V =[3.75
4.16667 ]
[ -19.2 -48. 19.2 -48. Vz 8.75
48. 80. -:48: 160. ez -6.25
The specified nodal spring stiffnesses are as follows:
Node dof Value

2 275
The spring contributes to the v2 degree of freedom. Adding the spring constant to the
diagonal term of the third row, we have the global equations as follows:
19.2 48. -19.2 I

48. 160. -48. 48.][V
80. 81 ] = [3.75
4.16667]
[ -19.2 -48. 294.2 -48. v2 8.75
48. 80. -48. 160. 82 -6.25
After adjusting for ess~ntial boundary conditions, we have
160. -48. 80.) [8 1 ) [4.16667)

-48. 294.2 -48. v2 = 8.75
[
80. -48. 160. 82 -6.25
{8 1 = 0.0668245, v2 = 0.030303,82 = -0.0633838}

Left node: XI = 0; Right node: x2 = 5.
Local coordinate: s = X - XI =X; Length, L = 5.
Using these sand L values, the interpolation functions in terms of X are
NT = {O.016x 3 - 0.1~ + 1, 0.04~ - 0.4~ + x, 0.1~ - 0.016~, 0.04x 3 - O.~}
Nodal values: aT = {O, 0.0668245, 0.030303, -0.0633838}

vex) = NT a = -0.00034722Y e- 0.0104167x2 + 0.0668245x
Fixed-end beam displacement, vj(x) = 0.0000416667(5. - xfx2(x + 10.)
Adding this value, the complete element solution is
Vex) = 0.QQ00416667~ - 0.00347222~ + 0.0668245x

M(x) =EI d2V/d~ = 0.166667~ - 4. 16667x
Vex) = dM/dx = 0.5~ - 4.16667
The bending moment and shear force diagrams are shown in Figure 4.34. An exact analyt-
ical solution for the problem was presented in an earlier example. Substituting the given
numerical data into the analytical solution, we get
2x2
Vex) = ax(l20EIL + k(7L 4 -lOL + 3x4 )
360ElkL .
= 0.0000416667~ - 0.0034722~ + 0.0668245x
which is exactly the same as that obtained using the finite element analysis procedure with
superposition.
M (leN-m) Moment V (leN) Shear force

x 8
-2 6
4
-4 2
x
-6
-2
-8 -4
Figure 4.34. One-elementsolution
4.8 PLANE FRAMES.
Members in a plane frame are designed to resist axial and bending deformations. The two-
node beam element and the axial deformation element are combined together to form an
element that can be used to analyze rigid-jointed planar frameworks. It is assumed that the
axial and bending effects are uncoupled from each other, which is a reasonable assumption
within the framework of small-deformation theory.
As shown in Figure 4.35, a local coordinatesystem is established for each element. In
this local coordinate system the s axis is along the element axis, with positive direction
being from node I to node 2. The local t axis is 90° counterclockwise from the saxis.
Each node has three degrees of freedom-two translations and one rotation. The moment
of inertia and the distributed transverse load are assumed constant over each element. Fur-
thermore, concentrated loads are allowed only at the ends of an element. The distributed
load qs is in the axial direction and qt is in the transverse direction. These applied loads on
an element are positive if they act in the positive directions of the local axes.
In the local coordinate system, the element equations are simply a combination of the
axial deformation element and the beam element. With the order of degrees of freedom as
shown in Figure 4.35 the local element equations are therefore as follows:
EA EA
T 0 0 -T 0 0
12E/ 6E/ 12E/ 6E/
~qsL
0 0 -IF dt
IF IF IF
d2 ~qtL
6E/ 4E/ 6E/ 2E/
0 IF L 0 -IF L d3 I L2
Uqt
::=} k, dT == TT
-T
EA
0 0 EA
T 0 0 d4 ~qsL
d5
0 12E/ 6E/
0 12E/ 6E/ ~qtL
-IF -IF IF -IF d6
I L2
6E/ 2E/ 6E/ 4E/ -uqt
0 L2 L 0 -IF L
Assuming a common global x-y reference coordinate system for all elements in the frame,
the degrees of freedom in the global directions are denoted by u I , vI' 81, £1 2 , V2' and 82 , To
develop the transformation between the global and the local degrees of freedom, we can
see from Figure 4.35 that the vector d t is related to vectors u l and VI as follows:
UI == d l cos e == dlls
VI == d l cos(90 - a) == d, sin « == dims
PLANE FRAMES 267

d~~)/d4
V2
./,~'-+. 2
Figure 4.35. Plane frameelement
where Is is the cosine of the angle between the element s axis and the global x axis and
Ins is the cosine of the angle between the element axis and the global y axis and are called
the direction cosines. The angle is positive when measured from the positive x axis in the
counterclockwise direction. Denoting the coordinates of the ends ofthe element by (Xl' YI)
and (xz' yz), we can determine the element length and the direction cosines as follows:
X -x
I = cos c = _Z_ _l .
s L '
ms = cos(90 - a) = sin e = "t"

y -y
Multiplying £l l by Is and vI by ms and adding the two equations together give transforma-
tion from global to local degrees offreedom as follows:
Similarly,
£l l = :':'dz cos(90 - a) == -dzms

vI = dz cos a == dzIs
z z
=::} -£llms + VIIs = dz sin a + dz cos a == dz
The rotation eis not affected by this transformation and thus
Therefore the three degrees of freedom at node 1 are transfon:ned as follows:

The same relationship holds for the degrees of freedom at node 2. Thus the transformation
between the global and the local degrees of freedom can be written as follows:
d] Is ms 0 0 0 0 H]
d2 -», Is 0 0 0 0 VI
d3 0 0 1 0 0 0 8]
===> d, = Td
d4 0 0 0 Is ms 0 H2
ds 0 0 0 -ms Is 0 v2
d6 0 0 0 0 0 1 82
X -x
L= ~ (x2 - x])2 + (Y2 - YI)2; 1 = coso: =
s
_2_ _];
L
m = sin 0: =
s
Y2 - YI
L
where 0: is the angle between the local s axis and the global x axis measured counterclock-
wise, (Xl' Yl) and (x2' Y2) are the coordinates of the two nodes at the element ends, and L is
the length of the element. It is easy to verify that the inverse transformation (i.e., local to
global transformation) is given simply by the transpose of the T matrix,
Using this transformation, the element equations in the local coordinate system can be
related to those in the global coordinate system as follows:
...
"'
k, d, =1', ===> k,Td =1',
..,
r' Multiplying both sides by TT, we get'
TTk,Td =TTl',
.I
Noting that TTl', is the transformation of applied loads from the local to the global coordi-
kd =1'
where
and
It is possible to carry out the matrix multiplications and write the element equations in
global coordinates explicitly. However, the resulting matrix is quite large and is not written
here. The Mathematica implementation given at the end of this section shows the explicit
expressions. For manual computations it is much easier to write the element equations in
local coordinates first and then carry out the matrix multiplications using the numerical
data.
. The assembly and solution for global nodal unknowns follow the standard procedure.
For computing the element solution, the global degrees of freedom for each element are
PLANE FRAMES 269
first transformed into the local degrees of freedom by multiplying them by the T matrix for
the element. These local degrees of freedom are then used with the axial deformation and
beam interpolation functions to get complete displacement solutions. In terms of notation
used in this section, the appropriate expressions are as follows:
Global to local transformation:
Axial displacement:
f)(~J;
«<t.
u(s) =( -T
N= (_s-L
II L f)
Transverse displacement:
v(s) = ( U- I!
? 33'
+1
Fixed-end solution for uniformly distributed load:
To get the exact solution for. the distributed load case, the fixed-end solution is added to
those elements that are subjected to distributed load qt. Thus a finite element model of
a frame needs only one element between any two joints or between locations of concen-
trated loads. Finally, the axial forces, bending moments, and shear forces are computed by
appropriate differentiation:
Axial force: F(s) = EA d:~s) ;

d2v(s)
Bending moment: M(s) = El .
ds 2 '
Shear force: V(s) = d~;S);
If desired, the stresses in the elements can be computed using expressions given with axial
deformation and beam elements.
T
L
M
1 I--L-l--L
Figure 4.36. Plane frame
Example 4.10 Determine displacements, bending moments, and shear forces in the plane
frame shown in Figure 4.36. Draw free-body diagrams for each element clearly showing
all element end forces and moments. Use the following numerical data:
M=20kN·m; P=10kN; L= 1m;

2 2
E = 210 OPa; A = 4 X 10- m ; 1= 4 X 10-4 m"
The simplest possible model for the frame is to use three elements as shown in Figure
4.37. Each node has three degrees of freedom as indicated in the figure.
Use kilonewton-meters for numerical computations. The computed displacements will
be in meters and stresses in kilonewtons per square meter.
Node dof Value

2 v2 -10
4 84 -20
Equations for element 1: /

E = 2.1 X 108; I = 0.0004; A = 0.04; qs = 0.; qt = O.
Nodal coordinates:

1 100
2 2 1 0
Length = 1; Direction cosines: Is = 1, Ins = 0
Figure 4.37. Three-element model for the plane frame

PLANEFRAMES 271
Element equations in local coordinates:
8.4 0 0 -8.4 0 0 ell O.

0 1.008 0.504 0 -1.008 0.504 elz O.
106. 0 0.504 0.336 0 -0.504 0.168 el3 O.
-8.4 0 0 8.4 0 0 a, = O.
0 -1.008 -0.504 0 1.008 -0.504 els O.
o . 0.504 0.168 0 -0.504 0.336 el6 O.
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
Global to local transformation, T = 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
Element equations in global coordinates:
8.4 0 0 -8.4 0 0 Zll O.

0 1.008 0.504 0 -1.008 0.504 vI O.
0 0.504 0.336 0 -0.504 0.168 (}1 O.
106.
-8.4 0 0 8.4 0 0 liZ O.
0 -1.008 -0.504 0 1.008 -0.504 Vz O.
0 0.504 0.168 0 -0.504 0.336 (}z O.
1.008 0 0.504 -1.008 0 0.504 liZ O.

0 8.4 0 0 -8.4 0 Vz O.
106. 0.504 0 0.336 -0.504 0 0.168 (}z O.
-1.008 0 -0.504 1.008 0 -0.504 lI3 O.
0 -8.4 0 0 8.4 0 v3 O.
0.504 0 0.168 -0.504 0 0.336 (}3 O.
Equations for el~ment 3:
8.4 0 0 -8.4 0 0 lI3 O.

0 1.008 0.504 0 -1.008 0.504 v3 O.
0 0.504 0.336 0 -0.504 .0.168 (}3 O.
106. = O.
-8.4 0 0 8.4 0 0 lI4
0 -1.008 -0.504 0 L008 -0.504 v4 O.
0 0.504 0.168 0 -0.504 0.336 (}4 O.
Adding element equations into appropriate locations and adjusting for essential bound-
ary conditions, we have
0.336 0 -0.504 0.168 0 0 0 0 0 81 0

0 9.408 0 0.504 -1.008 0 0.504 0 0 Uz 0
-0.504 0 9.408 -0.504 0 -8.4 0 0 0 vz -10.
0.168 0.504 -0.504 0.672 -0.504 0 0.168 0 0 8z 0
106 0 -1.008 0 -0.504 9.408 0 -0.504 -8.4 0 U3 = 0
0 0 -8.4 0 0 9.408 0.504 0 0.504 v3 0
0 0.504 0 0.168 -0.504 0.504 0.672 0 0.168 83 0
0 0 0 0 -8.4 0 0 8.4 0 u4 0
0 0 0 0 0 0.504 0.168 0 0.336 84 -20.
181 =0.0000784722, Uz =0, Vz =0.0000685516, 8z =0.0000487103,

u3 =0.0000189484, "s =0.0000703373, 83 = -0.0000108135,
u4 = 0.0000189484,84 = -0.000159623}

Nodal values in global coordinates,
dT = (0 0 0.0000784722 0 0.0000685516 0.0000487103)
Nodal values in local coordinates,
d1 = Td = (0 0 0.0000784722 0 0.0000685516 0.0000487103)
Axial displacement interpolation functions, N;' = II - s, s}
Axial displacement, u(s) = NT. ( ~~) = 0

Axial force, EAdu(s)/ds = 0
Beam bending interpolation functions,
Transverse displacement, 'C') = N; [iJ = 0.0000784722, - 9.92063 X 10"','
Bending moment, M = EI dZv(s)/dsz = -5.s

Shear force, V(s) = dM/ds = -5.
Axial displacement, u(s) = N;' (~J = -1.78571 x 1O-6s - 0.0000685516
Axial force, EA du(s)/ds = -15.

PLANEFRAMES 273
Transverse displacement, v(s) =N;, [;;] = 0.0000487103s - 0.0000297619s 2

. d6 .
Bending moment, M = EI d 2v(s)/ds2 = -5.

Shear force, yes) = dM/ds = 0
Axial displace~ent, u(s) =N[ (~J = 0.0000189484
Axial force, EA du(s)/ds = 0
Total transverse displacement,
v(s) = -0.0000297619s3 - 0.0000297619s 2

- 0.0000108135s + 0.0000703373
Bending moment, M = EI d 2v(s)/ds 2 = -15.s - 5.

Shear force, Yes) = dM/ds = -15.
Forces at element ends:
x y Axial Force Bending Moment Shear Force
1 0 0 0 0 -5.
1 0 0 -5. -5.
2 1 0 -15. -5. 0
1 -1 -15. -5. 0
3 1 -1 -0 -5. -15.
2 -1 0 -20. -15.
The element end forces are shown in Figure 4.38. It can easily be seen that each element is
in equilibrium. The finite element solution is exact.
Figure 4.38. Free-body diagram for the plane frame

274 TRUSSES,BEAMS, AND FRAMES
T
L/{2
L --..j
1
Figure 4.39. Plane frame with distributed load
Figure 4.40. Two element model for the plane frame
Example 4.11 Determine displacements, bending moments, and shear forces in the plane
frame shown in Figure 4.39. Draw free-body diagrams for each element clearly showing
all element end forces and moments. Use the following numerical data: (l kip = 1000lb).
q = 1 kip/ft; L = 15 ft; 1= 1000 in4
To model the frame, we need only two elements: one for the inclined member and one
for the horizontal as shown in Figure 4.40. Each node has three degrees of freedom as
indicated in the figure. I
Using kip-inches, the solution is as follows:

E = 30000; I = 1000; A = 100; qs = 0.; qt = -0.0833333
Nodal coordinates:
Element Node . Global Node Number x y
1 1 O. O.
2 2 127.279 127.279
Length 180.; Direction cosines: 1s = 0.707107, Ins = 0.707107

Element equations in local coordinates:
16666.7 0 0 -16666.7 0 0 d1 O.
0 61.7284 5555.56 0 -61.7284 5555.56 dz -7.5
0 5555.56 666667. 0 -5555.56 333333. d3 -225.
-16666.7 0 0 16666.7 0 0 d4 O.
0 -61.7284 -5555.56 0 61.7284 -5555.56 ds -7.5
0 5555.56 333333. 0 -5555.56 666667. d6 225.
PLANEFRAMES 275
Global to local transformation,
0.707107 0.707107 0 0 0 0
-0.707107 0.707107 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
T=
0 0 0 0.707107 0.707107 0
0 0 0 -0.707107 0.707107 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
Element equations in global coordinates:
8364.2 8302.47 -3928.37 -8364.2 -8302.47 -3928.37 ul 5.3033

8302.47 . 8364.2 3928.37 -8302.47 -8364.2 3928.37 VI -5.3033
-3928.37 3928.37 666667. 3928.37. -3928.37 333333.. 81 -225.
-8364.2 -8302.47 3928.37 8364.2 8302.47 3928.37 =
u2 5.3033
-8302.47 -8364.2 -3928.37 8302.47 8364.2 -3928.37 v2 -5.3033
-3928.37 3928.37 333333. 3928.37 -3928.37 666667. 82 225.
Equations for element 2-element equations in global coordinates:
16666.7 0 0 -16666.7 0 0 u2 0
0 61.7284 5555.56 0 -61.7284 5555.56 v2 0
0 5555.56 666667. 0 -5555.56 333333. 82 0
-'16666.7 0' 0 16666.7 0 0 u3 0
0 -61.7284 -5555.56 0 61.7284 -5555.56 v3 0
0 5555.56 333333. 0 -5555.56 666667. 83 0
ary conditions, we have .
25030.9 X I02.47 3928.37 ][U2) [5.3033)

8302.47 8425.93 1627.18 v2 = -5.3033
[ 3928.37 1627.18 1.33333 x 106 82 225.
{u2 = 0.000601607,v2 = -0.00125474,82 = 0.000168509}

E = 30000; I = 1000; A = 100; qs = 0.; qt = -0.0833333
Length = 180.; Direction cosines: 1s = 0.707107, Ins ="0.707107
aT = (0 0 0 0.000601607' -0.00125474 0.000168509)

dJ = Td = (0 0 0 -0.000461833 -0.00131263 0.000168509)
Axial displacement interpolation functions, N~ = (1. - 0.00555556s, 0.00555556s}
Axial displacement, u(s) =N~ ( ~~) = -2.56574 X 1O-6s

Axial force, EAdu(s)/ds = -7.69721
Beam bending interpolation functions,
N~ = (3.42936 x 10":7s3 - 0.0000925926s2 + 1, 0.0000308642s3 - o.ouun,' + S,

O.0000925926s2 - 3.42936 X 10- 7s3, 0.0000308642s3 - 0.00555556s2 )
Transverse displacement, v(s) =N"[, [~] = 5.65104 X 10-9s3 - 1.0577 X 1O-6s2

, d6
Fixed-end displacement solution = -1.15741 x 10- 10(180. - S)2S2
Total transverse displacement, v(s) = -1.15741 X 1O-lOs4 + 4.73177 X 1O-8s3 -
4.8077 X 1O-6s2
Bending moment, M = EI d 2v(s)/ds2 = -0.0416667s2 + 8.51719s - 288.462
Shear force, Yes) = dM/ds = 8.51719 - 0.0833333s
Axial displacement, u(s) =N~ (~:) = 0.000601607 - 3.34226 x 1O-6s
Axial force, EAdu(s)/ds = -10.0268

Transverse displacement,
Bending moment, M = EI d 2v(s)/ds2 = 0.858707s - 105.368

Shear force, Yes) = dM/ds = 0.858707
Forces at element ends:
x y Axial Force Bending Moment Shear Force

1 0 0 -7.69721 -288.462 8.51719
127.279 127.279 -7.69721 -105.368 -6.48281
2 127.279 127.279 -10.0268 -105.368 0.858707
307.279 127.279 -10.0268 49.1988 0.858707
PLANEFRAMES 277
0.859 ;J49.2
. 105-( ~ t f - - - - - ,
QL=lV~ 6.48 ~
7 1 105
.
~r
.
vI0
0.859
8.x/
288·C
Figure 4.41. Free-body diagram of frame
The element end forces are shown in Figure 4.41. It can easily be seen that the equilibrium
is satisfied in each element and hence this is the exact solution.
+ MathematicafMATLAB Implementation 4.4 on the Book Web Site:

Analysis ofplane frames
Example 4.12 Determine displacements, bending moments, and shear forces in the box
frame reinforced with a spring as shown in Figure 4.42. Use the following numerical data
(1 kip = 1000Ib):
L = 15 ft; E = 30,000 kips/irr':

I = 1000 in"; k = 200 kips/in; P = 100 kip
We can easily create a finite element model of the entire frame using four plane frame
elements and one spring element. However, since there are no specified essential boundary
conditions, the resulting finite element system of equations will be singular. We can get
some boundary conditions bytaking advantage of symmetry and modeling the upper half,
as shown in Figure 4.43. Note the spring constant and the applied loads are both halved
in the model. The ends must have zero rotations and zero vertical displacements due to
"''',~-''!;0-- P
Figure 4.42. Box frame reiuforced with a spring

Figure 4.43. Finite element model for the half of the box frame
symmetry. The ends are free to move in the horizontal direction. The system can still move
as a rigid body in the horizontal direction, and therefore the finite element equations will
still be singular. To get a solvable system of equations, we must assign zero horizontal
displacement to at least one of the nodes. For this frame, once again because of symmetry,
the top of the frame cannot move in the horizontal direction. Thus we impose the zero
horizontal boundary condition at that point.
Using kip-inches, the solution is as follows:
Node dof Value

1 ul -50
3 u3 50
72.5309 10.8025 -3928.37 -72.5309 -10.8025 -3928.37 ul 0

10.8025 72.5309 3928.37 -10.8025 -72.5309 3928.37 VI 0
-3928.37 3928.37 666667. /3928.37 -3928.37 333333. 81 0
-72.5309 -10.8025 3928.37 72.5309 10.8025 3928.37 u2 = 0
-10.8025 -72.5309 -3928.37 10.8025 72.5309 -3928.37 v2 0
-3928.37 3928.37 333333. 3928.37 -3928.37 666667. 82 0
72.5309 -10.8025 3928.37 -72.5309 10.8025 3928.37 u2 0

-10.8025 72.5309 3928.37 10.8025 -72.5309 3928.37 v2 0
3928.37 3928.37 666667. -3928.37 -3928.37 333333. 82 0
-72.5309 10.8025 -3928.37 72.5309 -10.8025 -3928.37 = 0
u3
10.8025 -72.5309 -3928.37 -10.8025 72.5309 -3928.37 v3 0
3928.37 3928.37 333333. -3928.37 -3928.37 666667. 83 0
Equations for element 3-spring element equations in global coordinates:
100 -100)(U I)=(0)

( -100 100 u3 0
SPACE FRAMES 279
Node dof Value

1 vI 0
1 81 0
2 Uz 0
3 v3 0
3 83 0
ary conditions, we have
172.531 -10.8025 -3928.37 1]

-10.8025 145.062 o 10.8025][Uv,
-100. [-50.]
.0
( -3928.37 0 1.33333 x 106 -3928.37 8: = 0
-100. 10.8025 -3928.37 172.531 u3 50.
{U 1 = -0.184555, Vz = -0.0274869, 8z = 0, u3 = 0.184555}
Spring force = k(u 3 - u l ) = 200(0.184555- (-0.184555)) = 73.822 (Tension)
4.9 SPACE FRAMES

-
A space frame element is an extension of the plane frame element to three dimensions.
The element loading and cross-sectional properties are described in terms of a local r-s-t
coordinate system, as shown in Figure 4.44. The local t axis runs along the centroidal axis
of the element. The local rand s axes are the principal moment-of-inertia axes for the cross
section; the local r axis is along the axis of the maximum moment of inertia and the local s
axis is along the axis of the minimum moment of inertia. The element includes axial force
effects and bending effects due to applied loads in the r-t and s-t planes. In addition, the
Figure 4.44. Space frame element

element includes torsional effects due to the twisting moment (moments about the taxis).
Within the small-displacement theory, all these effects can be assumed to be uncoupled.
The finite element equations are thus just a combination of the equations treating these
effects individually.
-For a space frame element, just knowing the element end coordinates is not enough to
establish all three local element coordinates. We need additional information about one of
the local principal axes. The simplest method is the so-called three-node method. Nodes 1
and 2 are at the element end points. These two nodes define element length and degrees
of freedom. For each element a third point must also be identified to define the local r-t
plane. Any node in the model can be used as the third point as long as the three points
define the local r-t plane for the element. Using the three nodes, the local element axes are
established as follows:
(i) The local t axis is first established by creating a vector from node 1 to 2.
(ii) Since the cross product of two vectors is a vector that is normal to the plane defined
by the vectors, the local s axis is established by taking the cross product of a vector
from node 1 to 2 with a vector from node 1 to 3.
(iii) Finally the local r axis is established by taking the cross product of unit vectors in
the sand t directions.
m
1/1
The decision to use the third node to define the r-t plane is obviously arbitrary. We could
have used it to define the s-t plane as well. There is no standard convention. Different
authors and computer programs use the third node to define either the major bending axis
.II
or the minor axis. Thus, when using a computer program, it is very important to find out
I' exactly what convention is being used; otherwise the results obviously will be erroneous.
111
Detailed expressions for these vectors are developed later in this section.
,"lin
The following notation is used to/describe material and cross-sectional properties:
E Young's modulus
G Shear modulus
A Area of cross section
J Torsional constant
Ip Polar moment of inertia
Is =Imin Moment of inertia of cross section about s axis (minimum principal inertia)
t, = I mnx Moment of inertia of cross section about r axis (maximum principal inertia)
L Length of element
The torsional constant is sometimes also 'denoted by kT or It. For circular cross sections
J = Imax + Imin = Ip ' the polar moment of inertia. For other shapes J must be computed
using methods of elasticity theory. Formulas for few common shapes are given in Figure
4.45. More formulas for a large number of different cross-sectional shapes can be found in
the handbook by W. C. Young and R. G. Budynas, Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain,
seventh edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002.
SPACE FRAMES 281
1 16 b b4
J =-ab 3 (- - 3.36- (l - - -4 »
16 3 a 1Za
9 a4
For b =a:J=-
64
Figure 4.45. Formulas for torsion constant J
4.9.1 Element Equations in Local Coordinate System

Considering axial forces, bending in both planes, and twisting effects, each node of a space
frame element has six degrees of freedom; three translations, and three rotations, as shown
in Figure 4.46. The nodal displacements and applied forces are positive when these quan-
tities act along the positive coordinate directions. For applied moments and rotations the
positive directions are based on the right hand rule. When the thumb of your right hand is
pointing toward the positive coordinate direction, the curl of your fingers defines the posi-
tive directions for applied moments and rotations in the right-hand TIlle. The nodal degrees
of freedom in the local coordinate system are defined as follows:
dl' dz• d3 Displacements at node 1

d4• ds• d 6 Rotations at node 1
s; d g• d9 Displacements at node 2
d lO• d u ' d 12 Rotations at node 2
dz
Figure 4.46. Local degrees of freedom for the space frame element
The axial displacements are related to the two axial degrees of freedom d l and d7 as fol-
lows:
where L is the length of the element.

The applied loading in the local s-t plane will cause the displacement v(t) in the local s
e
direction and rotations == dv/dt about the r axis. From beam bending the displacement
v(t) is related to nodal degrees of freedom d2 , d6 , ds' and d l 2 as follows:
v(t) =( I .e.L+L J2.)[~~].

2
s d '
. dl2
This loading causes bending moment about the r axis and shear force normal to the t
direction:
V(t)
(
= dM, = E
dt. r
(ddt3V)
3
For the loading applied in the local r-t plane, the displacement w(t) is in the local r direction
and rotations <p are about the s axis. The situation is essentially the same as the beam
bending except that a positive displacement in the r direction produces a clockwise rotation
about s axis. Thus with the sign convention adopted for beam bending the rotation <p(t) is
related to the transverse displacement w(t) with a negative sign, i.e.,
ow
;' <p(t) == -at
The finite element shape functions for this situation are the same as those for usual beam
bending except for the change in sign for the rotation terms. Thus the displacement w(t) is
related to nodal degrees offreedom d3,ds' d9 , and d ll as follows:
_( _ t.L+lJ
(3 )) [
d '
9
~:
].
d ll
This loading causes the bending moment about the s axis and shear force normal to the r
direction:
s = E1 (d W
3
V (t)
r
=_dM
dt s dt 3
)
The elements in a space frame generally are also subjected to twisting moments. The gov-
erning differential equation for a bar subjected to twist is a second-order differential equa-
tion similar to the one for the axial deformation problem. Assuming twisting moments are
SPACE FRAMES 283
-applied only at the element ends (no applied distributed twisting moment along the span),
'the problem can be described in terms of the following differential equation:
GJd21jJ = 0
dt 2
where ljJ(t) is the rotation of the section about its taxis, G is the shear modulus, and J is the
torsional constant. From the similarity of this equation to the one for the axial deformation
problem, it is easy to see that a linear solution in terms of nodal degrees of freedom d4 and
d 10 is as follows:
The twisting moment per unit length is related to the angle of twist by the following equa-
tion:
Mr(t) = GJ~~
By combining axial deformations, bending in r-t and s-t planes, and effects due to twisting
actions, the total strain energy in a frarne element can be written as follows:
2V)2 2W)2
U = 2'I Jot'EA (dU)2 1 t' (d
dt dt + 2' Jo ei, dt2
1
dt + 2' Jot'm, (ddt2 I t'. (dljJ)2
dt + 2' J GJ 7ft dt
o
It is convenient to express this in matrix form as follows:
du
dt
EA o 0
u=~ rL(f!E. <!'!!.) 0 tu, 0 0]
o d
dr2
2
v
2 Jo 0 o EI~ d2w dt
~j ~;
dt dt
[
o 00
dt
Using the different displacement interpolations given above, the required derivatives can
be written as follows:
du
dt o o
d2 v
dr 2 o
-r1 0 0 0 0 0 r
1
0 0 0 0 0
12r 6 6r 4
0 l!-IJ 0 0 0 IJ - L 0 6
IJ - l !
121
0 0 0 6r 2
BT= IJ - L
12r 6 4 6r
0 0 l! - IJ 0 L - IJ 0 '0 0 6
IJ r
121
t: 0 2
L - IJ
61
0
0 0 1
0 -r 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0
t.
Thus the strain energy can be written as follows:
where
0 0
e-- [EA
0 st,
0
0
0
0
0
EI s
0 1]
k= LL BeBT dt
Carrying out matrix multiplications and integration, we get the following space frame stiff-
ness matrix in its local coordinates:
EA EA
T 0 0 0 0 0 -T 0 0 0 0 0
0
12EI,
0 0 0 ~ 0 _12EI,
0 0 0 ~
2 2
L3 L L3 L
0 0
11£/,
L3
0 -IF
6El,
0 0 0
_12EI,
L3
0 -~
L2
0
IIIIIII GJ GJ
11111" 0 0 0 T 0 0 0 0 0 -T 0 0
t.. ,~~;
U!h~
'0 0 -~ 0 ~ 0 0 0 ~2 0 -L '
2El
0
"It,,, L2 L L
II,·tll 0
6El,
0 0 0
4El,
0 -~ 0 0 0 3§.!L
"1-' k= EA
IF L
EA
L2 L
.,." -T 0 0 0 0 0 T 0 0 0 0 0
"II
0 _12EI,
0 0 0 -~ 0 12El,
0 0 0 -~
". L3
12EI, 6El,
L2 L3
12~/, ~
L
:11'
1,U, 0 0 -7 0 L2
0 0 0 L
0 2
L
0
'lIIit. GJ GJ
0 0 0 -T 0 ./ 0 0 0 0 T 0 0
0 0 -~
L2
0
2E1,
L 0 0 0
6EI,
L2
0 ~
L
0'
~ -~
2EI, ~
0 L
0 0 0 L 0 L2
0 0 0 L
In a similar manner, the equivalent nodal load vector can be established by considering the
work done by the distributed applied forces along the local coordinate directions qr and qs
as follows:
Writing the displacement expressions in a matrix form, we have
J[ ~]
t3
+1
2
0 2t3 3t2 0 0 0 2t +t
( vet) ) = [
L3 - L2 lJ L
wet) 0 0 2rJ 3t 2
1 0 -lJ + T - tt3 2t2
0
TJ - L2 + d 12
=NTd
SPACE FRAMES 285
Using these, the work done can be written as follows:
where rq is the equivalent load vector. If all distributed forces are assumed constant over
an element, then the integration can easily be carried out to give the following equivalent
load vector:
rT
q
= {o Z z Z
qsL q,L 0 _ q,Lz qsL 0 qsL qrL 0 q,.L _ q,L }
'2 ' 2 " 12' 12' , 2' 2' , 12' 12
4.9.2 local-to-Global Transformation

The stiffness matrix and the equivalent load vector derived so far have been in terms of
a local coordinate system. Since different elements in a space frame will generally have
different local axes, before assembly these matrices must be transformed to a global co-
ordinate system that is common to all elements in the frame. In the global x, y, and z
coordinate system the nodal displacements are identified as follows:
Ll1,v]> wI x, y, and z displacements at node 1

ex p ey]> ezl Rotations about x, y, z axes at node 1
LiZ' vz' Wz x, y, and z displacements at node 2
exz' eyZ' ezz Rotations about x, y, z axes at node 2
The corresponding nodal forces and moments in the global x, y, and z coordinate system
are as follows:
Fxl' F;,I' Ftl Applied forces in the global x, y, and z at node 1

M.d' lvIY1' »: Applied moments about the global x, y, and z at node 1
F.tZ' FyZ' Ftz Applied forces in the global x, y, and z at node 2
lvIxz ' lvIyZ' lvIa Applied moments about the global x, y, and z at node 2
The local-to-global transformation matrix is developed by considering three components

of displacements and rotations at each node as vector quantities. Thus the complete trans-
formation matrix is a 12 x 12 matrix consisting offour identical 3 x 3 rotation matrices as
follows:
where H is a 3 x 3 three-dimensional rotation matrix and 0 is a 3 x 3 zero matrix. The rota-

tion matrix H transforms a vector quantity from the local to the global coordinate system.
Within the small-displacement assumption, the nodal displacements, rotations, forces, and
moments are all vector quantities and can all be transformed using this H matrix. The com-
ponents of a vector along the local s, t, and r coordinates are simply the sum of projections
of its x, Y, and z components along the local axes. In matrix form the transformation can be
written as follows:
where 1( is the cosine of the angle between the t and x axes (direction cosine). The other
terms have a similar meaning. Thus nine direction cosines are needed to establish the H
matrix for each element in a space frame. Explicit expressions for these direction cosines
are given later in the section.
Using this transformation matrix, the element equations in the local coordinate system
can be related to those in the global coordinate system as follows:
r,
Noting that TT is the transformation of applied loads from the local to the global coordi-
kd =r
I
where
and
Three-Node Method for Calculating Direction Cosines Just knowing the ele-
ment end coordinates is not enough to establish all nine direction cosines in the rotation
matrix H. We need additional information about one of the local principal axes. The sim-
plest method is the so-called three-node method. Nodes I and 2 are at the element end
points, as in the case of a plane frame element. A third node is used to define either the
local r-t or the s-t plane. In the following development it is assumed that the third node
is used to define the local r-t plane, as shown in Figure 4.44. It is important to note that
the third node is used for defining the element orientation alone. It does not determine the
element length or any other parameter used in the element equations. In a given frame any
suitable node can be used to define the third node as long as this node, together with ele-
ment nodes I and 2, determines the r-t local plane for the element. The third node cannot
be collinear with element nodes I and 2 because in this case the three nodes do not form a
plane.
SPACE FRAMES 287
The coordinates of the three nodes for an element are denoted by (xl' Yl' z.), (X2• Y2' Z2)'
and (x3• Y3' Z3)' Using these COOrdinates, the nine direction cosines can be computed as
follows.
The local t axis is defined first by a vector V12 pointing from node 1 to node 2 of the
element: .
where i,j, k are unit vectors along the global coordinate directions. The length of the vector
V12 is the element length L = ~ (x2 - x 1)2 + (Y2 - Yl)2 + (Z2 - Zl)2. A unit vector along the
local t axis is therefore given by .
The three direction cosines defining the local t axis are thus
1 = X2 -xl. m = Y2 -Yl. 111 = _2_

Z -Z
_1
I L' I L' L
The local s axis is normal to the plane defined by nodes 1, 2, and 3. A vector along the
local s axis is obtained by taking the cross product of the vector V12 with vector V13 that
goes from node 1 to node 3. Thus we have
i j
Vs = Vl3 X V12 = det x3 - xl Y3 - YI
[
X2-XI Y2-YI
Xs = Y3(Z2 - Zl) + Y2(~1 - Z3) + YI (Z3 - Z2)
Y, = X3 (z, - Z2) + Xl (Z2 - Z3) + X2(Z3 - Zl)
Z, = X3(Y2 - Yl)'± X2(YI - Y3) + Xl (Y3 - Y2)
The length of this vector Vs is
Therefore a unit vector along the local s axis is given by
The three direction cosines defining the local s axis are thus
y
nt =~.
S Ls '
Finally, the local r axis is normal to the s-t plane. It can be defined by taking the cross
product of the unit vector along the s axis with the one along the t axis
where
Example 4.13 An f-shaped frame element is oriented in such a way that its longitudinal
axis is along the global z axis and its minor moment of inertia axis makes an angle of 30°
with the global x axis. The element is 100 em long. Establish the 3 X 3 rotation matrix H
for the element.
Assuming node 1 is at (0, 0, 0), node 2 should be at (0, 0, 100). According to the conven-
tion adopted here, the third node should define the major moment of inertia axis. The angle
between the global x axis and the major moment of inertia axis will be 60°. Thus, to define
the orientation of this element, we choose a third point located at 100(- cos(60), sin(60), 0).
This will establish the t - s - r coordinate system for the element, as shown in Figure 4.47.
The computations of direction cosines using the three-node method are as follows:
Nodal coordinates:
x y z
1 0 o 0
2 0 o 100.
3 /-50 50·..j3· 0
Vector from node 1 to 2, VIZ = (O, 0,100.)

Element length, L = 100.
z,t
Figure 4.47. Local and global axes for a space frame element
SPACE FRAMES 289
" Unit vector, VI = vlzlL = (O, 0,1.)

. Vector from node I to 3, Vl3 ={- 50, 50{3, 0)
Vector, Vs = VI3 X VIZ = (8660.25, 5000., 0)
Length, L, = 10000.
Unit vector, Vs = V/L s = (O. 866025,0.5, 0)
Unit vector, Vr = VI X Vs = (-0.5,0.866025,0.)
Thus the rotation matrix is as follows:
H =[ ~.866025 0.866025
-0.5
~.5 ~'J
O.
4.9.3 Element Solution

For computing element solutions, the global degrees of freedom for each element are first
'transformed into the local degrees of freedom by multiplying them by the T matrix for the
element. These local degrees of freedom are then used with the axial deformation and beam
interpolation functions to get complete displacement solutions. Finally the axial forces,
bending moments, and shear forces are computed by appropriate differentiation. In terms
of notation used in this section the appropriate expressions are as follows:
Global to local transformation:
Axial displacement:
I)(~~); O:5.t:5.L
i)
Axial force:
F(t) =EA duCt) .

dt '
Transverse displacement in the local s direction:
290 TRUSSES,BEAMS.AND FRAMES
Transverse displacement in the local r direction:
wet) =( 1 - 3(2 + 2(3 -(t _ 2(2 + ..t.) O.s ts L

L2 L3 L L2
Bending moments:
Mr(t) = EIr (~:~ ) ; 0 :5, t :5, L
Ms(t) = -EIs ( ~:n; 0:5, t :5, L
Shear forces:
III
iii
'" Vs(t) = d~r =EIr ( ~:~ ) ; 0 :5, t :5, L
~I
'~I
V,(t) =- d;s =EIs ( ~:t;) ; 0 :5, t :5, L
Twisting moment:
!
if!(t) = ( 1 - i: 4
Lt ) ( ddlO).'
dif!
M(t) = GJ dt
Example 4.14 Analyze the one-story three-dimensional frame shown in Figure 4.48. The
height of the columns is 12ft and the length of the beams is 10 ft. Each beam is subjected
to a uniformly distributed load of 2 kip/ft in the downward direction. I-shape sections are
used for both columns and beams with the arrangement shown in the figure. The columns
are connected to the foundation through simple connections that do not resist moments. The
material is steel with E = 29000kip/irr' and G = 11200kip/irr', The section properties are
as follows:
Beams: J=43in 4 ; I max = I, = 450 in"; I min =Is =32 in2

Columns: J = 60in4 ; I max =I, = 650 in"; I min =Is = 54 in 2
SPACE FRAMES 291
3
2
2
3
Flgure 4.48. One-story space frame
Taking advantage of symmetry, we model a quarter of the frame using three elements.
Because of symmetry, the boundary conditions at nodes 3 and 4 are as follows:
Node 3: £1=0;
Node 4: v=O; ex = 0;
The distributed load is applied to the elements in their local coordinates. Therefore, to
assign proper direction and sign to the distributed loads, we must carefully establish the
local coordinates for the elements as follows:
Element 1: Nodes 1,2, and 4

=> t axis along global z; s axis along global x; r axis along global y
Element 2: Nodes 2, 3, and 4 ,

=> t axis along global x; s axis along global -z; r axis along global y
Distributed ~oad: q, ":' 0; q, = fz kip/in
Element 3: Nodes 2, 4, and 3
=> t axis along global y; s axis along global z; r axis along global x
Distributed load:' qr = 0; qs = - fz kip/in
Matrices for this example are too large for printing. A complete solution can seen on the
book website. Solving the final system of global equations, we get
{ex! = 0.000398634, By!.= ,-0.00015917, ez! = 0, Uz = 0.000575402, Vz = 0.000117025,

Wz = -0.0248276, exz = -0.000799706, eyz = 0.000330328, ezz = 0, "s = 0.000117025,
w3 = -0.041634, eX3 = -0.000799706, £14 = 0.000575402,:w4 = -0.0557153,

By4 = 0.000330328}

dT = (0,0,0,0.000398634, -0.00015917, 0, 0.000575402, 0.000117025,

-0.0248276, -0.000799706, 0.000330328, 0)
d, = Td = (0.,0.,0.,0.,0.000398634, -0.00015917, -0.0248276,0.000575402,

0.000117025,0., -0.000799706, 0.000330328)
Axial effects:
Interpolation functions, N~ = (1. - 0.00694444t, 0.00694444t)
=N~ ( ~~ ) = -0.000 172414t

Axial displacement, u(t)
Axialforce, EAdu(t)ldt = -20.

Torsional effects:
=N~ ( ~:) = 0
Twist angle, ljJ(t)
Twisting moment, GJ dljJ(t)/dt = O.
Bending about r axis:
N'[, = ( 6.69796 X 10-7t 3 - 0.000144676t 2 + 1, 0.0000482253t 3 - 0.0138889t 2 + t,
0.000144676t 2 - 6.69796 x 1O-7 t 3 , 0.0000482253t 3 - 0.00694444t 2 )

d ;'
vet) = N~ ~:] ~
[
9
7.86875 x 1O- t 3 - 0.00015917t
d12
Bending moment, Mr. = E1r d 2v(t)/dt 2 =0.889955t
Shear force, V. = dM/dt = 0.889955
Bending about saxis:
Nrv = (6.69796 x 1O-7 t 3 - 0.000144676t 2 + 1, -0.0000482253t 3 + 0.0138889t 2 - t,
0.000144676t 2 - 6.69796 x 1O-7 t 3, 0.00694444t2 - 0.0000482253t 3 )
wet) =Nrv [ ~ ] = -1.94202x 1O- 8t 3 + 3.38615 x 1O-8t 2 + 0.000398634t

dll
Bending moment, M, = -E1, d 2w(t)/dt 2 = -0. 180999t
Shear force, Vr = -dM/ dt = 0.180999
FRAMES IN MULTISTORY BUILDINGS 293
Solutions over the remaining elements can be obtained in a similar manner:
Forces and Moments at Element Ends

x y Z Axial Force V. Vr 'M r Ms Mt
0 0 0 -20. 0.889955 0.180999 0 0 0
0 0 144. ~20. 0.889955 0.180999 128.154 -26.0639 0
2 0 0 144. -0.889955 -10. 0 128.154 0 0
60. 0 144. -0.889955 0 0 -171.846 0 0
3 0 0 144. -0.180999 10. 0 -26.0639 0 0
0 60. 144. -0.180999 0 0 273.936 0 0

Analysis of space frames
4.10 FRAMES IN MULTISTORY BUILDINGS
From a structural point of view most modem multistory buildings consist of a grid of
structural frames. The floor system, consisting of metal decks and concrete slabs, span
across the frames and tie everything together to create a three-dimensional structure, as
shown in Figure 4.49. Because of large dimensions, the floor system within its own plane
is essentially rigid and is known as a rigid diaphragm. Thus individual frames in a building
do not behave as their isolated counterparts. We must analyze the entire three-dimensional
system.
With the assumption of an in-plane rigid-floor system, each story has only three inde-
pendent in-plane degrees of freedom: the two displacements in the x and y directions (£I and
Figure 4.49. Multistory building

Figure 4.50. Rigid zone at beam-column connections
v) and a rotation about the z axis (8). Thus, to analyze a building, we use standard frame
element equations and assemble contributions from all frames in the building in the usual
manner. For each story we define constraints that relate all in-plane degrees of freedom to
one node that we call the master node for that story. Identifying the master node degrees
of freedom by subscript m, the constraints for degrees of freedom at any other node in the
story are expressed as follows:
l
'1.
'Ii,
i = 1,2, ...
where Xi and Yi are the coordinates of node i.

Joints in a building frame also require special modeling care. The column dimensions
in a typical building are of the order 14 to 20 in while the beams may vary in depth from
21 in to 30 in. When creating frame models using centerline dimensions, the joint zone
with these large member sizes is fairly large. Very little deformations are expected within
this jointzone. Thus rigid joint zones are typically created when analyzing building frames,
as shown in Figure 4.50. The nodes are placed outside of the joint region.
The following constraints are defined between the degrees of freedom at these nodes to
create the effect of the rigid joint zone:
After incorporating these constraints, the rest of the analysis follows the standard proce-
dures used in other examples in this c h a p t e r . -
PROBLEMS 295
PROBLEMS
Plane Trusses
4.1 Determine joint displacements and axial forces in the three-bar pin-jointed structure
shown in Figure 4.51. All members have the same cross-sectional area and are of
the sarne material, A = 1 in2 and E = 30 X 106 lb/irr'. The load P = 15,000 lb. The
dimensions in inches are shown in the figure.
72
o • )I--------------+~-p
(in)
o 108
Figure4.51.
4.2 Determine joint displacements and axial forces in the truss shown in Figure 4.51 if
the support where the load is applied settles down by ~ in.
4.3 Taking advantage of symmetry, determine joint displacements and axial forces in the
three-bar truss shown iIi Figure 4.52. All members have the same cross-sectional
area and are of the same material, A = 0.001 m2 and E = 2000Pa. The load
P = 20kN. The dimensions in meters are shown in the figure. One of the goals for
this problem is for you to learn the correct use of symmetry. Thus no credit will be
given if you do not-use symmetry even'if your solution is correct.
(m)
-4 o 4
Figure4.52.
4.4 Determine joint displacements and axial forces in the truss shown in Figure 4.53. All
members have the same cross-sectional area and are of the same material, A = 2 in2
and E = 30 x 106lb/in2 . The load P = 30,000 lb. The dimensions in feet are shown
in the figure.
p
30
o
(ft)
o 8
Figure 4.53.
in addition to the applied force the lower left support moves horizontally toward the
right by ~ in.
4.6 Determine joint displacements and axial forces in the truss shown in Figure 4.54.
Note the diagonals are not connected to each other at their crossing. The cross-
sectional area of vertical and horizontal members is 30 x 10- 4 m2 and that for the
diagonals is 10 x 10- 4 m2 . All members are made of steel with E = 210 GPa. The
load P = 20 kN. The dimensions.in meters are shown in the figure.
6 (}-------.,----{)--- p
o
(m)
o 8
Figure 4.54.
Space Trusses
4.7 Determine joint displacements and axial forces in the space truss shown in Figure
4.55. The cross-sectional area of members is 15 x 10- 4 m2 . All members are made
PROBLEMS 297
3P
Figure 4.55.
of steel with E = 210 GPa. The load P = 10 leN is applied in the -z direction and
3P in the x direction. The nodal coordinates in meters are as follows:
x y z
1 O. O. 10.
2 O. 8. O.
3 6.9282 -4. O.
4 -6.9282 -4. O.
4.56. The cross-sectional area of members is 15 x 10- 4 m2 . All members are made
Figure 4.56.
of aluminum with E = 70 GPa. The load P = 10 kN is applied in the -z direction.

The nodal coordinates in meters are as follows:
x y Z
1 O. 4. O.
2 -3. 2. 5.
3 -3. O. O.
4 3. O. O.
5 O. O. 5.
Thermal and Initial Strains

4.9 A copper rod 1.4 in in diameter is placed in an aluminum sleeve with inside diameter
1.42 in and wall thickness 0.2 in, as shown in Figure 4.57. The rod is 0.005 in longer
than the sleeve. A load P = 60,000 lb is applied to the assembly through a large
bearing plate that can be considered rigid. Determine stresses in the rod and the
sleeve. The modulus of elasticity for copper is 17 x 106 psi and that for aluminum
is 10 X 106 psi.
Rigid plate
II~
11
p
'"
II.II,11;
"
Gap=0.005
Figure 4.57.
instead of load P the diagonal member experiences a temperature decrease of 70"F.
The coefficient of thermal expansion is a = 6 x 10-6j"F.
4.11 Determine joint displacements and axial forces in the truss shown in Figure 4.53.
!
During construction the diagonal member was fabricated in too short and was
forced to fit into the assembly through heat treatment.
4.56 if instead of load P the member between nodes 1 lind 2 experiences a temper-
ature rise of 50"C. The coefficient of thermal expansion is a = 23 x 1O- 6j"C.
Spring Elements
4.13 Determine support reactions and forces in the springs for the assembly shown in
Figure 4.58.
Figure 4.58.
PROBLEMS 299
4;14 Determine support reactions and forces in the springs when the assembly is forced
to close the gap g, as shown in the Figure 4.59.
Gap,g
Figure 4.59.
Beam Bending
4.15 A fixed-end beam is subjected to a concentrated load at the midspan P.= 200 Ib, as
shown in Figure 4.60. The beam has a rectangular cross section with width = 12 in '
and height = 1 in. The length of the beam is L = 200 in and its modulus of elasticity
is E = 107 lb/in'', Taking advantage of symmetry, use only one beam element to
determine the maximum bending and shear stresses in the beam.
,.
Figure 4.60. Fixed-end beam
4.16 Two cantilever beams are joined together through a simple pin, as shown in Figure
4.61. The concentrated load at the midspan is P = 200 lb. The beam has a rectan-
gular cross section with width = 12 in and height = 1 in. The length of the beam
is L = 200 in and its modulus of elasticity is E = 107 lb/irr'. Taking advantage of
symmetry, use only one beam element to determine maximum bending and shear
stresses in the beam.
I" --~I>I""f---- L/2 ------<J>j
Figure 4.61. Beams connected through' a pin

4.17 Tho cantilever beams are joined together through a simple pin, as shown in Figure
4.62. The E1 = 107 for the right beam and is twice that for the left beam. The
concentrated load at the hinge location is P = 200 lb. Determine the displacement
and bending moment distribution over the beams.
- - L/4 ~;------- 3L/4 "I

Figure 4.62. Beams connected through a pin
4.18 A two-span beam is subjected to a moment, as shown in the Figure 4.63. Find the re-
sulting displacement, shear force, and bending moments. Compute shear and bend-
ing stresses at the middle support in the beam. Use the following numerical data
(1 k = 1000 lb). .
L= 180 in; E = 29,000 k/in 2 ; M= 1000k·in
Beam cross section: Standard l-shape (W16 x 26) with 1 = 301 in" and dimensions
as shown in the figure.
I
I- L + L -I
h = 15.69
br =5.5 :;~~oo;~J~
-be-'
I
Figure4.63.
4.19 Immediately after construction the right support of the beam shown in Figure 4.64
undergoes a settlement equal to A. Find the resulting displacement, shear force, and
bending moments. Compute shear and bending stresses at the middle support in the
beam. Use the following numerical data:
L=8m; E =200 GPa; A= lOmm
Beam cross section: Standard I-shape with 1 = 125.3 X 10- 6 m" and dimensions (in
min) as shown in the figure.
PROBLEMS 301
r L
+ L ~
h
br
= 399
= 140
tw = 6.3
tr = 8.8 IT1
.... tr
......b r
Figure 4.64.
4.20 Find displacements and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
beam shown in Figure 4.65. Assume E = 210 GPa, I = 4 X 10-4 m", L = 2 m,
P = 10 leN, M = 20 leN· m.
Figure 4.65. Beam with variable section
4.21 Two uniform beams are connected together through a spring as shown in Figure
4.66. Determine deflections, bending moment, and shear forces in the beams. What
is the force in the spring? Tile numerical values are
E = 104ksi; L = 100in; P = 100 kips; k = 2000 kip/in

Use kip . in units in calculations.
/jco-- L -+- L -1
Figure 4.66. Two beams connected througha spring
302 TRUSSES, BE~MS, AND FRAMES
4.22 Consider a uniform beam simply supported at the ends and spring supported in the
middle, as shown in Figure 4.67. Taking advantage of symmetry, analyze the beam
using only one element. Assume the following numerical data:
L=4m; E = 70 GPa; I = 2 X 104 rnm"; k= 400N/mm; P = 20kN

p
.&~ =-.'EI .- ~·t-o-~~o,c,%

k EI
I--- L ·1 L---j
Figure 4.67. Beam supported by a spring
4.23 The left half of a beam is subjected to a uniformly distributed load q = 1 lb/in, as
shown in Figure 4.68. The beam has a rectangular cross section with width = 12 in
and height = 1in. The length of the beam is L = 200 in and its modulus of elasticity
is E = 1071b/in2 • Create the simplest possible finite element model for this beam.
Using this model, determine the bending and shear stresses in the beam at U 4 from
the left end.
q
1;:;::LJ.L::I,~.J-J::l~::J.-lJ::::::::::,::;::;,,·::::;;:;;;, ,,c"":~"-:::I
I- L/2 -I- L/2 -I
Figure 4.68. Fixed-end beam

;'
4.24 Using only one element, find the midspan displacement, bending moment, and shear
force for the beam shown in Figure 4.69. Note that the loading is large enough to
cause the gap to close. Use the following data: E = 104 ksi,I = 1000 in", L = 100 in,
q = 1 k/in, gap = 0.25 in.
Gap'A~
I· L ~I
Figure 4.69. Single span beam with a gap
PROBLEMS 303
4.25 Compute stresses in the two-span beam shown in Figure 4.70. There is a small gap
between the middle support and the beam:
L =6m; q = lOkN/m; E = 200 GPa; Gap D. = 5 mm
Beam cross section: rectangular with width = 120 mID and height = 300 mrn.
Figure 4.70. Two-spanbeam
4.26 A beam with an overhang is subjected to a uniformly distributed load q = 27 Ib/in

over the right span and a moment M = ~ lb . in at the free end, as shown in Figure
4.71. The beam has a rectangular cross section with width = 12in and height = 1in,
giving A = 12 in 2 and 1= 1 in", The length of the beam is L = 1 in and its modulus
of elasticity is E = 11b/in2 •
(a) Create the simplest possible finite element model for this beam. Write element
equations, assemble to form global equations, and obtain the reduced system
of equations, taking boundary conditions into consideration.
(b) After a analysis of this beam it is found that the rotation at the free end is -&.
rad and that at the leftsupport is --&. rad. Determine the vertical displacement
and bending moment at point a in the beam.
1""'1--- L/3 - - - l l > l < o I - - - L/3 - - - ..i1!>1<>l

- * - - - L/3 ---!13>l
Figure 4.71.
4.27 Using the simplest possible finite element model, determine the maximum bending
and shear stress in a uniform beam simply supported at the left end and spring
supported at the right end, as shown in Figure 4.72. Assume the following numerical
data:
a = 5 kN/m; L = 5 m; E = 200 GPa;

y
q(x) = a xfL
EI
I-- L/3· -I.. . - -- 2L/3 --~~I

Figure 4.72. Uniform beam subjected to a linearly increasing load
4.28 Two overhanging beams are joined together through a simple pin connection as
shown in Figure 4.73. Determine displacement, shear force, and bending moments.
Use the following numerical data:
L= 8m; E =200 GPa; q =3kN/m
Beam cross section: Standard l-shape with 1= 125.3 X 10- 6 m" and dimensions (in
rom) as shown in the figure:
A··-··-·"_· ~WLUjl.;Z£;~ . ~.. '=Z>.

I---- - - L ---<>j
L ---'-Ooo,..I.t--.7L--!-:3L.-tI..
h =399 tw =6.3
bf;;' 140 tf = 8.8
Figure 4.73.
Plane Frames
4.29 A 300-rom-wide and 100-rom-thick bar is supported and loaded as shown in Figure
4.74. Determine displacement, shear force, and bending moments. Assume E =
10 GPa.
PROBLEMS 305
8
3
- - - - - - - - - (m)
o 2 3
Figure 4.74.
4.30 Determine displacements, bending moments, and shear forces in the plane frame
shown in Figure 4.75. Draw free-body diagrams for each element clearly showing
all element end forces and moments. Assume q = 10 kNlm, L = 2 m, E = 210 GPa,
A = 4 X 10- 2 m2 , and I = 4 X 10- 4 m". Take advantage of symmetry.
IL
1
Figure4.75.
4.31 Determine displacements, bending moments, arid shear forces in the plane frame
shown in Figure 4.76. Draw free-body diagrams for each element clearly showing
all element end forces and momentS. Assume q = 10 kN(m, L = 2 m, E = 210 GPa,
A = 4 X 10- 2 m2 , and I = 4 X 10- 4 m". Take advantage of symmetry. Use kN . m
units.
I
L
t
L
1
Figure 4.76.
4.32 The element stiffness matrices for vertical and horizontal elements of a plane frame
have already been computed and assembled into a 9 x 9 global matrix as follows:
1875. 0 -3750. -1875. 0 -3750. 0 0 0

0 25000. 0 0 -25000. 0 0 0 0
-3750. 0 10000. 3750. 0 5000. 0 0 0
-1875. 0 3750. 51875. 0 3750. -50000. 0 0
0 -25000. 0 0 40000. 15000. 0 -15000. 15000.
-3750. 0 5000. 3750. 15000. 30000. 0 -15000. 10000.
0 0 0 -50000. 0 0 50000. 0 0
0 0 0 0 -15000. -15000. 0 15000. ~15000.
0 0 0 0 15000. 10000. 0 -15000. 20000.
It is decided to brace the frame by an inclined truss member as shown in Figure 4.77.
Write down the stiffness matrix for the inclined truss member. Assemble it into the
global matrix. Determine nodal displacements due to a downward concentrated load
y
P
5
3
4 2
4
0
x
0 2 3 4 5
Figure 4.77.
PROBLEMS 307
of P = 50 kN applied at the corner. For all members, E = 210 GPa, I = 10-4 m",
and A = 10-2 m2 .
4.33 Determine displacement, shear force, and bending moments in the plane frarne
shown in Figure 4.78. Use the following numerical data:
P = l2kN; E = 200 GPa; q = 3lcN/m

Cross-section: Standard l-shape with A = 4.95 X 10-3 m2 and I = 125.3 X 10-6 m",
p
o
(m)
o 6 9
Figure 4.78.
4.34 Two 200 mm x 200 mm square bars are joined through a pin and loaded as shown in
Figure 4.79. Determine displacement, shear force, and bending moments. Assume
E = 10 GPa and P = 20lcN e .
1.5
o
(m)
o 4 6 8
Figure 4.79.
4.35 The lower portion of an aluminum step bracket, shown in Figure 4.80, is subjected
to a uniform pressure of 20 Nzrnnr'. The left end is fixed and the right end is free.
The dimensions of the bracket are thickness = 3 mm, L = 150 mm, b = 10 mm,
and h = 24 mm. The material properties are E = 70,000 Nzrnm? and v = 0.3.
For a preliminary analysis determine stresses in the bracket using a simple model
consisting of three plane frame elements.
\
L
Free \
f-- h/2 -f-- h/2---\
Figure 4.80. Step bracket
4.36 The top surface of an S-shaped aluminum block, shown in Figure 4.81, is subjected
to a uniform pressure of 20 N/mm2 . The bottom is fixed. The dimensions of the
block are t = 3 mm, L = 15 mm, b = 10 mm, and h = 24 mm. The material prop-
erties are E = 70,000 N/mm 2 and v = 0.3. For a preliminary analysis determine
stresses in the block using a simple model consisting of four plane frame elements.
Figure 4.81. S-shaped aluminum block Figure 4.82. Concrete dam
4.37 The cross section of a concrete dam is shown in Figure 4.82. Using a simple plane
frame model, estimate stresses in the-darn due to self-weight of the dam and the
water pressure. Use a reasonable number of elements and assign average section
properties to each element. Assume unit thickness perpendicular to the plane. The
depth of the water behind the dam is 18 m, The density of concrete is 2400 kg/m''
and that of water is 1000 kg/m". The modulus of elasticity of concrete is 30 GPa.
PROBLEMS 309
4.38 The side view of a pry bar is shown in Figure 4.83. The cross section of the bar
is rectangular with thickriess = ~ in and width (perpendicular to the plane of
paper) = 1.2 in. The other dimensions (in inches) are shown in the figure. The
material properties are E = 29 X 106 psi and v = 0.3. A load of P = 200 lb is ap-
plied at the center of the handle. Using a suitable number of plane frame elements,
determine maximum deflection and stress in the bar.
p
Figure 4.83. Pry bar
Space Frames
4.39 A cantilever beam is supported by a beam fixed at both ends, as shown in Figure
4.84. Analyze the system when it is subjected to loading as shown. Use the following
numerical data:
L=4m; b = 1 m; q = 100N/m; E = 200 GPa; G = 100GPa

Beams, W360 x 44.6: A =5.71 X 10-3 m2 ; J = 0.1729 X 10- 6 m";
Imax = 121.1 X 10-6 m"; I min = 8.16 X 10-6 rn"
Beams, W310 x 38.7: A = 4.94 X 10- 3 m 2 ; J = 0.1421 X 10- 6 m";
6
I max = 84.9 X 10- m"; l min = 7.2 X 10-6 m"
Figure 4.84.
4.40 Two beam cantilever out of an Hsframe, as shown in Figure 4.85. The columns are
fixed at the top and the bottom. Analyze the frame when it is subjected to loading
as shown. Use the following numerical data.
L = 20 ft; h = 15 ft; b = 20 ft; P = 30 kips; q = 2kips/ft; w = 0.5kip/ft
Beams, W16 x 40: A = 11.8 in ;2

J =0.851 in";
Imax =518 in"; l min =28.9 in"
Columns, W12 x 72: A = 21.1 in2 ; J = 3.062 in":
Imax =597 in"; I min = 195 in"
E = 29,000 ksi; G = 11,200 ksi
/ Figure 4.85.
CHAPTER FIVE
hi -& "dHll . , PFHH s iH FW ;a 54'
TWO-DIMENS~ONALELEMENTS
In the previous chapters the basic finite element concepts were demonstrated through
simple one-dimensional elements. For most of those problems either the exact solution is
known or there are several other numerical methods available that may be more convenient
to use than the finite element method. This is not the case for two- and three-dimensional
problems. The exact solutions are rare for these problems. Most other numerical meth-
ods are not as widely applicable as the finite element method. One of the key advantages
of the finite element method is that the fundamental concepts extend easily from one-
dimensional to higher dimensional problems. The only complication is that the required
integration and differentiation become more difficult, but these are calculus-related prob-
lems and have nothing to do with the finite element concepts. A review of vector calculus,
especially integration over two- and three-dimensional domains, will make the transition
from one-dimensional problems to two- and three-dimensional problems a lot smoother.
In this chapter the basic finite element concepts are illustrated with reference to the
following partial differential equation defined over an arbitrary two-dimensional region,
such as the one shown in Figure 5.1:
-a (au)
k -
ax .tax
+ -a ( k -au) + pu + q
ay Yay
=0
where kxCx, y), kyCx, y), p(x, y), and q(x,y) are known functions defined over the area. The
unlrnownsolution is u(x, y). The equation can easily be recognized as a generalization of the
one-dimensional boundary value problem considered in Chapter 3. Steady-state heat flow,
variety of fluid flow, and torsion of planar sections are some of the common engineering
applications that are governed by the differential equations which are special cases of this
general boundary value problem.
311
--
312 TWO-DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS
y
Normal, n
Figure 5.1. Two-dimensional solution domain
The differential equation is second order and therefore, based on the discussion in Chap-
.ter 2, the boundary conditions involving u are essential and those involving its derivatives
are natural boundary conditions. The area of the solution domain is denoted by A and its
boundary by C. The boundary is defined in terms of a coordinate e that runs along the
boundary and an outer unit normal to the boundary n, as shown in Figure 5.1. The x and y
components of the normal vector are denoted by nx and l1y:
The formulation presented in this chapter can handle boundary conditions of the following
types:
(i) Essential boundary conditioy(~pecified on portion of the boundary indicated by Ce:
uCe) specified on C,
where e is a coordinate along the boundary.

(ii) Natural boundary condition specified on portion of the boundary indicated by Cn :
au au
lex ax I1x + ley ay ny = aCc)u(e) + f3(c) on CIl
where aCe) andf3(c) are specified parameters along the boundary. When lex = ley == k,
the left-hand side is the derivative of u in the direction of the outer normal to the
boundary, and the boundary condition is expressed as
au au) au
k ( ax nx + ay ny == k an = au + f3
Observe carefully that this expression does not allow specification of any arbitrary first
derivative of u. Only the normal derivative can be specified. For example, on a boundary
SELECTED APPLICATIONS OF THE 2D BVP 313
that is perpendicular to the x axis, the components of the unit normal to the boundary will
ben, = 1 and ny = 0 and thus' only au/ax can be specified by this form. The reason
for choosing the normal derivative is because it gives rise to a convenient weak form.
Furthermore, for most physical problems it is natural to specify the normal derivative or it
is possible to use mathematical manipulations to express the derivative in this form. Thus
it is not a severe limitation for practical problems.
A few selected applications that are governed by the differential equation of this form
are presented in the first section. The second section presents a general finite element for-
mulation for the problem. Rectangular and triangular elements for solution of this differen-
tial equation are presented in the last two sections in this chapter. These elements are used
to obtain approximate solutions for a variety of problems.
5.1 SELECTED APPLICATIONS OF THE 2D BVP
5.1.1 Two-Dimensional Potential Flow

The problem of two-dimensional frictionless and incompressible fluid flow, lmown as po-
tential flow, is governed by the following two equations:
1. Continuity equation: ~ +~ =0
2. Irrotational flow condition: t; - ~ = 0
where u(x, y) and v(x, y) are the fluid velocities in the x and y directions. Two different
formulations are used to find solutions of these equations and are known as stream function
and potential function formulations:
In the stream function formulation it is assumed that a scalar function, called the stream
function ifJ(x, y), exists that is related to the fluid velocities in the x and y directions as
follows:
aifJ aifJ
u=-; v=--
ay ax
With this assumption the continuity equation is satisfied exactly while the irrotational flow
condition yields the following second-order partial differential equation:
In the potentialfunction formulation it is assumed that a scalar function, called the potential
function ¢(x, y), exists that is related to the fluid velocities in the x and y directions as
follows:
v=-
a¢
ay
314 TWO·DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS
Figure 5.2. Flow around an object
With this assumption the irrotational flow condition is satisfied exactly while the continuity
equation yields the following second-order partial differential equation: .
Thus both formulations are governed by the differential equation of the same type with
kx == ky == I and p == q == O. However, the two formulations differ in the way the bound-
ary conditions are imposed. To illustrate this difference, consider a typical potential flow
problem to determine fluid flow around a symmetric object, as shown in Figure 5.2. Away
from the object the fluid is flowing in the x direction at a known velocityzq, In the vicinity
of the object the velocities change and are unknown. At a sufficient distance downstream
from the object, once again we have a constant flow in the x direction.
The first task is to establish
. . . the boundaries
I of the solution domain. On all sides of the
object, we must extend the solution domain far enough so that the assumption of uniform
flow in the x direction is valid (indicated by horizontal streamlines). Since the computa-
tional effort will depend on the size of the solution domain, extending the domain too far
would be inefficient. However, if the domain is not large enough, the results will be inac-
curate. Thus few trials may be necessary before settling on a proper size for the solution
domain. It is generally recommended to extend the computational domain in all directions
to about four times the size of the object.
The next task is to define appropriate boundary conditions on all sides. Taking advantage
of symmetry, we need to model only a quarter of the solution domain, as shown in Figure
5.3. For the stream function formulation If!, we can take any arbitrary reference value for
the base because the velocities depend only on the derivatives of If!. We choose If! == 0 along
x == 0 and come up with the following boundary conditions:
Boundary Conditions for Stream Function.Formulation

1. On the bottom and along the obstruction
If!==O
y
ifi=Huo
r ..-
V' .,.
V"
V'
.- ...
V'
~...
..
...
.(
_
ifi=O
ifi=O
Figure 5.3. Boundary conditions in terms of stream function for flow around an object
2. On the left side
Integrating this expression, we have
Thus 1/t varies linearly with height on this side.

3. On the top: From linear variation of 1/t on the left side with y == H, we have
4. On the right side, because of Symmetry,
81jJ == 0
8x
Note that the original form of the boundary condition 81/t/8y == Uo on the left side is not in
the form that can be handled by the natural boundary condition defined for the differential
equation since the normal derivative for this side is
==> -81/t ==--

81/t
8n 8x
Thus we can specify 81/t/8x on the ends but not 81/t/8y. On the right side 81/t/8n == 81/t/8x,
and thus we can use this boundary condition directly. .
With the potential function formulation the boundary conditions on a quarter of the
solution domain are as shown in Figure 5.4. On the bottom, -top, and left side we have
natural boundary conditions. The right vertical symmetry line must be a potential line and
therefore we must specify that 1> == constant. The actual value does not matter.
y
8¢!8y=O
poo-.,... f"" f
P'" ~ "... "J' i/>=Constant
.- if
" if
8¢!8x=uo
.-
" of
~
8i/>/8n=O
x
8¢!8y=O
Figure 5.4. Boundary, conditions in termsof potentialfunction for flow aroundan object
Boundary Conditions for PotentialFunctionFormulation

1. On the top and bottom sides
a¢ =0
ay
2. Along the obstruction
3. On the left end
4. On the right end
¢ = constant
5.1.2 Steady-State Heat Flow

Consider the problem of finding the steady-state temperature distribution T(x,
y) in long
chimneylike structures. Assuming no temperature gradient in the longitudinal direction,
we can take a unit slice of such a structure and model it as a two-dimensional problem.
Using conservation of energy on a differential volume, the following governing differential
equation can easily be established:
axa (aT)
kx ax + aya (ky aT)
ay + Q = 0
where kx and ky are thermal conductivities in the x and y directions and Q(x, y) is specified
heat generation per unit volume. Typical units for k are W/m- °C or Btu/hr- ft- of and those
for Q are' W/m 3 or BtuIhr· fil. The possible boundary conditions are as follows:
~ (i) Known temperature along a boundary:
T(e) = To specified
The sign convention for heat flow is that heat flowing into a body is positive and
that out of the body is negative. Comparing with the general form this boundary
condition implies a = 0 and f3 = ~qo' On an insulated boundary or across a line of
symmetry there is no heat flow and thus qo = O.
(iii) Convection heat loss along a boundary:
-k-
oT = h(T(e) - T )
on '"
where h is the convection coefficient, T(e) is the unknown temperature at the
boundary, and Too is the temperature of the surrounding fluid. Typical units for h
are W/m 2 • °C and Btn/hr -ft2. "F, Comparing with the general form, this boundary
condition implies a = -h andf3 = hToo '
5.1.3 Bars Subjected to Torsion

The problem of determining stress distribution in bars of arbitrary cross section subjected
to twist can be formulated in terms ?f a stress function ¢ defined as follows:
The total shear stress can be computed by taking the vector sum as follows:
All other stress components on the cross section are assumed to be zero. (See Chapter 7 for
a review of basic stress and strain concepts and derivation of stress equilibrium equations.)
With this assumption the stress equilibrium equations are automatically satisfied. The strain
compatibility conditions lead to the following differential equation:
e
where G is the shear modulus and is the angle of twist per unit length. The boundary
condition is that ¢ must be constant on the boundary. Usually ¢ = 0 is chosen on the
boundary.
The total torque is related to the stress function as follows:
Using these equations, the finite element formulation can be employed to analyze thefol-
lowing two situations.
Determining Stresses in a Bar Subjected to a Given Torque T The governing

differential equation needs 0'8, the angle of twist per unit length. The torque does not show
up in the governing differential equation and thus we cannot proceed directly as in other
common stress analysis situations. Recognizing that the stress function ¢ depends linearly
on OB, we use the following procedure:
(i) Assume arty convenient value of OBa • To clearly identify that this value is assumed,
we have used the subscript a.
(ii) Find the stress function solution ¢a from the governing differential equation cor-
responding to OBa • Compute the total torque Ta by integrating over the bar cross
section using
(iii) Use ratios and proportions to determine the actual values of the angle of twist and,.
¢ as follows: ,/.
Once ¢ is known, the two nonzero stress components can be determined by simple
differentiation. All other stress components are zero.
Determining Torsional Constant An important use of the stress function approach

is to determine the torsional constant J for a given section. The torsional constant is a
property of a cross section and is related to the torque as follows:
T = JOB
Thus, if we set OB = l , then the total torque computed is the torsional constant of the cross
section:
SELECTED APPLICATIONS OF THE 20 BVP 319
Figure 5.5. Rectangular waveguide
(i) Set GB = 1. "

(ii) Find the stress function solution ¢ by solving the governing differential equation.
Compute the total torque T by integrating over the bar cross section using
T=]=2 IIA
¢dA
Recall from Chapter 4 that] values are required for space frame members. The equations
given there for some simple cross sections are based on the closed-form solutions of ¢
available for those sections. For complicated sections, closed-form solutions are not pos-
sible. However, one can use the finite element formulation presented here to determine a
numerical value of] for virtually any cross section.
5.1.4 Waveguides in Electromagnetics

Waveguides are hollow conductors that are employed to efficiently transmit electrical sig-
nals at microwave frequencies (in the GHz range). A waveguide with a rectangular cross
section is shown in Figure 5.5. Electromagnetic waves inside a waveguide experience mul-
tiple reflections from the enclosing walls and produce discrete modes that depend on the
shape and size of the waveguide, the medium within the waveguide, and the operating fre-
quency. The two types of modes supported by a waveguide are identified as the transverse
magnetic (TM) andthe transverse electric (TE). These modes can propagate only when the
operating frequency is higher than a certain frequency known as the cutofffrequency, Thus
determination of the cutoff frequency is a critical parameter in the design of waveguides.
The governing differential equation for determination of the cutoff frequency is the
Helmholtz equation, written in terms of a scalar potential if! as follows:
where lee is the unlmown cutoff frequency. The potential is related to the transverse electric
field components as follows:
For TM modes:
For TE modes:
where 2 0 is the characteristic wave impedance for TM modes. For the TM modes IjJ is set
to 0 along the boundary. For the TE modes the normal derivative of the potential (8i/J18n)
is 0 on the boundary.
This differential equation is of the same form as the general BVP with kx = ky = 1,
p = 12;;, and q = O. However, there is one key difference in this application, and that
is the cutoff frequency kc is not known. The situation is similar to the buckling problem
considered in Chapter 3. Proceeding with the standard finite element formulation in the
usual manner will give rise to an eigenvalue problem. The eigenvalues of the system will
correspond to the cutoff frequencies and the corresponding eigenvectors will be the wave
propagation modes.
5.2 INTEGRATION BY PARTS IN HIGHER DIMENSIONS
In order to derive the weak form for two- and three-dimensional boundary value problems,
we need a formula equivalent to the integration by parts for one-dimensional problems.
This is accomplished by using the well-known Gauss and Green-Gauss theorems from
vector calculus. These theorems are presented here in the context of a two-dimensional
problem. Their extension to the three-dimensional boundary value problems is obvious.
Gauss's Divergence Theorem Consider a vector of functions F = (F1(x, y), F2(x, y)l.
The divergence of F is defined as follows:
divP = 8F1 + 8F2

8x 8y
According to Gauss's divergence theorem, the area integral of div P is equal to line integral
of its dot product with the unit outer normal 11. That is,
ffA
divP dA = i p
T
11 de
The dA = dx dy is the differential area. All terms in the boundary integral must be ex-
pressed in terms of the boundary coordinate e. The de in the boundary integral is the length
of a differential segment on the boundary:
de= ~d~+di
INTEGRATION BY PARTS IN HIGHERDIMENSIONS 321
Written explicitly,
where 11.< and l1y are the components of the unit normal to the boundary,
Green-Gauss Theorem Given another function g(x, y), the integral of the divergence
of the product gF can be written as follows:
Using the product rule, the divergence of the product gF can be written as follows:
di ( F) - a(gFI ) a(gF2 ) _ aF1 F ag aF2 F ag

IV g - ax + ay - g ax + I ax + g ay + -y
? a
Rearranging terms,
' ( F) -g
_ (aF g
dIVg - 1+aF
-2 ) + (a-
ax ay ax
Noting that the row vector in the second term is the transpose of the gradient vector of g,
ag)T
ay
we have
div(gF) = g(div F) + CilglF

Thus the integral of div(gF) can be expressed as follows: .
II
A
g(divF)dA + IIA
C'lglFdA =1 gFTndc
Rearranging terms, we get the following relationship, commonly known as the Green-
Gauss theorem:
IIg(diVF)dA= 19F
Tl1dC-
II('i1~lFdA
A
Green-Gauss Theorem as Integration by Parts in Two Dimensions The

Green-Gauss theorem can be written in a form very similar to the usual one-dimensional
integration by parts by taking the vector of functions with F 1 = f and' F2 = 0, i.e.,
F = (f(x, y), O)T. The divergence of this function is
divF = af
ax
and thus applying the Green-Gauss theorem, we have
fJ agf
A
ax
dA
.
Similarly, by taking the vector of functions with F 1 =0 and F2 == f, we can see that
Note that, if the derivative on function f(x, y) is with respect to x, then the boundary in-
tegral involves nx and vice versa. Similar to the one-dimensional case, this form of the
Green-Gauss theorem gives an area integral in which the derivative is switched from one
function to the other. We also get a boundary integral involving the product of the functions
and the component of the unit normal. These forms, and their obvious extensions to three
dimensions, will be used in the following section and the remaining chapters to obtain
weak forms for given boundary value problems.
,/
Example 5.1 A two-dimensional boundary value problem is stated as follows:
a2 u
2 -2 -
a2 u x
3 -2 + (x + y)u + - = 0; 1 < x < 3; 1<y<2
ax ay y
= sin(y); au 3 au
u(x, 1) == sin(x); u(1, y) a/x, 2) ==x ; . ax (3, y) =u(3, y) +1
Comparing the problem with the general form, identify the terms kx ' ky , p, ... ,fJ for this
problem. Classify the boundary conditions into essential and natural types. Obtain a weak
form for the problem.
The solution domain is a rectangle, as shown in Figure 5.6. The coefficients· in the
differential equation are as follows:
x
P =x+y; q==-
y
The boundary conditions are as follows:

INTEGRATION BY PARTS IN HIGHERDIMENSIONS 323
y Side 3
2
Side 4 Side 2 .
Side 1
,-0----------- x
3
Figure 5.6.
Essential: On side 1, u = sin(x); on side 4, u = sin(y).

Natural: On side 3
au =;2.
ay ,
au au au
ky ay12y = -3 ay :=:} ky ay 12y = -3;2 :=:} a=0 and [3 = -3;2
Natural: On side 2
au
ax = u(3,y) + 1; 12x = 1, 12y = O
au au au
kx ax 12x = 2 ax :=:} kx a/Ix = 2u(3, y) + 2 :=:} a = 2 and [3=2
Multiplying the differential equation by the weighting function Nj , the Galerkin weighted
residual is as follows:
», x)
If (
a2u
2-? - 3-? + (x + y)u +- NjdA = 0; ,i = 1,2, ...
Bx: ay- y
A
Using integration by parts on the first two terms,
For the rectangular domain for this example, by substituting the normal vector components,
the expressions can be written more explicitly:
First term:
2u
3 l2 a
. 2---:xNi dx dy = l3 2-auNi(x, 1) x (0) dx + l2 2- au N (3, y) x (1) dy
l x=1 y=1 ax- x=1 aX ye l aX i
(3 au (2 au
+ JX=1 2 ax Ni(x, 2) x (0) dx + J 2 ax Ni(1, y) x (-l)dy
y=1
- 3 l 2 2auaNi
- - dx dY
l x=1 ye l ax ax .
3 l 2 a2u . l2 au
2~Nidxdy= 2- Np,y)dy
l x=1 ye I ax- ye l ax
2 au l3l2 au aN
- 2- N/l,y)dy- 2- -a' dxdy
l y=1ax xe l y=1 aX X
Second term:
2u
3 l2 - 3a- = l3 au Ni(x, 1) x (-1)dx
-3-
idxdy
l xe l y=1 ay2N x=1 aY
2 au l3 au
+ -3 x (O)dy + -3 i(x, 2) x (l)dx
l Fl 7JNP,y)
Y _1 7JN
Y
2 au
(O)dy+ l3l2 3-
auaN
+ -3- Np,y) X -a'dxdy
l y=1 ay x=1 y=1 aX X
3 l 2 -3a2u
- idxdy= l3 3-fJu N l3 3-au N
i(x,l)dx- i(x.2)dx
l xe I ye l ay2N x=1 aY x=1 aY
+ 3 l 2 3auaNi
- - dx dY
l xe l y=1 ax ax
Thus the weighted residual is
2 2-
au Np,y)dy- l2 2- au N/l,y)dy+ l3 3-
au N l3 3-au N
i(x,l)dx- i(x,2)dx
l y=1 ax ye l aX _1 aY x=1 aY
+ auaN auaN ( (x+y)u+-X) N )dxdy=O

3 l 2 (-2--'+3--'+
l x=1 y=1 ax ax ay ay y ,
Consider boundary terms:

First term:
l
~au
2- Ni(3,y)dy
y=1 ax
FINITE ELEMENTEQUATIONS USINGTHE GALERKIN METHOD 325
. au .
SIde 2: ax =u(3, y) + 1; Natural
~ I:I 2(u(3, y) + 1)Ni(3, y) dy
Second term:
2
au
-
L a=
ye I
Side 4: u
2- N i(l , y) dy
X .
sin(y); Essential
u
Must satisfy explicitly: - (2 2 aa N i(l , y) dy =0
Jy=l x
Third term:
3
au
L 7JNJx,1)dx
x=1
=
Side 1: u
3
Y
sin(x); Essential
Must satisfy explicitly: (3 3 :uNi(x, 1) dx =0

J<=I y
Fourth term:
3
au
-
L 7JN
-,=1
3
y
i(x,2)dx
Side 3: :~ = x3; Natural
~ 1:1 -3x3 NJx, 2) dx

Thus the wealeform is
1:1 2(u(3, y) + 1)~i~3, y) dy + 1:1 -3x3 Ni(x, 2)dx

+.
13 L2 (
-,=1 ye l
auaN.1 +3-
-2-
aX X
-a -a1 + ( (x+y)u+ -X) N,) dxdy
auaN.
aY Y Y
=0
Admissible solutions must satisfy the EBe on sides 1 and 4.
5.3 FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS USING THE GALERKIN METHOD
The solution domain is discretized into elements. For simplicity of notation we do not in-
troduceany super- or subscriptsand assume that A and C now refer to an arbitrary element
area and its boundary. For the general derivation considered in this section, no specific
shape of the element is assumed. Explicit equations for rectangular and triangular are de-
veloped in later sections.
The general form of finite element equations for the problem can be written using ex-
actly the same steps used for the one-dimensional problems. Recall from Chapter 2 that for
one-dimensional problems a weak form is written by using standard steps of writing the
weighted residual, integration by parts, and incorporating the natural boundary conditions.
Furthermore, in the finite element form the weighting functions are the same as the inter-
polation functions N, used to define an assumed solution over a finite element. The same
general procedure works for two-dimensional problems.
The Galerkin weighted residual for the two-dimensional boundary value problem is
ff( axa (au)

A
k ax + aya (ky aU)
x ay + pu + q.) N, dA = 0; i = 1,2•...
Using the Green-Gauss theorem on the first two terms in the weighted residual, we have
Thus the weighted residual is
Jf(
c
kx au a/y Nide + ff( -kx au
ax nx + kyau) aNi - kyau
ax & aNi + puNi+ qNi)dA = 0
ay Iii
A.
(
Splitting the boundary integral into two parts, the one over which the essential boundary
condition is specified (Ce ) and the other where the natural boundary condition is specified
(CII ) , and substituting the natural boundary condition, we get
As was the case for one-dimensional problems, requiring the assumed solution to satisfy
the essential boundary conditions results in weighting functions that are zero over the Ce
boundary, Thus with the admissible assumed solutions the weak-form equivalent to the
given boundary value problem is as follows:
i = 1,2•...
FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS USING THE GALERKIN METHOD 327
The assumed solution over an element is written as follows:
u(x,y) = (N1(x,y) N 2(x,y) ... N,1(X'Y))[~~~] =NTd
un
811 = (8NI 8N2

8x 8x 8x
au = (8N I 8N2
8y 8y 8y
where up u2' ••• are the unknown solutions at the element nodes. Over the boundary of
the element the assumed solution must be written in terms of boundary coordinate e in the
following form:
u(e) = (NI(e) N2(e) ... NIl(e))[~] =N~d

ull
Substituting these into the weak form, we have
L (aNi(e)N~ d +[3N)de
c;
+ II
II
(-kx ~~iB;-d-k)'~~iB~d +pNiNTd + qNi)dA = 0; i = 1,2, ...
Writing all n equations, with Ni' i = 1, 2, ... , n, together in a matrix form yields
or,
L,,(aNcN~d + [3Nc)de + II(-k.. J1./i[d - kjJ)'B~d ~ pNNTd + qN)dA = 0

II
Rearranging terms by keeping quantities involving d on the left-hand side, we get the
element equations as follows:
The first two terms inside the area integral can be arranged in a more compact form by
using matrices as follows:
where
~J
ax
~
and C = (J ~)
ay
Thus the finite element equations are as follows:
Define n x n matrices
kk = II
A
T
BCB dA;
Define n X 1 vectors
rq = II
A
qNdA;
(kk + k p + lea)d =r q + rfJ
The quantities lea and rfJ are a result of applied natural boundary conditions and will affect
only those elements that have a boundary on which an NBC is specified. For the interior
elements these terms will be zero. .
In order to actually evaluate the integrals defining the element equations, we need to
assume an element shape and develop appropriate interpolation functions. Any element
shape can be created as long as it is useful in modeling the geometry of practical solution
domains and it is possible to carry out required integrations and differentiations. Some
typical elements are presented in the remaining sections and the following chapter.
RECTANGULAR FINITE ELEMENTS 329
5.4 RECTANGULAR FINITE ELEMENTS
A rectangular element is the simplest element that can be developed for two-dimensional
problems. The assumed solutions can easily be written by using the Lagrange interpolation
formula in the x and y directions. The area and boundary integrals are also straightforward
to evaluate over rectangular domains. However, from a practical point of view a rectangular
element is not very useful sinceit is difficult to model irregular geometries using rectan-
gular elements alone. The rectangular elements are developed here primarily to show the
procedure without integration issues complicating the discussion.
5.4.1 Four-Node Rectangular Element

A typical rectangulai element with dimensions 2a x 2b is shown in Figure 5.7. The bound-
ary is defined by four sides of the element. The outer normals and boundary coordinate
c for each side are also shown in the figure. The computations are easier if we choose a
local coordinate system (s, t) with the origin at the element center. For each element these
local coordinates are related to the global coordinates by a simple translation. Denoting the
global coordinates of the element centroid by (xc' Yc)' we have the following relationship
between the local and the global coordinates:
t =Y - Yc
Note that with tins change of variables
ds = dx; dt = dy
and therefore the derivatives with respect to x and y are exactly the same as those with
respect to sand t. In the local coordinate system, the nodal coordinates are (-a, -b), (a, -b),
(a, b), and (-a, b). To evaluate boundary terms, for each side a boundary coordinate c is
defined with the origin at the center of each side. The positive directions of these boundary
coordinates are consistent with the requirement of moving counterclockwise around the
boundary of the element.
y y
n
n
---------- x ---:--------x
Figure 5.7. Four-node rectangular element
Assumed Solution Assuming unknown solutions at the four corners as nodal degrees
of freedom, we have a total of four degrees of freedom. The assumed finite element solu-
tions are needed in the following form:
Over A: U(S, t) = (N I (s, t) Nz(s, t)
Over C:
Over the area the assumed solution can be written starting from a polynomial in two di-
mensions with four coefficients. Following the discussion in Chapter 2, we must use com-
plete polynomials as much as possible. A complete linear polynomial in two dimensions
has three terms Co + CIS + czt. For the fourth term we must choose from one of the three
quadratic terms c 3st + c4s z + cst z. For an element that is appropriate for any general appli-
cation the assumed solution should be symmetric; otherwise the element will give different
results depending upon its orientation. Based on this consideration, we choose the st term
as the fourth term, and thus a suitable polynomial solution for a rectangular element is as
follows: .
The coefficients co' c 1' •.. can be expressed in terms of nodal degrees of freedom by eval-
uating the polynomial at the nodes as follows:
-a -b
["'] [1
U
u3
z _ 1
- 1
a
a
-b -ob
b
cI
ab]['"J
ab Cz
u4 1 -a b -ab c3
Inverting the 4 x 4 matrix, we get
I I I I
4 4 4 4
[~: J
I I I I
-4ci 4ci 4ci. -4ci
m" -4ij
I
4ab
I
-4ij
I
- 4ab
I I
4ij
I
4ab
I
4ij
I
- 4ab
u3
u4
RECTANGULAR FINITEELEMENTS 331
Substituting into the polynomial, we have

I I I I
4 4 4 4
I I I I
u(s, t) = (l s t st)
-4li
I
-4ij
I
4li
I
-4ij
I
4li
I
4ij
I
-4li
I
4ij
I
["']
u2
u3
U4
4ab - 4ab 4ab - 4ab
Carrying out matrix multiplication,
U(s t) = ( (a-s)(b-t) (a+s)(b-t) (a+s)(b+tl

, 4ab ----;jQb ----;jQb
U2I]
N)
4
U = NTd
[ U3
U4
(a - s)(b - t) N. _ (a + s)(b - t) .
NI = 4ab ; 2- 4ab'
N _ (a + s)(b + t) . N _ (a - s)(b + t)
3- 4ab ' 4 - 4ab
where N1, •• . , N4 are the required iriterpolation functions. Note that each of the interpola-
tion functions N, is 1 at the ith node of the element and 0 at every other node.
The solutions along the elementsides are written by substituting appropriate values of
sand t for each side. Expressing boundary interpolation functions in terms of e for each
side, we have
a+e
For side 1: = e, t =- b ==* NTe,1-2 = (a-e
s 2Q 2Q 0 0); -a::;; c s a
b-e
s = a, t = e ==* N{2-3 = (0 2b 2b 0);
b+e -b s; c s b
For side 2:
s = -e, t = b ==* N{3-4 = (0 0 2Q a );

a-e -a::;; c s a
For side 3: 2:c
For side 4: s = -a, t = -e ==* N{4-1 =( b2+be o 0 b-e 2b '

). -b::;; c s b
Element Equations The element equations involve the following matrices and vec-
tors:
kk = If
A
BeB dA-'
T
kp =- II A
pNN
T
dA;
r, = II
A
qNdA; liJ = i c,
f3N e de
~l
i!!!:J..
c = (~ ~)
as as and
i!!!:J.. ~
at at
For simplicity in integrations, it will be assumed that k", k y, p, q, a, and f3 are all constant
over an element. Thus these terms can be taken out of the integrals. Substituting the as-
sumed solution and carrying out integrations, the matrices and vectors needed for element
equations can easily be written:
NT _ ( (a-s)(b-t) (a+s)(b-t) (a+s)(b+t) (a-s)(b+t) )

- 4ab 4ab 4ab 4ab
b b-t b+t
BT =
C-
4ab
s-a
4ab
4ab
a+s
- 4ab
4ab
a+s
4ab
_b+t)
4ab
a-s
4ab
k,(a-s)2+kx(b-tl' k,.<a 2-s')-kx(b-t)2 ky(?-a 2)+k,(t2_b2) kx(b2-t2)-k,.<a-s)'
16a2b2 16a2b' 16a'b' 16a2b2
ky(a2-s2)-k/b-t)2 ky(a+s)2+k,(b-t)2 k,(b'-t')-k,(a+s)' k,.<s2_a2)+kx(t2-b')
16a2b2 16a'b' 16a2b' 16a2b2
k/s2-a2)+k,(t2-b') kx(b 2-t2)-k,.<a+s)2 k,(a+sl'+k/b+t)2 k,.<a 2-?)-kx(b+t)2
16a2b2 16a'b' 16a'b' 16a2b2
k,,(b2-t2)-k,.<a_s)2 ky(s'-a2)+k,,(t2_b2) k,(a 2-s2)-k,(b+t)' k,.<a-s)2+k,,(b+t)2
16a'b' 16a'b' 16a'b' 16a2b2
!'t:. k b !'t:. _ kxb _!'t:._~ ~_!'t:.
3b + fci 6b 3a 6b 6a 6a 3b
kya k,b k,a + kxb ~_!'t:. _!'t:._~
6iJ-3li 3b 3a 6a 3b 6b 6a
_!'t:. _ k,b ~_!'t:. !'t:. ~ !'t:._~
;6b 6a 6a 3b 3b+3a 6b 3a
kb k,a _!'t:._~ !'t:. _ kxb !'t:.
k,b
6a - 3ii 6b 6a 6b 3a 3b+3a
(a_s)2(b_t)2 (a-s)(a+s)(b-t)2 (a-s)(a+s)(b-t)(b+t) (a-s)2(b-t)(b+t)
16a2b' 16a2b' 16a'b' 16a2 b2
(a-s)(a+s)(b-t)2 (a+s)2(b_t)2 (a+s)'(b-t)(b+t) (a2_?)(b'_t2)
16a2b2 16a2b2 16a'b' 16a'lb2
(a-s)(a+s)(b-t)(b+t) (a+s)2(b-t)(b+t) (a+s)'(b+t)' (a-s)(a+s)(b+t)2
16a2b' 16a2b2 16a'b' 16a2b2
(a-s)2(b-t)(b+t) (a'-s')(b2-t') (a-s)(a+s)(b+t)' (a-s)'(b+d
16a'b 2 16a2b' 16a'b' 16a2b2
-~abp -~abp -~abp -~abp

», = I" r -pNN dsdt =
La Lb
T
-~abp -~abp -~abp -~abp,
r~ = 1:1: qN ds dt
T
= (abq abq abq abq)
For the NBC on side 1
aa
[~2~
~]
-'3 0
2aa 0
= Lac
lea -aN
e NT de = -'3
-a 0 0 0
. 0 0 0
IJ = L>N~ de = (af3 af3 0 0)
N~ 1 c c 1
= (0 '2 - 2ii 2ii + '2 0)
0 0 0 0
b 2ba
0 -'3 btx
0
-aNcN~ de =
-'3
lea =L ba 2ba
-b 0 -'3 -'3 0
0 0 0 0
b
IJ = L-b f3N~ de = (0 bf3 bf3 0)
N~ = (0
o
o
s: + 12
NTc -- ( 2b 0 0 !-ft;)
2ba 0 0 ba
-'3 -'3
b
= L -aNcN~ de =
0 0 0 0
lea 0 0 0 0
-b .
be 2ba
0 0 -'3
-'3
All quantities have now been defined in the element equations. The complete element equa-
tions are
Using these element equations and following the usual finite element discretization and
assembly procedures, approximate numerical solutions to a variety of practical problems
that are governed by the differential equation of the type considered here can be obtained.
Example 5.2 Laplace Equation over a Square Domain Consider solution of the
Laplace equation over a square domain:
0< x < 1; O<y<I
with the boundary conditions
u(O,y) =0; u(l, y) =0

u(x, 0) =x(I .:... x); u(x, 1) = 0
Comparing this problem to the general form of the 2D BVP, we can see that here we have
kx = ky = 1 and p = q = O. The boundary conditions on all four sides are of the essential
type.
An exact solution of the problem is known and is given by the sum of the following
infinite series:
=~
co 4 sin(ll7rx)((_1)" - 1) sinh(mr(I - y))
E xact u(
x, )
y . 3 _,
11=1 slnh(mr)n 1<
We obtain a finite element solution of the problem using four square elements as shown in
Figure 5.8. There are nine nodes and thus we have a total of nine degrees of freedom.
'y 3 6 9
1
0.5 2
o
o 0.5 1x

. From the given essential boundary conditions the following nodal values are known:
(node, value): ( (1, O) (2,O) (3,O) (4, ~) (6,O) (7,O) (8,O) (9, OJ)
Equations for element 1 are as follows:
Element dimensions: a -- 1·
4'
ky = 1; p=O;
Z 1 1
3 -3 -6
I 1 I
-6 -6 -3
1 Z 1
-3 3 -6
1 I Z
-6 -6 .3
Equations for element 2 are
[, -6
3
1
-6
1
Z
1
-3
1
-6
Z
3 -6
1
-6
1
-3
1
[}[~]
_1 Z
=1
1
-3 6 3
Processing the remaining elements in exactly the same manner, we get the following global
equations:
Z 1 1 1
3 -6 0 -6 -3 0 0 0 0
1 4 1 1 1 1 Ul 0
-6 3 -6 -3 -3 -3 0 0 0
1 Z 1 1 Uz 0
0 -6 3 0 -3 -6 0 0 0
1 1 4 1 1 1
u3 0
-6 -3 0 3- -3 0 -6 -3 0 u4 0
1 1 1 1 S 1 1 1 1
-3 -3 -3 -3 3 -3 -3 -3 -3 Us 0
0 -3
1
-6
1
0 1 4
0 1 1 U6 0
-3 3 -3 -6
1 1 Z 1 U7 0
0 0 0 -6 -3 0 3 -6 0
-. Us 0
1 1 1 1 4 1
0 0 0 -3 -3 -3 -6 3 -6 u9 0
0 0 0 0 1 _1 0 1 Z
-3 6 -6 3
Essentialboundary conditions are as follows:
Node dof Value
1 ul 0
2 Uz 0
3 u3 0
4 u4 1
4
6 u6 0
7 u7 0
8 Us 0
9 u9 0
Delete equations (1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9):
o
o
o
1
~
8
-~
I
-~
1
-~
I
-I ) 4
Us = (0)
o
o
o
o

Coordinates of element center: Xc = ~; Yc = ~
Element dimensions: a = ~; b = ~
Interpolation functions in local element coordinates:
NT = {4t8 - 8 - t + ~, -4t8 + 8 - t + ~,4t8 + 8 + t + ~, -4t8 - 8 + t + ~}
Shift for global coordinates: 8 = X - ~; t = y - ~

Interpolation functions in global coordinates:
NT = (4yx - 2x - 2y + 1, 2x - 4xy,4xy, 2y - 4xy)
Nodal values, dT = {O, ~, f?:,O}

X 7xy
u(x,y) =NT d = 2: - "8
au 1 7y au 7x
ax = 2: - 8; By = -8
Solutions over the remaining elements can be determined in exactly the same manner. The
resulting solution and their derivatives at the element centers are as follows:
x y u au18x au/By
1 0.25 0.25 0.0703125 0.28125 -0.21875
2 0.25 0.75 0.0078125 0.03125 -0.03125
3 0.75 0.25 0.0703125 -0.28125 -0.21875
4 0.75 0.75 0.0078125 -0.03125 -0.03125
4-Element Solution .xio? Exact Solution xlO-3 (5 terms)
Figure 5.9. Four-element solution and the exact solution
Y 16-Element Solution x10- 3 Y Exact Solution xlO-3

I I
0.5 0.5
o o
..,-----::--:----x
o 0.5 o 0.5
Figure 5.10. Finite element solution using 16 elements and the exact solution
-
In Figure 5.9 the finite element solution at the element centers is compared with the exact
solution with five terms in the sum: Even with this coarse mesh the solution at the center is
not too bad. To get a feel for the convergence of the solution, the problem is solved using
16 elements. The exact and the finite element solutions are compared in Figure 5.10. The
Iti-element solution is much 'Closer to the exact solution. The solution can obviously be
improved even further by using more elements.
It should be noted that the solution is symmetric with respect to the center line in the x
direction. Thus we could have taken advantage of this and modeled only the right or left
half of the solution domain. This would reduce the computational effort considerably and
is especially advantageous when using fine meshes.
Example 5.3 Heat Flow in an L·Shaped Body Consider two-dimensional heat flow
over an L-shaped body with thermal conductivity k = 45 W/m· ·C shown in Figure 5.11.
The bottom is maintained at To = 1I0·C. Convection heat loss takes place on the top
where the ambient air temperature is 20·C and the convection heat transfer coefficient
h = 55 W/m 2 •• C: The right side is insulated. The left side is subjected to heat flux at a
uniform rate qo = 8000 W1m2 • Heat is generated in the bodyat a rate Q = 5 X 106 W1m 3 •
Determine the temperature distribution in the body.
y (m)
0.03
0.015 qo
Insulated
o
--~---~----~ x (m)
o 0.03 0.06
Figure 5.U. L-shaped body
As shown earlier, the governing differential equation for a heat flow problem is a special
case of the general form. With the numerical values given for this example
p= 0; q = 5 X 106
The boundary conditions are as follows:

For all nodes on the bottom side, T = 110
On the left side (nx = -1, ny = 0):
aT aT
-le-
an = le-
ax = qo ~ a =0;
[:3 = 8000
On the right side, a = 0;[:3 = 0
For convection on the horizontal portion of the top side (nx = 0, ny = 1):
/'
st = -le-
-le-
er = h(T - T )
an ay 00
~ a = -h = -55; [:3 =hToo = 55 x 20 = 1100
For convection on the vertical portion of the top side (nx = 1, ny = 0):
aT aT
-le-= -le- = h(T - T )
an ax 00
~ a = -h = -55; [:3 = hToo = 55 X 20 = 1100

We obtain a finite element solution of the problem using six square elements as shown in
Figure 5.12. There are 13 nodes and thus we have a total of 13 degrees offreedom.
The complete finite element solution is as follows:
Element dimensions: a = 0.0075; b = 0.0075
lex =45; ley = 45; p = 0; q = 5000000
Figure 5.12. Six-element model
30. -7.5 -15.

k = -7.5 30. -7.5 o
0] [281.25]
281.25
o ; r q = 281.25
k
[ -15. -7.5 30.
-7.5 -15. -7.5 o 281.25
NBC on side 4:
L = 0.015; a =0; f3 = 8000
ka = 0
0
o
0
0
0
o
o
0]
0
0 ;
r _
f3-
[6g.]
0
[
o 0 o 0 60.
30. -7.5
-7.5 30. -15..
-7.5 -15. lO
T [341.25]
-7.5][ T9 ] _281.25
30. -7.5 Ts - 281.25
[ -15. -7.5
-7.5 -15. -7.5 30. 4T 341.25
Equations for element 2: ...
lex = 45; ley = 45; p = 0; q = 5000000
30. -7.5 -15. -7.5] [0 0 0
k = -7.5 30. -7.5 -15. . k = 0 0 0 o
0] [281.25]
281.25
k: -15. -7.5 30. -7.5 ' p 0 0 0 o ; rq = 281.25
[
-7.5 -15: -7.5 30. 0 0 0 o 281.25
NBC on side 3:
L = 0.015; a = -55; f3 = 1100
ka =[ 0
0 0
o 0 o 00]
0 0.275 0.1375'
0
rf3 = [8.t]
o 0 0.1375 0.275 8.25
NBC on side 4:
L = 0.015; a=O; f3 = 8000
[0o 00 00

ka = 0
o
0
0
0
0 n
30.
-7.5
-7.5
30.
-15.
-7.5 -7.5
-15.
-7.3625
](14] -
Ts _ (341.25]
Tz
281.25
289.5
[ -15. -7.5 30.275
-7.5 -15. -7.3625 30.275 T1 349.5
Processing the remaining elements in exactly the same manner, we get the following
global equations:
30.275 -7.3625 a -7.5 -15. a a a a a a a a TI 349.5
-7.3625 60.55 -7.3625 -15. -15. 15. a a a a a a a T2 579.
a -7.3625 30.55 a -15. -7.3625 a a a a a a a T) 297.75
-7.5 -15. a 60. -15. a a a -7.5 -15. a a a T. 682.5
-15. -15. -15. -15. 120. 15. a a -15. -15. -15. a a Ts 1125.
a -15. -7.3625 a -15. 90.55 -7.3625 a a -15. -15. -15. a T6 860.25
a a a a a -7.3625 6U.55 -7.3625 a a -15. -15. -15. T7 579.
a a a a a a -7.3625 30.275 a a a -15. -7.5 Ts 289.5
a a a -7.5 -15. a a a 30. -7.5 a a a Tg 341.25
a a a -15. -15. -15. a a -7.5 60. -7.5 a a T IO 562.5
a a a a -15. -15. -15. a a -7.5 60. -7.5 a Til 562.5
a a a a a -15. -15. -15. a a -7.5 60. -7.5 TI2 562.5
a a a a a a -15. -7.5 a a a -7.5 30. TI) 281.25

I
Node dof Value
9 T9
110
10 TIO
110
11 TI1
110
12 T1Z 110
13 TI 3 110
Delete equations {9, 10, 11, 12, 13}:
T(
T2
a a a T)
30.275 -7.3625 a -7.5 -15. a a a a a T.
349.5
-7.3625 60.55 -7.3625 -15. -15. -15. a a a a a a a Ts
579.
a -7.3625 30.55 a -15. -7.3625 a a a a a a a 297.75
-7.5 -15. a 60. -15. a a a -7.5 -15. a a a T6 682.5
T7
-15. -15. -15. -15. 120. -15. a a -15. -15. -15. a a Ts
1125.
a -15. -7.3625 a -15. 90.55 -7.3625' a a -15. -15. -15. a 110
860.25
a a a a a -7.3625 60.55 -7.3625 a a -15. -15. -15.
110
579.
a a a a a a -7.3625 30.275 a a a -15. -7.5
110
289.5
110
110
Extract columns [9, 10, 11, 12, 13}.

Multiply each column by its respective known value (110, 110, 110, 110, 110).
Move all resulting vectors to the right-hand side.
After adjusting for essential boundary conditions we have
30.275 -7.3625 0 -7.5 -15. 0 0 0 T1 349.5

-7.3625 60.55 -7.3625 -15. -15. -15. 0 0 T2 579.
0 -7.3625 30.55 0 -15. -7.3625 0 0 T3 297.75
-7.5 -15. 0 T4 3157.5
-15. -15. -15. -15. 120. -15. 0 0 Ts 6075.
0 -15. -7.3625 0 -15. 90.55 -7.3625 0 T6 5810.25
0 0 0 0 0 -7.3625 60.55 -7.3625 T7 5529.
0 0 0 0 0 0 -7.3625 30.275 Ts 2764.5
(T! = 154.962, T2 = 151.228, T3 = 148.673, T4 = 145.433,

Ts = 142.521, T6 = 134.871, T7 = 122.436, Tg = 121.088)

NT = {4444.44ts - 33.3333s - 33.3333t + 0.25,

-4444.44ts+33.3333s - 33.3333t + 0.25,
4444.44ts + 33.3333s + 33.3333t + 0.25,
-4444.44ts - 33.3333s + 33.3333t + 0.25}
Shift for global coordinates:.s = x - 0.0075; t =Y - 0.0075

NT = {4444.44yx - 66.6667x - 66.6667y + 1., 66.6667x - 4444.44xy,

4444.44xy, 66.6667y - 4444.44xy}
Nodal values, aT = 1110, 110, 142.521, 145.433)

T(x, y) = NT a = -12940.9xy + 23·62.17y + 110.
aT/ax = -12940.9y; aTlay = 2362.17 -12940.9x
Solutions over the remaining elements can be determined in exactly the same manner. The
solution derivatives at the element centers are shown in Figure 5.13. These values differ
considerably over adjacent elements, indicating that the mesh is coarse. A finer mesh is
needed for more reliable results:
The problem is solved with a finer mesh using ANSYS (AnsysFiles\Chap5\LShape-
Thermal.inp on the book web site). The resulting solution iri the form nodal temperature
contours and vectors of thermal gradient (aT/ax, aT/ay) is shown in Figure 5.14.
Solution derivatives
Figure 5.13. Solutionderivatives (aT/ax,aTlay) for the six-elementmodel
""'l:OIl
1•• ~I.1l
.-
.----------/iN ..11.&;""
,',II,."
""",_I __
"'..11.\1·······-······
-- 1! I!l i il ~fi i Ii!Iijjii! i'

.I [,11',: I:, ' .. ,,,1,, II !
Figure 5.14. Nodal temperature contoursand thermalgradientvectors

Four-node rectangular element for 2D BVP
Example 5.4 Torsion of a Rectangular Shaft Find stresses developed in a 4-cm x

8-cm rectangular shaft when it is subjected to a torque of 500 N . m. The shaft is 1 m long
and G =76.9 GPa. A quarter of the domain needs to be modeled because of symmetry. As
shown in Figure 5.15, a coarse four-element mesh is used.
The governing differential equation for the problem is
a2 ¢ a2 ¢ 2Ge _ 0
ax? + al + -
where G is the shear modulus and e is the angle of twist per unit length. The boundary
l/J=O Y7 8 9
02
al/J/an=O l/J=O 0. 1 4
0.Ql
1
·0 ------x
o 0.02 0.04
Figure 5.15. Rectangular shaft subjectedto torque
condition is ¢ = 0 on the boundary. As a result of the essential boundary condition, ¢ = 0

at nodes {3,6, 9, 8, 7]. There are no nonzero natural boundary conditions.
Since B is unknown, we start by arbitrarily assuming GB = 1. After performing the
analysis, we compute the total torque Ta . This torque corresponds to the assumed value of
GB. Since the relationship between the torque and the angle of twistis linear, the actual
. value of B can then be computed using the given value of torque T as follows:
The actual ¢ values are obtained by multiplying the computed values by the actual GB
value. The complete finite element solution, using newtons and meters, is as follows:

kx = 1; ky = 1; P = 0; q = 2
0.833333 0.166667 -0.416667 -0.583333]
k = 0.166667 0.833333 -0.583333 -0.416667 .
k -0.416667 -0.583333 0.833333 0.166667 '
[
-0.583333 -0.416667 0.166667 0.833333
0 0 0
000 o 0] [0.0001]
0.0001
k p = 0 0 0 o ; T q = 0.0001
[
000 o 0.0001
0.833333 0.166667 -0.416667

-0.583'333][¢1] [0.0001]
0.166667 -0.833333 -0.583333 -0.416667 ¢2 _ 0.0001
0.833333 0.166667 . ¢5 - 0.0001
[. -0.416667 -0.583333
-0.583333 -0.416667 0.166667 0.833333 ¢4 0.0001
global equations:
0.833333 0.166667 0 -0.583333 -0.416667 0 0 o. 0 'Pt 0.0001

0.166667 1.66667 0.166667 -0.416667 -1.16667 -0.416667 0 0 0 tP2 0.0002
0 0.166667 0.833333 0 -0.416667 -0.583333 0 0 0 tP3 0.0001
-0.583333 -0.416667 0 1.66667 0.333333 . 0 -0.583333 -0.416667 0 tP4 0.0002
-0.416667 -1.16667 -0.416667 0.333333 3.33333 0.333333 -0.416667 -1.16667 -0.416667 tP, 0.0004
0 -0.416667 -0.583333 0 0.333333 1.66667 0 -0.416667 -0.583333 tP6 0.0002
0 0 0 -0.583333 -0.416667 0 0.833333 0.16667 0 tP7 0.0001
0 0 0 -0.416667 -1.16667 -0.416667 0.16667 1.66667 0.166667 tPg 0.0002
0 0 0 0 -0.416667 -0.583333 0 0.166667 0.833333 tP9 0.0001
344 TWO'DIMENSlaN~L ELEMENTS

Node dof Value
3 ¢3 0
6 ¢6 0
7 ¢7 0
8 ¢8 0
9 ¢9 0
Remove (3,6,7, 8,9) rows and columns.
After adjusting for essential boundary conditions, we have
0.833333 0.166667 -0.583333 -0.416667] [¢I] (0.0001]

0.166667 1.66667 -0.416667 -1.16667 ¢2 _ 0.0002
[ -0.583333 -0.416667 1.66667 0.333333 ¢4 - 0.0002
-0.416667 -1.16667 0.333333 3.33333 ¢5 0.0004
(¢I =0.000380919, ¢2 = 0.000331898. ¢4 = 0.000285245, ¢5 =0.000255255)

NT = (5000.ts - 25.s - 50.t + 0.25, -5000.ts + 25.s - 50.t + 0.25,

5000.ts + 25.s + 50.t + 0.25, -5000.ts - 25.s + 50.t + 0.25)
Shift for global coordinates: s =:/- 0.01; t = Y- 0.005

NT = (5000.yx - 50.x - 100.y + 1., 50.x - 5000.xy, 5000.xy, 100.y - 5000.xy)
Nodal values, d T = (0.000380919,0.000331898,0.000255255,0.000285245)

¢(x, y) =NTd =0.0951558yx - 0.0024511x - 0.00956742y + 0.000380919
8¢/8x = 0.0951558y - 0.0024511; 8¢l8y = 0.0951558x - 0.00956742
Solutions over the remaining elements can be determined in exactly the same manner. A
solution summary and the integral of ¢ over each element is summarized as follows:
1 0.0951558yx - 0.0024511x - 0.00956742y + 0.000380919 6.26658 X

2 0.383215yx - 0.0165949x - 0.0153286y + 0.000663795 2.93576 x 10- 8
3 0.149954yx 0.00299907x - 0.0285245y + 0.000570491 2.7025 X 10- 8
4 1.27627yx - 0.0255255x - 0.0510509y + 0.00102102 1.27627 X 10- 8
The total torque is given by.
Summing JJ ¢ dA contributions from all elements and multiplying by 2 give the total
torque. Since we are modeling one-fourth of the shape, the torque for the entire section
is '
Since the actual torque is 500 N . m, the actual value of the angle of twist is
500
Ga = - =4.74163 X 108 ; a= 0.00616597 racl/m
t;
The ¢ values are simply scaled by this value of Gt), and thus the solution corresponding to
a torque of 500 N . m is as follows:
T yZ = -8¢/8x (MPa) T xz = 8¢/8y (MPa)

1 45. 1194yx - 1.16222x - 4.536?2y + 0.180618 1.16222 - 45.1194y 45.l194x - 4.53652
2 181.706yx -7.86868x -7.26826y + 0.314747 7.86868 - 181.706y 181.706x -7.26826
3 71.1025yx - 1.42205x - 13.5253y + 0.270506 1.42205 -71.1025y 71.1025x - 13.5253
4 605. 162yx - 12.1032x - 24.2065y + 0.484129 12.1032 - 60S. 162y 605. 162x - 24.2065
Stresses at element centroids- are as follows:
T yZ (MPa) T xz (MPa)
1 0.936622 -4.08532
2 6.96015 -1.81706'
3 0.355513 -12.8143
4 3.02581 -6.05162
The maximum shear stress occurs at the midpoint of the long side (node 7), which from
element 3 is
Stresses at node 7: T yZ ;" 2.22045 X 10- 16 MPa; 1'xz = -13.5253 MPa

T max = 13.5253 MPa
,
. AN··:··..
"VO £1,EMEII'T ,OW'l'10tl
.:JUL S .JOOl
llT£l'''l Q7IS4I.JV
DUll "1
T""""
'TAU (,Iwe)
GMlI"
01«".1
•. _-,.,-"'::....~;,.:,.._~j'm~
JFlSi"'RiiE1tCt!!'mr"f":~;Hlr;("l\;'·l"""".I_O'l\,,-,t'H-.I':'C-:"-:-;"'':';-,
391860 .JH£+07 .notto.., .1041:+00 .t3QE+OO

.:207£+07 . S4:111+01 .071£+01 .121£+00 .1~5E:+On
Figure 5.16. Shearstress contoursusing ANSYS
An exact solution for the problem is available as follows (W. C. Young and R. G. Budynas,
Roark's Formulasfor Stress and Strain, seventh edition, p. 401, McGraw-Hill, 2002).
T max := 8ab
3T
2
( 1 + 0.6095~ + 0.8865 ~ b (b)2 - 1.8023 (b)3 (b)4)
~ + 0.91 .~
where 2a is the longer dimension of the section and 2b is the shorter dimension:
Exact soluti6~: T max := 15.9136 MPa
The problem is solved with 20 x 20 mesh using ANSYS (AnsysFiles\Chap5\Rect-
Torsion.inp on the book web site). The resulting shear stresses are shown in Figure 5.16.
The maximum shear stress is seen as 15.5 MPa, which is fairly close to the exact value.
5.4.2 Eight-Node Rectangular Element

The interpolation functions for the four-node rectangular element presented in the previous
section were based on the following assumed solution:
We can add more terms to the polynomial and use the same process as before to derive
interpolation functions for higher order elements. For an eight-node rectangular element
2a 2b
x as shown in Figure 5.17 we use the following polynomial consisting of a complete
7 5
l~·
2b 8
1 2a -I
Figure 5.17. Eight-node rectangular element
quadratic (six terms) with two additional cubic terms:
Co
c1
c2
U(s, t) =( I S t S2 st t2 s2t st2) c3
c4
Cs
c6
c7
By evaluating U at the eight nodes and solving the resulting system of equations, we can
evaluate the coefficients in terms of nodal degrees of freedom, resulting in the following
interpolation functions:
(a-s)(b-t)(bs+a(b+t))
4a 2b2
(a2-?)(b-tl
2a 2b
(a+s)(b-t)(a(b+t)-bs)
4a 2 b2
(a+s)(b 2-t2 )
2ab2
Interpolation functions, N = (a+s)(a(b-t)-bs)(b+t)
.4a2 b2
(a 2-s2)(b+tl
2a 2b
_ (a-s)(bs+a(b-t))(b+t)
4a2b2
(a_s)(b 2:-tZ)
2abZ
These interpolation functions are known as serendipity functions ~md will be used exten-
sively in the following chapters. Note that each of the interpolation functions N, is I at
the ith node and 0 at every other node. Using these interpolation functions, the following
element matrices are obtained:
NT = ( _ (1l-.f)(b-t~bS+tl(b+t)) (a2-,1J(b-tl (n+.I')(b-rlla(b+t)-bs) (n+Sl(~-t2) (Il+s}{a(h-r)-b.r){b+t) (a2 - ,1)(bHl _ (a-.l'l(bs+a(b-t))(bH)

<Ill b2 2a b 4al~ 2ab- 4aZ[) ~ 4aZ')
bl_,2
( (b-t)(T"j'atl
4a-b-
.f(r-b)
~
_ (b-~'~?l;Z2bS)
;;;bT
(b+t)lW'i+ot )
4a-b -~
(b+t)(al-2bs)
-~ t2_~ )
;;;bT
BT =
(a-.f)(~.ri2at) ,1_a2 (a+.r){~.fi2ntl a2-,1 (a-.I')(qlli- bs)
-~ ~
(tl+.I')(2ar-bs)
4a b ~ ~ 4a b sx: 4a-b ab
kk =[1: BeB
T
dsdt
26{ky o2+k.tb'l) 23(kyIl 2+k.;b'l)

4Sab
~-~
15b 9a
~
90b +~
14kb -~_&!
9b l5a 900b -~-~
14ky tl
-m- +
~
gOa
~_8kyll
15(1 9b
~-~
I5b 9a
Bkvtl
"i"5b +
~
9/1 ~-~ 0 -~-~
15b 9a
~-~
9(1 ISh
-~-~
I5b 9a 0
~ 2) 2J{I,\,a 2+k.rb2)
17k'lil
""'9'Ob + 45a
~-~
I5b 9a
26{kya2+k.tb
4Jab
~-~
l5a 9b
~
4Sh + !?&£
90a
kyll
-m - ~
90 90nb
-~-~
9b 15a
-~-~ ~-~ ~' ~ ~-~ _ 4k\,a _ ~ 8kl'a_~

9b 15a 0 15a 91, 9b + 150 IStI 9b 0 9b 15a 9b 15a
23(k Il 2+k bl} 14kvo r!!tE. 26(k 0 2 +.1:.(1))

~-~ ~ ~
y
90ab
x
-~-~
15b 9a 45b + 90a
&!_~
l5a 9b ~
y
15b 9a 90b + 4Sa -~-~
9b l5a
~ ~
-m - kyo
9a 9a -lW
8kvll
-~-~
ISh 9a
0 ~-~
15b 9a
~
ISb + ~
9a
~-~
ISh 9a 0
~ 23(ky02~:,b?1 26(k}'t/ 2+kxb2)

45b + r&£
90a
-~-~
ISb 9a 91l<,
-~-~
9b ISa
17kyo
9Ub +
~
4Sa
~-~
ISb 90 45ab
~
l5a -
Skyo
9b
!it!!. _ -~-~ !&:2
~-~ -~-~ ~-~
8kyrl 16kya
15" 9b 0 9b 1St! 9b 15a 9b 15a 0 9h+ 15a
~ ~ ~
-fsabp 15 -:tsabp ¥se -i;abp 45 -:tsabp 15
~ -*abp ~ -~abp fu!£E -~abp ~ -~abp

15 15 45 4'
-:tsabp ~ -fsabp ~ -isabp ~ -i;abp ~

15 15 45 4;
~ -~abp 3EEe. -*abp 'E!l!E. -~abp ~ -~abp

"p = l"lb
-0 -b
_pNNT ds dt =
45
~
15
~
15
~
45
fu!£e
-f,abp 45 -.Jsabp 15 -fsabp 15 -fsabp 45
fu!1!e fu!£e E!lll!

45 -~abp 45 -~abp '1:EJ1l!.
15 -*abp 15 -~abp
-fsabp ~ -f,abp ~ -:tsabp ~ -f5abp ~

45 45 15 15
~
15 -~abp ~
45 -~abp / ~
4'
-~abp ~
15 -*abp
;~ = [t -0 -b
T
qN ds dt = (-~abq :!!!£!l
3 -~abq ~
3 -~abq ~
3 -~abq ~)
NT _ (<? c 1- S. <? c
c - 2az-'Iii a 2a2 + 'Iii 0 0 0 0 0)
4aa 2aa aa
-15 -15 15 0 0 0 0 0
2aa 16aa 2aa
-15 -15 -15 0 0 0 0 0
aa 2aa 4aa
15 -15 -15 0 0 0 0 0
k a == fa -QNcN~ de == 0 0 0 0 0 0 .0 0
-a
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
T
r{3 = ,f
-a
T
[3N c de =( -3'!Ii 4a{3
3
'!Ii
3
0 0 0 0 0)
c
N~ = (0 0 c2
2b2 -
C
2b 1- S.
2
b
c"
2b2 + 2b 0 0 0)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4b"
0 0 -15 -15
Zba btx
0 0 0
15
b 'lba
0 0 -15 16b" Zb«
0 0 0
- T -15 -15
k" = -aNcNc de =
L-b 0 0 ba 2b"
-15 4b"
-15 0 0 0
15
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
b
lJ = L-b [3N~ de = (0 0 !JP.
3
'!!!f}.
3
!JP.
3
0 0 0)
c
N~ = (0 0 0 0 c2
2a2 -
C
2a 1- ~
a-
c"
2a2 + 2a 0)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
k" = La -aN.z~ide = 4a"
0 0 0 0 -15 2a"
-15 a"
15 0
-a
2o"
0 0 0 0 -15 160"
-15 20"
-15 0
0 0 0 0 0" 20"
-15 40"
-15 0
15
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
rJ = L>N~ de =(0 0 0 0 '!Ii

3
'M!.
3
'!Ii
3- 0)
NTe _ ( 2bc"2 + 2b
>
c 0 0 0 0 0 c"
2b2 -
c
2b s.)
1 - b2
350 TWO-DIMENSIONi\L ELEMENTS
4b", ba 2b",
-15 0 0 0 0 0 15 -15
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
-aN)V~ de =
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
k", = f b 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
. -b
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
btx 4b", 2b",
15 0 0 0 0 0 -15 -15
2b", u«
0 0 0 0 0 -15 16b",
-15 -15
r~ = f b-b f3N~ de = Uf- O 0 0 0 0 If}.

3 ~)

Eight-node rectangular elementfor 2D BVP
5.4.3 lagrange Interpolation for Rectangular Elements

The Lagrange interpolation formula was presented in Chapter 2 as a convenient way to
write interpolation functions for higher order one-dimensional elements for second-order
problems. We can use products of appropriate Lagrange interpolation formulas in the x and
y directions to write interpolation functions for rectangular elements. The procedure is jus-
tified in detail for a four-node element followed by several examples of product Lagrange
interpolation functions for higher order rectangular elements.
Four-Node Rectangular Element.I For a four-node rectangular element with dimen-

sions 2a x 2b as shown in Figure 5.6, we note the following:
(a) Along side 1-2, t = -b is constant and therefore the interpolation functions must
be functions only of s. Thus
where the interpolation functions n 1 and n2 are written using the one-dimensional
Lagrange interpolation formula,
(b) Similarly along side 4-3, t = b and therefore the interpolation functions are
u(s, b) =(n4(s) n 3(s))

(u)== (-s-2a- -a
4
U3
Expanding to include all four degrees of freedom, the interpolations for u(s, -b) and
u(s, b) can be written as follows:
u(s, -b)
. =(S -a
--- a+s
2a 2a
u(s; b) = (0 0 a+s
2a
(c) In the t direction we can consider linear interpolation between lI(S, -b) and u(s, b).
Using the Lagrange interpolation formula in the t direction, we have
lI(S, t)
t - b ~) (lI(S,
= ( ---
2b2b lI(S, b)
-b))
Thus the interpolation for u(s, t) can be written as follows:
t- b
a+s
2d o
lI(S, t) = ( ---
2b o a+s
2cI
Multiplying the two matrices, we get the same interpolation functions as the ones
obtained earlier by writing a four-term polynomial:
j
(a - s)(b - t) -(a + s)(b - t) (a + s)(b + t) (a - s)(b + t)) u
II (S, t) =( 4ab
U2 ]
4ab· 4ab 4ab [ lI3
u4
Each interpolation function can be seen as simply a product of the linear Lagrange
interpolation functions in the sand t directions.
Six-Node Rectangular Element Consider a six-node rectangular element 2a x 2b

as shown in Figure 5.18. Along the bottom and the top ill the s direction there are three
nodes. Thus we can define quadratic interpolation functions along these two sides. In the t
direction, we still have only two values and thus we can use linear interpolation. Therefore
interpolation functions for the element are as follows:
s(s-a) .
b+t) Z
(s-a)(a+s)
- - - az -
s(a+s)
2T o o
u(s, t) =( j;t 2a
0
2b (
o o s(s-a)
2T
(s-a)(a+s)
·--a-z -
Figure 5.18. Six-node rectangular element
s(s-a)(I-b)
-~
(s-a)(a+s)(t-b)
2a'b
s(a+s)(t-b)
-~
Interpolation functions = s(a+s)(b+t)
~
(s-a)(a+s)(b+t)
2a'b
s(s-a)(b+t)
~
Nine-Node Rectangular Element In order to use quadratic interpolation in both the s

and t directions, we need three nodes along each line. Thus we have a nine-node rectangular
element 2a x 2b as shown in Figure 5.19. Along the bottom, middle, and top in the s
direction we can define quadratic interpolation functions. Now in the t direction we also
can use quadratic interpolation. Thus iriterpolation functions for the element are as follows:
(s-a)(a+s) s(a+s)
--:;;;r
[ '0-"' -~ 2a'
u(s t)
,
=( t(l-b)
2b Z
_ (I-b)(b+t)
bZ t~;i)) : 0 0 _ (s-a~~+s)
o ]("'J
L~2
0 0 o ug
Figure 5.19. Nine-node rectangular element

s(s-a)t{t-b)
2 2
, 40 b
(s-a)(a+s)t(t-b)
2a2b2
s(a+s)t(t-b)
4a2b2
s(a+s)(t-b)(b+t)
2a2b2
s(a+s)t(b+t)
Interpolation functions = 4a2b2
(s-a)(a+s)t(b+t)
2a2 b2
s(s-a)t(b+t)
4a 2b 2
s(s-a)(t-b)(b+t)
2a 2b2
(s-a)(a+s)(t-b)(b+t)
a2b2
Example 5.5 TM Modes for Waveguides Using Nine-Node Lagrange Elements As

discussed earlier, the TM modes for electromagnetic waveguides are obtained from solving
the following eigenvalue problem:
IjJ = 0 on the boundary

where kc is the unknown cutoff frequency. Comparing this equation to the general form,
the finite element equations for this problem are as follows:
where
ax
aN" J
aN"
ay'
Using the interpolation functions of the nine-node rectangular element and carrying out
required differentiations and integrations, the following explicit expressions for the element
matrices can be derived:
14{a2+b2 ) 7a 16b 2b 7a 4a b a2 +b2 a 4b 2a 7b Tb 16a 8{a2+b2 )

45aiJ 45b - 45a 45a - 90b 45b + 45a - 90ab 45b + 45a 45b - 90a 45a - 45b -45lib
7a 16b 56a + 32b 7a 16b _ 8{a2+b2 ) a 4b 8a 8b a + 4b _ 8{a2+b') 16b 64a
45b - 45a 45b 45a 45b - 45a 45ab 45b + 45a 45b - 4511 45b 4511 4511b 45a - 45b
2b 711 7a 16b 14(a2+b2 ) 7b 16a 2a 7b a 4b a2 +b2 4a b 8(a2+b2 )
45a - 90b 45b - 45a 4511b 45a - 45b 45b - 90a 45b + 4511 - 90ab 45b + 45a -45lib
4a b 8{a2+b2 ) 7b 16a 32a + 56b 7b 16a 8(a2+b2 )
-45lib
411 b 8b 8a 16(a2-4b2 )
45b + 45a -45lib 4Sa - 45b 45b 45a 45a - 45b 45b + 45a 45a - 45b 'i5a1>
a'2+b2 211 16a 14(1I2+b2 ) Ta 16b 2b 7a 4a b 8(a2+b2 )
kk = - 90ab
a
45b
4b
+ 45a 45b -
7b
90a
7b
45a - 45b 45aiJ 45b - 45a 45a - 90b 45b + 45a - 45ab
a 4b 8a 8b a 4b _ 8(a2+b2 ) 711 16b 56a + 32b 7a 16b _ 8{a2+b2 ) 16b 64a
45b + 45a 45b - 45a 45b + 45a 45ab 45b - 45a 45b 45a 45b - 45a 45ab 45a - 45b
2a 7b a 4b a'2+b2 4a b 2b 711 7a 16b 14{a2+b2 ) 7b 16a 8(a2+b2 )
45b - 90a 45b + 45a - 90ab 45b + 4511 45a - 90b 45b - 45a 45aiJ 45a - 45b - 45ab
7b 16a 8{a2+b2 )
-45lib
4a b 8b 8a 4a b 8{a2+b2 )
-45lib
7b 1611 32a + 56b 16{a2-4b2 )
45a - 45b 45b + 45a 45a - 45b 45b + 45a 45a - 45b 45b 45a 'i5a1>
8{a2+b2 ) 16b 64a _ 8{a2+b2 ) 16{a2-4b2 ) 8(a2+b2 ) 16b 64a _ 8{a2+b2 ) 16{a2-4b2 ) 128(a2+b2 )
- 4511b 45a - 45b 45ab 45ab -45lib 45a - 45b 45ab 45ab 'i5a1>
-16 -8 4 2 -1 2 4 -8 -4
-8 -64 -8 -4 2 16 2 -4 -32
4 -8 -16 -8 4 2 -1 2 -4
2 -4 -8 -64 -8 -4 2 16 -32
k
p
=!!!?-
225
-1 2 4 -8 -16 -8 4 2 -4
2 16 2 -4 -8 -64 -8 -4 -32
4 2 -1 2 4 -8 -16 -8 -4
-8 -4 2 16 2 -4 -8 -64 -32
-4 -32 -4 -32 -4 -32 -4 -32 -256
As was the case in the buckling problem considered in Chapter 3, for each element in the
model, we need to write matrices kk and kp and then assemble them in the usual manner to
.obtain corresponding global matrices. The resulting system of global equations is then of
the following form, which is recognized as a generalized eigenvalue problem:
(Kk + k;;Kp)d =0 =::;. Kkd =A(-f(p)d
where A = k~. After adjusting for the essential boundary conditions, the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of the system are computed. The square roots of the eigenvalues are the cutoff
frequencies and the corresponding eigenvectors are the wave propagation modes.
As a specific example, consider a rectangular waveguide with width 2 units and height
1 unit. Using four elements the model is as shown in Figure 5.20. Note that even though
the geometry is symmetric we must model the entire domain when computing modes. This
is because some of the wave propagation modes are nonsymmetric even for a symmetric
system. Thus, if we model only half or a quarter of the domain, we will not be able to
capture the nonsymmetric modes.
Since all four elements have the same size, the finite element matrices for all elements
! h
are same. Substituting a = and b = the kk and lcp matrices are as follows:
10 15 20 25
---------x
° 0.5 1.5 2
Figure 5.20. Four-element model for rectangular waveguide
kk = ({7/9, 2115, -2115,17/90, -1136, 4145,1/20, -19/30, -419),

(2I15, 128/45, 2115, -419,4145,4115,4145, -419, -8/3),
{-2I15, 2115, 7/9; -19/30,1120,4145, -1136,17/90, -4I9J,
{17/90, -419, -19/30, 92145, -19/30, -419,17/90, -4115, OJ,
{-1136, 4145,1120, -19/30, 7/9, 2115, -2115,17/90, -4I9},
(4I45, 4115, 4145, -419, 2115, 128/45,2115, -419, -8/3),
(1/20, 4145, -1136, 17/90, -2115, 2115, 7/9, -19/30, -419),
(-19/30, -419,17/90, -4115, 17/90, -419, -19/30, 92145, 0),
(-4I9, -8/3, -419, 0, -419, -8/3, -419, 0, 6419)};
kp = {{-2I225, -11225, 11450, 11900, -1/1800, 1/900, 11450, -1/225, -1I450},
(-1/225, -8/225, -1/225, -1/450,11900,21225,1/900, -11450, -41225),
{1I450, -1/225, -21225, -11225,11450,11900, -111800, 11900, -1/450},
{1I900, -11450, -11225, -8/225, -11225, -1/450, 11900,21225, -4I225},
{-1I1800, 11900, 1/450, -11225, -21225, -11225,11450,11900, -1I450},
(1I900, 21225,1/900, -1/450, -1/225, -8/225, -11225, -11450, -41225),
{1/450, 11900, -1/1800,11900,-11450, -1/225, -21225, -11225, -1I450},
(-11225, -11450,1/900,21225,11900, -11450, -,1/225, -8/225, -41225),
(-1/450, -4/225, -1/450, -41225, -1/450, -41225, -11450, -41225, -321225));
These matrices can be assembled using the standard assembly process to form the global
matrices as follows:
1m = {{1, 6, 11, 12, 13, 8, 3, 2, 7}, {3, 8, 13, 14, 15, 10,5,4, 9},
(11, 16,21,22,23, 18, 13, 12, 17), (13, 18,23,24,25,20, 15, 14, 19});
Kk = Kp = Table[O, {25}, {25}];
Do[Kk[[lm[[i]], Im[[i]]]] += kk; Kp[[lm[[i]], Im[[i]]]] +~ kp, [L 1,4}];
Incorporating the essential boundary conditions, the reduced system of matrices is as fol-
lows:
debc = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 16,21,22,23,24,10,15,20,25);
ebcVals = Table[O, {Length[debc]}];
df = Complement[Range [25], debe];
Kkf = Kk[[df, df]];
Kpf = Kp[[df, df]];
The eigenvalues and the corresponding modes can be computed by solving the generalized
eigenvalue problem. The five lowest eigenvalues and modes are computed as follows:
(evals, evecs) = Eigensystem[(Kkf, -Kpf)l/N, -5]; evals

(50.,42.486,42.1246, 19.9438, 12.4298)
.The cutoff frequencies are square roots of the eigenvalues:

Sqrt[evals]
(7.07107,6.51813,6.49034,4.46585,3.52559)
An analytical solution for a rectangular waveguide is well known. This formula gives the
lowest cutoff frequency as follows:
Sqrt[(1f/2? + (1f/1)2]//N
3.51241
Even with this coarse mesh the computed cutoff frequency compares very well with the
exact analytical value. The electric field corresponding to the lowest TM mode can be
computed by first determining the solution over each element and then taking its deriva-
tives:
ad, .
For TM modes (with 2 0 = 1): E =-~. E =_ aif!
x ax' Y ay
The complete vector of nodal values in the lowest mode, in the original order established
by the node numbering, is obtained by combining these values with those specified as
essential boundary conditions as follows:
,I
d = Table[O, (25)];
d[[debc]] = ebcVals//N;
d[[df]] = evecs[[5]];
d
(0.,0.,0.,0.,0.,0.,0.249883,0.353553,0.249883,0., 0., 0.353553, 0.500234,

0.353553,0.,0.,0.249883,0.353553,0.249883,0.,0., 0., 0., 0., O.)
The following function is created to compute the electric field at several points on each
element:
EVPRect9Results[a_, b., [xc , yc.], d.] := Module[(n, electricField, e, t},

n = (s * (s - a)* t * (t - b))/(4 * a~2 * b-2),
-«(s - a) * (a + s) * t * (t - b))/(2 * a-2 * b-2)),
(s * (a + s) * t * (t - b))/(4 * a-2 * b-2),
-(s * (a + s) * (t - b) * (b + t))/(2 * a-2 * b-2)),
(s * (a + s) * t * (b + t))/(4 * a-2 * b-2),
-:-((s - a) * (a + s) * t * (b + t))/(2 * a~2 * b-2)),
(s * (s - a) * t * (b + t))/(4 * a-2 * b~2),
TRIANGULAR FINITE ELEMENTS 357
t I
! ! J
, ,
0.8
- .... " "
" \ \
t
I
1
1
f
, ( ~
0.6
0.4 ~ ~ ~ , ". I' r , .. , , , , ,

0.2 ~ , , r ; i I 1 , , , .. ... ...
~ , r i ,, I
r
I
1
, ' ......
0 , r , , , ,
I
I
! I
I , i '
0 0.5 1.5 2
Figure 5.21. Electric field distribution in the lowest TM mode
-«s * (s - a) * (t - b) * (b + t))/(2 * a-2 * b-2)),

«s - a) * (a + s) * (t - b) * (b + t))/(a-2 * b-2));
e1ectricFie1d = (-D[n, sj.d, -D[n, t].d);
Map[(# + [xc, yc), e1ectricFie1d/.Thread[(s, t) ~ #])&,
Flatten[Tab1e[{s, t), [s, -a, a, 1/8), (t, -b, b, 1/8)], 1]]
];
centers = ((1/2,114), (112, 3/4), (1.5, 1/4), (1.5, 3/4));
eso1 = Flatten[Tab1e[EVPRect9Results[1/2, 114, centers[[i]],
d[[lm[[i]]]]], (i, 1,4)], 1];
The electric field is shown in the form of a vector plot in Figure 5.21.
Needs ["Graphics 'P1otFie1d "'];

ListP1otVectorFie1d[eso1, Bca'Lef'actio'r ~ 0.12, Frame ~ True,
HeadLength ~ 0.015];
5.5 TRIANGULAR FINITE ELEMENTS
A triangular element is simple yet versatile for two-dimensional problems. Almost any
two-dimensional shape can be discretized into triangular elements. The only errors in-
troduced in the geometry of the model are those resulting from approximating curved
boundaries by straight lines representing edges of triangular elements. These errors can
be reduced by increasing the number of elements. Closed-form formulas are available fOJ
evaluating integrals over triangular domains. The evaluation of boundary integrals is only
slightly more complicated as compared to the rectangular domains.
Equations for a simple three-node triangular element are developed in detail in the fol-
lowing section. The procedure for developing higher order triangular elements is outlined
in the last section.
'---------- X
Figure 5.22. Three-node triangular element
5.5.1 Three-Node Triangular Element

A typical three-node triangular element is shown in Figure 5.22. The nodal coordinates are
(xl' YI)' (X2' Y2)' and (x 3' Y3)' The directions of the outer normal and the boundary coordi-
nates c for each side are also shown in the figure. The origin of the boundary coordinate c
is the first node of each side. Thus for a given side c goes from 0 to the length of that side.
Assumed Solution Assuming unknown solutions at the three corners as nodal degrees
of freedom, we have a total of three degrees of freedom, u I ' u2 ' and u3 • The assumed finite
element solutions are needed in the following form:
Over A:
OverC:
A complete linear polynomial in two dimensions has three terms and thus a finite element
solution for the element is based on the following polynomial:
The coefficients co' c l' and c2 can be expressed in terms of nodal degrees of freedom by
evaluating the polynomial at the nodes as follows:
Inverting the 3 x 3 matrix, we get
where A is th~ area of the triangle and we have introduced the notation
Substituting the coefficients into the polynomial, we have
Carrying out multiplication, we gef the finite element assumed solution over the element
as follows:
uex,y)=(N, N, N')(~J=N'"d
1 1
NI = 2A(x3(y - Y2).+x(Y2 -Y3) +x2(-Y +Y3)) == 2A(xb l +yc I + II)
1 . 1
N2 = 2A(x3(-y + YI) + XI (y - Y3) + x( -YI + Y3)) == 2A(xb2 + YC2 + 12 )
1 1
N3 = 2A(x2(y - YI) + x(YI - Y2) + XI (-Y + Y2)) == 2A (xb3 + YC3 + 13 )
Note that each of the interpolation functions N; is 1 at the itb node and 0 at every other
node.
The boundary is defined by three sides of the element. F0r each side the solution is
linear in terms of coordinate C for that side and the two degrees of freedom at the ends of
that side. We can write this linear solution easily using the Lagrange interpolation formula:
For side 1
e - L 12
u(e) = (-- -
L 12
where L 12 = ~ (x 2 - x\)2 + (Y2 - y\)2 is the length of side 1-2.

For side 2
u(e) =( 0
where L 23 = ~ (x 3 - x 2)2 + (Y3 - Y2)2 is the length of side 2-3.

For side 3
Element Equations Substituting the assumed solution and carrying out integrations,
the matrices and vectors needed for element equations can easily be written. For simplicity
in integrations, it will be assumed that kx ' ky' p, q, a, and,B are all constant over an element.
Thus these terms can be taken out of the integrals:
kk = II
A
T
BeB dA; kp =- II
A
T
pNN dA; ko: = -1 aN,N~
e"
de
rq = II
A
qNdA;
TRIANGULAR FINITEELEMENTS 361
Since all terms in the Band C matrices are constants, the integrations to obtain kk matrix
are trivial:
kxbI + kyd kxb1bz + kyclc Z kxblb3 + kyC IC 3]

kk = JJ T
BeB dA = ABeB = 4~
T
[
kxblb z + kyc]cZ kxb~.
+ kyd kxbzb + kF!/3
i
A k.tb]b3 + kyc]c3 k.tbZb3 + kycZc3 kxb3 + kyC3
The matrix k p involves the NNT matrix in which the terms are functions of x and y:
1 [ (xb J + YC I + 11)2 txb, + YC I + I J )(xb2 + YC 2 + 12 ) (xb l + YC I + 11)(xb3 + YC 3 + 13 ) ]

(xb2 + YC 2 + 12 ? (xb2 + YC 2 + 12)(xb3 + )~C3 + 13 )
T
NN = 4A2 (xb J + YC J + 1)(xb2 + YC 2 + 12 )
(xb l + YC J + 1 1)(xb3 + YC 3 + 13 ) (xb2 + YC 2 + 12)(xb3 + YC 3 + 13 ) (xb3 + YC 3 + 13 ) -
Each term must be integrated over a triangular region. In terms of x and y coordinates this
integration is not an easy task. It is possible to derive a simple closed-form integration for-
mula; however, this needs special coordinates for a triangle called area coordinates. Here
we outline the procedure for performing integration directly in terms of x and y coordinates.
As shown in Figure 5.23, the integrations can be performed by dividing the triangle
into two parts, one with the x limits from xI to x 3 and the other from x 3 to xz. In the
y direction the integration limits are established by writing equations for lines defining
triangle boundaries:
Line 1-2:
Line 1-3:
Line 3-2:
Figure 5.23. Integration over a triangular element

The integration of a function lex, y) over the triangular element is thus performed as
follows:
rX3 (Jv~e r: ( r: !(x,y)dy)dx

If
J3
!(x,y)dA = Jx~ !(x,y)dy dx+ Jx~. Jv~

)
A x-x, Y-Y'2 x-x3 Y-Y'2
Because of the complicated integration limits on y, the algebra obviously is quite messy.
The computations can easily be performed using a computer algebra system, such as Math-
ematica. Using this procedure and integrating each term in the lep matrix and r q vector, we
get
le p = -~2A[21 1 1)
2 1 ;
112
The boundary integrals are evaluated separately for each side. For the natural boundary
condition on side 1
N cT = ( -e-
- L-
L
I2
l2
-=-
L12
0)' '
L
lea = -o:NcNT
C"
c
de = ,/ i
-0:
_
L l2
c-o
N cNT
c
.a.
de = _---.!l
6
[2 1 000)
1 2
0 0
Similarly,
For the natural boundary condition on side 2,
=- o:L23 0 0 0)
lea
6 [00 21 21 ;
For the natural boundary condition on side 3,
=- O:~l 2 0 1)
lea
6 [10 00 20 ;
All'quantities have now been defined in the element equations. The complete element equa-
tions are
(kk +kp +ko)d = "« +1(3

Example5.6 Stream Function Formulation for Fluid Flow around a Cylinder
Consider fluid flow in the direction perpendicular to a long cylinder as shown in Fig-
ure 5.24. The cylinder diameter is 4.5 em. At a distance of about 3 times the diameter of
the cylinder, both upstream and downstream, the flow can be considered uniform with a
velocity Uo = 5 cm/s in the x direction. Determine the flow velocity near the cylinder.
We choose a computational domain that extends 3 times the cylinder diameter upstream
and downstream and 1.5 times the diameter above and below the cylinder. Taking advan-
tage of symmetry, we need to model only a quarter of the solution domain as shown in
Figure 5.25. The applicable boundary conditions are also shown in the figure.
The governing differential equation in terms of stream function if!(x, y) is as follows:
82if! 82 if!
-+ --0
8x2 8y2-
Compared to the general form, lex = ley = 1 and p = q = O. The fluid velocity is related to
stream function as follows:
8if! 8if!
u=-; v=--
8y 8x
We consider a very coarse model consisting of only eight elements as shown in Figure 5.26.
Note the large error in modeling the geometry near the cylinder. With only two element
Figure 5.24. Two-dimensional flow around a cylinder
Figure 5.25. One-fourth of the solution domain for flow around a cylinder
Y2 9
6
5
4
3
2
1
o
----------- x
o 2 4 6 8 10 12
Figure 5.26. Eight-element model for flow around a cylinder
sides representing a quarter circle, instead of a cylinder, computationally we are actually

computing flow around an eight-sided polygon. The results clearly will not be very accu-
rate. The coarse mesh is used here to show all calculations.
The complete finite element solution is as follows:
lex = 1; ley = 1; p = 0; q =0
Nodal coordinates:

1 6 11.909 1.59099
2 7 13.5 2.25
3 8 13.5 4.5
Using these values, we get !
b, = -2.25; b z =2.90901; b 3 = -0.65901
C z = -1.59099; <s = 1.59099

BT = (-2.25 2.90901 -0.65901)
O. -1.59099 1.59099
0.707107-0.914214 0.207107)
kk =[ -0.914214 1.53553 -0.62132 ;
0.207107 -0.62132 0.414214
0.707107 -0.914214 0 207107)[if/) [0)

-0.914214 1.53553
[ 0.207107 -0.62132
-0:62132 if/~ = 0
0.414214 if/s 0
"Processing the remaining elements in exactly the same manner, we get the following
global equations:
1.01667 -0.416667 -0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 ifI, 0

-0.416667 1.6704 0.171236 -1.97454 0 0 0 0 0.549572 ifI, 0
-0.6 0.171236 2.38819 -1.62591 -0.33352 0 0 0 0 ifl3 0
0 -1.97454 -1.62591 5.3325 -0.0314544 -0.443273 0 -0.124963 -1.13236 ifl4 0
0 0 -0.33352 -0.0314544 2.2574 -1.89242 0 0 0 ifl s 0
0 0 0 -0.443273 -1.89242 4.07147 -0.914214 -0.821559 0 ifl6 0
0 0 0 0 0 -0.914214 1.53553 -0.62132 0 ifl7 0
0 0 0 -0.124963 0 -0.821559 -0.62132 3.26965 -1.70181 v« 0
0 0.549572 0 -1.13236 0 0 0 -1.70181 2.2846 IP, 0

Node dof Value
1 !{i1 0
2 !{i2 33.75
3 !{i3 0
4 !{i4 0
5 !{i5 0
6 !{i6 0
7 !{i7 0
9 !{i2 33.75
Delete equations (I, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9):
o
33.75
o
-0.124963 t/J4
(~ -~.97454 -~.62591 5.3325 -0.0314544 -0.443273 0 -1.13236) o
-0.124963 o -0.821559 -0.62132 3.26965 -1.70181
o
o
t/Js
33.75
5.3325 -0.124963) (!{i4) = (104.858)

( -0.124963 . 3.26965 !{i8" 57.436
{!{i4 = 20.0936,!{i8 = 18.3344}

xl = 11.909; x 2 = 13.5; x 3 = 13.5
Y1 = 1.59099; Y2 = 2.25; Y3 = 4.5

b 1 = -2.25; b2 = 2.90901; b3 = -0.65901
CI = 0.; C2 = -1.5l!J099; C3 = 1.59099

II = 30.375; 12 = -32.1122; 13 = 5.3169
Interpolation functions,
NT = (8.48528 - 0.628539x, 0.8l2634x - 0.444444y - 8.97056,

-0. 184095x + 0.444444y + 1.48528)
Nodal values, d T = (O,O, 18.3344)

l/J(x, y) =NT d = -3.37526x + 8.l4861y + 27.2317
8l/J18x = -3.37526; 8l/J18y = 8.14861
Solutions over the remaining elements can be determined in exactly the same manner. A
solution summary for all elements is as follows:
Solution at Element Centroids

x Coordinate y Coordinate l/J 8l/J18x 8l/J18y
1 12.9697 2.78033 6.11146 -3.37526 8.14861
2 10.4545 3.4205 12.8093 -0.520816 6.58746
3 10.9848 5.14017 24.0593 -0.532342 6.85139
4 6.48483 5.89017 29.1979 0 5.2942
5 9.7045 1.9205 6.69786 -2.86112 1.18512
6 7.60983 1.39017 6.69786 0 4.81803
7 3.85983 3.64017 17.9479 -0.199449 4.83379
8 1.875 2.25 I
11.25 0 5.
In order to get a better solution, we use a 120-element model as shown in Figure 5.27. The
following table shows partial results for the stream function values and the velocities in the
x and y directions obtained at the centroids of the elements. Using the u and v values, the
velocity vectors shown in Figure 5.28 are obtained. The velocity vectors are tangent to the
stream lines and show that the finite element solution is reasonable.
Y6 13 21 38 52 77
6
5
4
3
2
1
o1
x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Figure 5.27. A l20-element model for flow around a cylinder

6
5
_... _..._...._... -- ....-..-.
-~
4 - ...
3 -~
- ... -'" -- z:;;:.. . . .;::"~~ . .
...
.-..._r-...-...
_......-:;/~~y::-..Y."_
2 -~
-... -... --:.: .:;,~/
1
~:~: ~:::/
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Figure 5.28. Velocity vectors for flow around a cylinder
x y tf; u = 8tf;/8y v = -8tf;/8x

11.5662 2.02003 3.12636 4.35271 3.67236
10.8125 2.22896 6.34974 6.18323 2.19341
9.85069 2.85397 11.5733 4.41314 1.68798
8.96234 3.07584 13.6316 5.32864 0.65605
8.13516 3.68791 17.319 4.99405 0.608097
7.11216 3.92273 18.9254 5.17981 0.24295
6.41963 4.52185 22.17 5.09408 0.236236
5.26198 4.76962 23.6071 5.10947 0.0807255
4.7041 5.35579 26.6377 5.07742 0.0794096
3.41179 5.6165 28.0187 5.05675 0.0197334
2.98857 6.18973 30.9208 5.03959 0.0194431
1.56161 6.46339 32.3102 5.02342 o
11.9899 2.20921 2.9261 5.79379 3.55624
11.3639 2.42207 6.05247 6.87944 2.36017
10.676 3.00993 - 11.1313 5.19344 1.99278
9.91652 3.23292. 13.4288 5.6888 1.0255
9.36214 3.81065 17.1543 5.26698 0.978779
8.46913 4.04377 18.9862 5.31546 0.441183
8.04823 4.61137 22.1837 5.29723 0.440073
7.02174 4.85463 23.761 5.20322 0.179558
Example 5.7 Torsion Constant of a C Shape Find torsional constant J for the stan-
dard C12 x 30 section shown in Figure 5.29. The section dimensions are as follows:
h = 12in; tw = 0.51 in; hi = 3.17 in; 'r = 0.501 in

Taking advantage of symmetry, we model only half the cross section. Since ¢ is assigned a
zero value on all the outside boundary nodes, the mesh must have some interior nodes. Thus
the simplest possible model with triangular elements is the eight-element model shown in
Figure 5.30. With such a coarse mesh, we do not expect a very accurate solution. The mesh
is used to show most computations explicitly.
As a result of essential boundary conditions, ¢ = 0 at nodes (1,2,5,6,7,8, 9). Setting
08 = 1, we can obtain the finite element solution using usual steps:
Figure 5.29. C shape subjected to torque
Figure 5.30. Eight-triangular-element model for half of the C shape

kx = 1; ky = 1; p = 0; q =2
Nodal coordinates:
Element Node Global
".
Node Number x Y
1 1 O. o.
2 3 02~ O.
3 4 02~ 5.7495
Xl = 0.; x2 = 0.255; x3 = 0.255

YI = 0.; Y2 = 0.; Y3 = 5.7495
bl = -5.7495; b2 =5.7495;
c2 = -0.255;

BT = (-5.7495 5.7495 O. )
0.-0.255 0.255
11.2735 -11.2735 O. ) [0 o 0)
kk = [ -11.2735 11.2957 -0.0221758 ;kp = 0 o 0 ;rq = [0.488707)
0.488707
O. -0.0221758 0.0221758 0 o 0 0.488707
11.2735
-11.2735
-11.2735
11.2957
o
-0.0221758
)[¢I)
¢3 = [0.488707)
.0.488707
[
o -0.0221758 0.0221758 ¢4 0.488707
global equations:
11.3153 0.44942 -11.2735 -0.491176 0 0 0 0 0 ¢, 0.998707

0.44942 16.2139 0 -17.0919 0 0 0 0 0.428528 ¢Z 0.774695
-11.2735 0 22.1216 0.425425 -10.7824 -0.491176 0 0 0 ¢3 1.44483
-0.491176 -17.0919 0.425425 33.3798 0 -16.0917 0 0.378522 -0.508982 ¢4 223892
0 0 -'10.7824 0 10.8055 -0.023186 0 0 0 ¢5 0.467415
0 0 -0.491176 -16.0917 -0.023186 17.1622 -0.0470865 -0.508982 0 ¢6 1.42164
0 0 0 0 0 -0.0470865 5.35647 -5.30938 0 ¢7 0.22211
0 0 0 0.378522 0 -0.508982 -5.30938 11.2582 -5.81836 ¢a 0.708915
0 0.428528 0 -0.508982 0 0 0 -5.81836 5.89882 ¢g 0.508098

Node dof Value
1 ¢I 0
2 ¢2 0
5 ¢s 0
6 ¢6 0
7 ¢7 0
8 ¢s 0
9 ¢9 0
Remove {I, 2, 5, 6, 7,8,9) rows and columns:
22.1216
( 0.425425
0.425425)
33.3798 ¢4
(¢3) = (1.44483)
2.23892
Solving the final systemof global equations, we get
{¢3 = 0.0640388, ¢4 = 0.0662577)

XI = 0,;x2 = 0.255;x3 = 0.255
YI = 0.; Y2 = 0.; Y3 = 5.7495
b, = -5.7495; b2 = 5.7495; b3 = O.
cI = 0.; c2 = -0.255; c3 = 0.255
II = 1.46612; 12 = 0.; 13 = O.
Interpolation functions, NT = (1. - 3.92157x, 3.92157x - 0.173928y, 0.173928y}

Nodal values, d T = to, 0.0640388, 0.0662577)

¢(x, y) =NT d = 0.251132x + 0.000385934y
8¢/8x = 0.251132; 8¢/8y = 0.000385934
Solutions over the remaining elements can be determined in exactly the same manner.
The total torque is given by .
T=2 IIA
¢dA
The integral of ¢ over each element can be evaluated as described earlier. Since ¢ is a linear
function over each element, using the procedure for integration over a triangle. discussed
earlier, it can be shown that the integral over each element is
II
AI')
¢(e) dA = A~e) (¢1 + ¢2 + ¢3)
where Ate) is the area of the element and ¢1' ¢2' ¢3 are the values at its nodes. Using this
formula, the integral of ¢ over each element is evaluated and the results are summarized as
follows: .
¢dA
1 0.251132x + 0.000385934y 0.0318384
2 0.259834x 0.0168957
3 0.128078 - 0.251132x 0.0149663
4 -0.259455x + 0.00Q385934y + 0.1302 0.0318384
5 0 i o
6 -0.0227299x + 0.241364y - .1.31567 0.00806364
7 0.0720538 - 0.0227299x 0.00806364
8 1.58701 - 0.264502y 0.00876904
Summing II ¢dA contributions from all elements and multiplying by 2 give the total
torque. Since we are modeling half of the C shape, the torque for the entire section is
twice this value. The total torque is
T = 2 x2 x ~(II ¢dA) = 0.481741

Since T = J Ge and we have used Ge = 1, the computations show that the torsional constant
J for the section is 0.48 in", The J value tabulated in the steel design handbook for this
section is 0.87 in". As expected, the computed value has a large error of almost 45%.
Solution improves considerably if we use a finer mesh involving 64 triangular elements:
Using 8 element: J = 0.481741; Error = 45.%
Using 64 elements: J = 0.754029; Error = 13.%

Triangular element for 2D BV?
5.5.2 Higher Order Triangular Elements

Higher order triangular elements are difficult to develop by using the same procedure as the
one used for a three-node triangular element. For example, to develop a quadratic triangular
element, we can start with the following polynomial:
The coefficients co' c j " " can be expressed in terms of nodal degrees of freedom by eval-
uating the polynomial at the nodes. Since there are six coefficients, the element must have
six nodes. Placing three nodes along each side, the quadratic triangular element is as shown
-in Figure 5.31. The nodal coordinates are (xl' Yj), (x z' Y2)'····
Evaluating the polynomial at the nodes, we get
2 2
1 XI Yj Xj xjYI YI
uj 2 2 Co
1 x 2 Yz Xz x 2Y2 Y2
Uz Cj
2 2
u3 1 X3 Y3 X3 x 3Y3 Y3 C2
2 2
===? d =Ac
u4 1 X4 Y4 X4 X4Y4 Y4 C3
Us 2 2 C4
U6 1 Xs Ys xs XsYs Ys Cs
2 2
1 X6 Y6 X6 X6Y6 Y6
The explicit inverse of matrix A in symbolic form is not possible. However, substituting
numerical values of nodal coordinates for each element, it is possible to invert the matrix
. and write interpolation functions for each element as
Figure 5.31. Six-node triangular element

Co
C1
u(X,y) =(l X Y C z = (l X Y xZ xy y2)A- 1d == NTd

c3
c4
C s
These interpolation functions must be established for each element in the model. This is
to be followed by computing derivatives and evaluating integrals for each element. The
computations are not entirely numerical in nature and thus are difficult to program in a
numerically oriented language such as C or Fortran. A procedure basedon area coordinates
for triangles is more suitable for numerical treatment. Details of this procedure can be
found in several finite element books, for example, see Gallagher [22].
It is also possible to form triangles by collapsing one side of a quadrilateral defined by
using the mapping concept discussed in the following chapter. This procedure is very con-
venient from a programming point of view and is the one implemented in most commercial
computer programs.
PROBLEMS
General Form of Two-Dimensional Boundary Value Problem

5.1 A two-dimensional boundary value problem is stated as follows:
cPu cPu
-- - - -2x-2y+4 =0; 0< X < 1; O<y<l
a~ ay2 /
=y2; au 3 au
u(O,y) a/X' 0) = 2 - 2x - X; a)l, y) = 1 - 3y
(a) Draw a sketch of the solution domain and show the applicable conditions on
the boundary.
(b) Comparing the problem with the general form, identify the terms kx ' ky ,
p, ... , f3 for this problem.
(c) Classify the boundary conditions into essential and natural types.
(d) Obtain a weak form for the problem.
5.2 Consider the following boundary value problem defined over a rectangular domain
shown in Figure 5.32: '
0< X < 1; O<y<!
!f!(l,y) =0;
PROBLEMS 373
x
Side 1
Figure 5.32.
(a) Obtain a weak form for the problem.

(b) Show that an approximate solution of the following form is an admissible
solution for the problem:
(c) Starting with a solution of the form given in (b), with three unknown coef-
ficients, use the Galerkin method to obtain an approximate solution of the
problem.
Rectangular Finite Elements

·5.3 Develop the r q vector for the four-node rectangular element in Figure 5.33 if q(x, y)
varies linearly over the element. Use the interpolation functions to express q in terms
of its values at the four nodes of the element q l> ... , q4' Thus q(x, y) = N 1(x, y)q I +
... + N4(x, y)q4'
Figure 5.33.
5.4 A two-dimensional boundary value problem is stated as follows:
a2u 2
+2-
au
0< x < 2; O<y<l
-2 2 =0;
ax ay
u = 1 on side 2-3; :~ + u = 2 on side 1-2
au
an = 0 on the remammg two Slides
0 •
Using only one finite element shown in Figure 5.33, obtain an approximate solution
of the problem.
5.5 Use the two square elements in Figure 5.34 to find an approximate solution of the
following two-dimensional boundary value problem. Report if! and its x and y deriva-
tives at the element centroids:
82 .1, 82 .1,
_'I' + _'I' + 1 = O' 0 < x < 1; O<y<~
8~ 8l '
8if! 8if! 8if!
if!(x, ~) = 1 - x; 8/x,0) = 0; 8x (O,y) = 0; 8x(l,y) =0
. Y6 5 4
0.5
o
--------x
o 0.5
Figure 5.34.
5.6 Determine the temperature distribution in a rectangular body with a thermal con-
ductivity of 10 Wlm . "C, as shown in Figure 5.35. The bottom is maintained at
300"C. The top and the right side are insulated. The left side is subjected to heat
loss by convection with h = 30 W/m 2 ·"C and Too = 30"C. For simplicity use only
one element.
o <x < 2; O<y<l

/
8T 8T 8T
T(x, 0) = 300"C; -k 8n (0, y) = h(T - Too); 8x (2, y) = 0; 8y (x, 1) = 0
--------x
o 2
Figure 5.35.
5.7 Find stresses developed in the 1cm X 1cm square shaft shown in Figure 5.36 when it
is subjected to a torque of 175 N . em. The shaft is 1 mlong and G = 8 X 106 NI em".
Take advantage of symmetry and model a quarter of the domain using only one
element. ;
PROBLEMS 375
T
cm
1 I--- 1 cm ----1
Figure 5.36. Rectangular shaft subjected to torque
5.8 Find stresses developed in the 12 em X 12 em cross-shaped shaft shown in Figure

5.37 when it is subjected to a torque of 500 N . m. The shaft is 1 m long and G =
76.9 GPa. Take advantage of symmetry and model a quarter of the domain using
three elements.
Figure 5.37. Cross-shaped shaft subjected to torque
5.9 Compute the first five TE modes for a rectangular waveguide with width = 2 units
and height = 1 unit. Use four-node rectangular elements as shown in Figure 5.38.
Note that, even though the geometry is symmetric, we must model the entire domain
when computing modes.
Figure 5.38. Four-element model for rectangular waveguide

5.10 Compute the first five TM modes for a cross-shaped waveguide. Use four-node rect-
angular elements as shown in Figure 5.39. Note that, even though the geometry is
symmetric, we must model the entire domain when computing modes.
3y 8 7
-
2
10
-1
2
--1
11
2
--3
2
1 1 3 x
--3 -- -
2
2 2 2
Figure 5.39. Five-element modelfor cross-shaped waveguide
5.11 Use Lagrange interpolation to develop interpolation functions for the rectangular
element shown in Figure 5.40. The midside nodes in the x direction are placed at
the third points.
8 7 6 5
T
2b
11
I !
Figure 5.40.
Triangular Finite Elements

5.12 Evaluate the following integral over the triangle shown in Figure 5.4l.
II4356N 1Nz dA
A
where N1 and Nz are the triangle interpolation functions.

Answer = 11979
y 3
5
o ,2
-2 - - - - - - x
o 8 10
Figure 5.41.
PROBLEMS 377
5~13 Evaluate the following area integral over the triangular element shown in Figure
5.42.
e.x3 - 4.3)y dA
If
A
10000
Answer = 62.9638
y
20
5
0,""- x
o 20 25
Figure 5.42. Figure 5.43.
5.14 Evaluate the following area integral over the triangular element shown in Figure
5.43.
ffex+l)dA
A
Answer =215500
5.15 Consider fluid flow in thetransition region shown in Figure 5.44. The numerical
data are as follows:
H II = 32 em; Hd = 12 em; L = 50 ern;

Upstream velocity V;, = 36 crn/s
Downstream velocity Vd = HIIV;, = 96 crn/s

. H d
Figure 5.44.
Y3 6
16
12 2
8
4
0
x
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 5.45.
Taking advantage of symmetry, a finite element model of half of the domain is as

shown in Figure 5.45. Using the stream function formulation, equations for the first
15 elements are written and assembled to obtain the following global equations.
Include the last element in the system and complete the solution for nodal stream
function values. What are the computed fluid velocities at x = 30 em and y = 3 cm?
41 5 2
40 -8 0 -5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 41 _2 0 _1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-8 20 8 5
5 41 2 ifll 0
0 -8 40 0 0 -5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 4341 689 II I
ifl2
-5 0 0 1600 -320 0 -100 -20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ifl3 0
0 4
-s 0 689
-320
8677 43
-20 0 17
-100 -20
3
0 0 0 0 0 0 ifl4 0
1600
-~ 43 261 3 ifl5 0
0 0 5
0 -20 100
0 0 -50 0 0 0 0 0 0
II 1303 497 3 I ifl6 0
0 0 0 0 0 -ITO 0 -50 -20 0 0 0 0 0
-100
I 17
275
497 5207 248 7 3
ifl7
0 0 0 -20 -100 0 -ITO 550 -55" 0 -100 -20 0 0 0 ifl 8 0
0 0 0 0 _1.. 3
0 248 2601
0 0 I
0 0 0 ifl 9 0
20 -50 -15 TsO -:-100
3 1813 35 3 ifl lO 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 -50 0 0 300 -6" 0 -20 0 0
ifl ll 0
I 7 35 6247 499 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 -20 -100 0 -6" 600 -120 0 -10 0 ifl 12 0
3 I ' 499 2591
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -20 -100 ( 0 -120 600 0 0 0 iflI3 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3
0 0 109 5
0 ifl I 4 0
-20 60 -3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -10
3
0 -3
5 109
30
5
-3
«« 0
5 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -3 3
5.16 Use the potential function formulation to determine fluid flow in the direction per-
pendicular to a long diamond-shaped bar, as shown in Figure 5.46. At a distance
of about 3 times the size of the bar, on both the upstream and the downstream, the
flow can be considered uniform with a velocity of U o = 7 crn/s in the x direction.
Determine the flow velocity near the bar.
Figure 5.46.
PROBLEMS 379
5.17 An equilateral triangular shaped bar is subjected to a torque T = 500 N . m. Assume

17 = 5 em, E = 70 OPa, and v = 0.33.
(a) Verify that the following ¢(x, y) satisfies the differential equation and the
boundary conditions and hence represents the exact solution. Note the origin
of the coordinate system is at the centroid of the triangle, as shown in Figure
5.47.
2172 1 x3 - 3xy2)
¢(x y) = -G ( - - + -(~ + yZ) - e
, 27 2 217
(b) From the exact solution compute the exact values of the torsional constant J,
e
angle of twist per unit length, and maximum shear stress T max' The maximum
shear stress occurs at midsides x = 17/6, y = ±h/2-Y3 and is equal to T max =
Geh/2.
(c) Take advantage of symmetry and model half of the cross section using five
triangular elements. From the finite element solution compute the approximate
values of J, e,
and T max' Compare the finite element values with the exact
solution.
Figure 5.47.
5.18 Find stresses developed in a 4 em x 8 em rectangular shaft when it is subjected

to a torque of 500 N . m. The shaft is 1 m long and G = 76.9 OPa. An eighth of
the domain needs to be modeled because of symmetry. As shown in Figure 5.48, a
coarse four-element mesh is used.
Figure 5.48. Rectangular shaft subjected to torque

5.19 Compute the first five TM modes for a rectangular waveguide with width = 2 units
and height = 1 unit. Use triangular elements as shown in Figure 5.49. Note that,
even though the geometry is symmetric, we must model the entire domain when
computing modes.
y
3 6 9
1
2
0.5
0
x
0 2
Figure5.49. Eight-element model for rectangular waveguide
5.20 Compute the first five TE modes for a cross-shaped waveguide. Use four-node rect-
angular elements as shown in Figure 5.50. Note that, even though the geometry is
symmetric, we must model the entire domain when computing modes.
CHAPTER SIX
?
.MAPPED ELEMENTS
In Chapter 5, rectangular and triangular finite elements were developed for solution of two-
dimensional boundary value problems. As pointed out there, the rectangular elements are
not very useful for modeling complicated shapes. Triangular elements are more versatile,
but since the elements have straight sides, a large number of such elements must be used
to model curved geometries. From a theoretical point of view there is no restriction on an
element's shape. However, practical requirements of being able to easily define an element
geometry and to carry out required integrations and differentiations dictated simple ele-
ment geometries considered in Chapter 5. Quadrilateral elements, with straight or curved
In
sides, are much more useful accurately modeling arbitrary shapes. Successful develop-
ment of these elements is based on the key concept of mapping to facilitate integration. A
complicated shape is mapped into a simpler one through an appropriate transformation of
coordinates. The integration is then carried out over the mapped shape.
Mapping is presented as a change of variables in textbooks on calculus and is reviewed
briefly in the first section. In the second section the Lagrange interpolation is used to de-
velop appropriate mapping from arbitrary quadrilateral shapes to square shapes. With this
mapping, even though the integration limits are easy to establish, the integrands become
quite complicated, and it is usually not possible to find closed-form expressions for the
integrals. Numerical integration therefore becomes necessary to evaluate these integrals.
The Gaussian quadrature is the preferred method for evaluating finite element integrals.
A brief description of the Gaussian quadrature is presented in the third section. Four- and
eight-node quadrilateral elements are presented as illustrations of practical elements based
on the mapping concept and the use of numerical integration.
381
382 MAPPEDELEMENTS
6.1 INTEGRATION USING CHANGE OF VARIABLES
Frequently a suitable change of variables simplifies integration considerably. The concept

is straightforward for one-dimensional integrals; however, for two- and three-dimensional
integrals a change of variables is associated with mapping from a given to another com-
putational domain. A simple one-dimensional example is presented first. Two- and three-
dimensional cases are discussed in later subsections.
6.1.1 One-Dimensional Integrals

Consider evaluation of the following integral:
Assume a change of variables from x to s in the form of a function xes) as follows:
cix
x =xes) =:} dx = cis cis
The integrand can be expressed in terms of s by substituting for x:
cix
f(x) dx = f(x(s)) cis cis
We also need to establish new integration limits in terms of s. The lower limit for s, denoted
by sa' is obtained by solving the equation that is obtained by substituting the change of
variables into the lower limit:
solve for sa
Similarly, at the upper limit
solve for sb
Solving these equations, we get sa and sb' and thus the integral becomes
b (Sb dx
L
x=a f(x) dx == J.=sa f(x(s)) cis cis
Example 6.1 Evaluate the following integral:

INTEGRATION USINGCHANGEOF VARIABLES 383
Direct evaluation of the integral is cumbersome; however, the following change of variable
simplifies the integral considerably:
x = rsin(s) ~ dx = rcos(s)ds
Atx = 0: r sines) = 0 ~ sa = 0
Atx = r: rsin(s) = r; sines) = 1 ~Sb = 7[/2
With these substitutions, the integral is
= f"/2
r
r::': ("/2
Lx=o -y ? - x 2 dx = )s=o --j? - r
2sin2(s)r
cos(s) ds 1=0 r--j 1 - sin
2(s)r
cos(s) ds
Noting that ~1- sin 2(s) = ~ cos 2(s) = cos(s), we have
The integral of cos 2(s) is s/2 + ~ sin(2s) and thus we have
r2
l "/2
s=o
cos 2(s) ds = r2 [-s + -1 sin(2s) ]"/2
24 s=o
=-7fl2
4
6.1.2 Two-Dimensional Area Integrals

Suppose we have a function f(x, y) of two variables x and y that needs to be integrated over
a two-dimensional region
JJ f(x, y) dAxy
A.",
The subscript xy is used on A to indicate that the integration is over a region defined in
terms of x and y. Consider a change of variables to s, t given by mapping functions as
follows:
x = xes, t); y =Yes, t)

Before proceeding, we must define the relationship between the differential area dAxy in the
x, y domain and the dA s1 in the transformed s, t domain. It can be shown that (the derivation
is given after the example)
dAxy = detJ ds dt ~ dA s1
384 MAPPEDELEMENTS
where detJ is called the Jacobian and is the determinant of the following 2 x 2 matrix of
derivatives of the mapping functions:
J=(~ ~
QiE)
al
~'
detJ = Iax ay _
as at
ax ay
at as
I
as at
In terms of new variables, the integral is written as follows:
ff f(x(s, r), yes, t)) detJ ds dt

A"
Example 6.2 Evaluate the following integral over a four-sided region bounded by the
curves Cj : xy = 2, C2 : y2 = x, C3 : xy = 4, and C4 : y2 = 3x:
In terms of x and y the area is quite complicated. However, the area gets mapped to a
square, as shown in Figure 6.1, if we introduce the following change of variables:
y2
xy = s; l = tx=> t =-
x
Substituting these, the bounding curves are
Cj : s= 2; C2 : l = tx = x => t = 1; C3 : s = 4;
Thus, in terms of (s, t) the integration region is a square, as shown in the figure.
From the given change of variables we' can solve for x and y to get
S2!3
x'=-' y= Y;{i
{i'
The Jacobian matrix and the Jacobian of the transformation are as follows.
J=&
ax ax)
Ft = [_2
3fSfi -31 413 ]
s2fJ •
detJ = 3t
1
( ~ ~ fi fS '
as al 3?iJ J?i3
(4,3}
(1.1, 1.82}
(2.52, 1.59} (4, I}
x ---s
(1.59, 1.26}
Figure 6.1. Two-dimensionalarea in original x-y and transformed s-t coordinates

INTEGRATION USING CHANGE OF VARIABLES 385
Thus the integral can be evaluated as follows:
If (l x6)
dAxy = If (sV3j{i)6
({S{i? detl ds dt = If s3
3t4 dsdt
~ ~ ~ ,
=
L
4
s=2
(f3 4S3)
dt ds
1=1 3t
= L --
4
s=2
3
26s ds
243
=-520
81
=
Derivation of dA xy del J ds dt An important relationship used in the computation
with mapping is that dA.ry = detl ds dt, For the derivation of this result, assume that in the
s, t coordinates the differential area dAsl is a small rectangle, as shown in Figure 6.2. The
points Pi' i = 0, ... , 3, denote the vertices of this rectangle. With the lengths of the sides
denoted by ds and dt, the coordinates of the vertices are expressed as follows:
P2 (so + ds, to + dt);
The corresponding points in the x, y domain are denoted by Qi' i = 0, ... ,3, and are ob-
tained from the mapping giving the differential area dA.ry as shown in Figure 6.2. The
coordinates of point Qo are determined as follows:
Similarly, the coordinates of point QI are determined as follows:
In general, the coordinates xI' YI are complicated functions of ds. However, since we are
dealing with small differential lengths, we can write these coordinates using a Taylor series
as follows:
YI
i--ds ---I
T
dt
1
--+--------s --'-t--------x
Figure 6.2. Differential area in mapped and original coordinates

386 MAPPEDELEMENTS
In a similar manner the coordinates of the other two points can be expressed in terms of
derivatives of the mapping functions. Thus the coordinates of points Qi' i = 0, ... , 3, can
be written as follows:
These four points form a parallelogram whose area can be determined by taking the cross
product of vectors QOQ 1 and QOQ 3 as follows:
ax ay )
Vector QOQ 1 = Q1 - Qo = ( as ds, as ds
ax ay )
Vector QOQ3 = Q3 - Q o = ( at dt, at dt
ax ay ay ax
dAxy = QOQ 3 x QOQ 1 = as ds at dt - as ds at dt == detJ dsdt
where
y.
I
detJ = ax a _ ax ay
as at at as
I
,/
is the Jacobian as defined earlier. Thus, with the change of variables, the area integral is
transformed as follows:
II
AX)'
!(x,y)dAxy = II
A"
!(x(s,t),y(s,t))detJdsdt
Note that, since ds dt is the area dA s/' the ratio of the areas Ax!As/ is equal to the absolute
value of the Jacobian.
6.1.3 Three-Dimensional Volume Integrals

Consider a function lex, y, z) of three variables x, y, and z that needs to be integrated over
a three-dimensional region
III ~y.:
lex, y, z) dV xyz
MAPPING QUADRILATERALS USING INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS 387
The subscript xyz is used on V to indicate that the integration is over a volume defined in
terms' of x, y, and z. Consider a change of variables to 1', S, t given by the mapping functions
as follows:
x = x(r, s, t); y =y(r, s, t); z = z(r, s, t)
Following the same reasoning as for the two-dimensional case, it can be shown that the
relationship between the differential volume dV<yz in the x, y, z domain and dV rst in the
transformed 1', S, t domain is given by
dV.<yz = det] drdsdt == dV rst

where det.J is the Jacobian and is the determinant of the following 3 x 3 matrix of deriva-
tives of the mapping functions:
ax
J= [~!!l
ar
Br
as
ay
as
~]fitavat
a: a: az
ar as Bt
In terms of these new variables, the integral is written as follows:
JJJ I(x, y, z) dV.<yz = JJJ I(x(r, s, z), y(r, s, t), z(r, s, t)) det.J dr ds dt
~~ ~
6.2 MAPPING QUADRILATERALS USING INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS
Recall that the Lagrange interpolation formula, introduced in Chapter 2 for one-
dimensional problems and extended to rectangular elements in Chapter 5, is a conve-
nient formula for defining a polynomial that passes through a given set of data. So far we
have used this formula to derive interpolation functions that pass through the nodal degrees
of freedom. In this section we will use the formula to develop appropriate functions that
map a given quadrilateral to a square. The key idea is to define suitable elements, called
parent or master elements, and use the nodal coordinates of the actual element as data for
interpolation over the master element. The idea is first explained for mapping lines and
then is extended to the quadrilaterals. The same idea also works for three-dimensional
solid elements as well.
6.2.1 Mapping lines

Mapping a Straight Line Consider two straight lines as shown in Figure 6.3. The one
called the master is two units long and is lying along the s coordinate in an s, t coordinate
system. The other is of an arbitrary length and orientatiori in an x, y coordinate system.
388 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Node 1·
-1
Two node master line
Node 2
s
Y
/[X,"'I
Straight line
[XI, ytl
-------X
Figure 6.3. Master line in s-t and a straight line in the x-y coordinates
If some data are given at the two ends of the master line, we can use the Lagrange inter-
polation to describe that data as a function of s. For example, suppose that the following
temperature data are given:
s Temperature
-1 Tj
1 Tz
Then the temperature as a function of s can be written as follows:
where N] and Nz are written using the Lagrange interpolation formula presented in Chap-
ter 2.
In an analogous manner we can look at the x, y coordinates of the given straight line
as two sets of data points for the master line and write linear interpolation between them.
That is, for the x coordinates the data are as follows:
s x.coordinate
/.
The linear interpolation is
xes) =: W- s)x l + ~(s + 1)xz

Similarly, for the y coordinate we can write
yes) =: ~(l - s)yj + ~(l + s)Yz

We can clearly see that xes) and yes) represent the mapping of the straight line to the master
line by evaluating the coordinates of the line at selected s values as follows:
Ats =:-1 y( -1) =: y] => Starting point of line
Ats =: 1 y(1) =: Yz => Ending point of line
Ats =: 0 y(1) =: (y] + Yz)12 => Midpoint of line

MAPPINGQUADRILATERALS USINGINTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS 389
Mapping a Curve The same idea can be used to write a mapping between a space
curve and a two-unit-long line in the S coordinate. If a curve is defined in terms of n
points (x" YP z]), (xz' Yz, zz), ... , then we choose a two-unit-long master line element with
11 equally spaced nodes. For the master element we write the (n - I)-order Lagrange in-
terpolation functions Ni(s), i = 1, 2, ... , 11. The mapping of x and Y coordinates is then as
follows:
xeS) = N; (s)x j + Nz(s)xz + + N,,(s)xlI

yes) = N] (s)Yj + Nz(s)yz + + NII(s)YII
z(s) = N] (s)Zj + Nz(s)zz + + N/s)zlI
As an example, consider a quadratic curve in the x, Y plane described in terms of coor-

dinates at three points as shown in Figure 6.4. The master element is defined: with nodes
at S = -1, 0, 1. For interpolating between the three data points, we write the quadratic
s Lagrange interpolation functions for the master line as follows:
.N3 = !s(l + s)
The mapping of x and y coordinates is then as follows:
xeS) = !(-1 + s)sx] + (1 - sZ)xz + !s(l + s)x3
yes) = !(-1 + s)sYj + (1 - sZ)Yz + !s(l + S)Y3
We can clearly see that xes) and yes) map the three given points on the curve to the three
nodes on the master line by evaluating the coordinates of the curve at the corresponding s
values as follows:
Ats = -1 : x(-l)=x j ; y( -1) =Y j ~ Starting point of line

Ats = 0: x(O) = xz; yeO) = Yz ~ Second point on line
Ats =1 : x(l) = x 3 ; y(l) = Y3 ~ Ending point of line

In order to see that the intermediate points are mapped correctly as well, we consider the
following numerical example.
Three node master line y

.L{X
Arc
3, Y3)
Node
-1
No e 2 Node 3
s
I (xz, yz)
(Xj, yll
x
Figure 6.4. Master line in s-t and a quadratic curve line in the x-y coordinates
390 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Example 6.3 Given a quadratic curve that passes through points II, I}, 12,712}, 14, 5},
develop an appropriate mapping to map this curve to a straight line two units long. Numer-
ically demonstrate that all points on the curve are mapped uniquely to the points on the
straight line.
In this example we have
YJ = 1; Y2 -- 1·
2'
Substituting the given coordinates into the mapping of x and Y coordinates, we have
xes) = 1 Ws - I)s) + ~(-(s -I)(s + 1)) + 4(~s(s + 1)) = ~s2 + ~s + 2

yes) = 1 (~(s - I)s) + H -(s - I)(s + 1)) + 5 (~s(s + 1)) = _~s2 + 2s + ~
Using this mapping, we evaluate x and y coordinates for several values of s. The computa-
tions are summarized in the following table:
s xes) yes)
-1 1 1
-0.75 1.15625 1.71875
-0.5 1.375 2.375
-0.25 1.65625 2.96875
O. 2. 3.5
0.25 2.40625 3.96875
0.5 2.875 4.375
0.75 3.40625 4.71875
1. 4. 5.
-r
The table clearly demonstrates that the given points are mapped into the nodes ofthe master
element and all points in between are mapped appropriately.
Restrictions on Mapping of Lines For the mapping to be useful in finite element ap-
plications, it must be one to one. That is, each point on the master element must map into a
unique point on the given curve. Unfortunately, the mapping based on the Lagrange inter-
polation does not always satisfy this requirement. As an example, consider a line passing
through the following three data points. These points are the same as those used in Example
6.3 except for the x coordinate of the second point.
Coordinates: (1, IJ, (~, ~}, (4, 5J
Using these coordinates with the quadratic Lagrange interpolation functions, we get the
following mapping:
xes) = 1 Ws-I)s) + H-(s -1)(s+ 1)) +4(~s(s + 1)) = ~s2 + ~s + ~

yes) = 1 (~(s - I)s) + H-(s - I)(s + 1)) + 5 (~s(s + 1)) = _~S2 + 2s + ~
:rhe following table shows several z, y points evaluated from this mapping for different
s values. The y values are all-reasonable. However, some of the x values between s =
-1, 0 are not reasonable. We would expect all these values to be between 1 and = 1.25.i
However, the computed values for s = -0.8, -0.6, -0.4 are all less than 1. Also different
x
values of s are getting mapped to the same point in x. For example, = 1 is obtained from
both s = -1 and s = -0.2. This shows that the mapping is not one to one.
s x(s) y(s)
-1 1 1
-0.8 0.85 1.58
-0.6 0.8 2.12
-0.4 0.85 2.62
-0.2 1. 3.08
0 1.25 3.5
0.2 1.6 3.88
0.4 2.05 4.22
0.6 2.6 4.52
0.8 3.25 4.78
1. 4. 5.
From this example it is clear that for mapping to be one to one the functions x(s) and y(s)
should be either increasing or decreasing functions over the entire range -1 -s s < 1.
Assuming that the coordinates are given in increasing order, for our present situation the
mapping should always be increasing. Mathematically this requirement means that the
derivative of the mapping functions must be positive. Thus
dx> 0
- dy > 0 for all -1 s s s I.
ds ds
For the numerical example we have
dx 5s 3 dy
-- ds = 2 + 2; - =2-s
ds
These derivatives are plotted in Figure 6.5. We can clearly see that dxlds is negative from
s = -1 to s = -0,6. Therefore the mapping for the x coordinate is not good over this range.
The mapping for the y coordinate is good for the entire range.
Using the positive-derivative requirement for the mapping function, it is possible to
write a general requirement for placement of the middle point for a quadratic curve. Dif-
ferentiating the general formula for mapping of a quadratic curve, we have
-dx
ds
= -21((-1 + 2s)x l - 4sx2 -+ (l + 2s)x3 )
.
Setting L; = x3 - xl' where L; is the horizontal length of the line, we have
392 MAPPEDELEMENTS
- - dx/ds
- - dy/ds
Figure 6.5. Derivatives for the mapping
Ats =-1
Ats = 1
3L 3L
2 + 2x 1 - 2x 2 > 0
----'£ =:} x 2 < x 1 +----'£
4
The derivative will be positive over the entire range for s between -1 and 1 if
In other words, the mapping of a quadratic curve is fine as long as the second point is
chosen anywhere over the middle half of the curve.

Mapping lines
6.2.2 Mapping Quadrilateral Areas

For mapping two-dimensional areas the master area is a 2 x 2 square in the s, t coordinates.
The interpolation functions are written by substituting numerical values of the nodal coor-
dinates of the master area into the expressions given for rectangular elements in Chapter 5.
The mapping between x and y coordinates is obtained by treating the coordinates of the ac-
tual element as the data for Lagrange interpolation. The idea is first explained by defining
mapping for a quadrilateral with straight sides. It is then generalized to quadrilaterals with
curved sides.
Quadrilaterals with Straight Sides Consider a 2 x 2 square master area and an arbi-
trary quadrilateral area as shown in Figure 6.6. The interpolation functions for the master
area can easily be written by taking products of linear Lagrange interpolation functions
· MAPPING QUADRILATERALS USING INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS 393
Master area.
t
4
Y Quadrilateral area
I2
(X3, Y3)
1 1----2---1
(xz, yz)
x
Figure 6.6. Four-node master area and actual quadrilateral area
in the s and t directions as discussed in Chapter 5. Using the numerical values of the co-
ordinates at the four nodes of the master area, the following interpolation functions are
obtained:
!(l - s)(l - t)
!(s + l)(l - t)
N=
!(s + l)(t + 1)
!(l - s)(t + 1)
Multiplying these interpolation functions with nodal coordinates of the quadrilateral, the
mapping for the quadrilateral is then as follows:
Xes, t) = !(l - s)(l - t)x j + -!(s + 1)(1 - t)xz + !(s + 1)(t + l)x3 + !(l - s)(t + l)x4
yes, t) =!(l - s)(l - t)Yj +!(s + 1)(1 - t)yz + !(s + 1)(t + 1)Y3 + !(l - s)(t + 1)Y4
To see that xes, t) and yes,t) represent the appropriate mapping, consider the sides of the
quadrilateral. The side (xl,'Y j) to (xz' Yz) of the quadrilateral should be mapped to the master
area side 1-2. To verify this, we evaluate the coordinates of the quadrilateral at t = -1 and
selected s values as follows:
At (s, t) = (-1, -1): x(-I, -1) =x j ; y( -1, -:-: 1) = Yj => Starting point of side 1-2
At (s, t) = (0, -1): X = &(x j + Xz); Y = &(Yj + Yz) => Midpoint of side 1-2
At (s, t) = (l, -1): x =Xz; y.= Yz => Endpoint of side 1-2
Similarly we can verify that each point on the master area maps to a unique point on the
quadrilateral. The origin of the area (0, 0) corresponds to the point with x, Y coordinates as
the average of the coordinates of the four comers:
(s, t) = (0,0) => {!(x i + Xz + x 3 + x 4), !(Yj + Yz + Y3 + Y4)}

394 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Restrictions on Mapping of Areas The mapping must be one to one to be useful in

the finite element computations. For mapping of lines it was shown that this requirement
is fulfilled if the derivative of the mapping is positive over the range of the master line. For
the mapping of areas, a similar criteria can be developed. The mapping now is a function
of two variables; therefore, using the chain rule, we write its total derivatives as follows:
OX ox
dx= -ds+ -dt
Os ot
oy oy
dy = -ds+ -dt
os ot
Writing the two differentials in a matrix form, we have
dX) = (fs!!x. ~)(dS)

(dy !!x. dt
as at
For given ds and dt values this equation determines a corresponding value of dx and dy.
For mapping to be one to one, we should be able get unique values of ds and dt for any
given values of dx and dy. That is, we should be able to get an inverse relationship
ax
ds as ax) ( dx )
-7ft
( dt ) =( ~ fu dy
as
where J is the 2 x 2 Jacobian matrix and detJ is its determinant and is simply called the
Jacobian:
ax
J= as ~); / detJ = ox oy _ ox oy
( !!x. !!x. , os ot ot os
as at
It is evident that detJ must not be zero anywhere over -1 ::; s, t ::; 1 for the mapping to
be invertible. This requirement is satisfied as long as detJ is either positive or negative
over the entire master element. By adopting a convention of defining areas by moving in a
counterclockwise direction around the boundaries, detJ should always be positive. Thus,
for the mapping to be valid, we have the following criteria:
Mapping is valid if detJ > 0 for all - 1 ::; s, t s 1
Example 6.4 Good Mapping Determine the mapping to a 2 x 2 square for a quadrilat-
eral with the following corner coordinates:
x Y
1 0.5 0
2 2.25 1.3
3 3.1 2.7
4 1.1 2
MAPPINGQUADRILATERALS USING INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS 395
Substituting these coordinates into the equations for mapping, we get
xes, t) = ~(l - s)(1 - t)0.5 + ~(s + 1)(1 - t)2.25 + ~(s + 1)(t + 1)3.1 + ~(l - s)(t + 1)1.1
yes, t) = ~(1 - s)(1 - t)O + ~(s + 1)(1 - t)1.3 + ~(s + 1)(t + 1)2.7 + '~(l- s)(t + 1)2
These expressions simplify to
xes, t) =0.0625ts + 0.9375s + 0.3625t + 1.7375

= .,..0. 15ts + 0.5s + 0.85t + 1.5
Differentiating these expressions, the Jacobian matrix and the Jacobian of the mapping are
as follows:
1 = (0.0625t + 0.9375 0.0625s + 0.3625)

0.5 - 0.15t 0.85 - 0.15s
detl = -0. 171875s + 0.1075t + 0.615625
By solving the equation detl = 0 for s, we find the line over which the Jacobian is zero as
follows:
s = -5.81818(-0.1075t - 0.615625)
Figure 6.7 shows the line along which the Jacobian is zero. This line is clearly outside of
*'
the master area. Thus detl 0 over -1 :;; s, t :;; 1 and hence the mapping is good.
Since detl is a simple function for this example, it is easy to set detl = 0 and solve for
s to draw the line along which deEl is zero. When detl is a complicated function, this will
not be possible. Thus, to generate a zero Jacobian line, we need a tool to draw contour plot
of functions of two variables. Both MATLAB and Mathematica have functions for drawing
contour plots. The following Mathematica commands are used to draw Figure 6.7.
o
~ -1
-2
DetJ=O
-3 L..-_~ _ _'-":" -.J
-1 o 2 3 4
s
Figure 6.7. Zero Jacobian line and the master area
396 MAPPEDELEMENTS
detJ = -0.171875s + 0.1075t + 0.615625;

Block[{$DisplayFunction = Identity},
zeroContour = ContourPlot[detJ, Is, -4, 4}, It, -3, 3}, Contours -. {O},
ContourShading -. False, FrameLabel -. {"s", "t"},
AspectRatio -. Automatic]];
Show[{zeroContour, Graphics[{GrayLevel[0.7], Rectangle[(-1, -1}, (1, 1)],
GrayLevel[O], Text["DetJ = 0", {1.5, -2.3}]}]}];
Figure 6.8 provides a graphical illustration of the mapping. A regular grid of points is
chosen on the master area. For each pair of s, t values, the corresponding x, y values are
computed from the mapping. All points are clearly mapped properly.
s xes, t) Yes, t)
-1 -1 0.5 O.
-1 -0.5 0.65 0.5
-1 O. 0.8 1.
-1 0.5 0.95 1.5
-1 1. 1.1 2.
-0.5 -1 0.9375 0.325
-0.5 -0.5 1.10313 0.7875
-0.5 O. 1.26875 1.25
-0.5 0.5 1.43438 1.7125
-0.5 1. 1.6 2.175
O. -1 1.375 0.65
O. -0.5 1.55625 1.075
O. O. 1.7375 1.5
O. 0.5 /1.91875 1.925
O. 1. 2.1 2.35
,,-' Master area
"
Y Quadrilateral
J : : G
"
L-::------.<>
Figure 6.8. Four-node master area and actual quadrilateral area
x
s x(s, t) y(s, t)
0.5 -1 1.8125 0.975
0.5 -0.5 2.00938 1.3625
0.5 O. 2.20625 1.75
0.5 0.5 2.40312 2.1375
0.5 1. 2.6 2.525
1. -1 2.25 1.3
1. -0.5 2.4625 1.65
1. O. 2.675 2.
1. 0.5 2.8875 2.35
1. 1. 3.1 2.7
Example 6.5 Bad Mapping Determine the mapping to a 2x2 square for a quadrilateral
with the following corner coordinates:
x Y
1 0.5 0
2 1.2 1.3
3 3.1 2.7
4 1.1 2
Substituting these coordinates into the equations for mapping, we get
x(s, t) = 0.325ts + 0.675s + 0.625t + 1.475

y(s, t) = -0. 15ts + 0.5s + 0.85t + 1.5
The Jacobian matrix and the Jacobian of the mapping are as follows:
J = (0.325t + 0.675 0.325s+ 0.625); detJ = -0.26375s + 0.37t + 0.26125

0.5 - 0.15t 0.85 - 0.15s
By solving the equation det1 = 0 for s, we find the line over which the Jacobian is zero as
follows:
s = -3.79147(-0.37t - 0.26125)
1
0.5
o
... -0.5
-1
-1.5
-2~ ..:J
-1 0 2
s
Figure 6.9. Zero Jacobian line and the master area

398 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Master area
y Quadrilateral
I " e
I o
"
L Figure 6.10. Four-node master area and actual quadrilateral area
Figure 6.9 shows the line along which the Jacobian is zero. This line overlaps the master
area and hence the mapping is not one to one. Figure 6.10 provides a graphical illustration
of the mapping. A regular grid of points is chosen on the master area. For each pair of s, t
values, the corresponding x, y values are computed from the mapping. It is clear from the
figure that some points are mapped outside of the quadrilateral.
S xes, t) yes, t)
-1 -1 0.5 O.
-1 -0.5 0.65 0.5
-1 O. 0.8 1.
-1 0.5 0.95 1.5
-1 1. 1.1 2.
-0.5 -1 /0.675 0.325
-0.5 -0.5 0.90625 0.7875
-0.5 O. 1.1375 1.25
-0.5 0.5 1.36875 1.7125
-0.5 1. 1.6 2.175
O. -1 0.85 0.65
O. -0.5 1.1625 1.075
O. O. 1.475 1.5
O. 0.5 1.7875 1.925
O. 1. 2.1 2.35
0.5 -1 1.025 0.975
0.5 -0.5 1.41875 1.3625
0.5 O. 1.8125 1.75
0.5 0.5 2.20625 2.1375
0.5 1. 2.6 2.525
1. -1 1.2 1.3
1. -0.5 1.675 1.65
1. O. 2.15 2.
1. 0.5 2.625 2.35
1. 1. 3.1 2.7
MAPPINGQUADRILATERALS USINGINTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS 399
Quadrilaterals with Curved Sides Using appropriate interpolation functions, it is

possible to map quadrilaterals with one or more sides curved. The master element side
that corresponds to a curve will have as many equally spaced nodes as those needed to
define the curve on the actual area. For example, for a side represented by a quadratic
curve, there will be three nodes on the master element placed at - i, 0, and 1. Thus, if
all sides of an element are quadratic curves, then there will be a total of eight nodes. The
interpolation functions for this' eight-node master element are the serendipity functions
written for rectangular elements in Chapter 5. If the two opposite sides are curves, then
the interpolation functions are written using the product Lagrange formula. If one, two, or
three adjacent sides of an element are curves, it is possible to use the procedures discussed
in Chapter 5 to derive the following sets of interpolation functions:
(i) Interpolation functions when all four sides are quadratic curves-eight nodes (Fig-
ure 6.11):
- t (-1 + s)( -1 + t)(1 + s + t)

7
t (-1 + s2)(-1 + t)
N=
t (-1 +t)(1-s 2 +t+s t)
-t (l +s)(-1 +t 2)
t (l +s)(1 +t)(-1 +s +t)
I2 s
- t (-1 + s2)(1 + t)
t (-1 + s) (1 + s - t) (1 + t)
t (-1 +s)(-1 +t 2)
1 I· 2 ·1
Figure 6.11.
(ii) Interpolation functions when first three sides are quadratic curves-seven nodes
(Figure 6.12):
-t(-1+s)s(-1+t)
t (-1 +s2)(-1 +t) T
t (-1 + t) (1 -
+ t + s t)
S2 I
N= -t(l+s)(-1+t2)
t(1+s)(1+t)(-1+s+t)
- t (-1 + s2)(1 + t)
12
t (-1 +s)s (1 +t)

1-----2 ----<>I
Figure 6.12.
400 MAPPEDELEMENTS
(iii) Interpolation functions when the opposite sides are quadratic curves-six nodes
(Figure 6.13):
I
t(-1+8)8(1-t)
- t (-1 +8)(1 +8)(I-t)
t 8 (1 + 8)(1 - t) 2
N=
t 8 (l + 8) (l + t)
- t (-1 + 8)(1 + 8)(1 + t)
t (-1 +8)8 (1 + t) 1 r----2 ~I
Figure 6.13.
(iv) Interpolation functions when the two adjacent sides are quadratic curves-six
nodes (Figure 6.14):
I
-t(-1+8)8(-I+t)
t(-1+8 2)(-I+t)
t (-1 + t)(1 - 82 + t + 8 t)
N= 2
2
-t(1+8)(-I+t )
t (1 +8)t(1 +t)
-t(-1+8)(l+t)
,/
1 -I
Figure 6.14.
(v) Interpolation functions when the first side is a quadratic curve-five nodes (Figure
6.15):
- t (-1 +8)8(-1 +t) T

t(-1+8 2)(-1+t)
I
N= -+8(1+8)(-1+t)
+(1 + 8) (l + t)
-+ (-1 +8)(1 + t)
12
I- 2--....,
Figure 6.15.
Master area y Annular area

8
I2
6
1 1----2----1
o
-------x
02468
Figure 6.16. Six-node master area and actual annular area
The following examples illustrate the procedure of mapping arbitrary quadrilaterals with
.one or more curved sides using these interpolation functions.
Example 6.6 Annular Area Develop a mapping to a 2 x 2 square for the annular area
shown in Figure 6.16. The inner radius is 2 units and the outer radius is 8 units. The circular
arcs are defined by three points. The coordinates of all six key points are as follows:
x y
1 0 2
2 Yi Yi
3 2 0
4 8 0
- 5 4Yi 4Yi
6 0 8
The node numbering is chosen in such a way that three nodes are placed on the first and
third sides of the master element. The interpolation functions for this six-node element are
given in case (iii). Multiplying these interpolation functions by the x and y coordinates of
the six key points of the annular area, we get the following mapping:
xes,t) = !(s - l)s(1 - t)x 1 - !(s - l)(s + 1)(1 - t)x2 + !* + 1)(1 - t)x3
+ !s(s + l)(t + 1)x4 - !(s - l)(s + l)(t + l)xs + !(s - l)s(t + 1)x6
3ts2 3ts 2 5s2 5s2 3ts 5s 3t 5
=- - + - - - +- +- +- +- +-
Yi 2 -Ji 2 2 2 Yi Yi
Yes, t) = !(s - l)s(l - t)YI - !(s - l)(s + 1)(1- t)Y2 -I:" !* + 1)(1 - t)Y3
+ !s(s + l)(t + 1)Y4 - !(s - l)(s + l)(t + l)ys + !(s - l)s(t + 1)Y6
3ts2 3ts 2 5s2 5s2 3ts 5s 3t 5
=- - + - - - +- - - - - +- +-
Yi 2 Yi 2 2 2 Yi Yi
402 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Master area y Annular area

,:~
'I I '
e
" " o
.I.
J .. e
L·~,--'--<>-----I!>
1. o
e
..
e
e
Figure 6.17. Mapping from the master area to the annular area
_r: _c: 3t 5 3s2 3s2 3s 3

-3-y2ts+3ts-5-y2s+5s+ 2 + 2: -~ +2 +2 +~
l=
_r: _r: 3t 5 3s2 3s2 3s 3
-3-y2ts+3ts-5-y2s+5s- - - - -- +- - - +-
2 2 ~ 2 2 -Ji
2 2 2 2
9ts 9ts 15s 15s 9t 15
detl= - - - + - - - - - + - + -
~2~2~~
Setting detl = 0 and solving for t, we see that the Jacobian is zero when
5
t =--
3
This is clearly outside of the master area' and hence the mapping is good. Figure 6.17
provides a graphical illustration of the mapping. A regular grid of points is chosen on the
master area. For each pair of s, t values, the corresponding x, y values are computed from
the mapping. All points are clearly mapped properly.
Example 6.7 Quadrilateral with Curved Sides Develop a mapping to a 2 x 2 square
for the quadrilateral area shown in Figure 6.18. All four sides are curved and are defined
by three points on each side for a total of eight points. The master element has eight nodes
as shown in the figure. The coordinates of the key points are as follows:
x Y
1 0.5 0.5
2 1.1 1.6
3 1.7 2.1
4 1.5 2.5
5 1.1 2.8
6 0.75 2.5
7 0.5 2.5
8 0.25 1.5
Master area· y Quadrilateral

t .
6 5
2.5
I2
2
1.5
3
1 0.5
-!-----x
1.5
Figure6.18. Eight-node master area and actual quadrilateral
The interpolation functions for the master element are the standard serendipity shape
z functions given in case (i). Multiplying these interpolation functions by the x and Y coordi-
nates of the eight key points of the annular area we get the following mapping:
xes, t) = -!(s - 1)(t - 1)(s + t + l)x j + ... + !(s - 1)(t2 - l)x g
=0.025ts2 + 0.025s 2 - 0.175t 2s - 0.15ts + 0.625s + 0.075t 2 - 0.175t + 0.85

yes, t) = -!(s - 1)(t - 1)(s + t + I)Yj + ... + !(s - 1)(t2 - I)Yg
=0.225ts2 - 0.075s 2 - 0.025t 2s - 0.325ts + 0.5s - 0.025t 2 + 0.45t + 2.075
] = (-0.175t 2, + 0.05st - 0.15t-+ 0.05s + 0.625 0.025s2 - 0.35ts - 0.15s + 0.15t - 0.175)
-0.025t- + 0.45st - 0.325t - 0.15s + 0.5 0.225s2 - 0.05ts - 0.325s - 0.05t + 0.45
det] = 0.015s3 + 0.11625t 2s2 - 0.029375ts2 + 0.089375i - 0.123125t 2s

+ 0.265ts - 0.131_~.75s + 0.0125t 3 - 0.026875t 2 - 0.230625t + 0.36875
Figure 6.19 shows the contour line along which the Jacobian is zero. The line is clearly
outside of the master area and hence the mapping is good. Figure 6.20 provides a graphical
illustration of the mapping. A regular grid of points is chosen on the master area. For each
pair of s, t values, the corresponding x, Y values are computed from the mapping. All points
are clearly mapped properly.
Guidelines for Mapped Element Shapes From the examples presented in this sec-
tion, it is clear that when using mapped elements the finite element discretization must
be done in such a way that no element has a zero or near~zero Jacobian. Elements that
are close to square will obviously be the best. Elements that are excessively distorted may
introduce significant numerical errors. Figure 6.21 presents.some practical guidelines for
desired element shapes. Most commercial finite element computer programs will issue a
warning if the finite element mesh used does not meet these guidelines.
404 MAPPEDELEMENTS
-1 -0.5 0 0.5
Figure 6.19. Contour for zero Jacobian
Master area Y Quadrilateral
I
1 ~
//)
("-i
L· · V
-------x
Figure 6.20. Mapping from the master area to the quadrilateral
Skew Taper
b<3a
Excessive curvature
Figure 6.21. Guidelines for mapped element shapes

.. MathematicafMATLAB Implementation 6.2 on the Book Web Site:

Mapping areas .
6.2.3 Mapped Mesh Generation

The mapping of areas provides a simple method for finite element mesh generation. The
method can be used for any geometry that can be divided into four-sided quadrilaterals.
The quadrilaterals can have curved sides. The procedure is as follows:
. 1. Divide the given geometry into four-sided regions and get coordinates of key points
defining the quadrilaterals.
2. Decide on the number of nodes to be created on the two adjacent sides of the quadri-
laterals. The opposite sides will automatically be divided into that many nodes. Make
sure to choose the same number of nodes for the sides that are common between the
two quadrilaterals.
3. Map each quadrilateral into a 2 x 2 square master area and generate the mapping
xes, t) and yes, t).
4. Divide the master area into a regular grid based on the number of nodes to be created
on the sand t sides of the master areas.
5. Substitute the s, t coordinates of the master area grid into the mapping functions to
obtain the x, y coordinates of the nodes.
6. Assign node numbers in any convenient order and use the pattern to define element
connectivity.
7. Since each quadrilateral area is processed independently, the common sides will have
two different sets of nodes. Eliminate the duplicate nodes at the same location and
redefine the connectivity of-elements affected by this operation.
The following example illustrates the procedure.

Example 6.8 Mapping is used to generate a finite element mesh consisting of triangular
elements for the two-dimensional model of it culvert shown in Figure 6.22. Taking advan-
tage of symmetry, only the right half of the culvert is modeled. The area can be divided
into two four-sided quadrilaterals as shown in the figure. For each area the curved side
is defined by three key points and the straight sides by two corner points. The key point
locations are as follows:
x Y
1 O. 3.
2 1.14805 2.77164
3 2.12132 2.12132
4 2.77164 1.14805
5 3. O.
6 6 0
7 3.2 5.196
8 0 5.196
406 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Culvert
5
4
3
2
0
5 66
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4
Figure 6.22. Two-dimensional model of a culvert
Each area has one curved side and therefore the appropriate master area interpolation
functions are those given in case (v). Defining the area I by using the key point order as
(I, 2, 3, 7, 8), the mapping for area I is as follows:
xes,t) == -~(s - 1)s(t - l)x 1 + !(i - l)(t - l)x2 - ~s(s + l)(t - l)x3
+ ~(s + 1)(t + l)x7 - ~(s -1)(t + l)x g
== 0.0436951ts2 - 0.0436951s 2 + 0.26967ts + 1.33033s + 0.225975t + 1.37403
yes, t) == -~(s - l)s(t - I)Yl + !(S2 - 1)(t - 1)Y2 - ~s(s + 1)(t - I)Y3
+ ~(s + 1)(t + I)Y7 - ~(s - l)(t + I)Yg
== 0.105489ti - 0.105489i + 0.2196?ts - 0.21967s + 1.21218t + 3.98382
The mapped area is now a 2 x 2 square and can be subdivided into uniform elements. As
an example, we create a mesh with five nodes in the s direction (along sides 1-2-3 and 7-8)
and 3 in the t direction (sides 3-7 and 8-1). In the s direction the nodes are placed at s == -1,
-!, !'
0, 1 and in the t coordinates at t == -1, 0, 1. Substituting these s, t locations into the
mapping gives the corresponding x, y coordinates of the nodes as follows:
s x y
1 -1 -1 0 3.
2 -1 0 0 4.098
3 -1 1 0 5.196
I
4 -2: -1 0.595873 2.93856
I
5 -2: 0 0.697936 4.06728
I
6 -2: 1 0.8 5.196
7 0 -1 1.14805 2.77164
8 0 0 1.37403 3.98382
MAPPINGQUADRILATERALS USING INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS 407
s x y
9 0 1 1.6 5.196
1
10 '2 -1 1.65653 2.49922
1
11 '2 0 2.02827 3.84761
I
12 '2 1 2.4 5.196
13 1 -1 2.12132 2.12132
14 1 0 2.66066 3.65866
15 1 1 3.2 5.196
Similarly, defining the area II using the key point order as (3,4, 5, 6, 7j, the mapping for
area II is as follows:
xes, t) = -!(s - l)s(t - 1)x3 + !(i - l)(t - 1)x4 - !s(s + 1)(t - l)xs
+ !(s + l)(t + 1)x6 - !(s - l)(t + 1)x7

=0.105489ti - 0.105489s2 + 0.48033ts + 0.91967s + 0.914181t + 3.68582
yes, t) = -!(s - l)s(t - 1)Y3 + !(s2 - l)(t - 1)Y4- !s(s + l)(t - l)ys
+ !(s + l)(t + 1)Y6 - !(s - l)(t + 1)Y7

= 0.0436951ts2 - 0.0436951s2 - 0.76867ts - 1.82933s + 0.724975t + 1.87303
Since this area meets with area I along side 3-7, we must create only three nodes in the t
direction (sides 5-6 and 3-7) for this area. In the s direction (sides 3-4-5 and 6-7) we can
create as many nodes as we like. For illustration purposes we create three nodes in the s
direction as well. The locations of the nodes are determined from the mapping as follows:
s x Y
1 -1 -1 2.12132 2.12132
2 -1 0 2.66066 3.65866
3 -1 1 3.2 5.196
4 0 -1 2.77164 1.14805
5 0 0 3.68582 1.87303
6 0 1 4.6 2.598
7 1 -1 3. 0
8 1 0 4.5 0
9 1 1 6. 0
The nodes and elements created in each area are shown in Figure 6.23. For each area the
triangular elements are defined between adjacent columns of nodes. The only remaining
task is to merge the nodes from the two areas, eliminate the duplicate nodes along the
common edge, and get the final finite element mesh shown in Figure 6.24.
408 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Figure 6.23. Triangular element mesh in the two areas
y Node numbers
6 9 13 17
5
3
4
2
3
o
x
o 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 6.24. Complete mesh for the culvert
6.3 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION USING GAUSS QUADRATURE
When mapping is used to develop finite elements, especially higher order elements, the
integrands become quite complicated and it is not possible to evaluate the required integrals
in a closed form. We must use numerical integration in these situations. Simple numerical
integration techniques such as the trapezoidal rule and Simpson's formula do not work that
well in finite element computations. The Gauss quadrature, also called the Gauss-Legendre
quadrature, is more suitable for finite element applications and has become the standard
tool for developing mapped elements.
NUMERICALINTEGRATION USING GAUSSQUADRATURE 409
" The basic Gauss quadrature formulas are derived for one-dimensional integrals in the
following section. These formulas extend easily to two- and three-dimensional integrals.
6.3.1 Gauss Quadrature for One-Dimensional Integrals

In the Gauss quadrature, the basic derivation assumes that the integral of a function f(s) is
to be evaluated over an interval -1 :$ s :$ 1. The main idea is to represent the integral in
the following form:
The n points (sl' S2' .•. ) are known as Gauss points and the corresponding coefficients
(WI' w 2' · · · ) are known as weights. The locations of Gauss points and the"appropriate
weights are determined by requiring that the above equation give exact integrals for con-
stant, linear, quadratic, etc., terms in a polynomial.
One-Point Formula To start with the simplest case, consider the derivation of a one-
point Gauss quadrature. The integral is represented in the following form:
The two unknowns (WI and sl) are determined by making this formula give exact integrals
for the first two terms in a polynomial:
Constant term: f(s) = 1; fl 1 ds =2 ==} wI =2

Linear term: f(s) =s; L\ sds = 0 ==} WIS I =0
The first equation gives WI = 2 and the second equation gives sl = O. Thus the one-point
Gauss quadrature formula is
I = (I f(s) ds :>J 2f(0)

J-I
Clearly the one-point formula will give exact integrals for linear polynomials. For all other
functions the results will be approximate.
Two-Point Formula Now consider derivation of a two-point Gauss quadrature. The

integral is represented by the following form:
410 MAPPEDELEMENTS
The four unknowns (wi' sl' w2, and S2) are determined by making this formula give exact
integrals for the first four terms in a polynomial:
Constant term: f(s) = 1; 1\ 1 ds =2 ===* WI + w2 =2

Linear term: f(s) = s; III sds = 0 ===* WIS I + W2S2 = 0
r l 2
Quadratic term: J-I S ds = :32 ===* W1SI2 + W2S22 = :32
rl 3
Cubic term: J-I S ds = 0 ===* W1SI3 + W2S23 = 0
Solving these four equations simultaneously, we get
Thus the two-point Gauss quadrature formula is
Clearly the two-point formula will give exact integrals for polynomials up to the third
order. For other functions the results will be approximate.
Three-Point Formula .For a three-point Gauss quadrature the integral is represented in

the following form:
1= L: f(s)ds. "" wd(sl) + w2f(s2) + WJ!(s3) .

!
The six unknowns (wI' sl"") are determined from the following six conditions:
f(s) = 1; fl 1 ds = 2 ===* wI + w2 + w3 = 2
f(s) =s; 1\ sds = 0 ===* W1S I + W2S2 + W3S3 = 0
f(s) =S2; rl 2
J-I S ds = :32 ===* W1SI2 + W2 S22 + W3S32 = :32
rl _3 3 3 3
J-I s: ds = 0 ===* W1SI + W2S2 + W3S3 = 0
=s4; rl 4
f(s) J-I S = :52 ===* W1SI4 + w2S24 + W3S34 = :52
ds
rl _'l 5 5 5
f(s) =;; J-I s: ds = 0 ===* W1Sj +W2S2 + W3S3 = 0
Solving these equations simultaneously, we get
W -
1 - 9'
2.. W -
2 -
8.
9' W3 =~
Sl =-..[ f s2 =0; s3 =-If
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION USING GAUSS QUADRATURE 411
T~us the three-point Gauss quadrature formula is
I = II
-1
f(s)ds "" f[-
9
~ f["m
~ Iffi)5 + ~9 f(O) + 9 5J
Clearly the three-point formula will give exact integrals for polynomials up to the fifth
order. For other functions the results will be approximate.
Table of Gauss Points and Weights Using the same procedure, one can determine
Gauss points and corresponding weights for a formula with any number of points. The fol-
lowing table lists Gauss point locations and weights for formulas up to six points. The table
also indicates the order of the polynomial that is integrated exactly by the corresponding
formula. Note the given locations and weights must be used only when evaluating integrals
from -1 to 1. For different integration limits an appropriate change of variables must be
introduced prior to using these values.
Points Locations Weights Order

1 O. 2. 1
2 -0.5773502691 89626 1. 3
0.5773502691 89626 1.
3 -0.774596669241483 0.555555555555556 5
O. 0.888888888888889
0.774596669241483 0.555555555555556
4 -0.861136311594053 0.347854845137454 7
-0.339981043584856 0652145154862546
0.33998 1043584856 0.652145154862546
0.86113 6311594053 0.347854845137454
5 -0.906179845938664 0.23692 68850 56189 9
-0.538469310105683 0.478628670499366
O. 0.56888 88888 88889
0.538469310105683 0.478628670499366
0.906179845938664 0.23692 68850 56189
6 -0.932469514203152 0.17132449237917 ' 11
-0.6612093864 66265 0.360761573048139
-0.238619186083197 0.467913934514691
0.238619186083197 0.467913934572691
0.661209386466265 0.360761573048139
0.932469514203152 0.17132449237917
Example 6.9 Evaluate the following integral using two-, 'three-, and four-point Gauss
quadrature:
I = 1 1
-1
(0.2 + 25s - 200i + 675s 3 - 900s 4 + 400s 5 ) ds
.
412 MAPPEDELEMENTS
f(s) := 400s 5 - 900s4 + 675s3 - 200s2 + 25s + 0.2
Using the two-point formula, the integral is evaluated as follows:
f(s) Wi WJ(s)
1 -0.57735 -336.464 1. -336.464
2 0.57735 3.53091 1. 3.53091
I,," -332.933
Using three-point formula the integral is evaluated as follows.
Si f(s) Wi wJ(si)
1 -0.774597 -888.418 0.555556 -493.566
2 O. 0.2 0.888889 0.177778
3 0.774597 0.818488 0.555556 0.454716
I,," -492.933
Since the given function f is a fifth-order polynomial, the three-point formula should give
us the exact integral. A direct evaluation of the integral confirms this. As the following
computation with four points demonstrates, using any formula with 11 2: 3 will give the
exact integral for this function:
Si f(si) Wi wJ(s)
1 -0.861136 -1285.01 0.347855 -446.998
2 -0.339981 -71.7~4 0.652145 -46.8136
3 0.339981 1.90044 0.652145 1.23936
4 0.861136 -1.03804 0.347855 -0.361088
I,," -492.933
Example6.10 Evaluate the following integral using two- through six-point Gauss
quadrature:
1:= II -I
(exp[s] Si~[S]) ds
1+s I:
I
, I
S
f(s) := e sines)
s2 + 1
Using the two-point formula the integral is evaluated as follows:
f(s) Wi wJ(s)
1 -0.57735 -0.229805 1. -0.229805
2 0.57735 0.729188 1. 0.729188
I,," 0.499383
NUMERICALINTEGRATION USING GAUSSQUADRATURE 413
Using the three-point formula the integral is evaluated as follows:
Si f(Si) Wi WJ(Si)
1 -0.774597 -0.201474 0.555556 -0.11193
2 O. O. 0.888889 O.
3 0.774597 0.948475 0.555556 0.526931
I", 0.415
Using the four-point formula, the integral is evaluated as follows:
Si f(s;) Wi wJ(s)
1 '-0.861136 -0.184111 0.347855 -0.0640438
2 -0.339981 -0.212765 0.652145 -0.138754
3 0.339981 0.419956 0.652145 0.273873
4 0.861136 1.03051 0.347855 0.358468
I", 0.429543
Using the five-point formula, the integral is evaluated as follows:
Si
1 -0.90618 -0.174647 0.236927 -0.0413786

2 -0.538469 -0.232028 0.478629 -0.111055
3 O. O. 0.568889 O.
4 0.538469 0.681159 0.478629 0.326022
5 0.90618 1.06969 0.236927 0.253439
I", 0.427028
Using the six-point formula, the integral is evaluated as follows:
1 -0.93247 -0.169073 0.171324 -0.0289664

2 -0.661209 -0.220568 0.360762 -0.0795726
3 -0.238619 -0.176155 0.467914 -0.0824254
4 0.238619 0.283895 0.467914 0.132838
5 0.661209 0.827679 0.360762 0.298595
6 0.93247 1.09146 0.171324 0.186994
I", 0.427462
The first three digits of the integral obtained by using -five and six points are identical. Thus
the integral has essentially converged.

One-dimensional numerical integration
414 MAPPEDELEMENTS
6.3.2 Gauss Quadrature for Area Integrals

The one-dimensional Gauss quadrature formulas extend easily to two-dimensional inte-
grals as long as the integration region is a 2 x 2 square with the origin at the center as
shown in Figure 6.25. Thus we consider evaluating the following integral:
1:= t t /(s, t)dsdt

J-1)-1
Considering a vertical strip, shown in dark shade in the figure, the integral in the t direction
for a given s can be evaluated using an n-point one-dimensional Gauss quadrature formula
as follows:
I"" (I
)-1
(tj=1
wJ(s, t))dS
The resulting s integrals can be evaluated by using In points in the s direction, giving
Note that the total number of points is In X 11. Usually the same number of points 'is used in
both directions, and therefore we get 1 x 1 := 1,2 x 2:= 4, 3 x 3 := 9, ... point formulas.
The following table shows the locations and weights of some of these formulas. To save
space, only six significant figures are shown in the table. Actual numerical computations
should use more precision.
Quadrature Points os; wix
1X 1 1 O. O. 4.
2x2 1 -0.57735 -0.57735 1.
2 -0.57735 0.57735 1.
3 0.57735 -0.57735 l.
4 0.57735 0.57735 1.
Figure 6.25. 2 x 2 Square area for two-dimensional Gauss quadrature

Quadrature Points Si tj WjXWj

3x3 1 -0.774597 -0.774597 0.308642
2 -0.774597 O. 0.493827
3 -0.774597 0.774597 0.308642
4 O. ~0.774597 0.493827
5 O. O. 0.790123
6 O. 0.774597 0.493827
7 0.774597 -0.774597 0.308642
8 0.774597 O. 0.493827
9 0.774597 0.774597 0.308642
4x4 1 -0.861136 -0.861136 0.121003
2 -0.861136 -0.339981 0.226852
3 -0.861136 0.339981 0.226852
4 -0.861136 0.861136 0.121003
5 -0.339981 -0.861136 0.226852
6 -0.339981 -0.339981 0.425293
7 -0.339981 0.339981 0.425293
8 -0.339981 0.861136 0.226852
9 0.339981 -0.861136 0.226852
10 0.339981 -0.339981 0.425293
11 0.339981 0.339981 0.425293
12 0.339981 0.861136 0.226852
13 0.861136 -0.861136 0.121003
14 0.861136 -0.339981 0.226852
15 0.861136 0.339981 0.226852
16 0.861136 0.861136 0.121003
Example 6.11 Evaluate the following integral using 2 x 2-,3 x 2-, and 3 x 3-point Gauss
quadrature:
1:= f:f: (400s5 + 675s3 + 25s - 900it

6
- 200P + 0.2) ds dt
f(s, t) := -900s2t6 - 200t 2 + 400s5 + 675s3 + 25s + 0.2
Using a 2 x 2 Gauss quadrature, the integral is computed as follows:
Point Sj' t j f(sj> t j ) WiXWj Wi X wjf(Sj> tj )

-0.57735 -247.575 1. -247.575
-0.57735 -247.575 1. -247.575
2 -0.57735 -247.575 1. -247.575
0.57735 -247.575 1. -247.575
3 0.57735 92.4198 1. 92.4198
-0.57735 92.4198 1. 92.4198
4 0.57735 92.4198 1. 92.4198
0.57735 92.4198 1. 92.4198
I", -310.311
416 MAPPEDELEMENTS
With 3 x 2 Gauss quadrature, there are three points in the s direction and two points in the
t direction as follows:
s direction points, si = {-0.774597, 0., 0.774597}

weights, Wi = [0.555556,0.888889,0.555556)
t direction points, tj = {-0.57735, 0.57735}
weights, w j = (I., 1.)
Thus theintegralis computed as follows:
Point sjI tj !(si'ti ) wjxw i wj x wi!(Sj. t)
-0.774597} -531.085 0.555556 -295.047

-0.57735
2 -0.774597} -531.085 0.555556 -295.047

0.57735
3 O. } -66.4667 0.888889 -59.0815

-0.57735
4 O. } -66.4667 0.888889 -59.0815

0.57735
5 0.774597 } 0.555556
358.152 198.973
-0.57735
6 0.774597} 358.152 0.555556 198.973

0.57735
!
I", -310.311
Using \13 x 3 Gauss quadrature, the integral is computed as follows:
Point Sj' ti !Csj, ti ) wjxw i wj X wi!Csj, tj )
-0.774597} -681.058 0.308642 -210.203

-0.774597
2 -0.774597} -444.418 0.493827 -219.466

O.
3 -0.774597} -681.058 0.308642 -210.203

0.774597
4 O. } -11,9.8 0.493827 -59.1605

-0.774597
5 o.}
O.
0.2 0.790123 0.158025
6 O. } -119.8 0.493827 -59.1605

0.774597
.0.774597 } 208.178 0.308642
7 64.2526
-0.774597
Point Sjl tj . !(sj> I j ) WjXW j wj X wJ(sj> I j )
8 0.774597} 444.818 0.493827 219.663

O.
9 0.774597} 208.178 0.308642 64.2526

0.774597
I", -409.867
By direct evaluation,' it can easily be verified that the exact value of the integral is as
follows:
Integrate[f, Is, -1, 1}, It, -1, 1)]

-437.295
Thus we need to further increase the number of integration points to get a more accurate
solution.

Two-dimensional numerical integration
6.3.3 Gauss Quadrature for Volume Integrals

Extension of the one-dimensional Gauss quadrature to three-dimensional integrals follows
the same line of reasoning as for the two-dimensional case. The integration region now
must be a 2 x 2 x 2 cube with the origin at the center as shown in Figure 6.26. Thus we
consider evaluating the following integral: .
1= 11 111I'r.
i·-I -I .-1
s, t)drdsdt
Taking m points in the r direction, n points in the s direction, and p points in the t direction,
{-I, -1, I}
Figure 6.26. 2 x 2 x 2 cube for three-dimensional Gauss quadrature

418 MAPPEDELEMENTS
the In x n x p Gauss quadrature for volume integration is as follows:
111 n P
I"" .L:.L:.L: wiwjwd(r
1=1 j=l k=l
i , sj' tk )
Usually the same number of points are used in each direction. The following table shows
the locations and weights of some of these formulas:
Quadrature Points tk wix xW k
lxlxl 1 O. O. O. 8.
2x2x2 1 -0.57735 -0.57735 -0.57735 1.
2 -0.57735 -0.57735 0.57735 l.
3 -0.57735 0.57735 -0.57735 l.
4 -0.57735 0.57735 0.57735 l.
5 0.57735 -0.57735 -0.57735 1.
6 0.57735 -0.57735 0.57735 l.
7 0.57735 0.57735 -0.57735 l.
8 0.57735 0.57735 0.57735 l.
3x3x3 1 -0.774597 -0.774597 -0.774597 0.171468
2 -0.774597 -0.774597 O. 0.274348
3 -0.774597 -0.774597 0.774597 0.171468
4 -0.774597 O. -0.774597 0.274348
5 -0.774597 O. O. 0.438957
6 -0.774597 O. 0.774597 0.274348
7 -0.774597 0.774597 -0.774597 0.171468
8 0.774597 0.774597 O. 0.274348
9 0.774597 0.774597 0.774597 0.171468
10 O. -0.774597 0.774597 0.274348
11 O. -0.774597 O. 0.438957
12 O. -0.774597 0.774597 0.274348
13 O. O. -0.774597 0.438957
14 O. O. O. 0.702332
15 O. O. 0.774597 0.438957
16 O. 0.774597 -0.774597 0.274348
17 O. 0.774597 O. 0.438957
18 O. 0.774597 0.774597 0.274348
19 0.774597 -0.774597 0.774597 0.171468
20 0.774597 -0.774597 O. 0.274348
21 0.774597 -0.774597 0.774597 0.171468
22 0.774597 O. -0.774597 0.274348
23 0.774597 O. O. 0.438957
24 0.774597 O. 0.774597 0.274348
25 0.774597 0.774597 -0.774597 0.171468
26 0.774597 0.774597 O. 0.274348
27 0.774597 0.774597 0.774597 0.171468
Example 6.12 Evaluate the following integral using (1 x 2 x 3)- and (3 x 3 x 3)-point
Gauss quadrature:
I = (I (I (\400t5 + 675t3 _ 900s4 _ 200s 2 + 25r .;. 0.2) dr ds dt

LILILI
fer, s, t) = 400t 5 + 675t 3 - 900s 4 - 200i + 25r + 0.2
With 1 x 2 x 3 Gauss quadrature, there is one point in the r direction, two points in the s
directions, and three points in the t direction as follows:
r direction points, rj = {O.}

weights, wj = {2.}
s direction points, Sj = {-0.57735, 0.57735}
weights, Wj= {I., I.}
t direction points, tk = {-0.774597, 0., 0.774597}
weights, w k = {O.555556, 0.888889, 0.555556}
Thus the integral is computed as follows:

420 MAPPEDELEMENTS
It can be verified that using a 3 X 3 X 3 Gauss quadrature (27 points) the integral comes out
to be -1971. 73, which is the exact value of the integral .

Three-dimensional numerical integration
6.4 FINITE ELEMENT COMPUTATIONS INVOLVING MAPPED ELEMENTS
The finite element equations for a second-order boundary value problem were derived in
Chapter 5. For any arbitrary shaped element in the x, y coordinate system, the element
equations are as follows:
where
kk = II
A
T
BeB dA; kp = - II
A
T
pNN dA;
r, =II
A
qNdA; rfJ = L c,
f3N c de
u(x,y) = (Nj(x,y) N 2(x,y) .. • N,J(X'y))l~~] = NTd

Ull
ax
i}!!;,.)
i}!!;,. and
ay
These equations involve selecting a suitable element shape, developing an appropriate as-
sumed solution over the element area and its boundary in terms of interpolation functions
Nand Nc ' computing derivatives of the interpolation functions with respect to x and y, and
carrying out integrations over the element area and over the boundary of the element.
The mapping concept makes these computations possible for arbitrary shaped elements.
However, it also adds an additional layer of complexity that must be dealt with when per-
forming necessary computations. Procedures for carrying out these computations are ex-
plained in this section. It is assumed that the chosen quadrilateral element has been mapped
FINITEELEMENTCOMPUTATIONS INVOLVING MAPPEDELEMENTS 421
to a 2 x 2 square element. Recall that the mapping between the actual element coordinates
and the master element coordinates is written as follows:
Xes, t) =Njx j + Nzxz + + NllxlI

yes, t) =NIYj + NzYz + + NIIYII
where N; are interpolation functions written over suitable master elements.
6.4.1 Assumed Solution

There is no simple formula for writing an assumed solution in terms of interpolation func-
tions for an arbitrary shaped quadrilateral. One can use the basic method of starting with a
suitable polynomial and evaluating the coefficients of this polynomial in terms of nodal de-
grees of freedom, as was done for a four-node rectangular element in Chapter 5. However,
unless the shape is very simple, the procedure will not give useful closed-form expressions
for the interpolation functions. The only possibility would be to employ the procedure in
a numerical scheme that evaluates these interpolation functions and their derivatives for
each element using the numerical values of the nodal coordinates. Beside being expensive
computationally, the procedure is numerically unstable and hence not practical for general
applications.
The practical approach is to write the assumed solution in terms of the mapped element
coordinates s, t, Since the mapped element is a 2 x 2 square, with the origin at the center,
the interpolation functions are exactly the same as those used for mapping. As examples,
the assumed solutions for four- and eight-node elements are as follows:
Assumed solution for a four-node element (Figure 6.27):
N=
t(-l+s)(-l+t)
- t (l +s)(-l +t)
t (l +s)(l +t)
I 2
- t (-1 +s)(l +t)
1 I~ 2 coi
Figure 6.27.
422 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Assumed solution for an eight-node element (Figure 6.28):
-t (-I + 5)(-1 + t)(l + 5 + t)

+ (-1 +5 2)(-1 +t)
N=
t (-I + t)(l - 52 + t
-+(l+5)(-1+t2)
+s t)
t (1 + 5)(1 + t)(-l + 5 + t)
I2
-+ (-1 + 52 )(1 + t)
t (-I +5)(1 +5 - t)(l +t)
+(-1+5)(-1+t2)
1 I- "I
Figure 6.28.
The solutions along a boundary of an element can be written simply by setting the applica-
ble s or t to ±l. For example, for an eight-node element along side 1 (t = -1), the solution
is as follows:
,I
or
Thus for side 1 of an eight-node element,
N~ =( ~(s - 1)s I....: s2 ~(S2 + s) 0 0 0 0 0)
6.4.2 Derivatives of the Assumed Solution

The interpolation functions are written over the master element in terms of s, t. However
the element equations need x and y derivatives of these interpolation functions. Using the
mapping xes, t) and yes, t) and employing the chain rule of differentiation, the derivatives
of the ith interpolation can be written as follows:
aN. aN. ax aN. oy

-'=-'-+-'-
as ax as ay as
aNi = aNiax + aNioy
at ax at oy at
FINITE ELEMENT COMPUTATIONSINVOLVING MAPPED ELEMENTS 423
Writing the two equations together in a matrix form, we have
7Ji as !!x)
aN,) (ax as [aN,)
ax
[ aN, = ill !!x aN,
at at at ay
Here we notice that the 2 x 2 matrix is the transpose of the Jacobian matrix defined earlier
in Section 6.1:
ax
J= as
( !!x
as
The x and y derivatives of the ith interpolation function can thus be computed from its s
and t derivatives and the inverse of the JT matrix as follows: .
ax ) -rT [aN')
I!!!l at -as
7Ji _ _1_ (!!x 7Ji _
ay)[aN') 1 ( J22
[ ay
aN, - aN, - detJ _ill ill aN, =
at at as at
detJ -J 12
where detJ is the determinant of the Jacobian matrix,
detJ = axay _ axay

as at at as
Separating the x and y derivatives, we have
aN; (J aN; _ J ON;)

1_
ax - as
detJ at 22 21
aN; __1_ (-J oN; + J ON;)

.Oy - detJ as at 12 11
The complete vectors of derivatives of all interpolation functions B t and By can be written
as follows:
B = iij!!J..
!a.t!J. ] = ~
J [i!!!J.]
as J . . [i!!!J.]
aN, - -ll- et«.
at
x [ ar detJ ~s detJ ~t
ay J J as' at
i! !J.] = __ [i!!!J.]
By = . ij!!J.. ij!!J.. + _11_ [i!!!J.]
12_ aN,
( a(. detJ ~S
' .
detJ ~t
.
The matrix of derivatives of the interpolation functions B can be written as follows:

424 MAPPEDELEMENTS
BT::=[~i!!!.l W;
aN,
~J
~
ay ay ay
BT __1_ J 22 I!!!J.
as - l 21 I!!!J.
at
laN,
22& -
l
21
~
at J 22 aN,'_J
as 21 ~
at J
- det] [ -J I!!!J. + J I!!!J.
12 as II at - J 12 ~
as + J 11 ~
at -J12 ~+J
as 11 at
e.
It should be noted that the derivatives are being computed with respect to x and y but they
are still expressed in terms of sand t. Using the inverse of the mapping, it IS possible
to express the derivatives in terms of x and y. However, it is not necessary because the
integration will also be performed in terms of sand t. Furthermore, the explicit expression
for the inverse mapping is possible only in simple mapping situations. In general, it is
difficult to write explicit expressions for inverse mapping for quadrilaterals with curved
sides.
Example 6.13 Rectangular Element The purpose of this example is to demonstrate

that the derivatives computed using the mapping equations are correct. To do this, we
consider a 2x 1 rectangular element and evaluate af/ax and af/ay, where f(x, y) ::= x3 +l.
Since f(x, y) is an explicit function of x, y, we know that the partial derivatives should be
af
-::=2y
ay
To demonstrate that we get the same derivatives using the equations derived in this section,
we map the element to a 2 x 2 square as shown in Figure 6.29. Using the interpolation
functions for the four-node master element and multiplying with the coordinates of the
rectangular element, the mapping is alfollows:
xes, t) ::= !(s + 1)(1 - t) + !(s + l)(t + 1) ::= s + 1
yes, t) ::= !(1 - s)(t + 1) + !(s + l)(t + 1) ::= !t + !

Master element
t
I2
Actual element
. (2, 1)
1 1---2----1
2 (1, 0)
Figure 6.29. Four-node master element and actual rectangular element

FINITEELEMENT COMPUTATIONS INVOLVING MAPPEDELEMENTS 425
ax
"&
J= ( ay ay =
Ft
ft) (1° 0.). 1
2
'
detJ =!
"&
Using the mapping, the given function lex, y) can be written as follows:
lex, y) = x3 + l =} !(s, t) = (1 + s)3 + 0 + &)2

The x, y derivatives of !(s, t) can now be computed as follows:
-~)(*) = _1
~ iJ1. 1/2
(!° 0)(3(1
1 (1 + L)
+sl) = (3(11 ++S)2)
t
as al 2 2
Since the mapping is very simple, we can easily write its inverse, giving
s = x-I; t = 2y - 1
Substituting these, we see that the computed derivatives are exactly what we expected:
-a! = 3(1 + st = 3(1 + x -

? ??
It = 3x-
ax
-a!
ay = 1 + t = 1 + 2y - 1 = 2y
Example 6.14 Four-Node Quadrilateral Element For the four-node quadrilateral el-
ement shown in Figure 6.30, evaluate the Ex vector at node 3. The interpolation functions
and their derivatives are as follows:
l
NT = 4(1- 1 1 1
s)(-l·- t), 4(s + 1)(1- t), 4(s + 1)(t + 1), 4(1- s)(t + 1)
}
{
aNT
&
{t-4-'
=
-1 41 - t t+ I I }
' -4-' 4(-t -1)
aNT {s - l I s + 1 1 - s}
at = -4-' 4(-s-1), -4-' -4-
Multiplying these interpolation functions with the coordinates of the actual element, the
mapping is as follows:
ts 3s t 3 ts . s 3t 3
xes, r) = -2 + -2 + -2 + -'
2'
yes, t) =-4 + -4 + -4 + -4
st·
detJ = -4 +-4 + 1
426 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Master element
t
I
2
Y Actual element 3
{4,2}
1 1----2-'- - - {
'f-;::--::-;---x
Figure 6.30. Four-node master elementand actualelement
The required B x vector is as follows:
[ at -
~] [~] [~]at
ax 1 as 1
B - ~ - --J ~ - --J ~
x - det.J 22 ~s det] 21 ~t
All quantities needed to evaluate this matrix are available as functions of s, t. A symbolic
evaluation will obviously be tedious. However, numerical evaluation at a given point is not
too difficult. As an example we evaluate this vector at node 3 of the element. At this point
s = t = 1; therefore we get the following numerical values:
..
The B x vector at (1, 1) can now be evaluated as follows:
~(1
8.t
1)
1
~(1 1)
ax '
~(1
a;c 1)
1
aN. (1 1)
ax '
sY Actual element
I 2 s
1 1----2----1
Figure 6.31. Eight-node master element and actual element
Example 6.15 Eight-Node Quadrilateral Element Evaluate the By vector at s = !

and t = -~ for the eight-node element. The master and the actual element are shown in
Figure 6.31. The nodal point coordinates are as follows:
x y
1 2. O.
2 4. O.
3 8. O.
4 5.65685 5.65685
5 O. 8.
6 O. 4.
'] O. 2.
8 1.41421 1.41421
The interpolation functions and their derivatives for the master element are as follows:
NT ={_ ~(s -l)(t .: l)(s + t + 1), !(S2 -l)(t -1), ~(t -1)(-s2 + ts + t + 1),
-!(s + 1)(t2 - 1), ~(s + l)(t + l)(s + t - 1), _!(S2 - l)(t + 1),
~(s - l)(s - t + 1)(t + l),!(s - 1)(t 2 - 1)} .

aNT = { - 4(t
'7);" 1 1
- 1)(2s + t), set - 1), -4(2s 1
- t)(t - 1), 2:(1 2
- t ),
~(t + 1)(2s + t), -set + 1), ~(2s - t)(t + 1), !(t2 - I)}
T .
aN = {-I4(s -
7ft 1 2 - 1), -4(s
l)(s + 2t), 2:(s 1 + l)(s - 2t), -(s + l)t,
~(s + l)(s + 2t), !(1 - i), ~(s - l)(s - 2t), (s - 1)t}

428 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Multiplying these interpolation functions with the coordinates of the actual element, the
xes. t) := -0.5ts2 + 0.5s2 - 0.62132t2s - 1.5ts + 2.12132s - 1.03553t2 - 2.t + 3.03553

yes, t) := 0.5ts2 + 0.5s 2 - 0.62132t2s + 1.5ts + 2.12132s - 1.03553t2 + 2.t + 3.03553
J - (-0.62132t 2 -l.st -1.5t + 1.s + 2.12132 -0.5s2 -1.24264ts-1.5s-2.07107t -2.)
- -0.62132t 2 + 1.st + 1.5t + 1.s + 2.12132 0.5s2 - 1.24264ts + 1.5s - 2.07107t + 2.
detJ:= l.s3 + 1.86396t2s2 + 5.12132s2 + 6.0061t2s + 10.364s + 3.72792t 2 + 8.48528
At the given point s := ~ and't := -~, the numerical values are as follows:
J:= (3.08249 -2.2019). detJ:= 15.5224
2.08249 3.5481'
NT := (-0.195313 0.46875 -0.117188 0.703125
-0.210938 0.28125 -0.164063 0.234375)
{)NT := (0.234375 -0.625 0.390625 0.46875

as 0.140625 -0.375 0.234375 -0.46875)
aNT
/it := (0. -0.375 -0.375 0.375 O. 0.375 -0.125 0.125)
The By vector at the given point can now be evaluated as follows:
B Y := [~]:= -~J12[~]
{)y
.:
detl as + _1
.:
detl J I1 [~.]
at
:.
-0.0332469 0 0.0332469
0.0886583 -0.0744687 -0.163127
-0.0554114 -0.0744687 -0.0190573
-0.0664937 0.0744687 0.140962
By (!. -~) := - -0.0199481 + . 0 :=
0.0199481
0.053195 0.0744687 0.0212737
-0.0332469 -0.0248229 0.00842396
0.0664937 0.0248229 -0.0416708
6.4.3 Evaluation of Area Integrals

In developing element equations the matrices kk' k p and vector rq all involve integrations
over the area of the element:
kk:= II
A
BeB dA;
T
k p:= - II
A
T
pNN dA; rq := II
A
qNdA
The arbitrary element area in the x, y coordinate is already mapped into a 2 x 2 square, and
therefore with the change of variables these integrals can be written as follows:
kk =11 IJ -J -1
BeBT det] ds dt
kp= -lJ 11 pNNT det] ds dt

-J -J
r, 11 IJ
= qN det] ds dt
-I -I
where det] is the Jacobian of the mapping. The interpolation functions and their derivatives
are already expressed in terms of s, t and are thus in correct form for this integration. The
given functions lex' ley, p, and q are in terms of x, y coordinates and must be converted into
the s, t form by using the mapping functions. Frequently it is assumed that these quantities
are constant over an element in which case they can simply be taken out of the integral
sign.
All integrands are expressed in terms of s, t, and therefore the above element matrices
can be established by evaluating integrals of the following form:
(J IJ
J-J -I
!(s, t) ds dt
A simple closed-form integration is, however, impossible because of the det] term in the
integrals, which usually is a messy expression involving nodal coordinates. We must resort
to numerical integration for evaluation of these matrices. Using an In x n Gauss quadrature
formula, the element matrices are then evaluated numerically as follows:
where (si' t) are the Gauss points and Wi and w j are the corresponding weights.
The number of integration points used in evaluating these matrices depends on the order
of terms present in the integrands. In most practical applications we assume le.<, ley, p, and q
are constant over an element. The terms in N are all known, The B matrix involves not only
known derivatives of N with respect to sand t but also terms from the Jacobian matrix] and
its determinant. Thus the complexity of the terms in the integrand depends on the mapping.
IT the actual elements are rectangles or squares, then] involves constant terms, and it
is fairly easy to determine the number of points necessary for evaluating these integrals
430 MAPPEDELEMENTS
exactly. However, for a general quadrilateral, I is not constant, and thus the integrands in
these matrices are not simple polynomials. Therefore, in general, integration over mapped
elements is approximate and does introduce another source of error in the finite element
results. As long as the elements are not too distorted, the following integration rules give
reasonable results:
Four-node quadrilaterals: use 2 X 2 integration (4 points)
Eight-node quadrilaterals: use 3 X 3 integration (9 points)
Example 6.16 Rectangular Element The purpose of this example is to demonstrate

that the integrals computed using the mapping equations are correct. To do this, we con-
sider a 2 X 1 rectangular element and evaluate the following integral:
II A
j(x,y)dxdy
where j(x, y) = 3r + 2y.

The master and the actual element are shown in Figure 6.32. Since j(x, y) is an explicit
function of x, y and the area is rectangular, the integral can directly be evaluated as follows:
1 2
r
Jy=o Jx=o
r (3x2 + 2y) dxdy = r\x3 + 2xy];=0 dy
Jo
= t (8 + 4y) ely = [8y + 2lJ;=0 = 10
Jo
To demonstrate that we get the same integrals using the equations derived in this section,
we map the element to a 2 X 2 square. Using the interpolation functions for the four-
node master element and multiplying with the coordinates of the rectangular element, the
I
t 1
xes, r) = s + 1; Yes, t) = 2' + 2'
ax
]= as
( !!1.
~)=(1O.!.'
!!1.
0). 1
det] = 2'
as at 2
Master element
t
I
2 s
Actual element
, [2, Ij
1
(0, OJ x
1 2 [2, OJ
1----2---"'1
Figure 6.32. Four-node master element and actual rectangular element

FINITEELEMENT COMPUTATIONS INVOLVING MAPPEDELEMENTS 431
The given function lex, y) can be written as follows:
lex, y) = 3~ + 2y ===? !(s, t) = 3(1 + s)2 + 2 (! + &)
The given integral can now be computed as follows:
ff lex, y)
A
dx dy = f~-1 l~-l !(s, t) det.J ds dt
= ~ f~-l l~-l (3(1 + S)2 + 1 + t)dsdt
= ~ f~-1 [(1 + s)3 + s(1 + t)];=-1 dt = ~ f~-1 (10 + 2t)dt = 10

This value agrees with the one computed directly.
Example 6.17 Four-Node Quadrilateral Element Evaluate matrix lck for the four-
node quadrilateral element shown in Figure 6.33. Assume k.t = 2 and ky = 1 over the
element. The interpolation functions and their derivatives are as follows:
NT = Ws - 1)(t - 1), -~(s + 1)(t - 1), ~(s + 1)(t + 1), -~(s - 1)(t + n]
aNT = {t - 1 1 - t t + 1 ~(-t _ I)}

as 4 ' 4 ' 4 '4
aNT
at·
= {s-14' ~(-s-l)
4
s+ 1 1-S}
'4 ' 4
Master element
t
I2
Y Actual element 3
{4,2}
1 1----2----l
Figure 6.33. Four-node master element and actual element

432 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Mapping to the master element,

ts 3s t 3 ts s 3t 3
xes, t) = "2 + 2" + 2: + 2:; yes, t) = '4 + 4" + ""4 + 4"
det] =-4s + -4t + 1

The matrix kk is to be evaluated as follows:
Using 2 X 2 Gauss quadrature we need to evaluate the integrand at the four Gauss points
and then sum 'the contributions from each Gauss point to get the integral:
Gauss Quadrature Points and Weights

Point
s Weight
1 -0.57735 -0.57735 1.
2 -0.57735 0.57735 1.
3 0.57735 -0.57735 1.
4 0.57735 0.57735 1.
Computation of element matrices at (s ~ -0.57735, t ~ -0.57735) with weight = 1:
] = (1.21132 0.21'1325). det] =0.711325

0.105662 0.605662 '
NT = (0.622008 0.166667 0.0446582 0.166667)
aNT
as =(-0.394338 0.394338 0.105662 -0.105662)
a: T
=(-0.394338 -0.105662 0.105662 0.394338)
BT = (-0.277185 0.351457 0.0742716 -0.148543)

-0.554371 -0.297086 0.148543 0.702914
c=(~
0.327914
n -0.0214404 -0.0878642 -0.218609 ]
-0.0214404 0.23851 0.00574493 -0.222815
kk = -0.0878642 0.00574493 0.0235431 0.0585761
[
-0.218609 -0.222815 0.0585761 0.382848
FIN"ITE ELEMENT COMPUTATIONS INVOLVING MAPPEDELEMENTS 433
Computationof element matricesat (s ~ -0.57735, t ~ 0.57735) with weight = 1.,
J = (1.78868 0.211325) . detJ = 1.

0.394338 0.605662 '
NT = (0.166667 0.0446582 0.166667 0.622008)
a:: = (-0.105662 0.105662 0.394338 -0.394338)
a~T = (-0.394338 -0.105662 0.105662 0.394338)
BT "= ( 0.0915064 0.105662 0.197169 -0.394338)

-0.683013 -0.211325 0.105662 0.788675
c=(~ ~)
0.483253 0.163675 -0.0360844 -0.610844]
0.163675 0.0669873 0.0193376 -0.25
lek = ( -0.0360844 0.0193376 0.0889156 -0.0721688
-0.610844 -0.25 -0.0721688 0.933013
Computationof element matrices at (s ~ 0.57735, t ~ -0.57735) with weight = 1.,
J = (1.21132 0.788675). detl = 1.

0.105662. 0.894338 '
NT = (0.166667" 0.622008 0.166667 0.0446582)
aNT
& = (-0)94338 0.394338 0.105662 -0.105662)
a~T =(-0.105662 -0.394338 0.394338 0.105662)
BT = (-0.341506 0.394338 0.0528312 -0.105662)

0.183013 -0.788675 0.394338 " 0.211325
c=(~ n
0.266747 -0.413675 0.0360844 0.110844 ]
k = -0.413675 0.933013 -0.269338 -0.25
-0.269338 0.161084 0.0721688
k
( 0.0360844
0.110844 -0.25 0.0721688 0.0669873
434 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Computation of element matrices at (s -? 0.57735, t -? 0.57735} with weight = 1.,

] = (1.78868 0.788675). det] = 1.28868
0.394338 0.894338 '
NT = (0.0446582 0.166667 0.622008 0.166667)
()NT
& = (-0.105662 0.105662 0.394338 -0.394338)
a: T
= (-0.105662 -0.394338 0.394338 0.105662)
BT =(-0.0409965 0.193998 0.153001 -0.306002)

-0.0819931 -0.612005 0.306002 0.387995
c -_ (20 0)1
0.0129954 0.0441676 -0.0484994 -0.00866359]
0.0441676 0.579672 -0.164836 -0.459003
k" = -0.0484994 -0.164836 0.181002 0.0323329
[
-0.00866359 -0.459003 0.0323329 0.435334
Summing contributions from all points, we get
1.09091 -0.227273 -0.136364 -0.727273 ]

k = -0.227273 {81818 -0.409091 -1.18182
k
[ -0.136364 -0.409091 0.454545 0.0909091
-0.727273 -1.18182 0.0909091 1.81818
Example 6.18 Eight-Node Quadrilateral Element Evaluate matrix k p for the eight-
node element shown in Figure 6.34. Assume p = 5 over the element.
sY Actual element
I 2
1 1-----2--1 x

FINITE ELEMENT COMPUTATIONS INVOLVING MAPPED ELEMENTS 435
x y
1 2. O.
2 4. O.
3 8. O.
4 5.65685 5.65685
5 o. 8.
6 O. 4.
7 O. 2.
8 1.41421 1.41421

2
xes, t) = -0.5ti +.0.5i - 0.62132t 2s - 1.5ts + 2.12132s - 1.03553t - 2.t + 3.03553
2s 2
yes, t) = 0.5ts2 + 0.5s 2 - 0.62132t + 1.5ts + 2. 12132s - 1.03553t + 2.t + 3.03553
] _ (-0.62132t 2 - l.st - 1.5t + l.s + 2.12132 -0.5s2 - 1.24264ts - 1.5s - 2.07107t - 2.)
- -0.62132t 2 + l.st + 1.5t + l.s + 2.12132 0.5s 2 - 1.24264ts + 1.5s - 2.07107t + 2.
det] = 1.s3 + 1.86396t2s2 + 5. 12132s 2 + 6.0061t 2s + 1O.364s + 3.72792t2 + 8.48528

The matrix k p is to be evaluated as follows:
Using 3 X 3 Gauss quadrature, we need to evaluate the integrand at the nine Gauss points
and then sum the contributions from each Gauss point to get the integral:
Point
s Weight =wi X
1 -0.774597 -0.774597 0.308642
2 -0.774597 0 0.493827
3 -0.774597 0.774597 0.308642
4 0 -0.774597 0.493827
5 0 0 0.790123
6 0 0.774597 '0.493827
7 0.774597 -0.774597 0.308642
8 0.774597 0 0.493827
9 0.774597 0.774597 0.308642
Computation of the k p matrix at point 1 is as follows:

Point = {s -7 -0.774597, t -7 -0.774597}; Weight = 0.308642
1.53583 -0.279447)
I = ( 0.412036 1.99676; det] = 3.18182
436 MAPPEDELEMENTS
NT == (0.432379 0.354919 -0.1 0.0450807 -0.032379 0.0450807 -0.1 0.354919 )

0.917974 0.753521 -0.212308 0.0957097 -0.0687431 0.0957097 -0.212308 0.753521
0.753521 0.618529 -0.174273 0.0785635 -0.0564279 0.0785635 -0.174273 0.618529
-0.212308 -0.174273 0.0491022 -0.0221356 0.0158988 -0.0221356 0.0491022 -0.174273
0.0957097 0.0785635 -0.0221356 0.00997888 -0.00716729 0.00997888 -0.0221356 0.0785635
kp = -0.0687431 ~0.0564279 0.0158988 -0.00716729 0.00514787 -0.00716729 0.0158988 -0.0564279
0.0957097 0.0785635 -0.0221356 0.00997888 -0.00716729 0.00997888 -0.0221356 0.0785635
-0.212308 -0.174273 0.0491022 -0.0221356 0.0158988 -0.0221356 0.0491022 -0.174273
0.753521 0.618529 -0.174273 0.0785635 -0.0564279 0.0785635 -0.174273 0.618529
Computation of the k p matrix at point 2 is as follows:
Point == (s -7 -0.774597, t -7 OJ; Weight == 0.493827
] == ( 1.34672 -1.1381)
1.1381 ; det] = 3.06543
1.34672
NT = (-0.1 0.2 -0.1 0.112702 -0.1 0.2 -0.1 0.887298)
0.0756895 -0.151379 0.0756895 -0.0853034 0.0756895 -0.151379 0.0756895 -0.671592

-0.151379 0.302758 -0.151379 0.170607 -0.151379 0.302758 -0.151379 1.34318
0.0756895 -0.151379 0.0756895 -0.0853034 0.0756895 -0.151379 0.0756895 -0.671592
-0.0853034 0.170607 -0.0853034 0.0961383 -0.0853034 0.170607 -0.0853034 0.756895
kp == 0.0756895 -0.151379 0.0756895 -0.0853034 0.0756895 -0.151379 0.0756895 -0.671592
-0.151379 0.302758 -0.151379 0.170607 -0.151379 0.302758 -0.151379 1.34318
0.0756895 -0.151379 0.0756895 -0.0853034 0.0756895 -0.151379 0.0756895 -0.671592
-0.671592 1.34318 -0.671592 0.756895 -0.671592 1.34318 -0.671592 5.95902
After computing and summing contributions from all nine points, the lep matrix for the
element is as follows:
4.60149 -8.71619 1.40948 -11.5208 ;' 3.01679 -8.69358 3.0281 -6.13668

-8.71619 37.5578 -2.2417 28.3616 -8.69358 17.3872 -8.69358 17.5481
1.40948 -2.2417 11.076 -5.06893 -0.209149 -8.69358 3.01679 -6.11406
-11.5208 28.3616 -5.06893 59.6034 -5.06893 28.3616 -11.5208 17.6349
le p = 3.01679 -8.69358 -0.209149 -5.06893 11.076 -2.2417 1.40948 -6.11406
-8.69358 17.3872 -8.69358 28.3616 -2.2417 37.5578 -8.71619 17.5481
3.0281 -8.69358 3.01679 -11.5208 1.40948 -8.71619 4.60149 -6.13668
-6.13668 17.5481 -6.11406 17.6349 -6.11406 17.5481 -6.13668 18.4849
6.4.4 Evaluation of Boundary Integrals

Elements involving a boundary where a nonzero natural boundary condition is specified
require computation of the lea matrix and the 1'p vector:
where c is a coordinate along the boundary and the integration is along the boundary of
the element. In general, the element boundary is an arbitrary curve in the x, y coordinate
Master element
t
L
la
dc
dx
dy
a
1---2-----1 x
Figure 6.35. Boundary coordinates on the master and the actual element
system. Once mapped, each boundary curve is either a horizontal or a vertical line repre-
senting a side of the master square element. The boundary coordinate e for .each side is
mapped to a coordinate -1 -s a ::; 1 for each side, as shown in Figure 6.35. The mapping
for each side x(a) and yea) can be obtained from the element mapping as follows:
For side 1: a =s; t =-1

For side 2: s = 1; a=t
For side 3: a= -s; t=1
For side 4: s = -1; a =-t
To write interpolation functions N; along a side, we substitute the appropriate s, t values

in the interpolation functions N(s, t). The only remaining task is to relate the differential
length de along an element side to the differential line segment da along the side of the
master element. This can be done easily by noting that
de = ~dXZ +dl
Dividing both sides by darse. have
dX)2 (dy)2
( da + da =} de = Jc da
where Jc is called the Jacobian of a side,
The boundary integrals along the side of the element can now be written as follows:
rf3 = 11
-1
[3NJc da
438 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Of course, the known quantities a and {3, if not constant, must be expressed in terms of
a using the mapping for the side. Now these integrals can easily be evaluated using one-
dimensional Gauss quadrature formulas:
=- ( aNeN:Ie cia =- 2: wja(ajWcCajW:(aj)Je(a)

1 "
lea
Ll j=1
= 2: wj{3(a jW e(a)Ie(a)
1 "
liJ =( {3NJe cia
J-1 j=1
where a j are the one-dimensional Gauss points and w j are the corresponding weights.
Example 6.19 Four-Node Quadrilateral Element Evaluate the matrix lea for the four-
node quadrilateral element shown in Figure 6.36. Assume a is equal to 1.35 over side 3-4
of the element. The interpolation functions are
NT = H(s - l)(t - 1), -!(s + l)(t - 1), !(s + l)(t + 1), -!(s - 1)(t + l)}

ts 3s t 3
xes. t) =-2 + -2 + -2 + -2
ts s 3t 3
yes, t) = -4 + -4 + -4 + -4
For the NBC on side 3, a = -s and t = 1. Thus
N: = (0 9. l; a a; 1)
3 a
x(a) =2 - 2a; yea) = 2" - 2"
cix _ -2' dy 1 I = {l7
cia - , cia = -2"; e 2
Master element
t
I2
Y Actual element 3
(4,2)
1 1----2----1
(0, OJ
Figure 6.36. Four-node master element and actual element

Using two Gauss points, the matrix k", for the side is established as follows:
Gauss point = -0.57735; Weight = 1.; Jc = Yl7/2

N~ = (0 0 0.788675 0.211325)
~ [~
0 0
0 0
k. 0 -1.73111 j463849 ]
0 -0.463849 -0.124288
Gauss point = 0.57735; Weight = 1.; t, = ~

N~ = (0 0 0.211325 0.788675)
~ [~
0 0
0 0
k. 0 -0.124288 j,463849 ]
0 -0.463849 -1.73111
Summing contributions from all Gauss points,
~ [~
0 0
0 0
k. 0 -1.8554 j,927699]
0 -0.927699 -1.8554
Example 6.20 Eight-Node Quadrilateral Element Compute vector rfJ for the eight-
node element shown in Figure 6.37. Assume f3 is equal to 23.4 over side 7-8-1 of the
element.
sY Actual element
I2 s
1 1----2----1 x
440 MAPPEDELEMENTS
x Y
1 2. O.
2 4. O.
3 8. O.
4 5.65685 5.65685
5 O. 8.
6 O. 4.
7 O. 2.
8 1.41421 1.41421
Interpolation functions and their derivatives are
NT == { - i(s - l)(t - l)(s + t + 1), 1(S2 - l)(t - 1), i(t - 1)(-s2 + ts + t + 1),
-1(s + 1)(t 2 - 1), i(s + l)(t + l)(s + t - 1), -1(s2 - l)(t + 1),
*(s - l)(s - t + l)(t + 1), ~(s - 1)(t2 - I)}
xes, t) == -0.5ts2 + 0.5s 2 - 0.62132t2s - 1.5ts + 2. 12132s - 1.03553t 2 - 2.t + 3.03553

Yes, t) == 0.5ts2 + 0.5s 2 - 0.62132t 2s + 1.5ts + 2. 12132s - 1.03553t 2 + 2.t + 3.03553
We now compute rf3 resulting from the NBC for side 4 with fJ == 23.4. For this side a == -t
and s == -1. Thus
I'
(a+1 1 2 1- a 1 )
T
N c == -2- + 2:(a - 1) 0 0 0 o 0 - - + -(a2 - 1) 1 - a2
2 2
x(a) == -0.414214a 2 + La + 1.41421; yea) == -0.414214a 2 - La + 1.41421
dx
da == 1. - 0.828427a
dy
da == -0. 828427a -1.
Jc == ~ (-0. 828427a - 1.)2 + (1. - 0.828427a)2
Using three Gauss points, the vector rf3 for the side is established as follows:
Gauss point == -0.774597; weight == 0.555556; Jc == 1.68034:
N~ = (-0.0872983 0 0 0 0 0 0.687298 0.4)

r~=(-1.90698 0 0 0 0 0 15.0137 8.73778)
COMPLETE MATHEMATICA AND MATLAB SOLUTIONS OF 2D BVP INVOLVING MAPPED ELEMENTS 441
Gauss point = 0; weight = 0.888889; Ie = 1.41421:

N~ = (0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1)
rJ = (0 0 0 0 0 0 0 29.4156) .
Gauss point = 0.774597; weight = 0.555556; Ie = 1.68034:

N~ .= (0.687298 0 0 0 0 0 -0.0872983 0.4 )
rJ = (15.0137 0 0 0 0 0 -1.90698 8.73778)
'rJ =(13.1067 0 0 0 0 0 13.1067 46.8912)
6.5 COMPLETE MATHEMATICA AND MATLAB SOLUTIONS OF 20 BVP

INVOLVING MAPPED ELEMENTS
As seen from the previous sections, for any arbitrary shaped element in the x, y coordinate
system, the element equations are developed by first creating a mapping as follows.
Xes, t) = N l x l + N2x2 + + N"x ll

yes, t) = N IYl + N2Yz + + NIlYIl
where N, are the interpolation functions for the appropriate master element and x j and Yj
are the nodal coordinates. The Jacobian matrix of the mapping is as follows:
ax
f= ( asay
as
The actual finite element equations are
where using mapping the three terms involving area integrals are evaluated as follows:
kk = JJ
A
BCB dA
T
= i:i: BCB detl ds dt
T
m 1l
= L: L: wjwjB(si' t)C(s" T
tj)B (si' t j) detl(sj' t)
j=1 j=1
BT _ _1_ J 22 '!!!..J..
as - J21 '!!!..J..
at
Jq!!.J..
22 as -
JaN2
217ft :J22 aN,'_J
as 21 aN"
at 1
- detl [ -I '!!!..J.. + I '!!!..J.. I q!!.J..
as +
I aN, -I12 ~
as
+I11 aN"
at
12 as 11 at - 12 llat
442 MAPPEDELEMENTS
c = (kox 0)
ky
lc p = - ff
A
T
pNN dA = - f:f: T
pNN det] ds dt
111 11
=- I I wiwjP(Si> tj)N(Si' tj)NT (Si' t) det](sj' t)

j=l j=l
where Sj, tj are the Gauss points and wi> w j are the corresponding weights.
The two natural boundary condition terms involve line integrals:
where Ie is the Jacobian of the side,
= (dX)2+ (d y)2
Ie
da da
,/
where a i are the Gauss points and wi are the corresponding weights.
Calculations involving mapped elements are clearly very tedious to perform by hand.
However, it is not too difficult to create MATLAB and Mathematica functions to develop
the element equations numerically. The following implementations are for four-node and
eight-node quadrilateral elements. They can be used as templates to create functions for
other mapped elements.
MATLAB Implementation: Four-Node Quadrilateral Element for 2D BVP The

analysis of two-dimensional boundary value problems using mapped elements can be
performed conveniently by writing three MATLAB functions, one for defining the ele-
ment lck + lcp and rq vectors, one for evaluating natural boundary terms, and the third for
computing the element solution. The BVPQuad4Element employs 2 x 2 integration. The
BVPQuad4NBCTerm employs two-point integration. The functions can be modified easily
to use any other integration formula. The BVPQuad4Results function computes results at
the point of the element that corresponds to the origin of the master element (s = t = 0).
The function returns the location of this point (in terms of x, y coordinates) and the solution
and its x and y derivatives at this point. The function can easily be modified to compute
results at any other point.
COMPLETE MATHEMATICA AND MATLAB SOLUTIONS OF 2D BVP INVOLVING MAPPEDELEMENTS 443
MatlabFiles\Chap6\BVPQuad4Element.m
function [ke , rq] = BVPQuad4Element (kx , ky, p, q, coord)"
% [ke, rq] BVPQuad4Element(kx, ky, p, q, coord)
%Generates for a 4 node quadrilateral element for 2d BVP
%kx, ky, p, q = parameters defining the BVP
% coord coordinates at the element ends
%Use 2x2 integr~tion. Gauss point locations and weights
pt=1/sqrt(3);
gpLocs = [-pt,-pt; -pt,pt; pt,-pt; pt,pt];
gpWts = [1,1,1,1];
kk=zeros(4); kp=zeros(4); rq=zeros(4,1);
for i=1:length(gpWts)
s = gpLocs(i, 1); t = gpLocs(i, 2); w = gpWts(i);
n = [(1/4)*(1 - s)*(1 - t), (1/4)*(s + 1)*(1 -t),
(1/4)*(s + 1)*(t + 1), (1/4)*(1 - s)*(t + 1)];
dns=[(-1 + t)/4, (1 - t)/4, (1 + t)/4, (-1 - t)/4];
dnt=[(-1 + s)/4, (-1 - s)/4; (1 + s)/4, (1 - s)/4];
x = n*coord(:,1); y = n*coord(:,2);
dxs = dns*coord(:,1); dxt = dnt*coord(:,1);
dys = dns*coord(:,2); dyt = dnt*coord(:,2);
J = [dxs, dxt; dys, dyt]; detJ = det(J);
bx = (J(2, 2)*dns - J(2, 1)*dnt)/detJ;
by = (-J(1, 2)*dns + J(1, 1)*dnt)/detJ;
b = [bx; by];
c = [kx, 0; 0, ky];
kk = kk + detJ*w* b'*c*b;
kp = kp - detJ*w*p * n'*n;
rq = rq + detJ*w*q * n';
end
ke=kk+kp;
MatlabFiles\Chap6\BVPQuad4NBCTerm.m
function [ka, rb] = BVPQuad4NBCTerm(side, alpha, beta, coord)
% [ka, rb] = BVPQuad4NBCTerm(side, alpha, beta, coord)
% Generates kalpha and rbeta when NBC is specified along a side
% side = side over which the NBC is specified
% alpha and beta = coefficients specifying the NBC
%Use 2 point integration. Gauss point locations and weights
pt=-1/sqrt(3);
gpLocs = [-pt, pt];
gpWts = [1,1];
ka=zeros(4); rb=zeros(4,1);
444 MAPPEDELEMENTS
for i=1:length(gpWts)
a = gpLocs(i); w = gpWts(i);
switch (side)
case 1
n = [(1 - a)/2, (1 + a)/2, 0, 0];
dna = [-1/2, 1/2, 0, 0];
case 2
n = [0, (1 - a)/2, (1 + a)/2, 0];
dna = [0, -1/2, 1/2, 0];
case 3
n = [0, 0, (1 - a)/2, (1 + a)/2];
dna = [0, 0, -1/2, 1/2];
case 4
n = [(1 + a)/2, 0, 0, (1 - a)/2];
dna = [1/2, 0, 0, -1/2];
end
dxa = dna*coord(:,1); dya = dna*coord(:,2);
Jc=sqrt(dxa-2 + dya-2);
ka = ka - alpha*Jc*w*n'*n;
rb = rb + beta*Jc*w*n';
end
MatlabFiles\Chap6\BVPQuad4Results.m
function results = BVPQuad4Results(coord, dn)
% results = BVPQuad4Result~(coord, dn)
%Computes element solution for a quadrilateral element for 2D BVP
%coord = nodal coordinates
% dn = nodal solution
%The solution is computed at the element center
%The output variables are loc, u and its x and y derivatives
s = 0; t = 0;
n = [(1/4)*(1 - s)*(1 - t), (1/4)*(s + 1)*(1 -t),
(1/4)*(s + 1)*(t + 1), (1/4)*(1 - s)*(t + 1)];
dns=[(-1 + t)/4, (1 - t)/4, (1 + t)/4, (-1 - t)/4];
dnt=[(-1 + s)/4, (-1 - s)/4, (1 + s)/4, (1 - s)/4];
x = n*coord(:,1); y = n*coord(:,2);
dxs = dns*coord(:,1); dxt = dnt*coord(:,1);
dys = dns*coord(:,2); dyt = dnt*coord(:,2);
J = [dxs, dxt; dys, dyt]; detJ = det(J);
bx = (J(2, 2)*dns - J(2, 1)*dnt)/detJ;
by = (-J(1, 2)*dns + J(1, 1)*dnt)/detJ;
b = [bx; by];
results=[x, y, n*dn, bx*dn, by*dn];
COMPLETE MATHEMATICA AND MATLAB SOLUTIONS OF 20 BVP INVOLVING MAPPED ELEMENTS 445
y (em)
2.~ t
2
1.5 qL
1
0.5 Insulated
o
To
x (em)
o 2 4 6
Figure 6.38. .Lshaped body
Example 6.21 Heat Flow in an L-Shaped Body Using Quad4 Elements Con-
sider two-dimensional heat flow over an L-shaped body with thermal conductivity k =
45 W/m' °C shown in Figure 6.38. The bottom is maintained at To = 110 °C. Convection
heat loss takes place on the top where the ambient air temperature is 20°C and the convec-
tion heat transfer coefficient is h = 55 W/m2 . °C. The right side is insulated. The left side
is subjected to heat flux at a uniform rate of qL = 8000 W/m 2 . Heat is generated in the
body at a rate of Q = 5 x 106 W1m3 • Determine the temperature distribution in the body.
To demonstrate the use of the functions presented in this section, we obtain a finite
element solution of the problem using only two quadrilateral elements, as shown in Fig-
ure 6.39. Obviously we do not expect very good results. The mesh is chosen to simplify
calculations. The steps are exactly those used in other MATLAB implementations.
MatlabFiles\Chap6\LHeatQua'!4Ex.m
%Heat flow through an L-shaped body using quad4 elements
h = 55; tf= 20; htf = h*tf;
kx = 45; ky = 45; Q = 5*10-6; ql = 8000; to = 110;
Y
1 2
Figure 6.39. Two four-node quadrilateral element model

446 MAPPEDELEMENTS
nodes = 1.5/100*[0,2; 2, 2; 2, 1; 4, 1; 4, 0; 0, 0];

lmm = [6, 3, 2, 1; 6, 5, 4, 3];
debe = [5:6]; ebcVals=tO*ones(length(debc),1);
dof=length(nodes); elems=size(lmm,1);
K=zeros (dof ) ; R = zeros (dof , 1) ;
% Generate equations for each element and assemble them.
for i=1:elems
1m = lmm(i,:);
[k, r] = BVPQuad4Element(kx, ky, 0, Q, nodes(lm,:»;
K(lm, 1m) = K(lm, 1m) + k;
R(lm) = R(lm) + r;
end
% Compute and assemble NBC contributions
1m = lmm(1,:);
[k, r] = BVPQuad4NBCTerm(4, 0, ql, nodes(lm,:));
K(lm, 1m) = K(lm, 1m) + k;
R(lm) = R(lm) + r;
[k, r] = BVPQuad4NBCTerm(2, -h, htf, nodes(lm,:));
K(lm, 1m) = K(lm, 1m) + k;
. R(lm) = R(lm) + r;
K(lm, 1m) = K(lm, 1m) + k;
R(lm) = R(lm) + r;
1m = lmm(2,: ).;
K(lm, 1m) = K(lm, 1m) + k; ;'
R(lm) = R(lm) + r; .
%Nodal solution
d = NodalSoln(K, R, debe, ebcVals)
results=[];
for i=1:elems
results = [results; BVPQuad4Results(nodes(lmm(i,:),:), ...
d(lmm(i,:)))];
end
format short g
results
» LHeatQuad4Ex
d '=
153.3936
142.9067
132.8533
124.5394
COMPLETE MATHEMATICA AND MATLAB SOLUTIONS OF 20 BVP INVOLVING MAPPED ELEMENTS 447
. 110.0000
110.0000
results =
0.015 0.01875 134.79 -90.82 1187.7
0.0375 0.0075 119.35 -92.377 1338.8
Mathematica tmptementetion: Eight-Node Quadrilateral Element for 2D BVP

The functions for eight-node quadrilateral elements are almost identical to those for the
four node quadrilaterals. The only changes are the dimensions of the matrices and that we
use three points for integration and eight node serendipity interpolation functions.
Needs["NumericalMath'Oauesdanlluadrtrture '"J:
BVPQuad8Element[kx_, ky., p_, q., {{xL, yL}, {x2_, y2_}, {x3..., ys.], {x4..., y4.:},
{x5..., y5_}, [xd., y6_}, {x7_, y7 .}, {x8..., y8_}}] :=
Module[{sloe, swt s, tloe, twts, gpLoes, gpWts, n, s, t, dns, dnt, xst, yst,
J, npt, Jpt, dnsPt, dntPt, detJ, bx, by, bt, b, c, kk, kp, rq},
{sloe, swts} = Transpose[GaussianQuadratureWeights[3, -1,1]];
{tloe, twts} =Transpose[GaussianQuadratureWeights[3, -1,1]];
gpLoes = Flatten[Outer[List, sloe, tloe], 1];
gpWts = Flatten[Outer[Times, swts, tms], 1];
n=
{(114) * (1 - s) * (1 - t) - (1/4) * (1 - s-2) * (1 - t)
-(1/4) * (1 - s) * (1 - t-2), (112) * (1 - s-2) * (1 - t), (114) * (s + 1) * (1 - t)
-(1/4) * (1 - s-2) * (1 - t) - (114) * (s + 1) * (1 - t-2),
(1/2) * (s + 1) * (1 - t-2), (1/4) * (s + 1) * (t + 1) - (114) * (1- s-2) * (t + 1)
-(1/4) * (s+ 1) * (1- t-2), (1/2) * (1- s-2) * (t + 1), (114) * (1- s) * (t + 1)
-(114) * (1 - s-2) * (t + 1) - (114)* (1- s) * (1 - t-2),
(112)~' (1 - s) * (1 - t-2)};
[dns, dnt} = [D]n, s], D[n, t]};
xst = n.{x1, x2, x3, x4,.x5, x6, x7, x8};
yst = n.{y1, y2, y3, y4, y5, y6, y7, y8};
J = {{D[xst, s], D[xst, t]}, {D[yst, a], D[yst, t]}};
.kk = kp = Table[O, {8}, {8}];
rq = Table[O, {8}]; ..
Do[pt = [s -7 gpLoes[[i, 1]], t ~ gpLoes[[i, 2]]};
w = gpWts[[i]];
[npt, Jpt, dnsPt, dntPt} = in, J, dns, dnt}l.pt;
detJ = det[Jpt];
bx = (Jpt[[2, 2]]dnsPt - Jpt[[2, 1J]dntPt)/detJ;
by = (-Jpt[[1, 2]]dnsPt + Jpt[[1, 1]]dntPt)/deq;
bt = [bx, by}; b = Transpose[bt];
e = {{kx, OJ, to, ky));
kk+ = detJwb.c.bt;
kp+ = -detJ wp Outer[Times, npt, npt];
448 MAPPEDELEMENTS
rq+ == detJwqnpt, Ii, 1, Length[gpWts]J

];
[kk + kp, rq}
BVPQuad8NBCTerm[side_,0;_,/3-, ((xL, yL), (x2_, y2_), Ix3-, y3_}, [x-l., y4_),

[xb., y5_}, [xfi., y6_}, [x7 _, y7 .], (x8_, y8_llJ :==
Module[(k, r, pts, wts, n, s, t, a, xa, ya, Jc, Jcpt),
k == Table[O, (8), [8}];r == Table[O, (8j];
(pts, wtsj == Transpose[GaussianQuadratureWeights[2, -1, 1]];
n==
(1/4) * (1 - s) * (1 - t) - (1/4) * (1 - s-2) * (1 - t)
-(V4) * (1 - s) * (1 - t-2), (V2) * (1 - s-2) * (1 - t),
(V4) * (s + 1) * (1 - t) - (1/4) * (1 - s-2) * (1 - t)
-(V4) * (s + 1) * (1- t-2), (V2) * (s + 1) * (1- t-2),
(1/4) * (s + 1) * (t + 1) - (1/4) * (1- s-2) * (t + 1)
-(1/4) * (s + 1) * (1- t-2), (1/2) * (1 - s-2) * (t + 1),
(1/4) * (1 - s) * (t + 1) - (1/4) * (1 - s-2) * (t + 1)
-(1/4) * (1 - s) * (1 - t -2), (V2) * (1 - s) * (1 - t -2)};
n == Switch[side, 1, nJ.(s --) a, t --) -1},
2, ts/, (s --) 1, t --) a},
3, nJ.(s --) -a, t --) 1),
4, nJ.(s --) -1, t --) -a}
];
xa == n.(x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6, x7, x8);
ya == n.(y1, y2, y3, y4, y5, y6, y7, y8);
Jc == Sqrt[D[xa, ar2 + D[ya, aJ-2J;
Do[(npt, Jcpt) == [n, Jel/.l--) pts[[i]];
k+ == -0; * Jept * wts[[iJJ Outer[Times, npt, npt];
r+ == f3 * Jcpt * wts[(iJ]npt,
(i, 1, Length[pts])
];
(k,r}
];
BVPQuad8Results[({xL, yt.], (x2_, y2_), [x3_,y3_}, (x4_, y4_),
Ix5-, y5_), (x6..., y6_), (x7 _, y7 _I, [xfs., y8_)}, d.] :==
Module[(pt, n, s, t, dns, dnt, bx, by, xst, yst, J, npt, Jpt, dnsPt, dntPt, detJ, loe},
pt == [s --) 0, t --) OJ;
n==
((1/4) * (1 - s) * (1 - t) - (1/4) * (1 - s-2) * (1 - t)
-(V4) * (1 - s) * (1 - t-2), (V2) * (1 - s-2) * (1 - t),
(1/4) * (s + 1) * (1 - t) - (V4) * (1 - s-2) * (1 - t)
-(1/4) * (s + 1) * (1- t-2), (V2) * (s + 1) * (1- t-2),
(1/4) * (s + 1) * (t + 1) - (1/4) * (1 - s-2) * (t + 1)
-(V4) * (s + 1) * (1 - t-2), (V2) * (1 - s-2) * (t + 1),
COMPLETE MATHEMATICA AND MATLAB SOLUTIONS OF 2D BVP INVOLVING MAPPEDELEMENTS 449
* (1- s) * (t + 1) - (1/4) * (1- s-2) * (t + 1)

(1/4)
-(V4) * (1 - s) * (1 .: t-2), (V2) * (1 - s) * (1 - t-2)};
[dns, dnt) = [D]n, s], D[n, t]);
xst = n.{x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6, x7, x8};
yst = n.{y1, y2, y3, y4, y5, y6, y7, y8);
J = ({D[xst, s], D[xst, t]), {D[yst, s], D[yst, t]}};
[Loc, npt, Jpt, dnsPt, dntPt) =
detJ = det[Jpt];
bx = (Jpt[[2, 2]] dnsPt - Jpt[[2, 1]] dntPt)/detJ;
by = (-Jpt[[1, 2]] dnsPt + Jpt[[1, 1]] dntPt)/detJ;
floc, npt.d, bx.d, by.d)
Example 6.22 Heat Flow in an L·Shaped Body Using QuadS Elements To demon-
c strate the use of the functions presented in this section, we obtain a finite element solution
of the problem using only two quadrilateral elements, as shown in Figure 6.40.
Clear[k, r];
h = 55; tf = 20;htf = h * tf;
kx = ky = 45; Q = 5 * 10-6; ql = 8000; to = 110;
nodes = 1.5/100{{O, 2}, (1, 2), (2, 2), {2, 1.5}, (2, 1), {3, 1},{4, 1},
(4, 0.5), (4, 0), {2, OJ, to, O),{O, 1},{1,0.5}};
Im[1] = (11, 13,5,4,3,2, 1, 12);
Im[2] = (11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 13);
Do[{k[i], r[i]) = BVPQuad8Element[kx, ky, 0, Q, nodes[[lm[i]]]], (i, 1,2)];
{k[1], r[1]}+ = BVPQuad8NBCTerm[4, 0, ql, nodes[[lm[1]]]];
(k[1], r[1])+ = BVPQuad8NBCTerln[2, -h, htf, nodes[[lm[1]]]];
(k[1], r[1])+ = BVPQuad8NBCTerm[3, -:h, htf, nodes[[lm[1]]]];
(k[2], r[2])+ = BVPQuad8NBCTerm[3, -h, htf, nodes[[lm[2]]]];
R = Table[O, (13)];
Figure 6.40. Two eight-node quadrilateral element model

450 MAPPEDELEMENTS
K == Table[O, (13j, {13}];

Do[K[[lm[iJ, Im[iJ]J+ == k[iJ; R[[lm[iJ]J+ == r[i], (i, 1, 2)];
Essential boundary conditions are as follows:
debc == Range[9, 11J;

ebcVals == Table[tO, {3lJ;
df == Complement[Range[13J, debc]
{l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8,12, l3}
Kf == K[[df, dfJJ
57.3302 -33.3087 23.1028 -36.1508 30.4563 0 0 0 -46.6746 -16.5079
-33.3087 95.8127 -20.4516 3.65079 -28.0159 0 0 0 3.1746 -5.07937
23.1028 -20.4516 58.5885 -68.0829 33.5653 0 0 0 -28.4127 -19.3651
-36.1508 3.65079 -68.0829 156.24 -82.6067 0 0 0 42.0635 16.3492
30.4563 -28.0159 33.5653 -82.6067 257.914 -85.3722 51.9123 -90.6349 -33.6508 -156.349
0 0 0 0 -85.3722 133.749 -27.277 14.6032 0 65.3968
0 0 0 0 51.9123 -27.277 70.6397 -103.968 0 -56.0317
0 0 0 0 -90.6349 14.6032 -103.968 258.889 0 101.111
-46.6746 3.1746 -28.4127 42.0635 -33.6508 0 0 0 125.968 -23.1746
-16.5079 -5.07937 -19.3651 16.3492 -156.349 65.3968 -56.0317 101.111 -23.1746 353.968
Rf == R([df]J - K[[df, debcJJ.ebcVals

{-2627.56, 2762.08, -2665.76,4411.4, -11968.1, 12022., -7457.,20925.,5732.3, 30884.9}
The solution for nodal unknowns can now be obtained by using the LinearSolve function
as follows:
dfVals == LinearSolve[Kf, RfJ ,/

(156.445,150.755,149.201,144.228,133.843, 123.998, 121.754, 119.151, 144.677, 129.134
The complete vector of nodal values, in the original order established by the node number-
ing, is as obtained by combining these values with those specified as essential boundary
conditions as follows:
d == Table(O, (13JJ;
d((debcJ] == ebcVals;
d[(dfJ] == dfVals;
d
[156.445,150.755,149.201,144.228,133.843,123.998, 121.754, 119.151,

110, 110, 110, 144.677, 129.134)
Using the BVPQuad8Results function, the solution and its x and y derivatives for each
element can now be computed as follows:
BVPQuad8Results[nodes[[lm[1JJJ, d([lm[1J]JJ
{(0.015,0.01875),147.025, -255.209, 960.97}
TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS BY COLLAPSING QUADRILATERALS 451
BVPQuad8Results[nodes[[lm[2]]]' d[[lm[2]]]]
((0.0375, 0.0075}, 122.242, -221.837, 1155.06}
6.6 TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS BY COLLAPSING QUADRILATERALS
By collapsing one side of a quadrilateral, it is possible to map triangular areas into 2 x 2

square areas. As seen in Figure 6.41, this is accomplished by considering all nodes on side
4 of the master area to be physically located at the same point. Thus for a straight-sided
triangle nodes 1 and 4 are coincident. The mapping in terms of its three physical nodes is
as follows:
xes,t) = Ws - l)(t - 1) + ~(l - s)(t + 1) )x J + ~(-s - l)(t - 1)x 2 + ~(s + l)(t + 1)x 3
yes, t) = (~(s - 1)(t -1) + ~(1 - s)(t + 1))YJ + ~(-s -1)(t -1)Y2 + ~(s + 1)(t + 1)Y3
For a triangle with all three sides curved nodes 1,7, and 8 are coincident. The mapping in
terms of its six physical nodes is as follows:
Master element
t y Triangular element
I2
1 2
4,1
x
Master element Y Triangular element

t
6 5
I
2
1 2
7,8,1
x
Figure 6.41. Mapping triangular elements into quadrilaterals
452 MAPPEDELEMENTS
xes, t) =Ws -l)(s - t + l)(t + 1) + !(1- s)(t -l)(s + t + 1) + !(s - 1)(t 2 -1))x\
+ 4(s2 - 1)(t -1)x2 + !(t - 1)(-s2 + ts + t + 1)x3 + 4(-s - 1)(t 2 -1)x4
+ !(s + l)(t + l)(s + t - l)x s + 4(1 - s2)(t + 1)x6
yes, t) = (!(s -l)(s - t + l)(t + 1) + !(1- s)(t - l)(s + t + 1) + 4(s - 1)(t 2 -1))y\
+ 4(S2 - l)(t - 1)Y2 + !(t - 1)(-s2 + ts + t + 1)Y3 + 4( -s - 1)(t2 - 1)Y4
+ !(s + l)(t + l)(s + t - 1)ys + 4(1 - s2)(t + 1)Y6

One key advantage of this procedure is that we do not need to develop separate interpo-
lation functions and computer programs for triangular elements. Any computer implemen-
tation of quadrilateral elements can be used to handle triangular elements as well simply
by repeating the nodes that define the last side of the quadrilateral.
6.7 INFINITE ELEMENTS
Many practical problems involve computational domains that are not well defined and
are essentially infinite in one or more directions. One such situation was encountered in
Chapter 5 when modeling fluid flow around an object. There are no definite boundaries
of the flow region. It was suggested to simply extend the boundaries far enough from the
object so that assumption of uniform flow is valid. Another common situation that involves
infinite boundaries is analysis of structures supported on ground. In most such cases part
of the ground must be included in the finite element model. However, usually there is no
rigid boundary that defines the extent of ground that should be included in the model. In all
these situations the results will not be reliable if the computational domain is too small. On
the other hand, making the computational domain very large wastes computational effort.
The so-called infinite elements, presented in this section, are designed to be used as the last
layer of elements in the direction where the boundary is not well defined.
6.7.1 One-Dimensional BVP

The key idea in developing an infinite element is to create an appropriate mapping such that
an infinite element is mapped to a standard master element. Consider mapping of an infinite
line to a standard three-node master line as shown in Figure 6.42. We need a mapping so
that the point s = -.1 on the masterline is mapped to Xl's = 0 is mapped to x 2' and s = 1 is
mapped to x = 00. An appropriate mapping can be developed by starting with a relationship
in the following form:
where ao' a\, a 2 , and f(s) are to be determined to give the desired mapping. The coefficienn
ao and a l can be established by the requirement of mapping x\ and x2 to s = -1 and s = 0
INFINITE ELEMENTS 453
Three node master line

Infinite line
Node No e 2 Node 3
s '1--_----
8
Xl X2 X3-700
-1 --------X
Figure 6.42. Master line for mapping an actual infinite line
respectively, as follows.
Ats = -1: Xl = a o - at + azf(-l)

Ats = 0: Xz = ao + azf(O)
Solving the two equations for a o and aI' we get
Substituting these, the mapping takes the following form:
Xes) =Xz - azf(O) + [-xl + Xz + azf( -1) - azf(O)]s + azf(s)
Rearranging terms,
Xes) = Xz + S(Xz - Xi) + az[s(f( -1) - f(O)) - f(O) + f(s)]
The next task is to choose f(s) and az so that X = 00 when s = 1. Clearly, f(s) = 1/(1 - s)
will do the job, giving
The coefficient az can be chosen arbitrarily. A common choice is to set az equal to twice the
distance between the two nodes, i.e., a z = 2(x z - Xl)' Using this value of az, the mapping
takes the following simple form:
. 2s (s + 1) ..
xes) = --Xl - --l-xz
s-l s-
Note the element has three nodes. However, only the first two, which are at finite locations,
are used in the mapping.
The assumed solution over the mapped element is written using the standard quadratic
interpolation functions:
sZ s
u(s) = ( - --
2 2
454 MAPPEDELEMENTS
The derivative of this solution with respect to x is calculated using the chain rule as usual
for the mapped elements:
I du
-du
ds
= du dx
--::=} -
dx ds
du
dx
=--
J ds
= -J1 ( s - -21
where
The element equations for a one-dimensional element for the ID BVP considered in Chap-
ter 3 can be developed in a usual manner:
Because of singularity in J, the integrals cannot be evaluated in the usual sense. However,
since the intention of these elements is to approximate the behavior of a region that is far
away from the actual region of interest, this fact is ignored. In numerical implementations
integrations are typically carried outusing a two-point Gauss quadrature formula. Thus the
element equations are
(kk +kp)d = rq ::=} kd =r
Mathematica Functions for Solution of One-Dimensional Boundary Value

Problem Involving Infinite Domain The following functions are developed for
performing computations for both the standard and the infinite elements for the one-
dimensional boundary value problem. The functions are a little more general than those
presented in Chapter 3. The same function can handle a linear, quadratic, or infinite ele-
ment. The coefficients k, p, and q can be any arbitrary functions of x. The integrations are
performed using the two-point Gauss quadrature.
BVP1DElement[k_, p~ q_,nodes., type_ : Linear] :=
Module[{n, nm, s, XS, dxs, ks, ps, qs, kk, kp, ke, re, gpw},
Switch[type,
Linear, n = nm = {(1 - s)/2, (1 + s)/2J,
Quadratic, n = nm = {-s/2 + s-2I2, 1- s-2, s/2 + s-2I2},
Infinite, n = {-s/2 + s-2I2, 1- s-2, sl2 + s-2/2};
nm = {(2 * s)/(-1 + s), -(1 + s)/(-1 + s)}
];
gpw = ((s- > -1/Sqrt[3], s- > 1/Sqrt[3]), (1, 1))1/N;
xs = run.nodes; J = D[xs, s];
[ks, ps, qs) = [k, p, q)l.x -7 xs;
b = D[n, s]/J;
kk = ks Otiter[Times, b, b]J;
kk = Apply[Plus, MapThread[#2 * kkI.#1&, gpw]];
kp = -ps Outer[Times, n, n]J; v
kp = Apply[Plus, MapThread[#2 * kp/.#1&, gpw]];
ke = kk+kp;
re = qsnJ;
re = Apply[Plus, MapThread[#2 * re/.#1&, gpvj];
[ke, re)] .
Clear[x]; BVP1DElementSolution[nodes_, nodalSoL, t ype, : Linear] :=
Module[(n. run, e, xs, u, x1, x2},
xt = no:ies[[1]];
Swi t ch]type,
Linear, n = run = ((1 - s)/2, (1 + s)/2);
x2 = nodes[[2]],
Quadratic, n = run = {-s/2 + s-2I2, 1 - s-2, s/2 + s-2I2);
x2 = nodes[[3]],
Infinite, n = (-s/2 + s-2I2, 1- s-2, s/2 + s-2(2);
run = {(2 * s)/(-1 + s), -(1 + s)/(-1 + s));
x2 = 00
];
xs = nm.nodes;
n = n/.Solve[xs == x, s][[1]];
u =Simplify[n.nodalSol];
(x1 < x < x2, ul]
Example 6.23 ID JBVP with ][nfinite Domain Consider solution of the following one-
dimensional boundary value problem:
d2u 2
dJ? = i3; l<x<oo
u(l) = 1; u(oo) = 0
can easily be verified that the following is the exact solution for this problem:
I
uexact =~
problem is of the type considered in Chapter 3 with
2
k = 1; p=o; q=-XJ
456 MAPPED ELEMENTS
2 3 4
Ul U2 U3 U4 Us
Q
• • • •
2 3 4 5
x==l x==2 x==3 x==4 x==6
Figure 6.43. Three linear and one infinite element model
We consider the finite element solution of this problem using three standard linear elements
and one infinite element. The finite element model is as shown in Figure 6.43. The model
has six degrees offreedom. Only five are shown on the figure. The degree of freedom £16 is
atx == 00.
k == 1;p == 0; q == -21x-3;
nodes == (1,2,3,4, 6);
Do[lm[i] == Ii, i + 1};
(ke[i], re[iJ} == BVP1DElement[k, p, q, nodes[[lm[iJJJ, Linear], [L, 1, 3}J;
lm[4] == (4, 6,6);
(ke(4], re(4]) == BVPiDElement(k, p, q, nodes[[(4, 6)]], Infinite];
K == Table(O, [6}, (6)]; R == Table[O, (6l];
Do(K((lm[i], lm(i]]]+ == kej i.];
R((lm(i]J)+ == re(i], [L, 1,4)];
The essential boundary conditions are as follows:
debe == (1, 6);

,I
ebcVals == (1, OJ;
df == Complement[Range[6], debe]
(2,3,4,5)
Kf == K[(df, df]J
2. -1. 0 0 ]
-1. 2. -1. 0
[ o -1. 1.72222 -0.777778
o 0 -0.777778 0.888889
Rf == R[(df]] - K[(df, debc]].ebcVals
[0.660606, -0.0836104, -0.0329453, -0.0427856}
as follows:
dfVals == LinearSolve[Kf, Rf]//N

(0.49616,0.331713,0.250877, 0.171384)
The complete vector of nodal values, in the original order established by the node number-
ing, is as obtained by combining these values with those specified as essential boundary
d =Table[O, {6}];
d[[debc]] = ebcVals;
d[[df]] = dfVals;
d
{I, 0.49616, 0.331713, 0.250877, 0.171384, OJ
The complete solution for each element can be computed as follows:
res[1] =BVPiDEleinentSolution[nodes[[lm[1]]], d[[lm[1]]], Linear]

(I < x < 2, 1.50384 - 0.50384x)
res[2] =BVP1DElementSolution[nodes[[lm[2]]], d[[lm[2]]], Linear]
(2 < x < 3,0.825052 - 0.164446x)
res[3] = BVPiDElementSolution[nodes[[lm[3]]], d[[lm[3]]], LinearJ
(3 < x < 4, 0.574221 - 0.080836x)
res[4] = BVP1DElementSolution[nodes[[{4, 5}]],d[[lin[4]]], Infinite]
{4 < x< 00,

0.869317X-2.47376}
(x-2.)
2
.
In Figure 6.44 the finite element solution is compared with the exact solution. This plot is
generated as follows:
Exact
0.8
- - PEA
0.6
0.4
0.2
x
o 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 6.44.
458 MAPPEDELEMENTS
eso1 = App1y[Which, Flatten[Tab1e[res[iJ, (i, 1,4}])J;

P1ot[(1/x, Eva1uate[eso1]}, [x, 1, 10), P1otSty1e -? (Hue[0.5], Hue[0.9]},
AxesLabe1 -? ("x", "u"], AxesOrigin -? (1, OJ,
Flot.Legend -? {"Exact", "FEN'}, LegendShadow -? None,
LegendPosition -? (0, Oil;
6.7.2 Two-Dimensional BVP

The ideas presented for the one-dimensional problem can be easily extended to two-
dimensional problems. The simplest infinite element for a two-dimensional boundary
value problem is a six-node element shown in Figure 6.45. In the infinite direction each
side has three nodes, with nodes 5 and 6 located at infinity. The master element is a
usual 2 x 2 square element used with other mapped elements. Note that, since the nodes
at infinity are not used explicitly in the mapping functions, the node-numbering scheme
is different than our usual convention of moving counterclockwise around the element.
From the figure it is clear that in the t direction we can use the standard linear Lagrange
interpolation function:
1- t 1+t
Mapping functions in the t direction: -2-;
2
In the s direction we use the mapping functions developed for the one-dimensional infinite
element:
2s (s + 1)
Mapping functions in the s direction:
s -1; ---
s-1
Taking the product of these functions, we have the following mapping of the infinite ele-
ment to the 2 x 2 master element(
_ s(1- t) set + 1) _ (s + 1)(1 - t) _ (s + l)(t + 1)
x(s, t ) - s - 1 xl + S - 1 x2 2(S - 1) x3 "2(S - 1) x4
and
_ s(1 - t) s(t + 1) _ (s + 1)(1 - t) _ (s + l)(t + 1)
Y(s, t) - s _ 1 Yl + S _ 1 Yz 2(s _ 1) Y3 2(s _ 1) Y4
The assumed solution over the master element is written using the product of quadratic
Lagrange interpolation functions in the s direction and the linear function in the t direction"
u == N I £!I + '" + N6 £!6 == NTd

!(s - 1)s(1 - t)
!(s - l)s(t + 1)
-~(s - 1)(s + 1)(1 - t)
N=
-~(s - 1)(s + l)(t + 1)
!s(s + 1)(1 - t)
!s(s + 1)(t + 1)
PROBLEMS 459
Master element
t
4 y Infinite element
T 2
2
1 5
-------x
Figure 6.45. Mapped infinite element
Figure 6.46. Finite element mesh terminated with infinite elements on the left and the bottom
Using these interpolation functions, the element equations can be derived in the usual man-
ner. As mentioned already, the integrals in the element equations are singular. However,
since only crude approximations are desired, in actual implementations integrations are
typically carried out using a 2 X 2 Gauss quadrature. A typical finite element mesh in-
volving infinite elements is as shown in Figure 6.46. All other elements are the standard
quadrilateral elements. Onlythe last layer of elements in the x and y directions are the
infinite elements.
PROBLEMS
Integration Using Change of Variables

6.1 Show that the following integral over a four-sided region bounded by the curves
shown in Figure 6.47, evaluates to the value given:
23
If
Axy
(x-y)dA
;ry
=--
20
460 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Use the following change of variables:
ts 2 S2 3ts 7s 3
x(s t) = - - - - - +- +-
• 8 8 8 8 2
st 2 t 2 3st 7t s
y(s t) = - - - - - + - + - +2
• 8 8 8 8 2
Verify that with this change of variables, in terms of (s, r), the bounding curves are
x
3 y=2+"2
=7 -2x
7x
y=--
2
Figure 6.47.
6.2 Show that the following integral over a four-sided region bounded by the curves
shown in Figure 6.48 evaluates to the value given:
/
151
If
A.ry
(xy)dA.'Y = 12
c2 : y = 7 - 2x;
Use the following change of variables:
3s t st 3t
x(s, t) = "2 - 2: + 1; y(s,t) = -"2 + 2" +2
{I, I}
{I, -I}
Figure 6.48.
PROBLEMS 461
Verify that with this change of variables, in terms of (s, t), the bounding curves are
and therefore the given quadrilateral is mapped to the 2 x 2 square as shown.

6.3 A function f = x 2 y is to be integrated over a quadrilateral shown in Figure 6.49.
The sides of the quadrilateral are defined by the following equations:
The following change of variables is proposed for evaluation of the integral:
3s t ts s 9t 7
xes, t) = 2 - 2 + I; Yes, t) = '4 - 4: + "4 + 4:
3s t 13
detJ= - + - +-
884
(a) Verify that with this change of variables, in terms of (s, t), the bounding curves
are
and therefore the given quadrilateral is mapped to the 2 x 2 square as shown.

(b) Show that the integral is
911
If
?
_ (x-y) dAxy = 30 = 30.3667
A,,,,
y=4
4 {I, II
o
-1 '" 3 (I, -1)
-1 0 2 3
Figure 6.49.
Numericial Integration
Use numerical integration to evaluate the integral in Problem 6.2. Use I x I and 2 x 2
Gaussian integration. Show all calculations.
Use numerical integration to evaluate the integral in Problem 6.3. Use I x I and 2 x 2
Gaussian integration. Show all calculations.
462 MAPPEDELEMENTS
Mapping Quadrilaterals
6.6 Develop an appropriate mapping to map the quadrilateral shown in Figure 6.50 to
the 2 x 2 square master area. Compute the determinant of the Jacobian matrix and
use it to demonstrate that the mapping is good. The coordinates of the key points
are as follows:
x y
1 8. O.
2 5.65685 5.65685
3 O. 8.
4 0 3
5 2 0
Master area y 3 Quadrilateral

t 8
4
I
2
6
2
4
1 2
0
0
5
2 4 6 8
x
Figure 6.50.
,I
6.7 Develop an appropriate mapping to map the quadrilateral shown in Figure 6.51 to
the 2 x 2 square master area. Compute the determinant of the Jacobian matrix and
use it to demonstrate that the mapping is good.
2.5
2
5
1.5
3 0.5 1 1.5 2
Figure 6.51.
PROBLEMS 463
6.8 A quadrilateral element with one curved side and the other three sides straight is
mapped to a 2 x 2 square master area using five-node serendipity interpolation func-
tions. The mapping is computed as follows:
xes, t) :::: O.828427ts2 - O.828427s2 + 1.5ts - 2.5s - 2.32843t + 3.32843

yes, t) :::: O.828427ts2 - O.828427s2 - 1.25ts + 2.75s - 2.07843t + 3.57843
Assume that the solution over the element is also written using the same five-node
serendipity interpolation functions. Compute x and y derivatives of the interpolation
functions at x :::: y :::: 4.
6.9 Use 2 x 2 Gauss quadrature to integrate f :::: x2 y over the quadrilateral shown in
Figure 6.52.:
Master area YQuadrilateral

t 4
3
T
2
1 1--2----1
0
0 2 3
x
Figure 6.52.
6.10 A four-node quadrilateral element is shown in Figure 6.53.
Master element
Y(0, 3j 2 Actual element
4 t 3
T
2
_ _ _ _ _ _ _(} OJ
·4 1 1-----2-----1
Figure 6.53.
(a) Develop an appropriate mapping to map the actual element into the 2 x 2
master element shown in the figure.
(b) Verify that the mapping is good.
(c) Compute aNlay, where N3 (s, t) is the third interpolation function for the mas-
ter element. Give the value of the derivative at node 3 of the element.
464 MAPPEDELEMENTS
(d) Compute fit 64N2N3 dA, where N2 (s, t) and N3 (s. t) are the second and the
third interpolation functions for the master element and A is the area of the
actual element, Use numerical integration with a 1 x 1 Gauss quadrature for-
mula. No credit will be given if any other integration method is used, even if
the integral is correct.
(e) fc
Compute 4N3c de, where c is the line 3-4 of the element and N3c is the third
interpolation function for the master element expressed in a coordinate that
runs along this line. Use numerical integration with a two-point Gauss quadra-
ture formula. No credit will be given if any other integration method is used,
even if the integral is correct.
6.11 A 2D boundary value problem is being solved by using eight-node serendipity el-
ements. An element near a boundary is as shown in the Figure 6.54. The nodal
coordinates are as follows:
x y
1 6. O.
2 4.24264 4.24264
3 O. 6.
4 O. 3.
5 0 0
3
6 2 -2
7 3 -4
8 4.5 -2.
(a) Determine the vector rf3 as a result of the natural boundary condition aT/an =
100 on side 5-6-7 of the element, For simplicity use only a one-point integra-
tion. ,I
For the following parts use the following mapping:
x =2.87 + 2.25s - 0.62s 2 + 1.37t + 0.75st - 0.62s 2t

y = 1.12 - 2.5s - 0.62s 2 + 3.12t - 0.5st - 0.62s 2t
o 123 4 5
Figure6.54.
PROBLEMS 465
Also assume that after complete assembly and considerations of boundary

conditions the following nodal solution is obtained:
d = (0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0)
(b) Determine the solution T at the centroid of the element.

(c) Determine the x derivative of the solution aT/ax at node 5 of the element.
Finite Element Computations over Mapped Elements

6.12 Evaluate matrix kk for the four-node quadrilateral element shown in Figure 6.55.
Assume lex =0.5 and ley = 1.3 over the element. Use 2 X 2 Gaussian quadrature.
Master element
t
y4Actual element
(-1,4}
3
T2 s
...•........... .,.. 12,3}
V<· /·:'·{··:·j)~3, II
1 1----2--~
+---l,.~----
IO,O}
x
Figure 6.55.
6.13 Compute matrix ka: for the eight-node element shown in Figure 6.56. Assume a is
equal to 2 over side 1-2-3 of the element.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
I 3 5 9 3
x 1 2 0 2 2 4 2 2
5 3 5 II
.y 2 2 0 2 2 3 4'
.r------x
0.5 I 1.5
Figure 6.56.
466 MAPPEDELEMENTS
6.14 The square duct shown in Figure 6.57 carries hot gases at a temperature of 300°C.
The duct is insulated by a layer of square fiberglass that has a thermal conductivity
of 0.04 W/m . DC. The outside surface of the fiberglass is subjected to convection
with It = 15 W/m2 . °C and Too = 30°C. Take advantage of symmetry and model
only one-eighth of the section, shown in dark shade. Assume that the temperature
on the inside surface is same as that of the hot gases. Using only one four-node
quadrilateral finite element, determine the nodal temperatures.
30°C 3
Figure 6.57.
The duct is insulated by a layer of circular fiberglass that has a thermal conductivity
of 0.04 W/m . DC. The outside surface of the fiberglass is subjected to convection
with It = 15 W/m2 • °C and Too = 20°C. Determine heat loss through the insulation.
Take advantage of symmetry and model only one-eighth of the section, shown in
dark shade. Use only one finite element.
/
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x 1. 0.92388 0.707107 0.603553 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.75
y O. 0.382683 0.707107 0.603553 0.5 0.25 O. O.
Figure 6.58.
CHAPTER SEVEN
&& . ;
ANALYSIS OF ELASTIC SOLIDS
The problem of determining stresses and strains in elastic solids subjected to loading and
temperature changes is considered in this chapter. In addition to externally applied load-
ing, the solid may be subjected to body forces that are distributed over its volume. Inertia
forces and self-weight are the two common examples of the body forces. The fundamental
concepts from elasticity are reviewed in Section 7.1. Using these concepts, the governing
differential equations in terms of stresses and displacements are derived in Section 7.2.
These equations are much more complicated than the one considered in Chapters 5 and 6.
However, since the equations are still of the second order, all the fundamental concepts
introduced in the earlier chapters are still applicable. Section 7.3 presents the general form
of finite element equations for analysis of elastic solids. Specific elements for analysis of
plane stress and plane strain.problems are presented in Section 7.4.
7.1 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN ELASTICITY
7.1.1 Stresses
Internal forces are produced in a body when it is subjected to external loading. These
internal forces are characterized in terms of stresses. The stress at a point P is defined
by passing a plane section through that point and considering force per unit area on the
differential element. Denoting the area of this differential element by M and the force on
it by DJi', the stress vector at point P for the plane whose unit normal is 1l is written as
follows:
467
468 ANALYSIS OF ELASTIC SOLIDS
The normal and shear stresses are written by considering components of the force in the
normal (I1Fn ) and tangential (11F t ) directions of the plane as follows:
Normal stress: a: (P) == lim I1FII

II AA->O M
. 11Ft
Shear stress: TII(P) ==hm M
Note that the definition of stress is intimately tied to the plane section that is characterized
in terms of its unit normal n. Since an infinite number of planes can be passed through
a given point P, the stress state at the point must clearly state the plane section being
considered. The usual practice is to define stresses in terms of planes whose normals are
along the coordinate directions. For example, in a cartesian coordinate system, the stresses
on a plane whose normal is along the x axis (the y-z plane) are as follows.
. I1F
Normal stress: a:(P ) == lim - x
x AA->O M
Shear stress: T (P) == lim 11Ft

x AA->O M
The shear stress is further expressed in terms of the two in-plane force components in the
y and z directions:
I1F
Shear stress components: T ~,(P) == lim A / ;
-J AA->O ut1
Similarly, we can define the stresses on the planes whose normals are along the y axis (the
x-z plane) and along the z-axis (the x-y plane). The complete stress state at point P can then
be described in terms of nine stres~tcomponents:
T
Stress vector on plane with normal along x axis: t.t == (a:t T.t)' T xz )
T
Stress vector on plane with normal along y axis: ty == (Tyx OJ T yz )
T
Stress vector on plane with normal along z axis: tz == (T zx T Zy ~)
These stress components are shown in Figure 7.1 on a differential block. On the three hid-
den faces of the block the outer normals are in the opposite directions; thus the directions
of the stresses will be opposite to the ones shown in the figure. Writing the stress vectors
as rows in a 3 x 3 matrix, the so-called stress tensor is defined as follows:
Using the moment equilibrium condition, it can be shown that the following shear stress
components are equal:
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN ELASTICITY 469
Figure 7.1. Notation for stress components in rectangular coordinates
Thus the stress tensor S is a symmetric matrix and there are six unique stress components.
In the finite element formulation, it is convenient to arrange the six stress components in a
vector form as follows:
Stresses on an Inclined Plane It is possible to relate stresses on any inclined plane

to those on the planes normal to the coordinate axes. To derive this relationship, consider
an infinitesimal wedge (tetrahedron), shown in Figure 7.2. The stress vectors on the three
vertical planes are -tx' -ty ' and -tz• The stress vector on the inclined plane with unit normal
n = (n x ny Ilzl is denoted by tIl. If the area of the inclined plane is dA, then from
geometry the areas of the wedge perpendicular to the coordinate axes are, respectively,
Il x dA, Il y dA, and Il dA. The equilibrium of forces acting on the tetrahedron gives
z
or
Figure 7.2. Stresses on an inclined plane

Thus the stress vector on any inclined plane can be obtained by multiplying the stress
tensor S with the normal vector for the plane:
This is an important result because it shows that the six component stresses 0;,•... , T zx are
enough to uniquely determine the stress state with respect to any plane passing through
that point. The components of the stress vector til in the direction of the normal to the plane
is by definition the normal stress on the plane, and hence
(Til = t~n == nTt ll
Finally, using the vector sum, the shear stress on the plane can be written as follows:
Example 7.1 Stress components at a point in a solid are given as follows:
0;, = 9; OJ. = -3; ~ =3; Txy = -2; Txz = 0; T yz =2N/m2

Compute the stress vector, normal stress, and shear stress on a plane that passes through
(1,0,0), (0,2,0), and (0. 0, 1).
The first task is to compute the unit normal for the plane that passes through the given
points. This can be done by defining two vectors, one from point 1 to 2 and the other from
point 1 to 3. The normal vector is then the cross product of the two vectors. Finally the unit
normal vector n is obtained by dividing the normal vector by its length:
Vector from point 1 to 2: v12 = " 2, OJ -

to, (1, 0, OJ = (-1,2, OJ
Vector from point 1 to 3: V l3 = (0,0, I] - (1, o. OJ = (-1,0, Ij
Normal vector: VII=VI2XV13={I~ ~l,-I=~ ~I,I=~ ~1}=(2,1,2j

Length = Y22 + 12 + 22 = 3
Unit normal vector: n -- {23' 3'

1 32}
From the given stress components, the stress tensor is
9-2 0)
S = [ -2
023
-3 2 Nlm2
The stress vector on the plane with unit normal n is
til = Sn = {¥, -1, J)

The normal and shear stresses on the plane can now be computed to get
Normal stress on the plane:
2{26
Shear stress on the plane: Til = -3-
Applied Surface Forces The relationship between the usual stress components on
planes perpendicular to the coordinate axes and those acting on an inclined plane was
derived by considering an arbitrarily placed tetrahedron. If the tetrahedron is taken near the
boundary of a solid such that the inclined plane is along the boundary, then the components
of the stress vector til on the inclined plane must be equal to the applied forces on the
boundary. Denoting. the components of the applied forces on the boundary by qx' qy' and
qz' the applied surface forces are related to stresses as follows:
qx = CT.tnx + T.tYn y + Txznz

qy = Tyxn.t + O:vny + TYZn Z
qz = T;:.tnx + TZyn y + o;;nz
Principal Directions and Principal Stresses Principal directions are the unit nor-
mals for the planes over which there are no shear stresses and thus the normal stresses
are maximum. Since the off-diagonal terms in the stress tensor S are the shear stresses, it
follows that the principal planes are those that make the S matrix diagonal. Thus principal
stresses and directions can be determined by solving the following eigenvalue problem:
(8 - (T[)ll p = 0
where (T is a principal stress, I is a 3 x 3 identity matrix, and n p is a normal vector for the
principal plane. The eigenvalues are determined by setting det(S - (T1) = O. For each eigen-
value the corresponding eigenvector is determined by solving the above equation for II p '
The principal stresses ar~ .ordered according to their algebraic values:
Maximum: (T1 ; Intermediate: 02; Minimum: (T3
It can be shown that the maximum shear stress on any plane is given as follows:
OJ
(Tj -
T max = --2-
where (TI is the maximum principal stress and OJ is the minimum principal stress. This T max
acts on a plane inclined at 45" to the directions of both (Tj and (T3'
Example 7.2 Stress components at a point in a solid are given as follows:
CT.t = 10; OJ == -7; 0;; == 5; T.t)' = -3;

Compute principal stresses and their directions.
472 ANALYSIS OF ELASTICSOLIDS
From the given stress components, the stress tensor is
10 -3 0)
S== -3 -7 2N/m2
[ o 2 5
Mathematica's Eigensystem command is used to determine the eigenvalues and corre-

sponding eigenvectors of a matrix:
Eigensystem[((10., -3. OJ, (-3, -7, 2). (O. 2, 5)}]

10.5353 -7.81721 5.2819 )
( (-0.982474, 0.175309. 0.0633422) {-0.164108. -0.974648, 0.152084} (-0.0883982, -0.139024. -0.986336)
Ordering the eigenvalues from highest to lowest values, we have the following principal
stresses and unit normals for the principal planes:
Principal Stresses' Normal Vectors for Principal Planes

10.5353 -0.982474
0.175309
0.0633422
2 5.2819 -0.0883982
-0.139024
-0.986336
3 -7.81721 -0.164108
-0.974648
I'
0.152084
7.1.2 Stress Failure Criteria

The ultimate and yield strengths of engineering materials are determined from the tests
conducted on specimens loaded in one direction. In order to use this information for gen-
eral three-dimensional solids, we must convert the three-dimensional stress state into an
equivalent value that is representative of failure stress for that body. The three most com-
monly used stress failure criteria are as follows. .
Maximum Shear Stress Failure-Tresca Criterion According to this criterion, the

material failure occurs when the maximum shear stress at any plane in the material reaches
the value of shear stress as determined by a uniaxial tension test. The maximum shear
stress on any plane is
== if! - if3
T max 2
where if! is the maximum principal stress and 03 is the minimum principal stress. In a
uniaxial test if! is the applied axial stress and 03 == 0; therefore the maximum shear stress
is'0"/2, where 0"1 is the failure stress of the material in a uniaxial test. Thus, according to
the maximum shear stress failure criterion, the stress failure occurs when
Using this criteria, the factor of safety can be defined as follows:
0"12 0"
Factor of safety = _1_ == __1_
T max OJ - OJ
Example 7.3 If a material has yield strength 0"1 = 50 MPa, what is the factor of safety
using the maximum shear stress failure criterion if the state of stress at a point in a solid is
given as follows: .
0:, = 5; OJ,= -18; ~ = 0; Txy = 15; T xz = 0; T yZ = OMPa

Component stresses = (5., -18., 0.,15.,0., O.}
Principal stresses = (12.4011,0., -25.4011}; T max = 18.9011
0"12
Factor of safety = _1_ = 1.32268
T max
Von Misf!s Failure Criterion The von Mises criterion is the most commonly used
stress failure criterion for metals. It assumes that the stress failure occurs when the octahe-
dral shear stress value is equal to the octahedral shear stress at yielding in a uniaxial tensile
test.
An octahedral plane is a plane -that makes equal angles with the principal stress direc-
tions. The shear stress on the octahedral plane is known as the octahedral shear stress.
Using stress transformation for an inclined plane, it can be shown that on an octahedral
plane, the stresses are as follows:
OJ+0"2+0j
Octahedral normal stress: O"oct = 3
Octahedral shear stress: Toct = ~~ (OJ -02)2 + (0"2 - OJ)2 + (OJ - O"j)2
where O"j > 0"2 > OJ are the principal stresses. The octahedral shear stress can also be
expressed in terms of normal and shear stress components as follows:
Using this equation, the octahedral shear stress at yielding in a uniaxial tensile test (0;, =
0"1' OJ, =... = T zr = 0) is
Thus, according to the von Mises criterion, the stress failure occurs when
or
The quantity on the left-hand side is usually referred to as the effectivestress or von Mises
stress and is denoted by O"e:
Using this criterion, the factor of safety can be defined as follows:
Factor of safety = O"f

O"e
Example7.4 If a material has yield strength O"f = 50 MFa, what is the factor of safety
using the von Mises failure criterion if the state of stress at a point in a solid is given as
follows:
0:,=5; 0;.=-18; ~=O; Txy=15; Txz=O;

Component stresses = (5., -18./ 0.,15.,0., O.)
I 0"
cr" = 33.3766; Factor of safety = J = 1.49805
cr"
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion In brittle materials the failure strengths in tension
and compression tests are usually different. According to the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, the
failure of brittle materials is predicted when
0"1_0"3=1
Oif a;,f
where 0"1 is the maximum principal stress, 0"3 is the minimum principal stress, Oif is failure
stress in the uniaxial tension test, and O"ef is failure stress in uniaxial compression. Note
that proper sign of 0"1 and 03 must be used in this equation while Oif and O"e! are always
positive.
Using this criterion, the factor of safety can be defined as follows:
1
Factor of safety = I I
0"1 Oif - 0"3 a;,f
Example 7.5 If a material has failure strength in uniaxial tension Oif = 15MPa and that in
uniaxial compression a;,f = lOOMPa, what is the factor of safety using the Mohr-Coulomb
failure criterion if the state of stress at a point in a solid is given as follows:
<r,,=5; ay=-18; 0;;=0; Txy=15; ,Txz=O; Tyz=OMPa

Principal stresses = {12.4011,0., -25.401 I}; Factor of safety = 0.925285
7.1.3 Strains
When subjected to loading, a point originally at (x, y, z) displaces to (x + u, Y + v, Z + w).
The changes (u, v, w) are the displacement components in the coordinate directions and are
collected together in a displacement vector it = (u v w/. The displacement of a point
does not indicate the actual deformation of the solid at that point since the displacement
could simply be a rigid-body motion of the solid. To correctly characterize deformations
in solids, we consider an infinitesimal cube in the original configuration and determine
its change in shape and size in the displaced position. The change in size is characterized
by changes in the lengths of the sides of the cube. The change in shape is determined by
considering the change in the angle between two intersecting lines from the original 90°.
To characterize changes in length, consider a differential line segment AB parallel to
the x axis in the original configuration. After displacement the line moves to a position
indicated by A'B', as shown in Figure 7.3. The displacement of point A is u and that of
the neighboring point B is u + duo Assume point A is at (x, y, z). Since the line originally
is assumed to be parallel to the x axis, point B is at (x + dx, y, z). Due to displacement, the
coordinates of point A' are (x + u, Y + v, Z + w) and that of point B are (x + dx + u + du,
y + v + dv, z + w + dw). From these coordinates the original and the deformed lengths can
be computed as follows:
LAB =dx
LA'B' = ~ dv 2 + dw2 + (-du - dx)2
Since line AB is parallel to the x axis, the increments in displacements are functions only
A' _ _ _
A . B'
B
x
Figure 7.3. Deformation of a differential line segment originally parallel to the x axis
of x, and therefore
8£1 8v
dw = 8w dx
du = 8x dx; dv = 8x dx; 8x
Substituting these expressions, the deformed length LA' B' can be written as follows:
8v )2 8w2 (8£1 )2
( -8x d2 + -8x d2 + --dx-dx
8x
or
8V)2 (8W)2 ( 8£1)2

LA'B' = dx ( 8x + 8x + 1 + 8x
The normal strain in the x direction is then defined as the change in length of line AB
divided by its original length:
So far this expression is exact. To simplify further, we assume small displacements and that
the displacement derivatives are much smaller as compared to 1. Under this assumption
. (8V)2 + (8W)2
8x ;' 8x
«(1 + 8£1)2
8x
and thus neglecting the first two terms under the radical sign, we get
8£1
E 1':;1-
X 8x
Proceeding in a similar manner, with lines parallel to y and z axes, the normal strains in the
y and z directions can be written as follows:
8w
E 1':;1-
Z 8z
The normal strains quantify changes in the lengths of a differential cube. The changes in its
angles, which are originally 90°, are quantified in terms of shear strains. Consider two lines
AB and AC, originally lying in the x-y plane, meeting at 90° at point A. After displacement
the lines move to A'B' and A' C', as shown in Figure 7.4. The point A at (x, y, z) is displaced
to point A' at (x + £I, Y+ v, z). Since we are interested in determining change in angles alone,
and we have already made the assumption that the displacements are small, the change in
lengths is ignored. Thus the point B' moves up by increment in displacement dv relative to
Figure 7.4. Change in the angle between two differential line segments in the x-y plane
pointA' and point C' moves to the right by duo The total change in the original right angle
is thus
du dv
Angle change = dy + dx
Along AB, dy = dz = 0, and therefore
av
dv= -dx
ax
Similarly, along AC, dx = dz =0, and therefore
au
du = ay dy
Using these expressions and defining the angle change as the shear strain 'Y."" we have
au av
'Yxy = ay + ax
Proceeding in a similar fashion by taking lines in the y-z and z-x planes, the following shear
strains can be defined:
av aw au aw
y=-+-
'YyZ = az + ay; zx az ax
The complete vector of strain-displacement relationships is written as follows:

all
ax
al'
Ex
BY
Ey
all'
E_
c
t:
E=
'Y.ry £!!+ill:.
ay ax
0'Z ill:. + all'
'Y:.< B: ay
£!! + all'
e: ax
7.1.4 Constitutive Equations

The stresses and strains are related through constitutive equations. The simplest form of
the constitutive equations is the linear elasticity, which is a generalization of the familiar
Hooke's law. Assuming stresses are proportional to strains, the most general form of linear
elastic constitutive equations is as follows:
eTx CII C 12 C l3 Cl4 Cl5 Cl6 Ex

eTy C21 C22 C23 C24 C25 C26 Ey
eTz C31 Cn C33 C34 C35 C36 Ez
l.t)' C41 C42 C43 C44 C45 C46 'Y.t)'
lyz C51 C52 C 53 C54 C55 C56 I'YZ
lzx C61 C62 C63 C64 C65 C66 I'z.<
or
(J" = CE
The 36 coefficients Cij are called elastic constants and must be established somehow for
each material. Several assumptions are introduced to reduce the number of elastic con-
stants in the constitutive equations. It is almost universally assumed in linear elasticity that
the constitutive matrix C is symmetric. With this assumption the number of constants is
reduced to 21. This number can be reduced further if the material properties are symmetric
about some known planes. For example, if the material properties are symmetric about the
xy plane, then it can be shown that the C matrix has the following form with 13 independent
coefficients:
0;, Cl1 Cl2 C\3 C 14 . 0 0 Ex

C12 C23 C24 0 0 Ey
OJ C;22
~ C13 C23 C33 C34 0 0 Ez
lxy
= C14 C24 C34 C44 0 0 I'xy
lyZ 0 0 0 0 C55 C56 I'YZ
Tz.t 0 0 0 0 C56 C66 I'zx
If the material properties are symmetric about all three coordinate planes, then the number
of constants reduces to 9 and the material is called orthotropic. Wood is commonly treated
as an orthotropic material. The constitutive equations for an orthotropic material are usually
0:< Cl1 C 12 C13 0 0 0 Ex

OJ Cl2 C22 C23 0 0 0 Ey
~ C13 C23 C33 0 0 0 Ez
l.t)'
= 0 0 0 C44 0 0 I'xy
lyZ 0 0 0 0 C55 0 I'YZ
lzx 0 0 0 0 0 C66 I'z.<
Finally, if the material properties are symmetric about every plane, then the material is
called isotropic and only two independent constants are needed to completely define the
constitutive equations. The constants are identified as E, the Young's modulus of elastic-
ity, and v, the Poisson's ratio. The constitutive equations for an isotropic material are as
follows:
I-v v v 0 0 0 Ex
0:" v I-v v 0 0 0 Ey
0;, v v I-v 0 0 0
0; E Ez
1-2v
(1 + y)(1 - 2v) 0 0 0 -2- 0 0 rty
T.ty
1-2v
T yZ 0 0 0 0 ~
0 YyZ
1-2v Yzx
Tzx 0 0 0 0 0 -2-
where G is known as the shear modulus and is related to E and v as follows:

E
G=--
2(1 + v)
For an orthotropic material,

1 _ V.Q'
-~ 0 0 0
E; Ey E,
_3:£ 1 _3£ 0 0 0
Ex By E,
-~ -~ 1
0 0 0
E, E y E;
D= 1
0 0 0 Grt 0 0
1 0
0 0 0 0 GJ•
I
0 0 0 0 0 Gr.;
where Ex is Young's modulus in the x direction, Vxy is Poisson's ratio relating Ex to cr/E y,
etc. The D matrix is symmetric and therefore
v zy
Vxy = vyx vxz = vz.< v yz
= Ey
Ey s, Ez Ex Ez
The constitutive equations give a relationship between stress and strain at a point. IT the
constitutive equations do not change from one point to another point in the material,
then the material is known as homogeneous; otherwise it is inhomogeneous. In practice,
for most linear elasticity problems it is assumed that the material is homogeneous and
isotropic. Thus the material behavior is usually described in terms of E and y values that
are constant for the entire solid.
7.1.5 Temperature Effects and Initial Strains

In general, it is assumed that prior to loading there are no stresses and strains in the body.
However, there are situations when there are initial strains that must be taken into consid-
eration. The most common situations causing initial strains in solids are the temperature
and moisture changes.
A temperature rise of t.T results in a uniform strain that depends on the coefficient of
thermal expansion a of the material. The temperature change does not cause shear strains.
Thus the initial strain vector due to temperature change is as follows:
at.T
at.T
at.T
EO = 0
o
o
The stresses are caused by the difference in the total strains and the initial strains:
/
where EO is the vector of initial strains. In the inverse form
E =Du + EO
7.2 GOVERNING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Consider an arbitrary solid supported in a stable manner under the influence of externally
applied forces on its surface such as pressure and concentrated loads. In addition, the solid
may be subjected to applied forces distributed over the entire volume of the body. These
forces are known as body forces. Typical examples of body forces are self-weight of the ob-
ject and centrifugal forces developed in rotating objects. The governing differential equa-
tions can be developed easily by considering equilibrium of forces acting on an isolated
part of the object. This approach gives three equilibrium equations in terms of stresses,
These equations are derived in the first section. No constitutive equations are used in de-
riving these equations and therefore they are applicable to all materials.
The most common finite element formulations are based on displacements as primary
unknowns. To use this formulation, the stress equilibrium equations must be expressed
GOVERNING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 481
in terms of displacements using the strain-displacement and constitutive equations.

The displacement equilibrium "equations presented in this section assume linear strain-
displacement relations and linear elastic stress-strain behavior. Thus the finite element
formulation based on these equations, presented in the following sections, is applicable
only to small-displacement problems that are restricted to linear elastic behavior.
7.2.1 Stress Equilibrium Equations

If a body is in equilibrium, then any arbitrary part of the body must also be in equilibrium.
The surface S of an arbitrary part isolated from a solid is subjected to stress vector t n =
(t l U tny tll Z { . The normal to the surface is 1l = (l1 x l1y I1z{. The body forces b =
(b x by b,{ aredistributed over the entire volume V of the part. The equilibrium of the
isolated part requires that
IIs
tnxdS+ III
v
bxdV =0
IIs
tnydS + III
v
bydV =0
IIs
tny dS + III
v
bydV= 0
Since tlU = o;,l1 x + T xyl1y + T.<z;l1 z the first equation can be written as follows:
We can use the divergence theorem to convert surface integrals to volume integrals. The
divergence theorem is a special case of the Green-Gauss (integration-by-parts) theorem:
If g = 1, then ag/ax = 0, and we have
SimilarIy,
and
Using the divergence theorem, the surface integrals can be written in terms of volume
integrals, giving
Since this holds for any arbitrary region, the integrand must be zero:
Proceeding in the same manner with the other two equations, we get the following equa-
tions in terms of stresses:
7.2.2 Governing Differential Equations in Terms of Displacements

The governing differential equations can be expressed in terms of displacements by using
the constitutive equations and the strain-displacement relationships. For a linear elastic
isotropic material we have
CT,;
I-v v v 0 0 0
Ex
vI' I-v v 0 0 0
OJ, v v I-v 0 0 0 ~
~ E E
z
== (l + v)(l - 2v) 1-2v
Txy 0 0 0 -2- 0 0 Yxy
1-2v
T yZ 0 0 0 0 -2- 0 YyZ
1-2v
Tzx 0 0 0 0 0 -2- Yzx
Substituting strain-displacement equations Ex == 8u/8x, ... into the constitutive equations

and carrying out matrix multiplication, we get
a: == E ( 1 - v -8u + v-
8v + v8W)
-
x (l + v)(l - 2v) ( ) 8x 8y 8z
.. E ( 8u 8v 8W)
a: == v- + (1 - v)- + v -
y (1 + v)(1 - 2v) 8x 8y 8z
E (8U 8v 8W)
CTz == (1 + v)(1 _ 2v) v 8x + v 8y + (1 - v) 8z
8U 8V) (8V 8W) (8U 8W)

Txy == G ( 8y + 8x; T yZ == G 8z + 8y ; T 1:-< == G 8z + 8x
GOVERNING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 483
Substituting the stresses in terms of displacement derivatives into the first stress equilib-
rium equation, we have
au: aT trt:
--"-+...--.:2:.+~+b.=O
ax ay az x
E ( ( l - va
2u a2v a2w )
) - +v--
(l + v)(l - 2v) a~ axay +axaz
v-
a2u ~ )
?
(a2u a2w) _
+ G ( ay- + axay + G az2 + axaz + b. 0 x -
Noting that E/(l + v) = 2G and adding and subtracting va2u/a:>;2 in the first term, we have
The terms can now be grouped as follows:
Simplifying this, the final form of the governing differential equation can be written as
follows:
a2u+a2u 2u) G a (au av aw) b 0

- +a-2 + -
G (- 2
ax ai·. az -- -+-+- + =
1 - 2v ax ax ay az x
Proceeding in exactly the same manner, the other two equilibrium equations give
In order to find displacementsu(x, z), y, vex, y,

z), andw(x, y, z),we must solve these three
partial differential equations simultaneously. Since the equations are of the second order,
the specified displacement boundary conditions are of the essential type. The derivatives of
displacements are related to strains, which in turn are related to stresses; thus the applied
surface forces are the natural boundary conditions.
7.3 GENERAL FORM OF FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS
7.3.1 Potential Energy Functional

It can be shown that a solution of the elasticity problem minimizes the following potential
energy functional:
ITpCU, v. w) =U - W
where U = strain energy and W = work done by applied forces.

The strain energy is defined as follows:
U= ~fff T
e a dV
v
where
is the strain vector,
is the stress vector, and V is the volume of the solid..

The work-done term W incorporates work done by all applied forces, including body
forces, distributed surface forces, and concentrated forces. The work done by the body
forces is computed by integrating over the volume and is written as follows:
The work done by the distributed surface forces is computed by integrating over the sur-
face on which these forces are applied. Denoting the applied distributed forces by q =
Cqx qy qz{, this work done is as follows:
Wq =.ffCqxu+qyv+qzW)dS
s
where S is the part of the surface over which these forces are applied.
If there are any concentrated forces applied, then the work done by these forces is simply
the components of forces multiplied by the displacement components at the point where
the forces are applied.
WI = L.CFxiU i + Fyiv i + FziW i)

i
The total work done W is the sum of these three terms.

GENERALFORM OF FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS 485
7.3.2 Weak Form

Even though the finite element equations can be derived using the potential energy, it is
instructive to derive the weak form. As will be seen in this section, the weak form for an
elasticity problem takes the form of the familiar principle of virtual displacements. For ob-
taining the weak form, instead of using the differential equations in terms of displacements,
it is more convenient to start with the stress equilibrium equations. The equations in terms
of stresses are simpler and therefore the algebraic manipulations in deriving the weak form
are easier in this form than in the displacement form. Furthermore, since the constitutive
equations are not used, the final form is applicable to a general elasticity problem. Thus we
construct the weak form corresponding to the following differential equations:
80-., 8Txy 8T.,z b - 0

8x + 8y + 8z + x ":
8TyX 8ay 8Tyz
8x + 8y + 7k + by = 0
8T 8T Bo:
+ --.2:. + _z + bz = 0
--3:!
8x 8y 8z
Since there are three coupled differential equations, we need three different symbols for
the weighting functions. Denoting the weighting functions by U, ii, and w, multiplying
each equation by its weighting function, integrating over the volume, and adding all three
terms, the total weighted residual is as follows.
Iff (
v
80;; 8T.r; 8Txz
-+--+--+b
8x 8y
)-u+ (8T
_az -- yX
+8ay
x
- + -8T),Z
+ b )-v
8x 8y 8z y
8T 8T . Bo: )
+ ( --3:! + --.2:. + _z + b wdV =0
8x 8y 8z z
Using the Green-Gauss theorem on each of the nine terms involving the stress derivatives,
we get
ff s
(o-.,n x + T xyny + Txz12z)ii + (Tyxnx '+ o;;ny + TYZnz)iJ + (T zxnx + Tzyny + o"znz)w dS
On the surface the applied forces are qx = a;,nx + T xyny + Txzn z, etc. Substituting these and
rearranging terms, we get the following weak. form:
= ff(q}l + q/v + qzW)dS + fff(bxil + byv + bzW)dV

s v
If we interpret the weighting; functions as virtual displacements, then their derivatives can
be interpreted as virtual strains and defined as follows:
'aw _
az = (E)z
au aw
az + ax =(Y)zx
Substituting these, the weak form is
f f f (o:-,(E)x + oyCE)y + O"z(E)z + TxyC'Y)xy + Tyz(Y)yZ + Txz(Y)zx) dV

v
The integral on the left-hand side is interpreted as the virtual work doneby the internal
stresses. Those on the right-hand side . represent the work done by the applied forces. Thus
the above weak form is simply a statement of the principle of virtual displacement.
7.3.3 Finite Element Equations

The finite element equations can be derived using either the weak. form or the potential
energy functionaL The volume and the surface integrals in these forms now are evaluated
over an assumed element. In order to actually carry out these integrations, we will have to
assume a suitable shape for the element. However, the general form of the finite element
equations can be written that is applicable to any element shape.
Since there are three unknown displacements, we need three separate interpolations, one
each for u(x, y, z), vex,y, z), and w(x, Y, z), In principle, we could use different interpolations
for different displacements. However, in practice, we use the same interpolation functions
for all three displacements. Thus
U(x,y, z) = N; u j + N2u2 + .
v(x,y, z) =Njv j + N2v 2 + .
w(x,y,z) =Njw l +N2w 2 + '"

GENERAL FORM OF FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS 487
where up vI' wI' LiZ"" are the nodal degrees offreedom and N;(x, y, z) are suitable interpo-
lation functions. Arranging the terms so that all three nodal degrees of freedom at a node
are grouped together, the three equations can be written as follows:
u(x, y, z) a [Ul = [N~

:
I 0
NI
0
0
Nz
0
0
Nz
•••
···l WI
",
VI
]
aNTd
0 NI 0 0 ... LiZ
From the assumed solution the element strain vector can be computed by appropriate dif-
ferentiation as follows:
au i!!:!.L 0 0
aN2 0 0
ax ax ax
ay 0 i!!:!.L 0 0
aN, 0
Ex
BY ay ay·
Ey aw i!!:!.L aN2
0 0 0 0
["']
Ez az az az :11 aBTd
E=
I'xy i!!!+£!: i!!:!.L i!!:!.L 0 ~ aN, 0
ay ax ay ax ay a; Uz
I'YZ
£!: + aw i!!:!.L i!!:!.L en; ~
I'zx az ay 0 az ay 0 az ay
i!!! + aw i!!:!.L i!!:!.L aN, aN,
az ax az 0 ax az· 0 ax·
Using the constitutive matrix appropriate for the material, the element stress vector can be
written as follows:
a = CE = CBTd
The strain energy over an element can now be written as follows:
u =! IJf v
E
T
a dV =! fff v
T T
(B d/ CB d dV
= fff!d
T
BCB
T
~v d = !dTkd
v
where k is known as the element stiffness matrix
The work done by the body forces can be evaluated as follows:

Substituting the assumed solution, we have
Wb = J J J(bx by bz)NT dV d == rrd

v
where r'{; is the transpose of the equivalent nodal load vector due to body forces,
IIINlbydV
v .
IffNlbzdV
v
IfI N2bxdV
v
Assuming concentrated forces to be applied only at the nodes, the work done by the con-
centrated nodal forces can be evaluated as follows:
Wf = 2:(F:TiU j + FyiV i + FziW i) = (F:d Fyi FZ1 FX2

i
where r} is the transpose of the applied nodal load vector:

T
'" )
The work done by the applied surface forces is a little more difficult to write because we
must express the interpolation functions in terms of surface parameters over which these
forces are applied. The' details will be presented when considering specific elements. For
the general discussion, here we assume that the appropriate interpolation functions specific
to the surface S are denoted by vector Ns ' Then the work done by the surface forces can be
written as follows:
w, = Ifcq," + q" + q,w)dS = If(q, q, q,l(:)dS

=J J(qx s, qz)N'[ dS d == r~d
s
GENERAL FORM OF FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS 489
where r~ is the transpose of the equivalent nodal load vector due to surface forces and N;
are the displacement interpolation functions expressed in terms of coordinates along the
surface S:
IINstqx dS
s
II NstqydS
s
All terms in the potential energy have now been written in terms of nodal unknowns. Thus
the potential energy for a finite element is as follows:
IIp(u, v, w) =U - W = !dTkd - (r~ + rl + rJ)d

Using the necessary conditions for the minimum of potential energy as all;adi = 0, we
get the element equations as follows:
kd =rq +rb +rf

The concentrated forces applied at nodes can be assembled directly into the global load
vector during assembly. Thus they are usually not considered as part of the element equa-
tions and the complete element equations are written as follows:
7.3.4 Finite Element Equations in the Presence of Initial Strains

Recall that a temperature rise "of !:IT results in a uniform strain that depends on the coeffi-
cient of thermal expansion a of the material. The temperature change does not cause shear
strains. Thus the initial strain vector due to temperature change is as follows:
a!:lT
a!:lT
a!:lT
EO = 0
o
o
In the presence ofinitial strain EO due to temperature change or another similar cause, the
constitutive equations are written as follows:
The strain energy over an element can now be written as follows:
Expanding the product,
The last term involves all known quantities that do not depend on the assumed solution .
. This term will drop out when writing the necessary conditions for the minimum of the
potential energy. Thus the last term can be ignored. Since C is a symmetric matrix, the
transpose of the third term is the same as the second term and hence the second and the third
terms can be combined together. The effective strain energy can therefore be expressed as
follows: .
u, =4IIIv
ETCEdV - III
v
E6 CEdV
Substituting the strains in terms of the assumed solution (E =B T d), we get
u, = 4dT III
v
T
BCB dV d - III
v
E6 c BT dV d = 4dTkd -r~d
where k is the usual element stiffness matrix

!
k= IIv
T
BCB dV
where rr is the transpose of the equivalent nodal load vector due to initial strains EO'
re = III
v
BCEOdV
Thus the effect of initial strain is to add another vector to the right-hand side of the element
equations. The element stiffness matrix remains unaffected.
7.4 PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN
In principle, any stress analysis situation can be handled by the general finite element for-
mulationgiven in the previous section. However, the computational cost will be very high
because of the need to evaluate three-dimensional volume and surface integrals for each
PLANESTRESS AND PLANESTRAIN 491
element. Furthermore, with three degrees of freedom at each node, the resulting system
of finite element equations could be very large, requiring specialized computer hardware
and software for their solution. Therefore for common everyday situations it is desirable
to introduce simplifications in order to reduce the problem size an~ still be able to get
reasonably accurate solutions.
The axial deformation problem, considered in Chapter 2, assumes that bodies are long
and slender and are loaded in the axial direction only. Denoting the axial direction by x, the
key assumption is that 0;, is the only nonzero stress component. This reduces the problem to
only a single differential equation in terms of axial displacement u and results in a simple
finite element formulation. The formulation clearly is effective for truss-type structures,
as demonstrated in Chapter 4. Just imagine the effort that it would take to analyze even
the simplest truss structure by the three-dimensional formulation outlined in the previous
section.
The beam bending formulation, presented in Chapter 4, is another specialized formu-
lation based on assumptions on strain components that reduce the problem to a single
-differential equation.
The plane stress and plane strain represent the next level of approximate behavior in an
attempt to reduce the analysis problem to a more manageable form. This section presents
this formulation in detail and considers several practical applications.
It is very important to clearly understand all approximations introduced in a particu-
lar formulation and to take advantage of these situations when appropriate. It is the ana-
lyst's responsibility to recognize when a particular simplified model is appropriate. As a
general rule, it is good practice to start with simplified models first and gradually move to-
ward more sophisticated models. For many stress analysis situations, it is possible to create
simple truss and beam and frame models to predict the overall behavior of the structure.
To get a more accurate picture of an actual stress pattern, a plane stress or plane strain
model can then be employed, either for the entire structure or only for critical areas. A
few most critical areas can finally be analyzed using the full three-dimensional model.
The results from the lower order"models are useful in defining appropriate loading and
boundary conditions for isolated portions of the structure using the higher dimensional
models.
Another caution is in order here when we are dealing with an approximate solution
technique such as the finite element method. When describing solution accuracy using a
particular element type, the reference generally is to the accuracy with respect to the so-
lution of the governing differential equation. Thus an accurate finite element solution of
an axial deformation problem does not mean that the stresses predicted by the solution
are exactly what the component being analyzed actually sees. All it means is that we have
an accurate solution to the mathematical model. How well the solution of the mathemati-
cal model actually represents the true stresses and strains in the structure depends on the
suitability of the assumptions inherent in the model. This is an important point to realize
when interpreting results produced by some of today's sophisticated commercial finite el-
ement software packages. Some of these programs give solution accuracy as a standard
part of their output. A near-zero percent error in stresses may not mean much if you are
using a plane stress formulation to analyze a physical situation that violates the plane stress
assumptions.
Figure 7.5. A thin solid subjected to in-plane loading suitable for plane stress model
7.4.1 Plane Stress Problem

Consider a body that is much thinner in one direction as compared to the other two. Assume
that the thin direction is the z direction and thus the body is lying in the xy plane, as shown
in Figure 7.5. The situation may be considered a plane stress problem if all applied forces
are acting in the x y plane as' well. Analysis of beams, brackets, hooks, etc., fall into this
category. Under these circumstances it generally is reasonable to assume that the following
stress components are zero:
Assumed zero stresses: {o;;, T yZ' T zx}
Substituting these zero-stress components in the inverse stress-strain relationship, we

get
1 v v a:\" -VlTy
if -if -if 0 0 0 E
Ex v 1 v ' IT,, cry-Va;
Ey -if £ -£1 0 0 0 E
v v 1
OJ,
0 0 0 _ v(o:, +O'yl
Ez -£ -if £ 0
= E
I'xy 0 0 0 G1· 0 0 T.')' ::a:G
I'yz 0 0 0 0 1
0 0
G 0 0
I'zx 1
0 0 0 0 0 G 0
These relationships can be written as follows:
[ v
m~J
-£
[~J~ -!
Ex
, £
1
£
0
v(lT" + oy).
Ez = , I'YZ = 0; I';;x = 0
E
Note that Ez is not zero in the plane stress formulation. However, knowing 0:, and oy, it can
be determined from using the above equation. Thus the primary unknowns are the stresses
and strains in the xy plane. The plane stress problem can therefore be expressed in terms of
PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN 493
displacements along the two coordinate directions u, v and the following stress and strain
components: '
Stresses: Strains:
Strain-displacement relationships (assuming small displacements) can be written as
and the stress-strain relationship as
Inverting this matrix equation, we can express stresses as functions of strains as follows:
[ ~ ] = ~ ( ~ ~ ~][~];
T
.ty
1- v 0 0 1-1'
2 Yxy
a =CE
If there is a temperature change of /IT, the initial strains vector for plane stress is
v(~ + OJ)
EO = (a/lT a/lT 0/ and E
Z
=- E + a/lT
tr = C(E - EO)
Plane Strain Problem

Consider a body that is much larger in one direction as compared to the other two. Assume
that the long direction is the .~ ,direction and consider a unit slice (thickness h '" 1) of
the body lying in the xy plane as shown in Figure 7.6. The situation may be considered a
z y
l(x
Figure 7.6. A long solid and its unit slice for plane strain model
plane strain problem if all applied forces are acting in the xy plane as well. Analysis of
many dams and shafts falls into this category. Under these circumstances it generally is
reasonable to assume that the following strain components are zero:
Assumed zero strains:
Introducing these zero strains into the stress-strain relationship, we get
I-v v v 0 0 0
a:c v I-v v 0 0 0
Ex
ay v v I-v 0 0 0
ey
~ E 0
1-2v
Txy (1 + v)(1 - 2v) 0 0 0 -2- 0 0 "Yxy
1-2v 0
T yZ 0 0 0 0 -2- 0
Tzx 0 0 0 0 0 1-2v
-2-
0
(1 - V)Ex - vey
(1 - V)E y - VEx
E V(Ex + ey)
= (1 + v)(1 - 2v) (1-2v)y'",
2
0
0
These relationships can be written as follows:
,~~J(~]
v
0: ) E ' [1-V
[~ =(1 + v)(1 - ~V) o I-v
o
+ ey)
0:= (1EV(E,<
Z + v)(1 - 2v)'.
Note that ~ is not zero in the plane strain formulation. However, knowing Ex and ey, it can
be determined from using the above equation. Thus the primary unknowns are the stresses
and strains in the xy plane. Similar to the plane stress case, the plane strain problem can also
be expressed in terms of displacements along two coordinate directions: u,v. In fact, the
only difference between the plane stress and the plane strain problems is in the constitutive
matrices: '
Stresses: Strains:
Strain-displacement relationships (assuming small displacements) can be written as

and-the stress-strain relationship as
(J" = CE
v
I-v
o
If there is a temperature change of t!.T, the initial strain vector for plane strain is established
as follows:
I-v v v 0 0 0 Ex - a:t!.T
0;, 0 0 0
v 1- v v E - a:t!.T
oy v v I-v 0 0 0
y
E -a:t!.T
~
TX)'
= (l + v)(l - 2v) 0 0 0 1-2v
-2- 0 0 'lX)"
1-2v 0
T yZ 0 0 0 0 -2- 0
1-2v 0
Tzx 0 0 0 0 0 z:-
or
(l - V)Ex - VEy - (1 + v)a:t!.T
0;,
(1 - v)Ey - VEx - (l + v)a:t!.T
oy V(Ex + Ey ) - (l ;+- v)a:t!.T
~ = E (l-2v)1'"
T X)' (1 + v)(1 - 2v) -2~'
T yZ o
Tzx o
v
[i a: ]
= (1 + V)~1 - 2v)
-[ 1 - v
~
I-v
o
oo
1-2v
~
][Ex-(I+V)a:t!.T]
Ey - (1 + v)a:t!.T
'V
IX)'
a: - E(V(Ex(l+ +Ey)v)(l
Z -
...- (1- +2v)v)a:t!.T) .,
Thus
with
EO = (1 + v)( a:t!.T a:t!.T O{.

The primary unknowns in both the plane stress and the plan" strain formulations are the
in-plane displacements u and v. In each formulation the in-plane stresses and strains are
determined directly from these displacement components. The out-of-plane stress or strain
can be determined from the in-plane components. The only difference in the two formula-
tions is that they use slightly different constitutive equations. Thus both formulations can
be handled by essentially the same finite element formulation. For a plane stress prob-
lem the model thickness is denoted by h. By assumption of a unit slice, for a plane strain
problem h = 1.
For a general three-dimensional elasticity problem the finite element equations were
derived in Section 7.3. For a plane problem, assuming a constant thickness over an element,
the volume integrals reduce to integrals over the element area A and the surface integrals
reduce to line integrals over the element sides c. The applied loads and body forces have
components only in the xy plane. Thus the element equations for a plane stress or strain
problem are as follows:
Assumed solution:
Strain-displacement:
aN,
o
"'][~:]_
a;
aN,
o a; ...
u2
=B T d
i.ay
!!!J. i.!!!J. ... .
ax
Constitutive relationship:
.I
Plane stress:
Plane strain:
Element equations:
Stiffness matrix:
k= II A
T
BeB dA
ECiuivalent load vector due to distributed loads:
where N c are the displacement interpolation functions expressed in terms of coordinates

along the boundary c.
Equivalent load vector due to body forces:
Equivalent load vector from initial strains due to temperature change:
r, =h II
A
BC€odA
For plane stress: €o = (o:I1T est o{

For plane strain: €o = (1 + v)( o:l1T o:l1T o{
7.4.4 Three-Node Triangular Element

A typical three-node triangular element is shown in Figure 7.7. The nodal coordinates
are (xI' YI)' (:10., Yz), and (x3' Y3)' With the unknown displacements at the three corners as
nodal degrees offreedom, we have a_total of six degrees offreedom, L1 1, vI' LIZ•••• , "s- The
directions of outer normal and the boundary coordinates C for each side are also shown
in the figure. For simplicity in integration it is assumed that any applied body or surface
forces are constant over an element.
The interpolation functions for a three-node triangular element were derived in Chap-
ter 5. Using, these the assumed finite element solution is as follows:
L1 1
VI
(~)=(~I ~J
0 Nz 0 N3 LIZ
==NTil
NI 0 Nz 0 Vz
L1 3
"s
1 1
N I = 2AhCY-Yz)+XCYZ-Y3)+XZ(-Y+Y3))== 2A(xb l +YCI +11)
1 1
N z = 2A(x3(- y + YI) +xlCY -Y3) +X(-YI +Y3)) == 2A (xbz +ycz + I z)
1 1
N3 = 2A (xzCY - YI) + xCY I - Yz) +x1(-Y + yz)) == 2A (xb3 + YC3 + 13 )
'---------------x
II =xiY3 - x3Y2; Iz= x3Y\ - x 1Y3; 13 = ~1Y2 - xzY\

bl =Y2 -Y3; bz =Y3 - Y\;
,I
b3 =Y] - Yz
By differentiating the displacements, the strain-displacement matrix B can be established

as follows:
Since none of the terms in the B matrix is a function of x or y, the integration to obtain the
element stiffness matrix is trivial. The element stiffness matrix is therefore given by
k=h II
A
T
BCB dA = hABCB
T
where C is the appropriate constitutive matrix:
[1
Plane stress: C=~
1- v-
v
0 0
v1
,~, ]
,~" ]
v
[ I-v
Plane strain: C- E v I-v
- (1 + v)(l - 2v) 0
0
The equivalent load vector due to body forces is
h II NJbxdA
A
hIINJbydA
A
h II N 2bx dA
A
The integration over a triangle can be carried out as explained in Chapter 5. With the body
force components assumed constant over an element, the integration yields the following
rb vector:
The equivalent load vector from initial strains due to temperature change is
r, =h ff ~CEO
A
dA = hABCEo
For plane stress: EO =(al:1T al1T o{

For plane strain: EO = (1 + v)(aI1T al1T o{
The distributed loads, if any, are applied along one or more sides of the element. The
equivalent load vector due to distributed loads is
where c is the part of the boundary over which the forces are applied, Generally, the applied
surface forces are known in terms of components that are in the normal and tangential
direction to the surface. For example, the applied pressure in a pressure vessel is always
-'.,...,-..--~._---. ""'-~--'
cry
t---nydc -1
x
Figure 7.8. Equilibrium of a differential element on the boundary
normal to the surface of the vessel. Denoting the normal and the tangential components of
the applied loading by qll and ql' with reference to Figure 7.8, these forces can be related
to the components in the coordinate directions as follows:
.I
where nx and It y are the components of the unit normal to the boundary on which the forces
are applied.
The boundary of the element is defined by its three sides. For each side the solution is
linear in terms of coordinate c for that side and the degrees of freedom at the ends of that
side. For side l:
UI
VI
()~ ( ~
c
~)
0 0 0
~12
= - _ C-L
L 12
C
Uz
Vz
=N~d; 0;$ C ;$ LIZ
L 12
12
0 L 12 0
u3
v3
where LIZ = ~ (xz - xI)z + (yz - YI)Z is the length of side 1. The components of the unit
normal to the side can be computed as follows:
It = Yz -YI.
x L 12 '
PLANESTRESSAND PLANE STRAIN 501
The"equivalent load vector for applied loading on side 1-2 of the element therefore is
Carrying out integration,
hL
r.q = --li.(q
2 x
qy
In terms of specified normal and tangential components,
hLp'
r q =---(nq
2 xn
-nq
yt
o O{
Proceeding in a similar manner, the equivalent load vector for normal and tangential pres-
sures applied on sides 2 and 3 can be written. For side 2
where L Z3 = ~ (x3 - xz)z + (Y3 - yz)z is the length of side 2-3 and
X -Xz
n = Y3 - Yz. n = - 3- - -
x L Z3 ' y L Z3
For side 3
n = Yl -Y3. n = _Xl -X3

x L31 ' Y .L
31
The element equations are

Figure 7.9. Steel and aluminum assembly subjected to temperature change
Example 7.6 Thermal Stresses A 5-mm-thick symmetric assembly of steel and alu-
minum plates, shown in Figure 7.9, is created at room temperature, Determine stresses
DC
and deformed shape if the temperature of the assembly is increased by 70 above room
temperature. Assume a perfect bond between the two materials. Use the following data:
Steel plate: 80 x 150mm; E == 200 GPa; v == 0.3; a = 12 x 1O-6/DC
Aluminum plate: 30 x 100mm; E =70 GPa; v == 0.33; a == 23 x 1O~6/DC
Since the thickness of the assembly is much smaller than the other dimensions and
there are no out-of-plane loads, the problem can be treated as a plane stress situation.
Using symmetry, a quarter of the assembly is modeled as shown in Figure 7.10. The first
two elements are in the aluminum plate and the remaining six in the steel plate. A coarse
mesh is used to show all calculations. Due to symmetry nodes 2 and 3 can displace in the x
direction only while nodes 4 and 7 can displace in the y direction alone. Node 1, being on
both axes of symmetry, cannot displace in either direction. Note that in addition to reducing
the model size the use of symmetry provides enough boundary conditions so that there is
no rigid-body motion in the model. Since . rio support conditions are given for the assembly,
analysis of a full finite element model would not be possible without introducing artificial
supports.
The complete finite element calculations are as follows. The numerical values are in
the newton-millimeters units. The displacements will be in millimeters and the stresses in
megapascals.
15
o
-------------- x
o 50 75
Figure 7.10. Finite element model of one-fourth of the assembly

Essential boundary conditions: .
Node dof Value

o
o
2 o
3 o
4 o
7 o
25923. 0 J
78554.6 0
o 26315.8
Element node Global node number x y

1 1 0 0
2 5 50 15
3. 4 0 15
XI = O;xz =50;x3 = 0
YI = 0; Yz = 15; Y3 = 15
b l =0; bz = 15;
ci = -50; Cz = 0;
11.= 750; I z =0;
Element area, A = 375
I I
~1]
-so
[-~
0 so 0
T _..L 0 0 0
15
B = ..L ..L
15
0 0 50 15 50
Thus the element stiffness matrix is
0.219298 0 o. -0.0657895 -0.219298 0.0657895

0 0.654622 -0.0648075 0 0.0648075 -0.654622
0 -0.0648075 0.0589159 0 -0.0589159 0.0648075
k = hABCB T = 106 0 0.0197368 0.0657895 -0.0197368
-0.0657895 0
-0.219298 0.0648075 -0.0589159 0.0657895 0.278214 -0.130597
0.0657895 -0.654622 0.0648075 -0.0197368 -0.130597 0.674358
Load vector due to temperature change:

23
a = 1000000; tlT = 70; EO
T
=
(161
100000
161
100000 0)
r~ = (0. -21026.1 6307.84 O. -6307.84 21026.1)
Complete equations for element 1:

0.219298 0 0 -0.0657895 . -0.219298 0.0657895 ul O.
0 0.654622 -0.0648075 0 0.0648075 -0.654622 VI -21026.1
0 -0.0648075 0.0589159 0 -0.0589159 0.0648075 Us 6307.84
106
-0.0657895 0 0 0.0197368 0.0657895 -0.0197368 Vs O.
-0.219298 0.0648075 -0.0589159 0.0657895 0.278214 -0.130597 u4 -6307.84
0.0657895 -0.654622 0.0648075 -0.0197368 -0.130597 0.674358 v4 21026.1
Processing the remaining elements in the same manner, the global equations after as-
sembly and essential boundary conditions are as follows:
0.928397 -0.32967 0 -0.539811 0.257115 0 -0.351143 0 0 0 0 0 "2 -2692.16
-0.32967 0.650183 0 0 0 -0.320513 0.1648.35 0 0 0 0 0 "3 9000
0 0 1.116941 0.251115 -0.115891 0 0 -1.0989 -0.357143 0 0 0 '4 -8973.88
-0.539811 0 0.257115 2.3295 -0,714286 -0879121 0.357143 0 -0.576923 0.357143 0 -0.357143 "5 -2692.16
0.257115 0 -0.115891 -0.71421:16 3.64231 0.357143 -0.307692 0 0.357143 -1.64835 -0.357143 0 "5 -8973.88
0 -0.320513 0 -0.879121 0.357143 1.39194 -0.357143 0 0 0 -0.192308 0.164835 = 24000.
106 -0.357143 1/6
0.164835 0 0.357143 -0.307692 -0.357143 1.77289 0 0 0 0.192308 -0.549451 '6 0
0 0 -1.098,Q 0 0 0 0 1.19505 0.164835 -0.0961538 0 0 '7 30000.
0 0 -0.357143 -0.576923 0.357143 0 0 0.164835 1.4011 -0.357143 -0.549451 0.192308 "8 0
0 0 0 0.357143 -1.64835 0 0 -0.0961538 -0.357143 1.93681 0.164835 -0.192308 "8 45000.
0 0 0 0 -0.357143 -0.192308 0.192308 0 -0.549451 0.16'835 0.741758 0 "9 15000.
0 0 0 -0.357143 0 0.16<1835 -0.549451 0 0.192308 -0.192308 0 0.741758 '9 15000.
(U2 = 0.0513447, u3 = 0.0703132,v4 = 0.0252714, Us = 0.0495551, Vs = 0.0180102,

u6 = 0,069253, v6 = 0.0146016, v7 =10.0445986, ug = 0.0498168. vg = 0.0388815,
u9 = 0.0716126, v9 = 0.0366734}
XI = 0;x2 = 50;x 3 = 0
YI = 0;Y2 = 15;Y3 = 15
b l =0; b2 = 15; b3 = -15
ci =-50; c2 = 0; c3 = 50
11 = 750; h=O; 13 =0
Element area, A = 375
I
-so1
~~]
0 so 0
1
-is 0 0 0
1 1
0 0 so is SO
. Substituting these into the formulas for triangle interpolation functions, we get
Interpolation functions, { I - :5' ;0' :5 - ;O}

1 - L15 o x
55 o L_.£
15 50
NT =( 0
o
I-is 0 :to
From the global solution the displacements at the element nodes are (displacements
at nodes (I, 5, 4}):
dT = {O, 0, 0.0495551, 0.0186102, 0, 0.02527l4}

The displacement distribution over the element is
u(x, Y)) _ NTd _ ( 0.000991101x )

( vex,y) - - 0.00168476y - 0.000133224x
In-plane strain components, E =BTd = (0.000991101 0.00168476 -0.000133224)

Initial strains: ~'{; =( Ido~~o IOIO~~O 0)
In-plane stress components, 0" = C(E - EO) = (-46.6793 -10.1709 -3.50591)
Computing out-of-plane strain and stress components using appropriate formulas,
the complete strain and stress vectors are as follows:
E
T
= (0.000991101 0.00168476 0.00187801 -0.000133224 0 0)
(J'T = (-46.6793 -10.1709 0 -3.50591 0 0)
Principal stresses = (0 -9.83725 -47.0129)

Solutions over the remaining elements can be computed in a similar manner. A summary
of the solution at element centers is as follows:
Coordinates Displacements Stresses Principal Stresses Effective Stress
-%~931
-10.1709
{~10 0.0165184
0.0146272
0
-3.50591 ~9.83725) . 42.9477
-47.0129
0
0
Stresses Principal Stresses Effective Stress
r
Coordinates Displacements
37
-44.1277
2
rr
0.0336333
0.0062034
0
%j ~43.3109
-3.13967
-56.1964
) 50.9897
0
0
14~16j
84.6275 I
r~5
90.7353 )
3
10
0.0567176
0.0110706
0
-21.5116
0
8.86375
0
86.6441
I
0
I
{ 200 0.0048672
r%l~
23.9696
0 ~4.8415 } I
4 31.0245
0.06;6369 0.0048672 -5.43678
-9.93316
0
0
-4.39778
{~30
1"9479 ~2.0694 )
5 95
"3
0.0166056
0.0362505 ~8.7955j -6.51919
35.7772
,I 31.2874
3.55695
r~o 0.033124 0 34.1974 )
6 70 -9.44265 ~.646946 33.8785
0.0275877
"3
0
0
5.07389
-4.3071
7 r~5
95 0.0569948 0 b·99036 )
13.1812
0.0313884 -5.98876
"3 -7.22357
0
0
-8.62005
5.98876
57809
8 r~o
70
0.0634735 0
b· ) 15.4605
0.0232951 -5.07389
"3 -10.2094
0
0
86.64
13.18
Figure 7.11. Equivalent stress plot
AN
ELEl{EfTr SOLUTIOII
AUG 19 2003
SttP.. t 16.22,19
SOB "1
'l'IUE..t
$EoV (llOAVOI
J:X«'".
snu ...
SMX "1
109.676
Figure 7.12. Equivalent stress plot using uniform mesh
Figure 7.11 shows equivalent von Mises stresses in different elements. There are large dif-
ferences in stresses among neighboring elements, indicating that the solution is not reliable
and mesh must be refined.
The problem is solved using ANSYS (AnsysFiles\Chap7\ThermalStress.inp on the
book web site) with a uniform mesh with an element size of approximately 5 mm. The
computed equivalent stressesfrom elements are shown in Figure 7.12. The results show
considerable improvement. However, there are still large differences in stresses among
neighboring elements near the interface between the two materials. This suggests using a
finer mesh in the interface region. Results from a mesh that is refined only in the regions
of high stress gradient are shown in Figure 7.13. Overall:the results appear satisfactory.
The only exceptions are the few elements at the sharp corner at the interface between the
two materials. A sharp corner represents stress singularity, and thus further refinement of
the mesh near the corner will only be a wasteful attempt at capturing this singularity. In
actual design situations, the corners are rounded to avoid high stress gradients. Thus any
further refinement of the model should include the actual rounded profile of the corner to
get realistic results.
• Mathematica/MATLAB Implementation 7.1 on the Book Web Site:

Triangular element for plane stress and plane strain
508 ANALYSISOF ELASTIC SOLIDS
1 J\N')'r",'.
El.EHElrr SOUl1'lOIl
1'.00 19 2M)
!lTEP·l 16,33,45
SOB "1
TDIE-l
S£QV' (lICAVO)
am «,
sun '".
S'Mlt-l
I
~~lU~tFG\!",·r:~·~~!;';'J1~,,,,J\~~J.:J~~~,~~r:':'7C''':'"::;'::'--~-c"":":';'.;::;7;'·;·'~~
.169650' '41.132 81.414 121.B26 162.118

20:94.6 61.298 101.65 142.002 1112.354
Figure 7.13. Equivalent stress plot using finer mesh in high stress gradient region
7.4.5 Mapped Quadrilateral Elements

The quadrilateral elements for the elasticity problem can be developed in exactly the same
manner as those for the two-dimensional boundary value problem in Chapter 6. The actual
element is mapped to a master element using appropriate interpolation functions:
x:= N(s, tl XII; y:= NTY Il
J := ( ~ ~) ~~: ~~~) := ( ;
detJ:= laxa y _ axaYI
as at at as
The assumed solution over the master element is written as follows:
U(s, t) := N(s, tl d
The element strain vector is
J [~ax0 :::][:~]
o ~ o
E axalla ax
-[,J "':" -""

x
e- Ey - 2 - ~ o
ay =BTd
[
~ ... .2
ay ax ay ax
As explained in Chapter 6, using mapping, the derivatives of the interpolation functions
with respect to x and y are computed as follows:
aNi __1_(_1 aNi +1 aNi)

ay - detJ 12 as 11 at
o J22 ~
as - J21 ~
at
-112~+111~ o ..,
122 ~
as - J 21 ~
at - 112 ~
as + 111 ~
at
"'J
PLANESTRESSAND PLANESTRAIN 509
Tue element equations are obtained using numerical integration, as discussed in Chapter 6:
Element stiffness matrix:
k =h JJ
A
BCB dA
T
=h f: f: T
BCB det] ds dt
m n
'= h 2: 2: wiwjB(s;, tj)CB (s;, t) det](si' t j)
T
i=1 j=l
Equivalent load vector due to body forces:
Equivalent load vector due to initial strains:
r, = h JJ
A
RCEO dA = h f: f: RCEo det] ds dt
m n
=h 2: 2: W;WjB(Si' tj)CEOdet](si' tj)
i=1 j=1
Equivalent load vector due to distributed loads:
where e is the part of the boundary over which the forces are applied.
As seen in Chapter 6, to write interpolation functions Nc(a) along each side, we substitute
the appropriate s, t values in the interpolation functions N(s, t). For example, for side 1, s =
a and t = -1. The differential length de along an element side is related to the differential
line segment da along the side of the master element as follows:
Dividing both sides by da, we have
de dx)2+ (dy)2
(da da ==> de = Jcda
da
where Je is the Jacobian of the side:
Generally the applied surface forces are known in terms of components that are in the
normal and tangential directions to the surface. Denoting the normal and the tangential
components of the applied loading by qn and q., with reference to Figure 7.8, these forces
can be related to the components in the coordinate directions as follows:
where I1x and n y are the components of the unit normal to the boundary on which the forces
are applied. For mapped elements, the components of the unit normal are as follows:
dy/da dxlda
I1x = -J-; ny = - -
J-
e e
Example 7.7 Notched Beam Find stresses in the notched beam of rectangular cross
section shown in Figure 7.14. The following numerical values are used:
a=48in; b=12in; c=5in; d=12in; Thickness = 4 in;

6lb/in2 2
E = 3 X 10 ; v = 0.2; q = 50lb/in
Since the thickness of the beam is much smaller than the other dimensions and there are no
out-of-plane loads, the problem can be treated as aplane stress situation. Using symmetry
, half of the beam is modeled. To show al~calculations, a very coarse model involving only
three elements is used as shown in Figure 7.15.
Node dof Value

1 uj 0
2 u2 0
7 u7 0
v7 0
8 Us 0
Vs 0
Figure 7.14. Notched beam

PLANESTRESSAND PLANESTRAIN 511
Element numbers
5
0 x
0 6 20 54
Node numbers
x
o 6 20 54
Figure 7.15. Three Quad4 element model for notched beam

E = 3000000; v = 0.2; h = 4
Nodal coordinates:

1 1 O. 5.
2 4 6. 5.
3 6 20. 12.
4 2 O. 12.
Mapping tothe master element:
x(s, t) = NTx n = 3.5ts + 6.5s + 3.5t + 6.5; y(s, t) = NTYn = 3.5t + 8.5
J = (3.5t + 6.5 iSs + 3.5). detJ = 12.25t + 22.75
o 3.5'
6
3.125 X 10 625000. 0]
Plane stress C = 625000.3.125 x 106 0 ..
( o 0 1.25 X 106
For numerical integration the Gauss quadrature points and weights are as follows:
s Weight
1 -0.57735 -0.57735 1.
2 -0.57735 0.57735 1..
3 0.57735 -0.57735 1.
4 0.57735 0.57735 1.
Computation of element matrices at (-0.57735, -0.57735} with weight = 1:
_ (4.47927 1.47927). detJ = 15.6775

J- 0 3.5'
To save space numerical values of only four interpolation functions NI' Nz, N3 , and
N4 are shown below. For element NBC calculations these values. must obviously be
arranged into full 2 x 8 matrices as shown in the text.
NT = (0.622008 0.166667 0.0446582 0.166667)

aNT
& = (-0.394338 0.394338 0.105662 -0.105662)
aNT
7ft = (-0.394338 -0.105662 0.105662 0.394338)
aNT
ax = (-0.088036 0.088036 0.0235892 -0.0235892)
a~T = (-0.0754595 -0.0673977 0.0202193 0.122638)
( -0.088036 0 0.088036 0 0.0235892 0 -0.0235892

BT = 0 -0.0754595 0 -0.0673977 0 0.0202193 0 o0.122638 )
-0.0754595 -0.088036 -0.0673977 0.088036 0.0202193 0.0235892 0.122638 -0.0235892
1.96517 0.781108 -1.12016 -0.288186 -0.526565 -0.209297 -0.318444 -0.283625

0.781108 1.7234 0.204736 0.389125 -0.209297 -0.461783 -0.776547 -1.65074
-1.12016 0.204736 1.87489 -0.697658 0.300146 -0.0548588 -1.05488 0.547781
-0.288186 0.389125 -0.697658 1.4977 0.0772193 -0.104266 0.908625 -1.78256
lc = 106 -0.526565 -0.209297 0.0772193' 0.141093 0.056081 0.0853267
0.300146 0.075997
-0.209297 -0.461783 -0.0548588 -0.104266 0.056081 0.123734 0.208075 0.442314
-0.318444 -0.776547 -1.05488 0.908625 0.0853267 0.208075 1.28799 -0.340153
-0.283625 -1.65074 0.547781 -1.78256 0.075997 0.442314 -0.340153 2.99099
Similarly, evaluating at the remaining Gauss points and adding contributions result in the
following:
6.26209 -0.0163755 -4.11923 1.26638 -0.951731 -1.12991 -1.19113 -0.120087
-0.0163755 9.0354 2.51638 -3.67826 -1.12991 0.228478 -1.37009 -5.58562
-4.11923 2.51638 11.2621 -3.76638 -1.19113 -1.37009 -5.95173 2.62009
k = 106 1.26638 -3.67826 -3.76638 21.5354 -0.120087 -5.58562 2.62009 -12.2715
-0.951731 -1.12991 -1.19113 -0.120087 2.54484 0.786026 -0.401981 0.463974
-1.12991 0.228478 -1.37009 -5.58562 0.786026 255069 1.71397 2.80646
-1.19113 -1.37009 -5.95173 2.62009 -0.401981 1.71397 7.54484 -2.96397
-0.120087 -5.58562 2.62009 -12.2715 0.463974 2.80646 -2.96397 15.0507
rT = (0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0)
Computation of element matrices resulting from the NBC:
NBC on side 3 with q = (-50, OJ
NT = (0 0 1-2 a a+ 1)
c 2
x(a) = 10. - 10.a; yea) = 12.
dxlda = -10.; dylda = 0..

J c = 10.
Gauss point = -0.57735; Weight = 1.; L; = 10.
N! = (0 0 0.788675 0.211325)
rr = (0 0 0 0 0 -1577.35 0 -422.65)
Gauss point = 0.57735; Weight = 1.; J c = 10.
N! = (0 0 0.. 211325 0.788675)
r;=(O 0 0 0 0 -422.65 0 -1577.35)
Summing contributions from all Gauss points:
r Tq = (0 0 0 0 0 -2000. 0 -2000.)
Complete element equations for element 1:

6.26209 -0.0163755 -4.11923 1.26638 -0.951731 -1.12991 -1.19113 -0.120087 !/I o.
-0.0163755 9.0354 2.51638 -3.67826 -1.12991 0.228478 -1.37009 -5.58562 vI o.
-4.11923 2.51638 11.2621 -3.76638 -1.19113 -1.37009 -5.95173 2.62009 "4 o.
1.26638 -3.67826 -3.76638 21.5354 -0.120087 -5.58562 v2.62009 -12.2715 v4 O.
106
-0.951731 -1.12991 -1.19113 -0.120087 2.54484 0.786026 -0.401981 0.463974 !/6 O.
-1.12991 0.228478 -1.37009 -5.58562 0.786026 2.55069 1.71397 2.80646 v6 -2000.
-1.19113 -1.37009 -5.95173 2.62009 -0.401981 1.71397 7.54484 -2.96397 !/2 O.
-0.120087 -5.58562 2.62009 -12.2715 0.463974 2.80646 -2.96397 15.0507 V2 -2000.
The equations for the remaining elements are developed in exactly the same manner. Af-
ter assembly of all elements and incorporating essential boundary conditions, the global
system of equations is as follows:
9.0354 -5.58562 0 0 2.51638 -3.67826 0 0 -1.12991 0.228478 VI 0
-5.58562 15.0507 0 0 2.62009 -12.2715 0 0 0.463974 280646 1'2 -2000.
0 0 5.7276 0.559291 -3.49546 1.94071 -0.771918 -1.17054 -1.46023 -1.32946 "3 0
0 0 0.559291 9.65901 0.690709 -8.76615 0.0794621 2.74625 -1.32946 -3.6391 1'3 0
6 251638 262009 -3.49546 0.690709 20.1147 -6.95708 -4.58523 242054 -1.96304 -1.29063 "4 0
10
-3.67826 -122715 1.94071 -8.16615 -6.95708 32.4444 2.42054 -4.8891 -1.29063 -2.83938 1'4 0
0
0
0 -0.771918 0.0794621 -4.58523 2.42054 12.5561 -0.866443 -4.99308 0.866443 «s 0
0 -1.17054 2.74625 242054 -4.8891 -0.866443 19.7912 0.866443 -16.766 1'5 0
-1.12991 0.463974 -1.46023 -1.32946 -1.96304 -1.29063 -4.99308 0.866443 11.9759 -0.0804163 "0 0
0.228478 280646 -1.32946.. . -3.6391 -1.29063 -2.83938 0.866443 -16.766 -0.0804163 21.0919 1'6 -5400.
{VI = -0.0183155, v2 = -0.0183204, u3 = 0.00275915, v3 = -0.0166486,

u 4 = 0.00114552, v4 = -0.0164634, Us = 0.00305003, Vs = -0.0113566,
u 6 = -0.00210128, v6 = -0.0116254}

Element nodal displacements:
Element node Global node number U V
1 1 o -0.0183155
2 4 0.00114552 -0.0164634
3 6 -0.00210128 -0.0116254
4 2 o -0.0183204
d T = (0-0.0183155 0.00114552 -0.0164634

-0.00210128 -0.0116254 0 -0.0183204)
Using appropriate sand t values, the solution at any point over the element can be com-
puted. For example, consider the solution at the element centroid:
Element solution at (s, t} = (0,O} ~ (x, yJ = (6.5, 8.5):

NT-{I III}
- 4> 4> 4' 4
Displacements = NTd = (-0.00023894, -0.0161812}
] = ( 6.5 3.5). det] = 22.75

o 3.5'
as - (_14
aNT -:- 1
4
I
4
--41)
at = (_14
aNT
-4
1 1
4
-41)
a~T = (-0.0384615 0.0384615 0.0384615 -0.0384615)
a~T = (-0.032967 -0.10989 0.032967 0.10989)
- 0.0384615 0 0.0384615 0 0.0384615 0 -0.0384615

BT = 0 -0.032967 0 -0.10989 0 0.032967 o o0.10989 )
(
-0.032967 -0.0384615 -0.10989 0.0384615 0.032967 0.0384615 0.10989 -0.0384615
In-plane strain components,
e = B T d = (-0.00003676 0.0000164861 0.000133582)

,/
In-plane stress components, U = Ce = (-104.571 28.544 166.978)
eT = (-0.00003676 0.0000164861 5.06848 x 10-6 0.000133582 0 0)
u T = (-104.571 28.544 ° 166.978 ° 0)
Principal stresses = (141.741 0. -217.768)

As another example, consider the solution at node 1 of the element:

Element solution at is, t} = {-I, -I} ~ (x,y} = {O., 5.):
'NT = (I,O,O,O}
Displacements = NTd = {O., -0.OI83I55}
] =( ~ 3~5) det] = 10.5

aNT
as -(_1
- 2 1
2
0 0)
aNT _ (_1 0 0 'i_I)

at - 2
a:; = (-0.166667 0.166667 0 0.)
aNT
- = (-0.142857 O. 0 0.142857)
ay
BT
- 0.166667
=0
0
-0.142857
0.166667
0
o
o
0 0 0
0 0 0
0
00.142857
1
[ -0.142857 -0.166667 O· 0.166667 0 0 0.142857
In-plane strain components,
e =B T d = (0.00019092 -6.97447 x 10- 7 0.000308689)
In-plane stress components, 0' = Ce = (596.188 117.145 385.861)

eT = (0.00019092 -6.97447 x 10- 7 -0.0000475555 0.000308689 0 0)
aT = (596.188 117.145 0 385.861 0 0)
Principal stresses = (810.824 O. -97.4913)

Similarly, solutions at selected points for all other elements can be computed. A summary
of solutions at element centroids is as follows:
Solution at Selected Points on Elements

-104.571
28.544
6.5 -0.00023894 o ~41.741 )
1 313.656
{ 8.5 -0.0161812 166.978
-217.768
o
o
-22.0848
-19.1666
B. 0.00121336 o 23.0542 )
2 O. 78.4169
{ 4.25 -0.0140235 -43.6555
-64:3056
o
o

-50.6003
3 e 7
6. .
0.000237189
-0.00574551
-43.7172
0
154.167
0
107.046 )
O.
-201.364
271.222

Four-node quadrilateral element for plane stress and plane strain
Example 7.8 Notched Beam Using Transition from Eight- to Four-Node Elements
Many practical problems can be analyzed efficiently by using higher order elements in
the region of high stress gradients and low-order elements elsewhere. Appropriate order
elements must be used in the transition region between the high- to low-order elements. To
demonstrate this, consider analysis of the notched beam of Figure 7.14. To capture stress
concentration in the vicinity of the notch, we employ eight-node elements. Away from the
notch the stresses do not change that rapidly and thus we could use four-node elements. To
maintain the compatibility of the displacement field over the entire mesh it is necessary to
use five-node elements in the transition region from four- to eight-node elements. Talcing
advantage of symmetry, the right half of the beam is modeled as shown in Figure 7.16.
The first 12 elements are the eight-node elements. The elements 16 through 21 are four-
node elements. The elements 13, 14, and 15 in the transition region must have a quadratic
y Element numbers
12
10
8
6
4
2
o
x
o 10 20 30 40 50
y Node numbers
12 7
10
8
6
4
2
o
x
o 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 7.16. Finite element model of the notched beam
PLANARFINITEELEMENTMODELS 517
983.8
520.6
57.38
Figure 7.17. Equivalent stresses at element centers
displacement field along their left edges and linear along the right sides. Thus five-node
elements are used. Due to symmetry, nodes 1 through 7 are restrained in the x direction.
Both horizontal and vertical displacements are zero at nodes 60 through 63 because of the
fixed support.
The effective stresses at element centers are used to create an element stress plot as
shown in Figure 7.17. There are significant jumps in stresses across element boundaries,
and thus the model needs to be refined further. Results obtained from refined models using
ANSYS and ABAQUS are presented in Appendix A.
7.5 PLANAR FINITE ELEMENT MODELS
Several practical finite element applications that can be modeled effectively by using the
plane stress or the plane strain assumptions are presented in this section.
7.5.1 Pressure Vessels

A thick cylinder subjected to internal or external pressure is a classic example of a plane .
strain situation. However, pressure vessels of various cross-sectional shapes can also be
effectively modeled as plane strain problems. As long as the main body is long, so that the
end conditions can be ignored, the model should produce reliable results. Here we consider
a simple cylindrical pressure vessel as shown in Figure 7.18. The exact analytical solution
of this plane strain problem-is welllcnown. The tangential and radial stresses are given by
the following formulas:
-t--f -l- r -t--f-T-T-t--f--f-r -t--f -l-

d -'--- -- -- --
p
-- -- --
1 .l__ t_Ji-- i__ t_J_l_ i_~t_J~l_ i~_ l.J.

t
v
Figure 7.18. Long thick cylinder subjected to internal pressure
------x
Figure 7.19. Plane strain model of a long thick cylinder subjected to internal pressure
where Pi is the internal pressure on the cylinder, ri and ro are the inner and the outer
radii, and r is the radius of the point where the stress is to be computed. Note that these
stresses are independent of any material properties. For the numerical results presented in
this section we use the following data:
Pi = 20ksi; ri = 5in; ro = 15in
With these values the exact solution predicts the following tangential (hoop) stresses in the
cylinder:
At r = 5: Gi = 25ksi; At r = 15: Gi = 5 ksi

For a finite element solution with the plane strain assumption we need to model a cross
section of the cylinder. We can take advantage of symmetry and model one-fourth of the
region as shown in Figure 7.19. All nbdes along the horizontal plane of symmetry can
move only in the horizontal direction, and those on the vertical plane of symmetry can
move only in the vertical direction.
Example 7.9 One-Element Solution To show all calculations, only a single eight-
node element is used as shown in Figure 7.20. Because of symmetry, the following bound-
ary conditions are imposed:
At nodes 3, 4, 5: y displacement = 0
At nodes 7, 8, 1: x displacement = 0
Using kip-inches, the calculations follow.
E = 30000; v = 0.3; h=l
x(s, t) = NTx n = -1.03553ts2 - 2.07107s2 + 2.5ts + 5.s + 3.53553t + 7.07107

Yes, t) =NTYn = -1.03553ts2 - 2.07107s 2 - 2.5ts - 5.s + 3.53553t + 7.07107
PLANARFINITEELEMENT MODELS 519
y
15
10
0
3 4 5
x
0 5 10 15
Figure 7.20. One-element plane strain model
] = (-2.07107tS - 4. 14214s + 2.5t + 5. -1.03553s2 + 2.5s + 3.53553)

-2.07107ts - 4. 14214s - 2.5t - 5. -1.03553s2 - 2.5s + 3.53553
det] = 5. 17767ts2 + 1O.3553i + 17.6777t + 35.3553
Plane strain C =
40384.6 17307.7
17307.7 40384.6
0
0
1
[ o 0 11538.5
For numerical integration the Gauss quadrature points and weights are as follows:
s Weight
1 -0.774597 -0.774597 0.308642
2 -0.774597 O. 0.493827
3 -0.774597 0.774597 0.308642
4 O. -0.774597 0.493827
5 O. O. 0.790123
6 O. 0.774597 0.493827
7 -0:774597 -0.774597 0.308642
8 0.774597 O. 0.493827
9 0.774597 0.774597 0.308642
Computation of element matrices at {-0.774597, -0.774S97} with weight = 0.308642 is

as follows:
] =( 5.02935 0.977722). det] = 25.4691

-1.09766 4.85071 '
NT = (0.432379 0.354919 -0.1 0.0450807
-0.032379 0.0450807 -0.1 0.354919)
aNT
& =(-1.03095 1.3746 -0.343649 0.2
-0.130948 0.174597 -0.0436492 -0.2)
aNT
at = ( -1.03095 -0.2 -0.0436492 0.174597
-0.130948 0.2 -0.343649 1.3746)
aNT 0.0456156
- = ( -0.24078 0.253178 -0.0673307
ax
-0.0305831 0.0418723 -0.0231237 0.0211513)
a;T = ( -0.164003 -0.0922625 0.00457284 0.0267997

y -0.0208311 0.0327912 -0.0661843 0.279117)
-0.24078 0 -0.164003
0 -0.164003 -0.24078
0.253178 0 -0.0922625
0 -0.0922625 0.253178
-0.0673307 0 0.00457284
0 0.00457284 -0.0673307
0.0456156 0 0.0267997
0 0.0267997 0.0456156
B=
-0.0305831 0 -0.0208311
0 -0.0208311 -0.0305831
0.0418723 0 0.0327912
0 0.0327912 0.0418723
-0.0231237 0 -0.0661843
0 -0.0661843 -0.0231237
0.0211513 0 0.279117
0 0.279117 0.0211513
20844.2 8954.26 -17979.8 -743.723 507a55 851.771 -3885.39 -1556A8 2647.56 1137.34 -3688.39 -1697.07 2752.03 2512.1 -5768.74 -9458.2
8954.26 13797.1 -3634.26 -725.672 1402.49 1232.37 -1603.11 -239l.S1 1137.34 1752.46 -1650.44 -2621.7. 1961.38 3950.82 -6567.66 -14993.9
-17979.8 -3634.26 21120.9 -5296.74 -5449.85 720.964 3442.01 541A03 -2283~74 -461.612 3091. 179.112-1304.67 -2086.26 -635.765 9437.39
-743.723 -725.672 -5296.74 8516.24 950.184 -1680.1 42.8277 262562 -9.{4652 -92.1724 227.405 1.11193 -1229.58 1401.49 6144.09 -7689.46
5078.55 140249 -5449,85 950.184 1441.06 -69.8162 -963.9 -226.58 645.061 178.14 -881.402 -283.018 466.809 596.693 -336.332 -2548.09
851.771 1232.37 120.964 -1680.1 -69.8162 417.829 -135.287 -239.671 108.189 156.532 -174.206 -208.113 389.803 45.1387 -1691.42 276.018
-3885.39 -1603.11 344201 42.8277 -963.9 -135.287 725.704 277.204 -493.51 -203.622 686.061 305.289 -495.734 -466.958 984.766 1783.66
-1556.48 -2391.51 262562 288,345 452223 -358,146 -658.752
k= 2647.56 1137.34
541.403
-2283.14 -94,4652
-226.58
645,061 108.189
-239.671 277.204
-493,51
416.736 -197.699
-197.699 336,284
-303,761
1440461 -4680481 -215.556 349.554
1231.95 246217
319,018 -732726 -1201.35
1131,34 175246 -461.612 -921124 17&14 156.532 -203.622 -303.761 144.461 222592 -209.633 -333. 249.128 501.82 -834.203 -1904.47
-3688.39 -1650.44 3091. 227.405 -8810402 -174,206 686.061 288,345 -468.487 -209.633 654.122 311.344 -504.223 -445.817 1111.32 1653.
-1697,07 -2621.7 779.112 1.11193 -283.018 -208.113 305.289 452223 -215,556 -333. 311.344 500.377 -354.524 -776.787 1154.42 2985.89
2752.03 1961.38 -1304.67 -1229.58 466.809 389.803 -495.734 -358.146 349,554 249.128 -504.223 -354.524 567.054 347.032 -1830.82 -1005.09
2512.1 3950.82 -2086.26 1407.49 596.693 45.1387 -466.958 -658.752 319.078 501.82 -445.811 -776.787 347.032 1439.08 -775.87 -5908.81
-5768.74 -6567.66 -635.765 6144.09 -336.332 -1691.42 984.766 1231.95 -732.126 -834.203 1111.32 115'1,42 -1830.82 -775.87 7208.3 1338,69
-9458.2 -14993.9 9437.39 -7689.46 -2548.09 276.018 1783.66 246217 -1201.35 -1904,47 1653. 2985.89 -1005.09 -5908,81 1338.69 247726
We must perform similar computations at the remaining eight Gauss points. Summing
contributions from all points, we get
36733.5 12876.3 -27675.8 -81.2534 13375.3 6621.25 -25336,9 -10596,2 18861.9 3094.06 -6756,94 862.763 12055.6 4640,68 -21256,5 -17417.6
12876.3 29235.1 -3927.41 -138·n. 758279 13375.3 -10596.2 -13639.6 3094.06 9989.62 862763 -4928,03 3679.14 19081.9 -13571.5 -39273.3
-27675.8 -3927.41 58331.4 -7381.3 -13841. -81.2534 7797.13 11355.9 -19175.3 874.112 -5843.92 -13070.1 -9681.35 874.112 10088.9 11355.9
-81.2534 -13841. -7381.3 58331.4 -3927.41 -27675.8 11355.9 10088.9 874.112 -9681.35 -13070.1 -5843.92 814.112 -19175.3 11355.9 7797.13
13315.3 758279 -13841. -3927.41 29235.1 12816.3 -39273.3 -13571.5 19081.9 3679.14 -4928.03 862163 9989.62 3094.06 -13639.6 -10596.2
6621.25 13375.3 -81.2534 -27675.8 12816.3 36733.5 -17417.6 -21256.5 4640.68 12055.6 862.763 -675~94 3094.06 18861.9 -10596.2 -25336.9
-25336.9 -10596.2 7797.13 11355.9 -39273.3 -17417.6 108701. 20689.5 -62430.1 -7762.13 1719.55 -11355.9 -16853.6 -3516.93 25676. 18603.3
-10596.2 -13639.6 11355.9 10088.9-13571.5 -21256.5 20689.5 5760Q7 -1160&3 -19829.7 -11355.9 -19605.6 -3516.93 -19034.2 18603.3 25676.
k=
18861.9 3094.06 -19175.3 874.112 19081.9 '1640.68 -62430.1 -11608.3 53178.9 -3329.31 -1545.83 11821.3 110628 -1981.59 -19034.2 -3516.93
3094.06 9989.62 814.112. -9681.35 3679.14 12.055.6 -776213 -1982.9.7 -3329.31 19206.8 7981.11 -5950.17 -1020.06 11062.8 -3516.93 -16853.6
-6756.94 862763 -5843.92 -13070.1 -4928.03
862763 1719.55 -11355.9 -1545,83 7981.11 42911. 14248. -5950.17 11827.3 -19605.6 -11355.9
862.763 -4928.03 -13070.1 -5843.92 862763 -6756.94 -11355.9 -19605.6 11827.3 -5950.17 14248. 42911. 7981.11 -1545.83 -11355.9 11l9.55
12055.6 3679.14 -9681.35 874.112 9989.62 3094.06 -16853.6 -351M3 110628 -1020.06 -5950.17 7981.11 19206.8 -3329.31 -19829.7 -776213
4640.68 19081.9 814.112 -19175.3 3094.06 18861.9 -3516.93 -19034.2 -1981.59 110628 11827.3 -1545.83 -3329.31 53178.9 -11608.3 -62430.1
-21256.5 -13571.5 10088.9 11355.9 -13639.6 -10596.2 25676. 18603.3 -19034.2 -3516.93 -19605.6 -11355.9 -19829.7 -11608.3 57600.7 20689.5
-17417.6 -39273,3 11355.9 7797.13 -10596.2 -25336.9 18603.3 25676. -3516.93 -16853.6 -11355.9 1719.55 -7762.13 -62430.1 20689.5 108701.
Computation of element matrices resulting from the NBC is as follows:

NBC on side 1 with q = [-20,0)
1Y[ = ( l;:a + ~(a2 - 1) 1 - a 2 a;1 + ~(a2 - 1) 0 0 0 0,0)
x(a) = -1.03553a2 + 2,5a + 3,53553; yea) = -1.03553a2 - 2.5a + 3.53553

x
dd = 2.5 - 2.07l07a; ddY = -2.07107a - 2,5
a . a
L; = ~(-2.07107a - 2.5)2 + (2.07107a - 2.5)2

Gauss point = -0.774597; Weight = 0.555556; J; = 4.20086
N[ = (0.687298 0.4 -0.0872983 0 0 0 0 0)
r~ = (6.84059 31.3427 3.98115 18.2411 -0.868868 -3.98104 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0)
Gauss point =0.; Weight =0.888889; J c = 3.53553
N[ = (0. 1. O. 0 0 0 0 0)
r~ = (0 0 44.4444 44.4444 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0)
Gauss point = 0.774597; Weight = 0.555556; J, = 4.20086
N[ = (-0.0872983 0.4 0.687298 0 0 0 0 0)
,.~ = (-3.98104 -0.868868 18.2411 3.98115 31.3427 6.84059 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0)
rqT = ( 2.85955 30.4738 66.6667 66.6667 30.4738 2.85955 o o

0 0 0 0·0 0 o 0)
The complete element equations for element 1 are
36733.5 12876,3 -27675.8 -81.2534 13375.3 6621.2.5 -25336.9 -10596.2 18861'.9 3094.06 -6756.94 862.763 12055.6 4640.68 -21256.5 -17417,6 "I 2.85955
12876.3 29235,1 -3927.41 -13841. 7582.79 13375.3 -10596,2 -13639.6 3094,06 9989.62 862.763 -4928,03 3619.14 19081.9 -13571.5 -39273.3 "I 30.4738
-27675.8 -3927.41 58331.4 -7381.3 -13841. -81.2534 7797.13 11355.9 -19175.3 874.112 -5~13,92 -13070.1 -9681.35 874.112 10088.9 11355.9 1/2 66.6667
-81.2534 -13841. -7381.3 58331.4 -3927.41 -27675.8 11355,9 10088.9 874.112 -9681.35 -13070.1 -5843.92 874,112 -19175.3 11355.9 7791.13 '2 66,6667
13375.3 7582.79 -13841. -3927.41 29235.1 12876.3 -39273.3 -13571.5 19081.9 3679.14 -4928.03 862763 9989.62 3094.06 -13639,6 -10596.2 "3 30.4738
6621.25 13375.3 -81.2534 -27675.8 12876.3 36733.5 -17417.6 -21256.5 4640.68 12055,6 862.763 -6756,94 3094.06 18861.9 -10596.2 -25336.9 ,~ 2.85955
-25336,9 -10596.2 7797.13 11355.9 -39273.3 -17417.6 108701. 20689.5 -62430.1 -7762.13 1719,55 -11355.9 -16853.6 -3516.93 25676. 18603.3 "'1 0,
-10596.2 -13639.6 11355,9 10088.9 -13571.5 -21256.5 20689.5 57600.7 -11608.3 :-19829.7 -11355.9 -19605,6 -3516.93 -19034.2 18603.3 25676, '4 0,
18861.9 3094.06 -19175.3 874.112 19081.9 4640,68 -62430.1 -11608.3 53178,9 -3329.31 -1545.83 11827.3 110628 -1981.59 -19034.2 -3516.93 "5 O.
3094,06 9989,62 874.112 -9681.35 3679,14 12055.6 -7762.13 -19829.7 -3329.31 19206.8 7981.11 -5950,17 -1020.06 11062.8 -3516.93 -16853.6 '5 0,
-6756,94 862763 -5843.92 -13070.1 -4928.03 862763 1719.55 -11355,9 ' -1545,83 7981.11 42911. 14248. -5950.17 11827.3 -19605.6 -11355.9 "6 0.
862.763 -4928.03 -13070.1 -5843.92 862763 -6756,94 -11355.9 -19605,6 11827.3 -5950,17 14248. 4291!. 7981.11 -1545.83 -11355.9 1719.55 '6 0,
12055.6 3679,14 -9681.35 874.112 9989.62 3094.06 -16853,6 -3516.93 11062.8 '':'1020.06 -5950.17 7981.11 19206,8 -3329.31 -19829.7 -7762.13 ''7 n
4640.68 19081.9 874.112 -19175.3 3094,06 18861.9 -3516.93 -19034.2 -1981.59 11062.8 11827.3 -1545,83 -3329.31 53178.9 -11608.3 -62430.1 '7 0,
-21256.5 -13571.5 10088.9 11355.9 -13639.6 -10596.2 25676. 18603.3 -19034.2 -3516.93 -19605.6 -11355.9 -19829.7 -11608.3 57600.7 20689.5 "8 0,
-17417.6 -39273.3 11355.9 7797.13 -10596.2 -25336.9 18603.3 25676. -3516.93 -.16853.6 -11355.9 1719.55 -7762.13 -62430.1 20689.5 10870!. '8 0,
Since there is only one element, the global equations are the same as the element equations:
Node dof Value

1 ul 0
3 v3 0
4 v4 0
5 V s 0
7 u7 0
8 uB 0
Remove (1,6, 8, 10, 13, 15) rows and columns.

29235.1 -3927.41 -13841. 7582.79 ~10596.2 3094.06 862.763 -4928,03 19081.9 -39273.3 v, 30,4738
-3927.41 58331.4 -7381.3 -13841. 7797,13 -19175.3 -5843.92 -13070.1 874.112 11355.9 "2 66.6667
-13841. -7381.3 58331.4 -3927.41 11355.9 874.112 -13070.1 -5843.92 -19175.3 7797.13 v2 66.6667
7582.79 -13841. -3927.41 29235.1 -39273.3 19081.9 -4928.03 862.763 3094.06 -10596.2 "3 30.4738
-10596.2 7797.13 11355.9 -39273.3 108701. -62430.1 1719.55 -11355.9 -3516.93 18603.3 "4 o
3094.06 -19175.3 874.112 19081.9 -62430.1 53178.9 -1545,83 11827.3 -1981.59 -3516.93 "5 o
862.763 -5843.92 -13070.1 -4928,03 1719.55 -1545.83 42911. 14248. 11827,3 -11355.9 "6 o
-4928.03 -13070,1 -5843.92 862,763 -11355.9 11827.3 14248. 42911. -1545.83 1719.55 v6 o
19081.9 874,112 -19175.3 3094.06 -3516,93 -1981.59 11827.3 -1545.83 53178.9 -62430, I v7 o
-39273.3 11355.9 7797,13 -10596.2 18603.3 -3516.93 -11355,9 1719.55 -62430,1 108701. V8 o
(VI = 0.00494694, u2 = 0.0033909, "z = 0.0033909, u3 = 0.00494694, u4 = 0.00271213,

Us = 0.00225656, u6 = 0.00152523, v6 = 0.00152523, v 7 = 0.00225656, VB = 0.00271213)
The element solution is as follows:
dT = (0 0.00494694 0.0033909/ 0.0033909 0.00494694 0 0.00271213 0

0.00225656 0 0.00152523 0.00152523 0 0.00225656 0 0.00271213)
Element solution at Is, tj = {O, OJ ===? [z, yj = {7.07107, 7.07107}
4,
NT = (-~' -~' -~' -~' 4, 4, 4}
Displacements =NTd = {0.00201325, 0.00201325}
J =( 5. 3.53553); detJ = 35.3553

-5. 3.53553
a: = (0 0 0 4 0 0 0 -4)
aNT
at
= (0 -2
I 0 0 0 I
2
0 0)
aNT = (0 -0.0707107 0 0.05 0 0.0707107 0 -0.05)

ax
aNT = (0 -0.0707107 0 -0.05 0 0.0707107 0 0.05)
ay
PLANAR FINITEELEMENTMODELS 523
0 0 -0.0707107 0 0 0 0.05 0 0 0 0.0707107 0 0 0 -0.05 0 )

BT =( 0 0 0 -0.0707107 0 0 0 -0.05 0 0 0 0.0707107 0 0 0 0.05
o 0 -0.0707107 -0.0707107 0 0 -0.05 0.05 0 0 0.0707107 0.0707107 0 0 0.05 -0.05
In-plane strain components, e = BTd = (3.6836 X 10- 6 3.6836 X 10- 6 -0.000535058)
In-plane stress components, (J' =Ce = (0.212515 0.212515 -6.17375)
e T = (3.6836 x'1O- 6 3.6836 x 10- 6 0 -0.000535058 0 0)
(J'T = (0.212515 0.212515 0.127509 -6.17375 0 0)
Principal stresses = (6.38626 0.127509 -5.96123)
The exact solution corresponding to the element centroid is
At r = 5: a; = 8.125 ksi; 0;. = 15 ksi
We clearly need a finer mesh to get a better solution.
Example 7.10 ANSYS Solution The problem is solved using an eight-node quadrilat-
eral element (Plane82) in ANSYS (AnsysFiles\Chap7\cylinderFine.inp on the book web
site) with a 10 x 10 mapped mesh. In the resulting mesh the element size gradually in-
creases with the radius, as shown in Figure 7.21. From the element solution the first prin-
cipal stress plot is shown in the figure. The stress ranges from around 5 ksi on the outside
to about 25 ksi on the inside. These values are almost identical to the exact solution.
J\I\!I.'
ELEMENT SOLOTION"
AUG 20 2003
STEP=l 12;08:05
SUB =1
TIMB=l
51 (NOA
ct-1K. =.005092
SMN =5.008
SMK. =25. 006
.,."."<0,"1''''''''=',:'';''-'-'
5.008 9.452 13.896 18.34
7.23 11.674 16.118 20.562 22.784 25.006
Figure 7.21. Plot of first principal stress

Figure 7.22. Rotating disk
7.5.2 Rotating Disks and Flywheels

Disks and flywheels are common components of rotating machines. Stresses are generated
in these machine parts due to inertia forces that depend on the angular velocity and mass.
Consider a disk of uniform thickness, shown in Figure 7.22, that is rotating at a constant
angular velocity of w rad/s. The inertia force is given by mrio", where m is the mass den-
sity per unit volume and r is the radial distance from the center of the disk. Treating this
centrifugal force as the body force in the radial direction, a plane stress model of the disk
can be used to determine stresses in the disk. The body force components in the x and y
directions are as follows:
and
These forces are not constant over an element. For a simplified analysis we can assign
constant values for each element by using the values of these forces at element centroids.
For a more accurate analysis we can use these expressions directly and carry out integration
to get the equivalent body force. This/latter procedure is used in the numerical example
presented in this section.
For thin disks, the following analytical solution is available:
__ mw2R2((v+ 1)...!.
u(r) = E-rv+3 (R.)2 1-V
- -
2(r)2 + ((R.)2)
- - + 1 (I-v) ) ...!..
8 0 r v+3 R R o o
O"r(r)
v+3
=- Ro - (R;)2
8 mw22( -;: -
(r)2
R; + (R;)2
R + 1)
o
v+3
a:(r) = -mw2R 2((R;)2
- + (R;)2
- - -3v+ 1( -r)2 + 1)
t 8 0 r Ro v + 3 Ro
where u is the radial displacement, O"r is the radial stress, a; is the tangential stress, R, is
the inner radius (radius of the shaft), Ro is the outer radius, E is the modulus of elasticity,
and v is Poisson's ratio.
For disks with variable thickness and spoked flywheels, analytical solutions are not
available. However, plane stress finite element models can be used effectively to determine
stresses in these situations.
PLANAR FINITE ELEMENT MODELS 525
y
9
° 3 4 5
x
3 6 9
°
Figure 7.23. One-element plane stress model of rotating disk
Example 7.11 Analysis of a Rotating Disk As a numerical example, consider a l-in-

thick disk with inner radius 3 in and outer radius 9 in. The disk is rotating at 5000 rpm
(revolutions per minute). The material properties are density = 0.283Ib/in 3 , E = 30 X
106 psi, and v = 0.3. The centrifugal force is
3
mrw 2 = ( 0.283 Ib/ in2 ) r(5000 x 2Jr/60s)2
. . 3
= 200.792r1b/m
386.4in/s
To show all calculations, only a single eight-node element is used, as shown in Figure 7.23.
Because of symmetry, the following boundary conditions are imposed:
At nodes 3,4, 5: y displacement = 0

At nodes 7, 8, 1: x displacement =0
The following Mathematiea functions are created to perform computations for the eight-
node quadrilateral element. The inertia force components in the x and y directions are
bx = 171XW2 and by = myw 2 • Since these terms are not constant, for establishing a body
force vector, they are kept with the interpolation functions and are integrated by evaluating
them at the Gauss points.
Needs["NumericalMath'GaussianQuadrature "I;
PlaneQuad8Element[type., e., nu., h., (0:., Llt.), [m., 1'1.), nodas] :=
Module[{c, eO, sloc, swts, tloc, twts, gpLocs, gpWts, n, s, t, dns, dnt, xst, yst,
J, npt, Jpt, dnsPt, dntPt, detJ, k, r, dnx, dny, BT, B, Npt, xn, yn, bx, by,
bxpt,bypt}, .
[xn, yn) = Transpose[nodes];
Switch[type,
PlaneStress,
eO = (0: Llt, 0: Llt, OJ;
A2)((1,
e e/(1 - nu nu, OJ, (nu, 1, OJ, (0, 0, (1 - nu)/211,
PlaneStrain,
eO = (1 + nu)(a lit, a lit, OJ;
e = e/«1 + nu)(1 :- 2nu»((1 - nu, nu, OJ, (nu, 1 - nu, OJ, (0, 0, (1 - 2nu)/2)}
];
(sloe, swts) = Transpose[GaussianQuadratureWeights[3, -1,1]];
(tloe, twts) = Transpose[GaussianQuadratureWeights[3, -1, 1]];
gpLoes = Flatten[Outer[List, sloe, tloe], 1];
gpWts = Flatten[Outer[Times, swts, twts], 1];
n = ((1 - s) * (1 - t»/4 - «1 - sA2) * (1 - t»/4 - «1 - s) * (1 - t
A2»/4,
«1 - sA2) * (1 - t»/2, .
«1 + s) * (1- t»/4 - «1 - sA2) * (1 - t»/4 - «1 + s) * (1 - t
A2»/4,
«1 + s) * (1 - t
A2»/2,
«1 + s) * (1 + t»/4 - «1 - sA2) * (1 + t»/4- «1 + s) 'r. (1 - t

A2»/4,
«1 - sA2) * (1 + t»/2,
«1 - s) * (1 + t»/4 - «1 - sA2) * (1 + t»/4 - «1 - s) * (1 - t
A2»/4,
A2»/2j;
«1 - s) * (1 - t
[dns, dnt) = [D]n,s], D[n, t]);
xst n.xn; yst = n.yn;
bx =m * xst * (r2; by =m* yst * ("t2;
J = ((D[xst, s], D[xst, t]), (D[yst, s], D[yst, t])};
k = Table[O, (16), (16)];
r = Table[O, (16)];
Do[pt = [s --t gpLoes[[i, 1]], t --t gpLoes[[i, 2]]};
w = gpWts[[i]];
(npt, Jpt, dnsPt, dntPt, bxpt, bypt) = [n, J, dns, dnt, bx, by}l.pt;
Npt = Transpose[(Flatten[Table[(npt[[i]], OJ, (i, 1, 8)]],
Flatten[Table[(O, npt[(i]]},'(i, 1, 8)]]}]; ,
detJ = det[Jpt];
dnx = (Jpt[[2, 2]] dnsPt - Jpt[[2, 1]] dntPt)/detJ;
dny = (-Jpt[[1, 2]] dnsPt + Jpt[[1, 1]] dntPt)/detJ;
BT = (Flatten[Table[(dnx[[i]], OJ, (i, 1,8)]],
Flatten[Table[(O, dny[[i]]), (i, 1, 8}]],
Flatten[Table[(dny[[i]], dnx[[i]]), (i, 1,8)]]};
B = Transpose[BT];
k+ = hdetJwB.e.BT;
r+ =hdetJwNpt.(bxpt, bypt) + hdetJwB.e.eO,
(i, 1, Length[gpWts])
]; [k, r)
PlaneQuad8LoadTerm[side_, qn., qt, h., nodes.] :=

Module[(r, pts, wts, n, s, t, a, xa, ya, Je, Jept, nx, ny, qx, qy, Npt, xn, yn,
qxpt, qypt),
(xn, yn) = Transpose[nodes];
PLANARFINITE ELEMENT MODELS 527
r = Table[O, {16}];
(pts, wts) = Transpose[GaussianQuadratureWeights[3, -1, 1]];
n = {((1 - s) * (1 - t))/4 - ((1 - s~2) * (1 - t))/4 - ((1 - s) * (1 - t~2))l4,
((1 - s'2) * (1 - t))/2,
((1 + s) * (1 - t))/4 - ((1 - s~2) * (1 - t))/4 - ((1 + s) ,;. (1 - t~2))/4,
((1 + s) * (1 - t~2))/2,
((1 + s) * (1 + t))/4 ((1 - s~2) * (1 + t))/4 - ((1 + s) * (1 - t~2))/4,
((1 - s~2) * (1 + t))/2,
((1 - s) * (1 + t))/4 - ((1 - s~2) * (1 + t))/4 - ((1- s) * (1 - t~2))/4,
((1 - s) * (1 - t~2»)/2);
n = Switeh[side, 1, n/.{s --) a, t --) -1},
2, n/.{s --) 1, t --) a),
3,.n/.{s --) -a, t --) 1),
4, n/.{s --) -1, t --) -a)
];
xa =n.xn;
ya = n.yn;
Je = Sqrt[D[xa, ap + D[ya, ap];
nx = D[ya, a]/Je;ny = -D[xa, a]/Je;
qx = nx qn - ny qt; qy = nyqn + nxqt;
Do[{npt, Jept, qxpt, qypt) = [n, Jc, qx, qy)l.a --) pts[[i]];
Npt = Transpose[{Flatten[Table[{npt[[i]], 0), (i, 1,8)]],
Flatten[Table[{O, npt[[i]]), (i, 1,8}]])];
r+ = hoi' Jept * wts[[i]]Npt.{qxpt, qypt),
(i, 1, Length[pts])
];
r
];
ClearAll[PlaneQuad8Results];
PlaneQuad8Results[type_, e_, nu., {(1''''; Llt_}, nodes., d.] :=
Module[{pt, n, dns, dnt.-bx, by, xst, yst, J, npt, Jpt, dnsPt, dntPt, detJ, Lee,
c, s, t, xn, yn),
[xn, yn) = Transpose[nodes];
pt = (s --) 0, t --) OJ;
Switeh[type,
PlaneStress,
eO = {(1' Llt,(1' Llt, 0);
e = e/(1 - nu~2){{1, nu, 0), [nu, 1,0), {O, 0, (1 - nu)/2)),
PlaneStrain,
eO = (1 + nu){(1' Llt,(1' Llt, 0);
e = e/((1 + nu)(1 - 2nu)){{1 - nu, nu, 0), [nu, 1 - nu, 0), {O, 0, (1 - 2nu)/2))
]; .
n = {((1 - s) *.(1 - t))/4 - ((1 - s~2) * (1 - t))/4 - ((1- s) * (1 - t~2))/4,
((1 - s~2) * (1 - t))/2,
A2))/4,
((1 + s) * (1 - t))/4 - ((1 - sA2) * (1 - t))/4 - ((1 + s) * (1- t
((1 + s) * (1 - t 2))/ 2,
A
A2))/4,
((1 + s) * (1 + t))/4 - ((1 - sA2) * (1 + t))/4 - ((1 + s) * (1 - t
((1 - sA2) * (1 + t))/2,
A2))/4,
((1 - s) * (1 + t))/4 - ((1 - sA2) * (1 + t))/4 - ((1 - s) * (1 - t
((1 - s) * (1 - t 2))/ 2);
A
[dns, dnt) = [D[n, s], D]n, t]);

xst = n.xn;
yst = n.yn;
J = ({O[xst, s], O[xst, t)), [D[ys t. s], O[yst, t]JJ;
floc, npt, Jpt, dnsPt,dntPt} = ({xst, yst), n, J, dns, dnt)!.pt;
detJ =Oet[Jpt];
d.nx = (Jpt[[2, 2]] dnsPt - Jpt[[2, 1]] diJ.tPt)/detJ;
dny = (-Jpt[[1, 2]] dnsPt + Jpt[[1, 1]] dntPt)/detJ;
Npt =Transpose[{Flatten[Table[{npt[[i]], 0), [L, 1,8)]],
Flatten[Table[{O, npt[[i]]J, Ii, 1, 8J]]}];
BT = {Flatten[Table[{dnx[[i]], OJ, Ii, 1,8)]],
Flatten[Table[{O, dny[[i]]J, [t, 1,8)]],
Flatten[Table[{dny[[i]], dnx[[i]]J, [L, 1, 8J]]};
eps = BT.d;
[sx, sy, sxy} = c.(eps - eO);
floc, eps, [sx, sy, sxy),
Eigenvalues[{{sx, sxy), (sxy, sylJ],
A2 A2 A2]/Sqrt[2))
Sqrt[(sx - syr2 + sy + sx + 6sxy
Using these functions the numerical solution (in k-inch units) is obtained as follows:
e = 30000;nu = 0.3;h = 1; !
m = 0.283/386.411000; Q = 5000 * 2 * 71/60;
nodes = ({O, 3), (3/Sqrt[2], 3/Sqrt[2)), {3, OJ, (6,0), (g, 0),
(9/Sqrt[2], g/Sqrt[2)), (0,9), (0,6));
(K, R) = PlaneQuad8Element[PlaneStress, e, Y, h, (O, 0), [m, Q), nodes];
debc(1, 6, 8, 10, 13, 15);
ebcVals = Table[O, (6)]; .
df = Complement[Range[16], debe];
Kf =K[[df, df]];
Rf = R[[df]] - K[[df, debc]].ebcVals;
as follows:
dfVals =LinearSolve[Kf, Rf]
(0.00130927,0.000933985,0.000933985, 0.00130927,0.00128101,
0.00126707,0.000901416,0.000901416, 0.00126707, 0.00128101)
The complete vector of nodal values, in the original order established by the node num-
bering, is obtained by combining these values with those specified as essential boundary
d = Table[O, (16)];
d[[debc]] = ebcVals;
d[[df]] = dfVals;
Partition[d,2]
o 0.00130927
0.000933985 0.000933985
0.00130927 o
0.00128101 o
0.00126707 0,
0.000901416 0.000901416
o 0.00126707
o 0.00128101
Using these lists, the reactions can be calculated by the following expression:
reactions = K[[debc]].d - R[[debc]]
{-12.7742, -12.7742, -29.5583, -3.84672, -3.84672, -29.5583}
Finally, using the PlaneQuad8Results function, the strain and stress components, principal
stresses, and equivalent von Mises stress for each element can be computed as follows:
PlaneQuad8Results[PlaneStress, e, nu, {O, OJ, nodes, d]
{{3-v'2, 3-v'2}, {0.000102913, 0.000102913, -0.000221179},

{4.41054, 4.41054, -2.55206}, 16.96261, 1.85848}, 6.24435}
Example 7.12 ANSYS Solution The problem is solved using an eight-node quadrilat-
eral element (Plane82) in ANSYS (AnsysFiles\Chap7\diskFine.inp on the book web site)
with a 10 x 10 mapped mesh. The model is developed in ANSYS using usual steps (see
Appendix A). In the resulting mesh the element size gradually increases with the radius
as shown in Figure 7.24. In order to compute the inertia forces due to rotation of the disk,
mass density must be entered as a material property. The angular velocity is specified in
terms of its components in the global coordinate systemin the section where the loads are
defined. (The complete menu path is Solution> Define loads> Apply> Structural> Other>
Angular velocity). For this plane stress idealization the rotation vector points in the global
z direction. Thus angular velocity is entered as the z component in rad/s. From the el-
ement solution the first principal stress plot is shown in the figure. Using the analytical
expressions, we get the following maximum stress:
Analytical solution at r = 3 in: Oi,mnx =; 13.7342 ksi
The finite 'element solution clearly compares very well with the analytical solution.
.l AN,
ELEMe~lT SOLUTION
AUG 21 2003
STEP""l 12:23:47
sua =>1
TIME=1
Sl (NOAV
DUX =.001373
SMN =4.355
SM)( =13.789
{
r!~
~;':¢:~'J:!~~:f!:'
4.355 6.452 8.548 10.645 12.741
5.404 7.5 9.596 11.693 13. 789
Figure 7.24. Plot of first principal stress in rotating disk
7.5.3 Residual Stresses due to Welding

During the welding process the weld material is melted at high temperature and is deposited
at the location of a joint. As the weld bead cools, it generates large residual stresses in the
parts that are welded together. Finite element analysis is an effective tool to quantify these
stresses. As a simple illustration, consider a typical lap joint between two tension plates
as shown in Figure 7.25. Assuming that the plates are wide in the plane perpendicular
to the paper, a plane strain finite element model can be created to determine the residual
stresses. We can also take advantage of.the skew symmetry of the lap joint. This symmetry is
recognized by the fact that, if the figure is rotated through 180° about the axis of symmetry,
the original shape is recovered. All points along the axis of symmetry in this case have zero
x and y displacements.
As a specific numerical example we consider the following data:
Steel plates: ! x 10 in; Overlap = 4 in; E = 29 X 103 ksi; v= 0.3

Weld material: Weld size = ~ in; E =25 X 103 ksi; V =0.3
The weld bead is deposited at a temperature of 2000°F. Prior to welding the plates were
heated to 120°F. We are interested in determining residual stresses when the assembly
cools to the room temperature of 70°F. The coefficient of thermal expansion of both the
steel plate and the weld material is 7 x 10- 6rF.
Figure 7.25. Welded lap joint

PLANARFINITEELEMENTMODELS 531
x
o 2 2.5 8
Figure 7.26. Finiteelementmodelof half of the assembly
I\l\I
Ar~ :l JUU.'
nn'\ 1:,:1';:
;QE_l
':'l1l~'1
seev WO.Wt/1
~~ :i~~~~~t
llll '&I,I.H~
Figure7.27. Computed vonMises stresses with a closeup of the weldregion
Half of the assembly is modeled in ANSYS by creating three areas as shown in Figure
7.26. All nodes on the left end are fixed. The areas 1 and 2 are assigned a reference tem-
perature of 120°F and steel plate material properties. Area 3 is the weld material with a
reference temperature of 2000°F. The temperature loading consists of the entire assembly
having a temperature of 70°F.
A plane strain finite element model is constructed in ANSYS using Plane42 element
(AnsysFiles\Chap7\weld.inp on the book web site). Fine mesh is created around the weld
region to capture high stress gradients in this region. The resulting von Mises stresses are
shown in Figure 7.27. .
The analysis shows very high stresses in the weld region. Clearly, there will be some
local yielding in the weld region which is not captured by this linear elastic analysis. This
shows a need for a better model that takes into account material yielding. Another key lim-
itation of the model is the assumed temperature distribution. The entire plate is assumed to
be at 120°F at the time of welding. During the welding process the temperature of the plate
in the vicinity of the weld is obviously much higher than this. Thus, for a more realistic
analysis, first a thermal analysis should be carried out to determine the correct temperature
distribution in the assembly just after welding. This temperature distribution becomes the
reference temperature and the thermal loading is then cooling of various elements from the
computed temperatures to room temperature.
7.5.4 Crack Tip Singularity

In fracture mechanics applications one is interested in accurately capturing high stress
concentrations near a crack tip. Consider a typical situation of a thin plate with an edge
crack as shown in Figure 7.28. Two sets of nodes are created along the crack length. To
-'-r
1 2 3
Figure 7.28. Finite element model of a thin plate with an edge crack and a typical quarter-point
element '
allow the crack to open, the elements on different sides of the crack must be connected to
different nodes. It is. well known that near the crack tip stresses are proportional to 1I-{r,
where r is the radial distance from the tip of the crack. To capture this stress singularity, we
must use higher order elements such as the eight-node quadrilateral or six-node triangles. A
judicial placement of sidenodes for the elements around the crack tip allows these elements
to capture the stress singularity without having to use a large number of elements.
For normal applications it is best to place the side nodes at the middle points of the
sides. However, it turns out that, if the side nodes are placed at quarter-points, then the
excessive distortion introduced in the element as a result of mapping produces a beneficial
result of giving a singular stress field that is proportional to 11-{r with r measured from
the corner node closest to the quarter-point node. This is precisely the behavior of stresses
around a crack tip.
To see this behavior clearly, consider the one-dimensional situation along side 1-2-3 of
the quarter-point element shown in the ,figure. With r measured from node 1 the coordinates
of the nodes are (0, a/4, a). Multiplying these by quadratic Lagrange interpolations, the
mapping for this side is
r =0 (4cs - l)s) + ~(-(s - l)(s + 1)) + a (4s(s + 1)) = !a(s + 1)2

Using the same interpolation functions, the horizontal displacement for this side is
£I = £II (!(s -l)s) + u2(-(s -l)(s + 1)) + £13 (!s(s + 1)) .

'= !((s - l)su l - 2(s - l)(s + 1)£12 + s(s + 1)£13)
The axial strain is the derivative of this displacement with respect to r. Evaluating this
derivative using the chain rule, we have
(2s - l)u[ - 4su2 + (2s + 1)u3

-du
ds
du dr
=- -
dr ds
du
==:;. -
dr
du/ds
=- -
drlds
= -'-----'--'--,--!':..,.,--'-----'--"-
a(s + 1)
By inverting the mapping, we can express this strain in terms of r as follows:

PROBLEMS 533
Figure 7.29. Finite element mesh around crack tip using triangular quarter-point elements
This expression clearly shows that the strain is proportional to 1/ {T. Since the stress is
proportional to strain, it follows that the stress distribution near the cracletip is proportional
to the square root of the distance from the crack tip. Hence, defining the side node at
the quarter point of the side captures the desired stress singularity. Thus, for analyzing
fracture mechanics applications, we use the standard elements with the finite element mesh
as shown in Figure 7.28. There is no need to create specialized elements or to refine the
mesh excessively.
Elements with side nodes at quarter points are sometimes referred to as singularityele-
ments. However, it should be clear-from the discussion here that they are standard quadratic
elements except that the side nodes are placed at quarter points instead of near the middle.
Numerical experiments suggest even better performance with quarter-point triangular ele-
ments constructed by collapsing one side of an eight-node quadrilateral element. A typical
mesh around a crack tip using these elements is as shown in Figure 7.29. It is recom-
mended to have elements every 3D' to 40' in the circumferential direction. The radius of
the first row of elements around the cracle tip should be approximately one-eighth of the
craclelength.
PROBLEMS
Fundamental Concepts in Elasticity

7.1 Stresses at a point on planes perpendicular to the coordinate directions are given as
follows:
0;, = 100; a;, = -30; at = -10;

T:<y = 0; T yZ = 50; Tzx = -50MPa
(a) Compute the stress vector, normal stress, and shear stress on a plane whose
equation is
x+2y-2z =-4
(b) Compute principal stresses and unit normals for principal planes.
(c) If the yield stress of the material is 250 MPa, compute the factors of safety
based on the maximum shear stress and the von Mises failure criteria.
7.2 Cartesian stress components at a point are given as follows:
0:, = -100; = 30;

OJ, iTz = 10;
T.>:)' = 10; T
Ye
= 50; Tz.< = -50MPa
(a) Compute the stress vector, normal stress, and shear stress on a plane whose
unit normal is
n T = (0.15l99, -0.721676, -0.675339)
(b) Compute principal stresses and unit normals for principal planes.
(c) If the yield stress of the material is 200 MPa, compute the factors of safety
based on the maximum shear stress and the von Mises failure criteria.
7.3 A rectangular elastic solid with dimensions a x b x c is simply supported along the
three sides attached to the coordinate lines and is subjected to uniform pressure p
along the remaining three sides, as shown in Figure 7.30. (Note that the loading
is not concentrated but is applied uniformly over each face.) Thus the boundary
conditions on all six sides of the solid are as follows:
On xy plane at z = 0: w(x, y, 0) =0; qxCx, y, 0) =q/x, y, 0) =0

On xy plane at Z = c: q.,(x, y, c) =q/x, y, c) =0; qz(x, y, c) = -p
On xz plane at y = 0: vex, 0, z) = 0; qxCx, 0, z) = qz(x, 0, z) = 0
x
p y
Figure 7.30.
PROBLEMS 535
On xz plane at y = b: . qxCx, b, z) = qz(x, b, z) = 0; q/x, b, z) =-p
On yz plane at x =0: u(O, y, z) =0; q/a, y, z) =qz<a, y, z) = 0

On yz plane at x = a: q/a, y, z) = qz(a, y, z) = 0; qxCa, y, z) = -p
Show that the following displacements satisfy the governing differential equations
and all boundary conditions and hence represent the exact solution of the problem:
u(x, y, z) = -(l-2V)~X; w(x,y,z) = -(1-2V)~Z

where E = Young's modulus and v= Poisson's ratio.
7.4 A cylindrical shaft of diameter 30 mm is subjected to an axial force o~F = 10 kN, a
bending moment of M = 170 N . m, and a torque T = 220 N . m. The shaft is made
of steel that has a yield stress (]"/ = 300MPa. Determine the factor of safety against
yielding using von Mises theory. Note the following relationships for stresses in
shafts from the elementary mechanics of deformable bodies:
F Mr Tr
Axial stress = A + T; Shear stress =J
where r is the radius of the shaft, A is its area of cross section, 1 is the moment of
inertia, and J is the torsional constant which is equal to the polar moment of inertia
for a circular section.
Plane Stress and Plane Str~in
7.5 A triangular cantilever plate 30 mm long, 20 mm high, and 10 mm thick is loaded

as shown in Figure 7.31. Use only one triangular element to determine the factor of
safety against stress failure (von Mises criterion). Use the following numerical data:
E = 70 GPa; v = 0.3; p = 100MPa; Yield stress = 350 MPa
Figure 7.31.
7.6 You are asked to determine stresses in a thin triangular plate that is subjected to a
temperature rise of 40°C. The plate is modeled with only one triangular element, as
shown in Figure 7.32. The height of the plate is 50 mm and the base width is 30 mm.
Other numerical data are as follows.
Thickness = I mm; E = 30,000N/mm2 ; V -- 1·

4'
Figure 7.32.
7.7 Determine stresses in the cantilever plate shown in Figure 7.33 due to a temperature
rise of 100°C. The plate is 5 mm thick, 50 mm long, 20 mm wide at the base, and
10 mm wide at the tip. Use the following material properties:
E =70 GPa; v = 0.3; (l' = 23 x 1O-6/ oC
Consider a very coarse mesh/~ith only two triangular elements as shown. Use
N . mm units. Report displacements and effective stresses at element centroids.
10
o
-----------~x
o 50
Figure 7.33.
7.8 The long diamond-shaped steel tube shown in Figure 7.34 is subjected to an internal
pressure p. Compute displacements and principal stresses. Since the tube is long, .
we can take a unit slice and model it as a plane strain problem. Thus we need to
PROBLEMS 537
create a finite element model of the planar cross section with thickness = 1. Use the
following numerical values.
E = 200 GPa; v = 0.3; Wall thickness = 15 mm;
d = 100mm; p= IMPa
p
T
d
1
Figure 7.34.
Take advantage of symmetry and model one-quarter of the region using only a single
four-node element, as shown in Figure 7.35.
Figure 7.35.
7.9 A long steel pipe, shown in Figure 7.36, with outside diameter d and wall thickness t
is subjected to an internal pressure p. Compute displacements and principal stresses.
Use the following numerical values:
E = 30 X 106 psi; v = 0.3; t=12in; d = 120iri; p = 5000 psi
Figure 7.36.
X
345
Since the cylinder is long, we can take a unit slice and model it as a plane strain
problem. Thus we need to create a finite element model of the planar region shown
in Figure 7.37. We can further take advantage of symmetry and model one-quarter
of the region. To show all calculations, only a single eight-node element is used, as
shown in Figure 7.38.
Computational Projects
7.10 Determine stresses in the bolted bracket shown in Figure 7.39. Material properties
are E = 29000 ksi and v = 0.3.
50k
12
10
8
6
4
2
o
o 5 10 15 20
Figure 7.39. Bolted steel bracket
Modeling question: To include bolt holes in the model or not? The answer de-
pends on the goal of the analysis. A reasonably accurate stress picture in the plate
can be obtained by ignoring the bolt holes and simply constraining the bolt centers
in the model. To get a more accurate stress distribution in the vicinity of the bolt
holes, one must consider the bolt holes in the model.
7.11 The cross section of a concrete darn is shown in Figure 7.40. Using a planar finite
element model, determine stresses in the dam due to self-weight of the dam and the
water pressure. The depth of water behind the dam is 18 m. The density of concrete
PROBLEMS 539
is 2400 kg/rrr' and that of water is 1000 kg/m'' . The modulus of elasticity of concrete
is 30GPa and Poisson's ratio is 0.15.
Figure 7.40. Concrete dam
7.12 The side view of a pry bar is shown in Figure 7.41. The cross section of the bar
!
is rectangular with thickness = in and width (perpendicular to the plane of
paper) = 1.2in. The other dimensions (in inches) are shown in the figure. The
material properties are E = 29 X 106 psi and Y = 0.3. A load of P = 200 lb is applied
at the center of the handle. Using a plane stress model, determine the maximum
deflection and von Mises stress in the bar. To avoid stress concentration, assume the
load to be uniformly distributed over a 3-in length.
Figure 7.41. Pry bar
7.13 The shear wall shown in Figure 7.42 is subjected to a horizontal pressure p =
50 leN/m. The dimensions in meters are shown in the figure. The arches have a
radius of 0.5 m. The thickness of the wall is 0.25 m and the material properties are
E = 21 X 106 kN/m2 and y = 0.15. Using a plane stress model, determine the
maximum deflection and von Mises stress in the wall.
7.8
6.4
--
--
--
4.4
2.8
--
--
P
0.8
0
--
--
-1.5 0 1.5
Figure 7.42. Shear wall

7.14 A concrete frame with in-filled masonry wall is shown in Figure 7.43. The dimen-
sions in meters are shown in the figure. The beams and columns are 0.3 m thick and
the wall is 0.15 m thick. The material properties of concrete are E = 21 x 106l~/m2
and v = 0.15 and that of the masonry are E = 10 x 106l~/m2 and v = 0.15. The
horizontal load varies linearly from 0 at the top to 10 l~/m at the bottom. The dis-
tributed load on the beams is 2kN/m. Using a plane stress model, determine the
maximum deflection and von Mises stress.
q
-4 -10 1 4
Figure 7.43. Frame with in-fill wall
7.15 Consider an aluminum machine part, as shown in Figure 7.44. A load of 1000lb is
applied near the tip. The other end can be considered fixed. The material properties
are E = 10.6 X 106 psi and v = 0.35.
(a) Frame model-hand calculations: From the geometry, loading, and support
conditions, it is clear that the structure is basically a cantilever beam. Thus a
very simple frame model of the part can be constructed by using the center
line dimensions, as shown by the solid line in Figure 7.45. Determine the
maximum stress using this model.
(b) Analyze the problem as a plane stress model. To avoid stress concentration
due to point load, assume the load to be applied over a length of 1 in.
PROBLEMS 541
10001b
5
4 (" i\(~': j
3
2
o
o 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 7.44. Machine part
Ib
5
4
3
2
1
o
o 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 7.45.
7.16 A cast iron flywheel with spokes and rim is shown in Figure 7.46. The flywheel
operates at speeds up to n = 4500 rpm. The cast iron weighs 0.2561b/in3 and has an
ultimate strength of 22,000 Ib/irr'. Young's modulus is 30x 106lb/in2 and Poisson's
ratio is 0.3. The goal is to determine the factor of safety against stress failure. The
dimensions of the flywheel can easily be seen from Figure 7.47, which shows the
front view without fillets and a sectional view:
Shaft radius =2 in Inside radius = 3 in

Rim inner radius = lOin Rim outer radius = 12 in
Fillets near shaft = 1 in radius Fillets at the rim = 0.5 in radius
a = 6.404°
The solution can be approached from a variety of. different assumptions. Several
models are suggested, from a simple analytical model to a fully three-dimensional
finite element model. Your assignment is to use these models and compare solutions.
Your report should contain a discussion on the appropriateness of different models.
Comment on the costlbenefit of these models. Here the cost includes the time for
model preparation, interpretation of results, and computer resources needed for the
analysis. The benefit is the accuracy of the computed safety factor.
Figure 7.46.
8
4
-8
-12
-4-2024
/
Figure 7.47.
(a) Analytical solution based on spokes providing axial restraint to the rim: A
simple analytical solution is possible by considering the flywheel as essentially
a ring with mean radius r. The rim expands under the influence of centrifugal
force Fe = mrw 2lb/in, where m = (P/g)Ar is the mass per unit length of the
rim, p Ib/in3 is the density, gin/s 2 is the acceleration due to gravity, A r in 2
is the area of the cross section of the rim, and wrad/s is rotational speed of
the flywheel. The spokes provide axial restraint to the rim. The inertia forces
in the spokes are neglected. By considering the rim as a circular beam, it is
possible to derive analytical expressions for axial force (Fr ) and moment (M r )
in the rim and axial force in the spokes (Fs )' For a flywheel with six spokes,
the following expressions are obtained:
F;; = FerHlb
H= 2/3
(0.0203r2/h2 ) + 0.957 + (AlAs)
PROBLEMS 543
h = rim width in the front view

As = cross-sectional area of the spoke
F,. = Fcr(l - O.866H)lb; u, = O.0889F:,rin ·lb
The stresses can then be computed as follows:
F __
a-=-L+ 6Mr ,
Rim: Spoke:
Ar bh2 '
where it is assumed that the rim is of rectangular cross section with width li
(2 in) and thickness b (8 in).
(b) Finite element model using beam elements: A simple finite element model
of the flywheel can be created by using beam elements for both the spoke
and the rim. Create and analyze such a model and compare results with the
previous solutions. Take advantage of symmetry and model only one-fourth of
the flywheel using center line dimensions as shown by the dark lines in Figure
7.48. Use a reasonable number of beam elements to account for the circular
geometry of the rim.
Figure 7.48.
(c) Plane stress finite element model: With the beam element model it is not
possible to determine local stress concentrations at the junctions between the
spokes and the rim. A two-dimensional plane stress model is necessary if one
needs to determine a more complete stress distribution. Use a plane stress el-
ement to model the rim and the spokes. Make the model realistic by creating
fillets between lines meeting at common points, Compare your results with
those obtained from the previous simplified models. Take advantage of sym-
metry and model only one-fourth of the flywhee~; as shown in Figure 7.49.
(d) Three-dimensional finite element model: The plane stress model assumes that
the stresses in the thickness direction are negligible. A three-dimensional fi-
nite element model obviously does not need this assumption. Use an element
equivalent to A.NSYS Solid45 element to create a three-dimensional model
Figure 7.49.
of the flywheel. Compare your results with those obtained from the previous
simplified models. Take advantage of symmetry and model only one-eighth of
the flywheel (cut the wheel in half in the thickness direction also).
/
CHAPTER EIGHT
W5IH6 ..... ?
'*
TRANSiENT PROBLEMS
8.1 TRANSIENT FIELD PROBLEMS
A variety of transient field problems, such as heat and fluid flow, are governed by a differ-
ential equation of the following form:
where kx ' ky' kz , p, q, and I1l are 'known functions of (x, y, z). The solution variable u is
a function both of space (x, y, z) and time i. Except for time dependence, this equation is
a direct extension to three dimensions of the two-dimensional boundary value problem
considered in Chapters 5 and' 6. The possible boundary conditions are as follows:
(i) Essential boundary condition: u specified.

(ii) Natural boundary condition-specified normal derivative along a boundary:
where a and (J are specified parameters along the boundary.
With respect to time, the differential equation is first order arid therefore one initial condi-
tion is also needed in the following form:
u(x, y, Z, t = 0) = uo(x, y, z) specified

545
546 TRANSIENTPROBLEMS

The general form of finite element equations for the problem can easily be written using
exactly the same steps as those used for the steady-state problems in Chapters 5 and 6.
In order to use Galerkin's method, we need to develop an appropriate weak: form first.
Assuming V refers to volume of an arbitrary element, moving all terms in the differential
equation to the left-hand side, multiplying by the weighting functions Nj , and integrating
over the volume, the Galerkin weighted residual for the problem is
i = 1, 2, ...
where dV = dx dy dz is the differential volume. Using the Green-Gauss theorem on the

first three terms in the weighted residual, we have
where S is the surface of the element. On the surface there is a possibility of one of the
two types of boundary conditions to be specified. Designating the surface over which u
is specified as Se and that over which its normal derivative is specified as SII' the surface
integral can be written as follows:
,I
Requiring the assumed solution to satisfy the essential boundary conditions results in
weighting functions' that are zero over Se' Thus with admissible assumed solutions the
weak-form equivalent to the given boundary value problem is as follows:
Iff (
au aNi au aNi au aNi au )
-k - - -k - - -k_-- + puN.+qN-m-N dV
x ax ax Y By ay '" az az I I at I
v
+ ffe au + j3)N; dS = 0; i = 1,2, ...

s,
TRANSIENT FIELDPROBLEMS 547
Rearranging by keeping all terms involving unknown solution on the left-hand side, the
weak form is
= III
v
qNtdV + II81/
f3NtdS; i = 1,2, ...
The assumed solution over an element is written as follows:
where u l ' uz, ... are the unknown solutions at the element nodes that are functions of time.
Note the interpolation functions N, are functions only of space variables and are exactly
the same as those used in earlier chapters for steady-state problems. Differentiating the
assumed solution, we get
au =(aNI aNz a;;) I~Z =B;d

ax ax ax ("'u"]
au =(aNI aNz aN,,)
ay ... ay ay ay ":; =BTd
("']Y
U"
au =(aNI aNz a~n) [U, ]

ll{ = B~d
az az ai-
u"
all
at
=(N Nz
I
...
n
il Z T··
N,,) ~" =N ~
where an overdot indicates differentiation with respect to time. Substituting these into the
weak form, we have
548 TRANSIENT PROBLEMS
= III qNjdV + II f3Nl dS; i = 1,2, ...

v s,
This system represents 11equations, one for each Ni' i = 1,2, ... , 11. Writing these equations
explicitly and arranging them in matrix form, we have
IIICI1lNNT)dV d+ IIICk.)1~; +kyByBJ +kzBzBDdV d

v v
- IIICPNNT)dV d - II aCNNl elSd

v s,
=III qNdV + II f3NdS

v 8/ 1
The three terms inside the second volume integral can be arranged in a more compact form
by using matrices as follows:
where
[~
ax ?!!.J..
ax
~]
ax
C' ~J
0
T
B = Wi ay
?!!.J.. ay
'!!!JJ. and c= ~ ky
az aNsz
0
~ '!!!JJ.
2
az
+
Thus the finite element equations are as follows:
IIIcmNN'ldV iJ+[JII BCB' dV -IIfepNN'ldV -IfaCNN)'

=III qNdV + II f3NdS
v s"
TRANSIENT FIELD PROBLEMS 549
Define n x n matrices
kk = III v
BeB
T
dV; le p = - III(PNNT)dV
v .
lea =- II a(NNl dS; III = III(JnNNT)dV

s, v
Define n X 1 vectors
r, = III qNdV;
v
rfJ = II
A
f3NdS
Thus the element equations are a system of first-order ordinary differential equations
Note that, except for the first term, these equations are direct generalizations to three di-
mensions of the corresponding two-dimensional steady-state problem considered in Chap-
ters 5 and 6. The first term involves time derivatives of the nodal variables. Thus the
element equations now represent a system of ordinary differential equations. The assembly
and overall solution process remains the same. 'The global system of ordinary differential
equations must be solved using appropriate numerical schemes such as Runge-Kutta or
Gears methods.
In order to actually evaluate the integrals defining the element equations, we need to
assume an element shape and dev-elop appropriate interpolation functions. Any element
shape can be created as long as it is useful in modeling practical shapes and it is possible
to carry out required integrations arid differentiations. Some typical elements are presented
in the following sections.
8.1.2 TriangularElement
A triangular element is simple yet versatile for two-dimensional problems. Almost any
two-dimensional shape can be discretized into triangular elements. A typical three-node
triangular element is shown in Figure 8.1. The nodal coordinates are (XI' YI)' (xz' Yz), and
(x3' Y3)' Assuming unknown solutions. at the three comers as nodal degrees of freedom,
we have a total of three degrees of freedom, u l , uz, and u3 • The following interpolation
functions for the element were developed in Chapter 5:
u t N, ». N3)[::~J=NTd
e
u3
1
N I = 2A (xb t + yet + II);
'-----------x
Ij = X2Y3 - X 3Y2; 12 =X3Yj -X IY3; I, = X jY2 - X2YI;
b j = Y2 - Y3; b2 =Y3 -Yj; b3 =YI - Y2;
Assuming a unit thickness, the volume integrals reduce to area integrals A and the surface
integrals to line integrals C. Except for the m matrix, all other matrices and vectors are
identical to those for the steady-state problem discussed in Chapter 5. To evaluate the m
matrix, the integral over the triangle is evaluated using the procedure explained in Chap-
ter 5. The final element equations are as follows:
md + (lck + lc,)d = rq + rp
In = fff(lnNNT)dV = ff(1nNN
T)dA = I~ [ 21 211
1)
2
v A 1
and
lck = ff
A
T
BCB dA = ABCB
T
kxb jb 2 + kyc j c2
? ?
kxbi + kyci
kxb2b3 + ky c2 c3
k
p
=- pA [i ;. i);
12 1 . 1
2
For a nonzero natural boundary condition on side 1,
Length of the side:
k(1 = II s,
a(NNl dS = i a(NNl de = -
[2 ~l
a~12 ~ - O~)
Length of the side:
=- aLz3 [~
k
(1 6 ° ~1 °2
1);
Length of the side:
=- aL 31 [~~
1
k
(1 6 I °° 2
) ;
The equations are assembled: in the usual manner to get a system of global first-order
ordinary differential equations. After adjusting for essential boundary conditions, the first-
order equations are then solved by one of the many numerical methods, such as Runge-
Kutta and Gears methods, available for solving such equations. The Mathematica function
NDSolve and MATLAB function ode use a variety of these methods to give solutions to
these equations.
8.1.3 Transient Heat Flow

Consider the problem of finding temperature distribution T in an arbitrary three-
dimensional body. Using conservation of energy on a differential volume, the follow-
ing governing differential equation can easily be established:
where kx' ky, and k; are thermal conductivities in the x, y, and z directions and Q(x, y, z) is
specified heat generation per unit volume, p is density of the material, and cp is specific
heat of the material. The temperature T is a function both of space (x, y, z) and of time t.
The possible boundary conditions are as follows:
(i) Known temperature along a boundary: T specified.

et (aT
-k- == - k.-n x + ky-a ny + k st n, aT) = q specified
7 -
.
an .- ax y - az -
On an insulated boundary or across a line of symmetry there is no heat flow and

thus q = O. The sign convention for heat flow is that heat flowing into a body is
positive and that out of the body is negative.
(iii) Heat loss due to convection along a boundary surface:
where h is the convection coefficient, T is the unknown temperature on the bound-

ary, and Teo is the known temperature of the surrounding fluid.
Both types of natural boundary conditions (ii) and (iii) can be handled by specifying the
coefficients a and f3 in the following form:
If a heat flux is specified, then this boundary condition implies a = 0 and f3 = -q. If
convection is specified, then this boundary condition implies a = -li and f3 = hTeo •
The initial condition is of the following form:
T(x, y, Z, t = 0) = To(x, y, z) specified

Example 8.1 Transient Heat Flow The cross section of a long V-grooved ceramic
strip is shown in Figure 8.2. The sides are insulated while convection heat loss takes place
at the bottom with h = 200 WIm 2··C and Teo = 50·C. The grooved surface is maintained at
a constant temperature of 300·C. For ceramic the thermal conductivity is k = 3 W/m' ·C,
density p = 1600 kg/rn", and specific heat cp = 0.8 kl/kg . ·C. Assuming the entire strip
to be at 50·C initially, determine the time history of temperature distribution. Estimate the
time it will take to reach steady state conditions.
Taking advantage of symmetry, we need to model only half of the cross section. In order
to show all calculations, a coarse mesh consisting of only two elements is used. Due to
symmetry, there is no heat flow across side 1-2. Nodes 2 and 4 have specified temperature
of 300~C. At time t = 0 the temperature at all other nodes is equal to 50·C.
The complete calculations are as follows:
y (em) 4
4
o
n.r; o 0.5 1 1.5 2 x (em)
Figure 8.2. V-grooved strip and two-element model for half of the section
Global equations at the start of the assembly of element equations:
Equations for element l:
q = 0; In = pCp = 1280000
C=(~ ~)
Nodal Coordinates:
Element Node GlobalNQdeNlllTIber .. x
T 1 o o
2 3 1
50 o
1 1
3 4 50 25
_ I . x' - 1
-X2 - 50' 3 - 50
Yl =0; Y2 = 0; Y3 = -is
b 1 -- -25'
I; b - I. b3 = 0
2- 25'
c 1 = 0; C - I. C - 1
2- -50' 3 - 50
/ _ 1 . =0
1 - 1250' /2 =0; /3
1
Element area A = 2500
BT=C~ -55
I
25
I :)
=['" k.=[ ~ ,,=m
128 -3
"3 iza ]
8 256 1;8 . 15 o].
_:!
m li "3 3 ' 4" 4 '
128 128 256 3 3
"3 "3 "3 -4 4
NBC on side 1 (nodes {I, 3})-end nodal coordinates: ( (O, 0) (fa, 0)), giving side
length L = fa.
Specified parameter values:
a = -200; f3 = 10000
4 2
"3 "3
lea =[ ~ ! 100 )
liJ =( 1O~
2~6 128
"3
128 256
"3 "3
[ 128 128
"3 "3
The element contributes to (I, 3, 4) global degrees of freedom.

The global equations after assembly of this element are as follows:
T~ T
[ 128
"3
128
"3
0
0
256
"3
128
"3
q = 0; m = pCp = 1280000
C=(~ ~)
, "Nodal Coordinates:
1 o Q
1 1
2 4 50 23"
3 2 o 1
50
X2 -
_ I
50 X3 =0
_ 1
Y2 =-is Y3 - 50

b - 1. b - I. b 3--23"
- 1
1 - 50' 2 - 50'
c 1 -- -50'
I. C2 = 0; C -
3 -
I
50
11 -- I .
2500' 12 =0; 13 =0
1
Element area A = 5000
BT -_ ( -k -kI -1)
:.
-50 o 50
m=[~
64
64
'3
128
"3
64
3
128
l: ]. '
-3 15
'3 '3 "3 "2
1~8 64
'3
64 128
'3 "3
( 64 -6Zl
'3 '3
The element contributes to [I, 4, 2) global degrees of freedom.

The global equations after assembly of this element are as follows:
64 128 22 7 3
128 '3 "3 64 '3 -z9 -3" Z
64
'3
128
"3
128
"3
0
0
256
"3
64
'3
128
"3 [m+
-z
-3"
9
7
15
"2
0
0
61
T2
-3
-4
3 [~]{~O]
T3 100
M 128 3 3 9 T4 0
64 3 "3 128 Z -3 -4 4
Node dof Value
2 T2 300
4 T4 300
Delete equations (2,4}.
(
128
128 o
64
3"
128
"3
256
~3 [3~0] =.(. 100)
--
)
T3 100
"3 "3 4 300
Extract columns (2, 4), multiply by the corresponding known values, and move to the
right-hand side.
The final global system of equations after adjusting for essential boundary conditions
is as follows:
(
1 28
"3
1~8) (~l)
128 256
3
T +
3
(¥ -1)(T
_L
3
N.
1)
T3
= (1000)
325
Solving the two ordinary differential equations using NDSolve, we get the following tem-
peratures at the nodes. The results are computed for a time t = 300 s. The table lists values
after every 30 s. The actual computations, however, are performed using a sophisticated
automatic adaptive time integration scheme.
Transient Response Analysis

Initial values: T ~ for all nodes =50
Time history of nodal solution:
Time T1 T2 T3 T4
0 ~O. 300 50. 300
~O 132.624 300 88.9721 300
60 160.102 300 120.496 300
90 172.66 300 135.335 300
120 178.479 300 142.218 300
150 181.176 300 145.409 300
180 182.427 300 146.889 300
210 183.007 300 147.575 300
240 183.276 300 147.893 300
270 183.4 300 148.04 300
300 183.458 300 148.108 300
The temperatures at nodes 1 and 3 are shown in Figure 8.3. After about 200 s the tempera-
tures do not change much and thus a steady-state condition has been achieved.
For realistic results a finer mesh should be used. The problem is solved using ANSYS
with element size of approximately 0.002 m (AnsysFiles\Chap8\VGrooveFine.inp on the
book web site). The finite element mesh, showing the temperature distribution at t = 300 a,
is as seen in Figure 8.4. The time history of temperatures at the bottom is shown in the time
history plot.
ELASTIC SOLIDS SUBJECTED TO DYNAMIC LOADS 557
TOe
- - Node
180
160
"' -_.._.._--_ .._-_..__ .. __ _-_.. ~
-------. Node 3
140
120
.-
100 ///
80
/
60-¥--~-~-~-----,..-~
! t, s
50 100 150 200 250 300
Figure 8.3. Temperature time history at nodes 1 and 3
AN
~:!&~OJI
17.0J,~!
:l'l"I:.t·l
'I1JioU
nlle-jOll
:::.0 IAWI
:;lUI .U'l.~Ol
1OI1l_JOO
~~ c, SOl ~G~.Jl~ :!B:!. Ul 100
Figure 8.4. Solution using a finer mesh
• MathematicafMATLAB .Implementatlon 8.1 on the Book Web Site:

Triangular element for transient 2D BVP
8.2 ELASTIC SOUDS SUBJECTED TO DYNAMIC LOADS
The stress equilibrium equations presented in Chapter 7 considered a body in static equi-
librium. If a body is in motion, then at any instant of time t Newton's law of motion implies
that the sum of all forces must be equal to the inertia force. Denoting the mass density of
the material by p and the accelerations in the coordinate directions by ii == a2u/at2 , ii, and
w, the equations of motion can be written as follows:
ao: irt in:
---" + --.2 + -E. + b =pH
ax ay az x
aTyx Ba; aTyZ _ .•

& + 8i + 8Z +by -pv
Bt:
ar; +
Bt:
8; +
80:,
az" -v b, =p"fil
The weak form corresponding to the these differential equations can be obtained following
the same steps as those used in Chapter 7 for a static problem. Denoting the weighting
functions by Ii; ii, and W, multiplying each equation by its weighting function, integrating
over the volume, and adding all three terms, the total weighted residual is as follows:
Iff (
v
ao-.
ax
aT
ay
Bt.:
_x+........:2'.+~+b
az x
) TI+ (aT
ax
ao-. Bt.;
-l::+_y+-1::+b
ay y
) ii
az
+ ( aT a;+ ao-.)
a;'+ aT azZ+bz WdV- Iff (piiTI+pvii+pivW)dV=O
v
Using the Green-Gauss theorem on each of the stress derivative terms, we get
I I (o;;n., + Txyny + Txznz)U + (Tyxn X + O:,ny + TYZnz)ii + (Tzxnx + Tzyn y + aznz)W dS

s
On the surface the applied forces are, qx =: o;;nx + T;C),ny + T.'Zn z, etc. Substituting these and
rearranging terms, we get the following weak form:
+ Tyz(:: + ~~)+Txz(: + ~~)dV+ III

v
(piiTI+pw+pwW)dV
== II(qx TI + qi + qzW)dS + III(bxU + bi + bzW)dV

s v
If we interpret the weighting functions as virtual displacements, then their derivatives are
virtual strains,
ali _ aw _
ay = Ey; az =Ez
av aw _ au aw
az + ay = 'YyZ; az + ax = Yzx
J J J(O:l, + OJ,~ + O::EZ + TxyYxy + TyZ,YyZ+ TxZYZX) dV + J J J (pHu + pvv + pww)dV

v v
= JJ(qxU+ qyv + qzw)dS + JJJ(bxu + byv+ bzw)dV

S v
Comparing this weak form to the one derived in Chapter 7 for static problems, we see
that the inertia forces simply add onemore body force term in the equations. By defining
several vectors, the weak form can be written in a compact matrix notation as follows:
where
U = (0;; OJ, 0:: T.'Y TyZ Txzf

€ = (Ex Ey Ez YX)' YYZ Yxzl
q = (qx qy qzl; b = (b, by bf <
T
It = (u v w) ; it = (ii v w{·, U= (u v w{

The assumed solutions for displacements are as follows:
where HI' vI' WI' HZ"" are the nodal degrees of freedom. Here, Ni(x, y, z) are suitable in-
terpolation functions. The accelerations are written by differentiating the displacements.
The interpolation functions do not change with time. The nodal displacements are the only
quantities that are functions of time. Thus the accelerations. are expressed as follows:
. ii]
(ii) (N
ii=:V= ~
I 0
NI
0
0
Nz
0
0
Nz
):w
...
...
VI
I =NT(j
0 N] 0 0 Hz
From the assumed solution the element strain vector can be computed by appropriate dif-
ferentiation as follows:
aLl ~ 0 0 ~ 0 0
ax ax ax
Ex
av 0 ~ 0 0 ~ 0
BY ay ay £11
Ey
alV 0 0 ~ 0 0 ~ VI
Ez 7fi. az az
E= WI =BTd
'Yxy f!!!.+~ ~ ~ ~ aN,
ay ax ay ax 0 ay a; 0 U2
'YYZ
~+~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~
'Y;:.t az ay 0 az ay az ay
f!!!. + alV ~ ~ aN, ~
az ax ez 0 ax az 0 ax
Using the constitutive matrix appropriate for the material, the element stress vector can be
written as follows:
a = C(E - EO) = CB Td - CEO
where EO is a vector of initial strains. The weighting functions in the weak form are deriva-
tives of the assumed solution with respect to the nodal degrees of freedom. Thus
all T
ad =N
Ti= - and
or
fff v
T
pNN dV(i + fff v
T
BCB dV d = fff
v
BCEOdV + ff
s
Nq dS + fff
v
Nb dV
Thus we get the following element equations:
where m is known as an element mass matrix
and all other terms are exactly the same as those for the static case. That is, k is the element
stiffness matrix, r; is the equivalent nodal load vector due to initial strains, r q is the equiv-
alent nodal load vector due to surface forces, and rb·is the equivalent nodal load vector due
to'body forces:
Ie = III
v
T
BCB dV; r, III
=
v
BCEodV
rq = II
s
NqdS; rb = III
v
NbdV
The mass matrix term is the only new term in the element equations for dynamic problems.
Explicit mass matrices for commonly used structural elements are derived in the follow-
ing section. During assembly, the element mass matrices are assembled to form a global
mass matrix in exactly the same manner as the stiffness matrix. The final equations after
assembly are expressed as follows:
Md+Kd =R
This is a system of second-order ordinary differential equations. Any method for solving
ordinary differential equations can be used to solve these equations. Newmark's method,
generally discussed in courses on vibrations and structural dynamics, is one of the most
popular methods for solving for a large system of second-order ordinary differential equa-
tions. For details of this method refer to any textbook on structural dynamics.
8.2.2 Mass Matrices for Common Structural Elements

The element mass matrix for a general three-dimensional elastic solid is given by the fol-
lowing integral:
Explicit expressions for commonly used structural elements are derived in this section.
Axial Deformations A simple two-node axial deformation element, shown in Figure

8.5, was developed in Chapter 2. The element extends from XI to x2 and has a length
L = x 2 - X I . For simplicity the element is assumed to have' a uniform area of cross section A.
The element is based on the following interpolation functions:
_ x-x2 _ x-x2 •
N1- - - - ----
XI -x2 L'
Using these interpolation functions, the mass matrix can be written as follows:
In = III
v
pNN dV
T
= pA 1"2 ( x-x,
~ L
) (- X ~z
X
X-X)
-
L
-I dx
Figure 8.5. Axial deformation element
Carrying out integrations, we get the element mass matrix as follows:
m=T
pAL (21 21)
Plane Truss Element The two-node plane truss element shown in Figure 8.6 was
developed in Chapter 4 by transforming an axial deformation element. The transformation
works for the stiffness matrix since the strain energy expression for both the truss and the
axial deformation elements is based on deformations along the axis of the element. For
the mass matrix we must consider displacements both in the x and the y directions, since
motion along both axes generates inertia forces. Therefore the mass matrix for a truss
element is derived by writing the linear interpolation functions for x and y displacements.
Assuming a coordinate s along the axis of the element with s = 0 at node land s L,
at node 2 the interpolation functions are as follows:

)2 V2
/ lv/~j
. .. ..... • ./
. /
/
..... .i"
, ..;'./
~X
t /'
:/
(xl,yd
Figure 8.6. Plane truss element

s-L
-~" ](-J'
-T
m = III
V
T
pNN dV =pA LL 0
s
t.
O.
s-t.
-T
s
t:
0 ~)dS
0
Carrying out matrix multiplication and integrating each term, we get
pAL 0
2 02 01 0]1
[o 1 0 2
m=-6- 1 0 2 0
Space Truss Element The mass matrix for a three-dimensional space truss element,
shown in Figure 8.7, can be written using exactly the same arguments as those for the plane
truss.
The interpolation functions for x, y, and z displacements in terms of a coordinate s along
the axis of the element with s = 0 at node 1 and s = L at node 2 are as follows:
s-L s
N1-
-
--
L'' Nz =-
L
HI
~, ~, ! ~, ~J ~ Vz
oN'd
Wz
2 0 0 1 0 0
0 2 0 0 1 0
In = IIJ v
pNNT dV = pA LL NNT ds = P~L
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0 1 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 2
Figure 8.7. Space truss element

Beam Element The two-node beam element shown in Figure 8.8 was developed in
Chapter 4. The interpolation functions are as follows:
Assuming a uniform cross-sectional area A and using these interpolation functions, the
mass matrix can be written as follows:
Carrying out matrix multiplication and integrating each term, we get
156 22L 54 -13L]

pAL 22L 4L2 13L -3L2
m = 420 [ 54 13L 156 -22L
-13L -3L2 -22L 4L2
Plane Frame Element In terms oflocal coordinates, the plane frame element shown in
Figure 8.9 is a combination of beam and axial deformation elements. Thus the interpolation
91 i'",
w X
XI X2
s=o s=L
r L ..I
Figure 8.8. Beam element
Global coordinates
Vz
8z /.r--uz
/;:.~
/,~-,
./1,;./
Y t';;:;/;/
"r'/
1,.,:","/
81 ~'~ X
Figure 8.9. Plane frame element
functions are as follows:

dl
dz
s
(~) =(-t L~i)

0 0 I 0 d3 =NTd
z.,3
u-[}+3s 1 L_Z?+s
2
0 3?
L2
z.,3
U d4
L2 L - L2 L
ds
d6
Assuming uniform cross-sectional area A and using these interpolation functions, the mass
matrix can be written as follows:
m = III v
pNN dV =pA
T
LL NN ds
T
Carrying out matrix multiplication and integrating each term, we get the mass matrix in
local coordinates as follows:
140 0 0 70 0 0
0 156 22L 0 54 -13L
pAr 0 22L 4Lz 0 13L -3Lz
m/ = 420 70 0 0 140 0 0
0 54 13L 0 156-22L
0 -13L -3Lz 0 -22L 4Lz
The local-to-global transformation is given as
dl t, Ins 0 0 0 0 £II
dz -Ins i, 0 0 0 0 vi
d3
d4
0
0
0
0
1
0
0 0
Ins
0
0
°1
Uz
=? d/ = Td
's
ds 0 0 0 -Ins 's 0 Vz
d6 0 0 0 0 0 1
°i
l = cos a = Xz - XI . In = sin a = Yz -YI
s L ' s L
Using the transformation matrix T, the mass matrix in the global coordinate system is
obtained as follows:
Triangular Element for Plane Stress/Strain The three-node triangular element

shown in Figure 8.10 was developed for plane stress and plane strain problems in Chap-
ter 7. The interpolation functions are as follows:
U
v jj
(~) =(~j »,0 N2
0
0
N2
N3
0 ~J
u2
v2
=NTd
u3
v3
1 1
N2 = 2A(xb2 + YC 2 + 12 ) ; N3 = 2A (xb3 + YC 3 + 13 )
12 =X3Yj -X 1Y3; 13 = x Y 2 -
j x 2Y l
,I
L----------x

With constant thickness h and using these interpolation functions, the mass matrix can be
written as follows:
m = IIIv
T
pNN dV =ph II A
NN dA
T
Carrying out matrix multiplication and integrating each term over the triangle as explained
in Chapter 5, we get .
0 2 1 0 1 0
2 0 0 1 0 1
pM 1 0 2 0 1 0
m=-
12 0 i 0 2 0 1
1 0 1 0 2 0
0 1 0 1 0 2
8.2.3 Free-Vibration Analysis

Most structural dynamics and vibration problems typically start with the analysis of the
free-vibration motion of the system. There is no externally applied load in this situation,
and thus the global system of equations for the system is of the following form:
Md+Kd= 0
where the global mass matrix M and the global stiffness matrix K are assembled from
the corresponding element matrices using the usual assembly procedure. This system of
equations is satisfied by a harmonic solution of the following form:
d = ¢coswt
where ¢ and ware parameters that will be later identified as the mode shape and the natural
frequency. Substituting this.into the differential equation, we have
-M¢w2 cos on + K¢ cos wt = 0
Rearranging terms, we have what is known as the generalized eigenvalue problem
K¢ = ill¢
where i\. = w 2 is introduced for convenience. From the solution of this system we get
n natural frequencies Wi = .yr; and corresponding free-vibration mode shapes ¢i' Several
methods are available for computing these frequencies and modes shapes and are discussed
in books on vibrations and structural dynamics. Both MATLAB and Mathematica have
built-in functions to solve these problems. In MATLAB the eigenvalues and corresponding
eigenvectors are obtained by using the eig command as follows:
[V, Lam] = eig(K, M)

In the result Lam is a diagonal matrix of eigenvalues and V is a matrix whose columns are
the eigenvectors (mode shapes). Through Mathematica version 4.2 the Eigensystem func-
tion can solve only the standard eigenvalue problem in which the M matrix is an identity
matrix. When M is nonsingular, the generalized eigenvalue problem can easily be con-
verted to a standard eigenvalue problem by multiplying both sides by M-] as follows:
The function Eigensystem is then used to get the eigenvalues and the mode shapes:
{lam, V} = Ef.gensyat emjInversejrlj.K]
In the result lam is a vector of eigenvalues and V is a matrix whose rows are the eigenvec-
tors (mode shapes). The function returns the eigenvalues ordered in the descending order.
In most structural dynamics applications one is interested in lower frequencies and thus
preferred order is the ascending order. As demonstrated in the following example, using
the Reverse function, the order of the results can easily be changed.
Example 8.2 Modal Analysis of a Plane Truss (MATLAB) The following Transient-
PlaneTrussElement function returns the mass and the stiffness matrix of a plane truss ele-
ment. To generate the mass matrix the function needs the mass density (P).
MatlabFiles\Chap8\TransientPlaneTrussElement.m on the book web site
function [m, k] = TransientPlaneTrussElement(e, A,

rho, coord)
% [m, k] = TransientPlaneTrussElement(e, A, rho, coord)
% Generates mass & stiffness matrices for a plane truss
% element
% rho = mass density
% e = modulus of elasticity
% A = area of cross-section
x1=coord(1,1); y1=coord(1,2);
x2=coord(2,1)j y2=coord(2,2);
L=sqrt((x2-x1)~2+(y2-y1)~2)j
ls=(x2-x1)/Lj ms=(y2-y1)/Lj
k = e*A/L*[ls~2, ls*ms,-ls~2,-ls*msj
ls*ms, ms~2,-ls*ms,-ms-2j
-ls-2,-ls*ms,ls~2,ls*ms;
-ls*ms,-ms~2,ls*ms,ms-2]j
m ((rho*A*L)/6)*[2, 0, 1, OJ 0, 2, 0, 1j
1, 0, 2 , 0; 0, 1, 0, 2];
Using this function, we consider the free-vibration analysis of the plane truss structure
shown in Figure 8.11. All members have the same cross-sectional area and are made of the
15 0:1------+-----:::04
12.5
10
7.5
5
2.5
o
----------~(ft)
o 5 10 15 20
Figure 8.11. A plane truss
same material, p = 490 lb/ft", E = 30 x 1Q6 1blin2 , and A = 1.25 in2 . The truss 'supports a
rotating machine weighing 2000 lb at its tip.
The weight of the machine is an added mass at node 4. This is defined as rna in the
following code and is added directly to the global mass matrix corresponding to degrees
of freedom 7 and 8 associated with node 4. The procedure for generating the global mass
and stiffness matrix is exactly the same as that for the static analysis used in the previous
chapters. Using in-lb units, the calculations are as follows:
MatlabFiles\Chap8\ModaITrussEx.m on the book web site

%Modal analysis of a plane truss
g = 386.4; e = 30*10-6; A = 1.25;
rho = (490/(12-3))/g; rna = 2000/g; .
nodes = 12 * [0,0; 10,0; -0, 15; 20, 15; 10, 10];
conn = [3, 4; 2, 5; 5, 3; 1, 5; 5, 4];
elems = size(conn,1);
Imm=[] ;
for i=1:elems
lmm = [Lmm ; [2*conn(i,1)-1, 2*conn(i,1),
2*conn(i,2)-1; 2*conn(i,2)]];
end
debe = [1:6]; ebcVals=zeros(length(debc),1);
dof=2*size(nodes,1); .
M=zeros(dof); K=zeros(dof);
% Add nodal masses to the global M matrix.
M(7,7)=ma; M(8,8) = rna;
% Generate equations for each element and asse~ble them.
for i=1:elems
con = conn(i,:);
1m = Imm(i,:);
Em, k] = TransientPlaneTrussElement(e, A, rho,
nodes (con, .) j
M(1m, 1m) = M(lm, 1m) + m;
K(lm, 1m) = K(lm, 1m) + kj
end
%Adjust for essential boundary conditions

dof = 1ength(R)j
df = setdiff(1:dof, debe);
Mf = M(df, df)j
Kf = K(df, df)j
% Compute frequencies and mode shapes

[V, lam] = eig(Kf, Mf);
freq=sqrt (lam)
modeShapes = V
» Moda1TrussEx
freq =
55.835
° ° °
°° 235.46
° °
° 1598.4
°
1971.6
° ° °
modeShapes =
.I
0.099847 -0.42131 -0.01827 -0.036118

-0.42305 -0.098538 0.0011071 -0.020645
-0.041882 -0.18022 1.6041 1.8044
-0.01476 -0.062462 -1. 8123 1.6046
Example 8.3 Modal Analysis of a Plane Frame (Mathematica) The following Tran-
sientPlaneFrarneElement function returns the mass and the stiffness matrix of a plane frame
element. To generate the mass matrix, the function needs the mass density (P).
TransientP1aneFrameElement[e_, L, a., p.; [qs., qt .], (n1..., n2_ll :=
Modu1e[{EI = e * i, EA = e * a, L, m1,k1, rl, ls, msJ,
L = Sqrt[(n2 - n1).(n2 - n1)];
{ls, ms] = (n2 - n1)/L;
T = {{ls, ms, 0, 0, 0, oj {-ms, Ls, 0, 0, 0, OJ, to, 0,1,0,0, OJ, to, 0, 0, ls, ms, OJ,
{O, 0, 0, -ms, 1s, OJ, to, 0, 0, 0, 0, ill; .
k1 = {{EAlL, 0, 0, -(EAlL), 0, OJ, to, (12 * EI)/L -3, (6 * EI)/L-2,0, -((12 * EI)/L -3),
(6 * EI)/L-2J, {O, (6 * EI)/L -2, (4 * EI)/L, 0, -((6 * EI)/L-2), (2 * EI)/L},
{-(EAlL), 0, 0, EAlL, 0, OJ, to, -((12 * EI)/L -3), -((6 * EI)/L-2),0,
T
L
1 I-- L
3
-I' L --1
4
Figure 8.12. Plane frame
(12 * EI)/L -3, -((6 * EI)/L -2)}, [0, (6 * EI)/L-2, (2 * EI)/L, 0,

-((6 * EI)/L-2), (4 * EI)/L)};
=
ml ((p * a * L)/420) * {{140, 0, 0, 70, 0, OJ, {O, 156,22 * L, 0, 54, -13 * L},
[0,22 * L, 4 * L-2,0, 13 * L, -3 * L-2}, {70, 0, 0, 140,0, O},
[0,54,13 * L, 0,156, -22 * L}, {O, -13 * L, -3 * L-2,0, -22 * L, 4 * L-2));
rl = [qs * (Ll2), qt * (Ll2), qt * (L -2112),
qs * (Ll2), qt * (Ll2), -qt * (L-2I12)};
[Transpose[T].ml.T, Transpose[T].kl.T, Transpose[T].rl}
Using these functions, we consider the modal analysis of the plane frame shown in Figure
8.12. The horizontal members carry a weight of 200 N/m in addition to their own weight.
The other numerical data are as follows (use N . mm units):
E = 200GPa = 200,000Nlmm2 ; p =7840kg/m3 =7.84 x 10- 6 kg/mar':

L = 600 mm; A = 240 mnr'; 1= 2000mm4
Additional mass on horizontal members:
200
9.81 = 20.3874kg/m = 0.0203874kg/mm
L = 1000; e = 200000;p = 7.84 * 10-(-6);

a = 240; i = 2000;ma = 0.0203874;
nodes = [[0, OJ, {L, O}, {L, -L}, [2L, -L));
=
Im[1] [1,2,3,4,5, 6};
Im[2] = {4, 5, 6,7,8, 9};
=
Im[3] {7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12};
[mjl], k[1], r[1]} = TransientPIaneFrameEIement[e, i, a, (p + mala), {O, O},
nodes[[{1,2}]]];
{m[2], k[2], r[2]} = TransientPIaneFrameEIement[e, i, a, (P), {O, OJ, nodes[[{2, 3}]]];
=
{m[3], k[3], r[3]} TransientPIaneFrameEIement[e, i, a, (p + mala), {O, OJ,
nodes[[{3,4}]]];
M= K = TabIe[O, {i2}, {12}];
Do[M[[lm[i], Im[i]]]+ = m[i];
K[[lm[i], Im[i]]]+ = k[i]; R[[lm[i]]]+ = r[i], [L, 1, 3}];
debc = (1,2,3,10,11,12);
ebcVals = Table[O, (6)];
df = Complement [Range[12], debc];
Mf =M[[df, df]]
8.12188 O. 98.56 0.24192 O. -58.24
O. 8.89854 -1166.47 O. 0.3136 O.
98.56 -1166.47 230006. 58.24 O. -13440.
0.24192 O. 58.24 8.12188 O. -98.56
O. 0.3136 O. O. 8.89854 1166.47
-58.24 O. -13440. -98.56 1166.47 230006.
Kf = K[(df, df))
240024 24
-s- 0 2400 -5 0 2400
240024
0 -s- -2400 0 -48000 0
2400 -2400 3200000 -2400 0 800000
24 240024
-5 0 -2400 -s- 0 -2400
240024
O -48000 0 0 -s- 2400
2400 0 800000 -2400 2400 3200000
Computation of frequencies arid mode shapes is as follows:
(lams, VsJ = Eigensystem[Inverse[Mf].Kf];

lam = Reverse[l'ams]
,I
{O.331293, 18.4509,19.7104,5921.42,6095.6, 41869.9J
The natural frequencies are the square roots of the eigenvalues:
Sqrt[lam]
{O.575581, 4.29546, 4.43964, 76.9508, 78.0743, 204.621J
The mode shapes are
v = Reverse[Vs]
6.64393 X 10- 7 0.707107 0.000613879 6.64393 X 10-7 0.707107 -0.000613879
-0.0585609 -0.137874 0.691058 0.0585609 0.137874 0.691058
0.000392188 0.707081 0.00607015 0.000392188 0.707081 -0.00607015
-0.692288 0.143999 0.00113752 -0.692288 0.143999 -0.00113752
0.707018 0.0112127 -0.000068896 -0.707018 -0.0112127 -0.000068896
-0.0227638 0.70673 0.00381233 0.0227638 -0.70673 0.00381233
8.2.4 Transient Response Examples

For structures subjected to dynamic loads the global system of equations for the system is
of the following form:
Md+Kd =R
where the global mass matrix 111, the global stiffness matrix K, and the global load vector
R are assembled from ·the corresponding element matrices using the usual assembly pro-
cedure. For a unique solution initial displacements and velocities at time a at all degrees of
freedom must also be specified. Typically, these specified values are zero (the system is at
rest before application of the dynamic load):
d(O) = va
The second-order ordinary differential can be solved in Mathematica by using the NDSolve
function. In MATLAB the solution can be obtained using one of the ode solvers, such as
ode23. The following examples illustrate the use of these functions.
Example 8.4 Transient Analysis of a Plane Truss (Mathematica) Consider solution

of the plane truss structure shown in Figure 8.13. All members have the same cross-
sectional area and are of the same material, p = 490 Ib/fr', E = 30 x 1061b/in2 , and
A= 1.25 in2 . The truss supports \l rotating machine weighing 2000 lb at its tip. Due to
unbalance in the machine, a harmonic force P = 100 cos (71ft) lb is exerted on the truss.
The weight of the machine is an added mass at node 4. This is defined as rna in the
following code and is added directly to the global mass matrix corresponding to degrees of
freedom 7 and 8 associated with node 4. In defining the global load vector, a load of 1 unit is
applied at degree of freedom 8. This global load vector is multiplied by 1(t) = 100 cos(71ft)
before solving the differential equations of motion. The other procedure for generating the
f t)
15 D:::3-------l--------:::O 4
10
o 2
(ft)
o 5 10 15 20
Figure 8.13. A plane truss
global mass, stiffness, and load vector is exactly the same as that for the static analysis.
Using in-lb units the calculations are as follows:
f[t] = 100 Cos[77lt];

g = 386.4; e ,;, 30 * 10-6; A = 1.25;p = 490/12 3/g;rna = 2000/g;
nodes = 12{{0, OJ, {10, OJ, to, 15J, {20, 15J, {10, 10}};
en[1] = {3,4};en[2] = {2, 5};en[3] = {5,3}; en[4] = (1, 5); en[5] = {5,4};
lrn[1] = (5, 6, 7, 8); lm[2] = {3,4, 9, 10}; lrn[3] = {9, 10,5, 6};lrn[4] = (1, 2, 9,10);
lrn[5] = {9,10,7, 8};
Do[{rn[i], k[i]) = TransientPlaneTrussElernent[e, A, p, nodes[[en[i]]]], [L, 1,5)];
M= K = Table[O, {10}, (10)]; M[[8, 8]] = rna;M[[7, 7]] = rna;
R = Table[O, {10lJ;R[[8]] = 1;
Do[M[[lrn[i], lrn[i]]]+ = rn[i]; K[[lm[i], lm[i]]]+ = k[i], [L 1, 5)];
debe = Range[6];
ebeVals = Table[O, {6lJ;
df = Cornplernent[Range[10], debe];
Mf = M[[df, df]]
5.29039 0
~.0205121] .
0.0205121
o 5.29039 o
o
[ 0.0205121 0 0.170634
o 0.0205121 o 0.170634
Kf = K[[df,df]]
379857. 111803. -223607.. -111803. ]
111803. 55901.7 -111803: -55901.7
[ -223607. -111803. 557699. 110485.
-111803. -55901.7 110485. 534789.
Rf = R[[df]] - K[[df, debe]].ebeVals
(O., 1.,0.,0.)
The equations can now be solved using the NDSolve function. To use this function, all
equations and initial conditions must be expressed in the form of a list. This list of equations
is generated as follows:
disp = (u4[t], v4[t], u5[t], v5[t]);

vel = D[df sp, t];
ace = D[vel, t];
eqns = Thread[Mf.aee + Kf.disp == Rf * f[t]]
(379857. u4(t) - 223607. u5(t) + 111803.v4(t) - 111803. v5(t) + 5.29039 u4"(t)
+ 0.0205121 u5"(t) == O. cos(7rct), 111803. u4(t) - 111803. u5(t) + 55901.7 v4(t)
- 55901.7v5(t) + 5.29039 v4"(t) + 0.0205121 v5"(t) == 100. cos(7rct),
,,-223607. u4(t) + 557699. u5(t) -e- 111803. v4(t) + 110485. v5(t) + 0.0205121 u4"(t)
+ 0.170634 u5"(t) == O. cos(77ft), -111803. u4(t) + 110485. u5(t) - 55901.7 v4(t)
+ 534789. v5(t) + 0.0205121 v4"(t) + 0.170634 v5"(t) == O. cos(77Tt)}
initialVel = Thread[(vel/.t ~ 0) == 0]
{u4'(0) == 0, v4'(0) == 0, £15'(0) == 0, v5'(0) == O}
initialDisp = Thread[(disp/.t ~ 0) == 0]
{u4(0) == 0, v4(0) == 0, u5(0) == 0, v5(0) == 0)
sol = NDSolve[Flatten[{eqns, initialVel, initialDisp}], disp, It, 0,1),
MaxSteps ~ 10000]
{{u4(t) ~ InterpolatingFunction[( O. 1.), <>][t],
v4(t) ~ InterpolatingFunction[( O. 1.), <> ][t],
u5(t) ~ InterpolatingFunction[( O. 1.), <> ][t],
,y5(t) ~ InterpolatingFunction[( O. 1.), <> ][t]}}
The NDSolve function returns time histories of nodal displacements in the form of inter-
polation functions. Any of the values can be plotted in the usual manner using the Plot
function, as shown in Figure 8.14. For example, the time history of vertical displacement
at node 4 is as follows:
Plot[v4[t]/.sol, (t, 0, 1), AxesLabel ~ {"t(s)", "disp(in)"},

PlotLabel ~ "Verticaldisplacementatnode4"];
Once the nodal displacements are known, any other quantity of interest, say axial stresses
in elements, can easily be computed using the same functions as those used in the static
analysis case. Since the displacements are functions of time, obviously the element quan-
tities are also functions of time. First we need the complete vector of nodal displacements,
in the original order established by the node numbering. This requires combining the com-
disp (in) ... Vertical displacement at node 4
0.01
0.005
t (s)
-0.005
-0.01
Figure 8.14. Displacement time history

puted solution with those specified as essential boundary conditions and is exactly the same
process as used in the static analysis in earlier chapters.
d = Tab1e[0, (iO)];
d[[debc]] = ebcVa1s;
d[[df]] = displ.so1[[i]];
d
(0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, InterpolatingFunction[( 0. 1.), < >] [t],

InterpolatingFunction[( 0. 1.), <> ][t], InterpolatingFunction[( 0. 1.), <> ][t],
InterpolatingFunction[( 0. 1.), <> llrll
Now, using the PlaneTrussResults function, the solution over any element can be com-
puted. For example, the time history of strain, axial stress, and axial force for the first
element is obtained as follows:
P1aneTrussResu1ts[e_, A_, ({xL., yL), (x2_, y2-ll, [ut., vi..., u2..., v2_)] :=
Modu1e[(ls, ms, L, T, ai, d2, sps},
L = Sqrt[(x2 - xW2 + (y2 - yi)-2];
ls = (x2 - xi)/L;
ms = (y2 - yi)/L;
T = ({ls, ms, 0, OJ, (0,0, Ls, ms]};
[dl, d2) = T.(ui, vi, u2, v2);
eps = (d2 - di)/L;
(eps, e * eps, e * A * eps)]
e1emSo1 =P1aneTrussResu1ts[e, A, nodes[[en[i]]], d[[lm[i]]]]
{2~0 InterpolatingFunction[( 0. 1) <> ][t],
125000 InterpolatingFunction[( 0. 1.), <> ][t],
156250. InterpolatingFunction[( 0. 1.), <> ][t]}

Any of the response time histories can be plotted in a usual manner, as shown in Figure
8.15. For example, a plot of the axial stress time history for element 1 is as follows:
P1ot[e1emSo1[[2]], (t, 0, t], AxesLabe1 -7 (Ut(s)", ''IT(lb/in2 ) ''),

P1otLabe1 -7 "Axia1stressesine1ementi"];
Note that the dynamic displacements, and hence the resulting stresses, are due only to the
unbalance in the machine. For actualdesign of the truss, we must consider displacements
and stresses due to static load of the machine (2000 lb) as well. These quantities can be
calculated as usual (see Chapter 4).
Example 8.5 Transient Analysis of a Plane Frame (MATLAB) Consider solution

of the plane frame in Figure 8.16. The load P varies with time, as shown in the load-time
history. The horizontal members carry a weight of 200 N/m in addition to their own weight.
o:(lb/in 2) Axial stresses in element 1
300
200
100
t (s)
-100
-200
-300
-400
Figure 8.15. Axial stress time history
P F(N) Load time history

2 50
T 20
L
1 3 4
-50
f--- L L --I
Figure8.16. Plane frame
The other numerical data are as follows (use N . mm units):
E = 200GPa = 200,000N/mm2 ; p = 7840 kg/rrr' = 7.84 x 10-6 kg/mnr'

L = 600mm; A ,,;; '240 mnr': 1= 2000mm4
Additional mass on horizontal members;
200 .
9.81 = 20.3874kglm = 0.0203874kglmm
MatlabFiles\Chap8\TransientFrameEx.m on the book web site
% Transient analysis of a plane frame

global Mf Kf Rf
L = 1000; e = 200000; rho = 7.84*10-(-6); a = ~40;
inertia = 2000; rna = 0.0203874;
nodes = [0,0; L, 0; L, -L; 2*L, -L];
conn = [1,2; 2,3; 3,4];
elerns = size(conn,1);
Imm=[] ;
for i=1:elems
Imm = [lmm; [3*conn(i,1)-2, 3*conn(i,1)-1,
3*conn(i,1), ... ,3*conn(i,2)-2,
3*conn(i,2)-1,3*conn(i,2)]];
end
debc [1,2,3,10,11,12]; ebcVals=zeros(length(debc),1);
dof=3*size(nodes,1);
M=zeros(dof); K=zeros(dof);
R = zeros(dof,1); R(5)=1;
%Generate equations for each element and assemble them.

for i=1:2:elems
con = conn(i,:);
1m = Imm(i,:);
em, k, r] = TransientPlaneFrameElement(e, inertia,
a, ... , rho+ma/a, 0, 0, nodes(con,:));
M(lm, 1m) = M(lm, 1m) + m;
K(lm, 1m) = K(lm, 1m) + k;
R(lm) = R(lm) + r;
end
for i=2
con = conn(i,:);
Lm = Imm(i,:);
em, k, r] = TransientPlaneFrameElement(e, inertia,
a, ... , rho, 0, 0, nodes(con,:));
M(lm, 1m) M(lm, 1m) + ill;
K(lm, 1m) = K(lm, 1m) +!k;
R(lm) = R(lm) + r;
end
% Adjust for essential boundary conditions

dof = length(R);
df = setdiff(1:dof, debc);
Mf = M(df, df);
Kf = K(df, df);
Rf = R(df) - K(df, debc)*ebcVals;
% Setup and solve the resulting first order differential

% equations
uo = zeros(length(Mf),1);
vO = zeros(length(Mf),1);
[t,d] = ode23('FrameODE',[0,10],[uO; vO]);
plot(t,d(:,2)); xlabel('time'); ylabel('Disp');
title('Vertical displacement at node 2');
MatlabFiles\Chap8\FrameODE.m on the book web site

function ddot = FrameODE(t, d)
%ddot = FrameODE(t, d)
%function to set up equations for a transient frame,problem
global Mf Kf Rf
if t <= 0.6
ft = 50*t + 20;
elseif t <= .85
ft = 20;
elseif t <= 1.2
ft = 190 - 200*t;
elseif t <= 1.4
ft 250*t - 350;
else
ft O',
end
end
end
end
n=length(d);
u = d(1 :n!2) ;
v = d(n!2+1:n);
vdot = inv(Mf)*(Rf*ft ~ Kf*u);
udot = v;
% format short g
%soln=[t, ft, u(2), udot(2), vdot(2)]
ddot ='[udot; vdot];
Executing the script file TransientFrameEx, the plot of vertical displacement at node 2
, shown in Figure 8.17 is obtained. The script file can be modified to plot any other quantity
of interest.
disp (mm) Vertical displacement at node 2
t (5)
2 4 6 8 10
-1
-2
Figure 8.17. Displacement-time history

PROBLEMS
Transient Heat Flow

8.1 A square duct shown in Figure 8.18 is insulated by a layer of square fiberglass that
has a thermal conductivity of 0.035 W/m' °C, density p = 144 kg/m", and specific
heat Cp = 753 J/kg . °C. The convection coefficient of the outside surface of the
fiberglass is h = 45 W1m2 • °C. Initially the duct and the insulation are at the room
temperature of 2YC. A flow of hot gases suddently raises the inside duct temper"
ature to 1000°e. Determine what is the temperature distribution in the insulation
10 min after the flow of hot gases begins. Roughly how long will it take for the tem-
perature to reach asteady-state condition. Take advantage of symmetry and model
only one-eighth of the section, shown in dark shade. Assume that the temperature
on the inside surface is the same as that of the hot gases.
25°C 3
, Figure 8.18.
/"
8.2 Heating wires are embedded in a concrete slab, as shown in cross section in Figure
8.19, tokeep snow from accumulating on the slab. In a proposed design wires are
placed at 2 em from the top and at 4-cm intervals. The heat generated by each wire
is 10W1m length. The bottom of the slab is insulated. The top is exposed to a
convection heat loss with a convection coefficient of h = 30 W1m2 • °C. For concrete
the thermal conductivity is l.046W/m· °C, density p = 2300kg/m3, and specific
heat Cp = 656.9 J/kg . °C. Determine the slab surface temperature when the air
temperature is -YC. Assuming the entire slab is initially at the same temperature as
the air, how long will it take to raise the temperature of the surface to above freezing
T
6cm
1
Figure 8.19. Heating wires embedded in concrete
PROBLEMS 581
after starting the heating process? Note that, because of symmetry, we need to model
only the 2 em x 6 em dark shaded area. There will be no heat flow across the sides
of this area. The heating wire represents a concentrated point heat source.
8.3 The cross section of a brick masonry chimney is shown in Figure 8.20. The thermal
conductivity of brick is 0.711 W1m . ·e, density p = 2000 kg/m", and specific heat
Cp = 836.8 Izkg-"C. The convection coefficient of the outside surface of the chimney
is h = 15 W1m2 •"C, Initially the chimney is at the room temperature of 10·e. A flow
of hot gases suddently raises the inside chimney temperature to 250·e. Determine
what is the temperature distribution in the insulation 5 min after the flow of hot gases
begins. Roughly how long will it take for the temperature to reach a steady-state
condition. Take advantage of symmetry and model only one-eighth of the section,
shown in dark shade. Assume that the temperature on the inside surface is the same
as that of the'hot gases.
Figure 8.20.
Free Vibrations
8.4 Determine natural frequencies and mode shapes for an axially loaded bar fixed at
the left end and restrained by a spring at the right end, as shown in Figure 8.21.
Divide the bar into two equal-length elements and use the following numerical data:
E = 200 X 109 N/m 2 ; p = 7500 kg/m''; A = 1.6 X 10- 4 m2
L =2.5 m; k = 1 X 107 N/m

Assume the spring is massless.
Figure 8.21.
8.5 Determine free-vibration frequencies and mode shapes for the three-bar pin-jointed
structure shown in Figure 8.22. All members have the same cross-sectional area and
are of the same material, p == 490lb/ft3 , E == 30 x 106lb/in2 , and A == 1 in 2 . The
dimensions in inches are shown in the figure.
72
oI ()I----------7-,
108 (in)
o
Figure 8.22.
8.6 Determine free-vibration frequencies and mode shapes for the three-bar pin-jointed
structure shown in Figure 8.23. All members have the same cross-sectional area and
are of the same material, p == 490 lb/fr', E == 30 x 106lb/in2 , and A == 2 in 2 . The
attached mass is m == 77.6lb· s2/in. The dimensions in ~ are shown in the
figure. -\QQ. t .
Mass,m Mass, m
6
6
,I
o
oI ~L}-------,Gll
- - - - - - - - - (m)
o o 8
8.7 Determine free-vibration frequencies and mode shapes for the truss shown in Figure
8.24. Note the diagonals are not connected to each other at their crossing. The cross-
sectional area of vertical and horizontal members is 30 x 10- 4 m2 and that for the
diagonals is 10 x 10- 4 m2 . All members are made of steel withp == 7850kglm3 and
E == 210 GPa. The attached masses are m == 500 kg. The dimensions in meters are
shown in the figure.
8.8 Determine free-vibration frequencies and mode shapes for the truss shown in Figure
8.25. The cross-sectional area of members is 15x 10- 4 m2 . All members are made of
PROBLEMS 583
LL-------:---,M;-zas~s ~ m
Figure 8.25.
aluminum with E = 70 GPa and p = 2710 kg/rrr'. The attached mass is 112 = 500 kg.
The nodal coordinates, in meters, are as follows:
x y z
1 O. 4. O.
2 -3. 2. 5.
3 -3. O. O.
4 3. O. O.
5 O. O. 5.
8.9 Determine free-vibration frequencies and mode shapes for the uniform beam sim-
ply supported at ends and spring supported in the middle as shown in Figure 8.26.
Assume the following numerical data:
L = 4m; "'p= 271Okglm3 ; E = 70 GPa; 112 = 350kg

6
1= 350.9 X 10- m"; A = 8.39 X 10- 3 m2 ; k = 4x 105N/m
Assume the spring is massless.
I~
Figure 8.26. Beam supported by a spring

8.10 Determine free-vibration frequencies and mode shapes for the plane frame shown
in Figure 8.27. Note the diagonal brace can carry axial forces only. The dimensions
in meters are shown in the figure. Assume the following numerical data:
p = 7850kglm3 ; E = 210 GPa; m = 350kg

Frame members: 1= 350.9 X 10- 6 m"; A = 8.39 X 10- 3 m2 ;
Diagonal brace: A = 1.252 X 10-3 m2
y
Mass, ill
4
o
-----------x
o 3 5
Figure 8.27.
Transient Vibrations
8.11 The left half of the beam shown in Figure 8.28 is supporting a rotating machine
operating at 1500 rpm. Due' to unbalance, the machine exerts a uniformly distributed
load of 800 lb/in that varies harmonically. Using two beam elements, determine the
time history of midspan displacement. Use the following numerical data:
L = 150in; E =30 x 106 psi;
q sin wIt
tt t t ~ ~ ~ t ! !
I'" L/2 '~r~-- L/2 ~I
Figure 8.28.
PROBLEMS 585
8,12 The plane frame shown in Figure 8.29 is subjected to pressure q from a blast. A
simple idealization of the blast loading is that of a triangular pulse as shown in the
figure. Use the following numerical data:
q = 200lb/in; td = 0.02 s; L = 180 in; E ='30 x 106lb/in2

A = 100in2; 1= 1000in4 ; m = 0.03lb· s2/in
T
L/-fi.
1
qLLoad time history
L -I
Figure 8.29. Plane frame with distributed load
CHAPTER NINE
p-FORMULATION
In conventional finite element formulation, each element is based on a specific set of inter-
polation functions. After choosing an element type, the only way to obtain a better solution
is to refine the model. This formulation is called the h-formulation, where h indicates the
generic size of an element. For one-dimensional problems h is the length of an element. For
two- and three-dimensional problems it can be thought ofas the diameter of the inscribing
circle or sphere. In general, the finite element solution converges to the exact solution as
h -? O. /
An alternative formulation, called the p-formulation, is presented in this chapter. In this
formulation, the elements are based on interpolation functions that involve very high order
terms. The initial finite element model is fairly coarse and is based primarily on geometric
considerations. Refined solutions are obtained by increasing the order of the interpolation
functions used in the formulation. Efficient interpolation functions have been developed so
thathigher order solutions can be obtained in a hierarchical manner from the lower order
solutions.
9.1 p-FORMULATION FOR SECOND-ORDER 1D BVP
In this section p-finite element equations are derived for the one-dimensional boundary
value problem of the following form:
d ( d£l(X))
dx lc(x)-;r;- + p(x)£l(x) + q(x) = 0;
where k(x), p(x), and q(x) are given functions of x and £l(x) is the solution variable. The
586
p-FORMULATION FOR SECOND-ORDER 10 BVP 587
Master element
-t------------ X
Figure 9.1. Two node p-element for second-order BVP
boundary conditions of the following form may be specified at one or more points:
EBC: u = specified
du
NBC: -dx = au +[3
where a and [3 are some specified constants.
. The basic element is a two-node element shown in Figure 9.1. The mapping to the
. master element is based on linear Lagrangian interpolation functions for the two-node line
element:
dx xI x L
- =--+-2
ds 2 2
=-2 and
Allowing for the possibility of natural boundary conditions at the element ends, over an
element we must satisfy
Note that in the natural boundary condition at XI the negative of the derivative is specified.
As explained in Chapter 3, when applying this element to physical problems, the sign
makes sense with the usual sign convention adopted for those problems. The weak form
can be written using standard steps of writing the weighted residual, integration by parts,
and incorporating the natural boundary conditions:
9.1.1 Assumed Solution Using Legendre Polynomials

Each element has two nodal degrees of freedom (u l and u2 ) · and any number of additional
degrees of freedom identified as 81' 82, .... The first two interpolation functions are the
same as those used in the mapping and directly involve nodal unknowns. The remaining
interpolation functions (called the p-modesi are not associated with nodal values. We can
588 p-FORMULATION
¢o
---I----s
-1 1
\J' _I,
--~
Figure 9.2. Plots of first nine Legendre polynomials
choose any set of functions for defining p-modes as long as they are easy to differentiate
and integrate. Among several possibilities, p-modes written in terms of Legendre polyno-
mials have been used quite successfully. The Legendre polynomials can be generated by
the following recursive equation:
(i + l)¢i+1 (s) = (2i + l)s¢i(s) - i¢i_l (s); i = 1,2, ...

¢o(s) = 1; ¢I(S)=S
,I
where ¢i(S) is the ith Legendre polynomial. The first nine Legendre polynomials are given
below explicitly. Figure 9.2 shows plots of these functions over the interval (-1, 1). Note
that the even Legendre polynomials have a value of 1 at the ends and the odd polynomials
have values of -1 and 1 at the ends. The polynomial values fluctuate evenly over the entire
interval. The Legendre polynomials also have the following orthogonality property that
can easily be verified by direct computation:
={2i~ 1 for i = j
r1¢i(S)¢j(S)dS
J-l . 0 for i:1' j
¢o = 1
¢I =S
3sz 1
¢z = 2" -"2
5s3 3s
¢3 = 2" - 2"
35s4 l5s2 3
¢4= -8--T+ 8
63s 5 35s 3 l5s
¢5= -8--4+8
23ls6 3l5s4 105s2 5
¢6 = 16 - 16 +16 - 16
. 429s 7 693s 5 3l5s3 35s
¢7= 16-16+16-1"6
6435s 8 300s 6 3465s4 3l5s2 35

¢8= 128-32+~-32+128
An important consideration in choosing appropriate functions for the p-modes is the re-
quirement that the solution be continuous over the entire domain. In the standard finite
element formulation the solution at a node common between two elements is made con-
tinuous by using the same nodal degree of freedom at the node. Since the p-modes are not
associated with a node, they must be chosen carefully. The simplest approach is to define
p-modes that are always zero at the element ends. Thus they do not influence the solu-
tion outside of the element and are unique to each element. Therefore the standard finite
element assembly procedure can be used to get the global finite element equations. The
numerical examples presented in the following section will further clarify this point.
From the plots of the Legendre polynomials, it is easy to see that we can get zero values
at s = ± I by subtracting two even or two odd polynomials from each other. Thus suitable
p-modes can be defined by the following equation:
i = 1,2, ...
Note the definition includes a factor that is chosen for convenience. The particular choice
makes the integral for the orthogonality property come out to 1. By direct computation, it
can be verified that the two p-modes satisfy the following orthogonality property:
J-I
r l
dPi(s) dPj(s) ds
ds ds
= {10
for i = j
for i *" j
Because of this orthogonality property, the element matrices can be constructed in a very
efficient manner. The first six p~modes are written explicity as follows and are also plotted
in Figure 9.3. It can easily be seen that all the p-modes are zero at the ends. Being simple
polynomials, they are easy to differentiate and integrate as well.
tf>i-l tf>i+! Pj
3s2
2
1
2
-1
2
If
-(s2 - 1)
2
2 S
5s3
2
3s
2
-
2
1~-s(s
2
2 - 1)
590 p-FORMULATION
Figure 9.3. First six p-modes
tPi- 1 tPi+1 Pi
3
3s2
2
1
2
35s4
-8--4+8
15s2 3
-1
8 2
ff
-(5s4 - 6s2 + 1)
5s3 3s 63s s 35s 3 15s 3s(7s4 - 10s2 + 3)

4 -8--4+8
2 2 8...[2
5
35s 4
-8--4+8
15s2 3 231s6
-----+----
16
315s4
16
105s2
16
5
16
-
16
lfi-(2Is6
2
- 35s 4 + 15s2 - 1)
63s5 35s3 15s 429s7 693s s 319 35s

6 -8--4+8 1:6-1:6+1:6-"16 - I f-s(33s
f 6
- 63s
4
+ 35s2 - 5)
16 2
It is interesting to contrast these p-modes with the high-order Lagrange interpolation func-
tions. For example, the middle six, interpolation functions for a seventh-order Lagrange
interpolation are as shown in Figure 9.4. All these functions have zero values at the ends
and thus could have been used as p-modes. However, the function values fluctuate widely
over the interval, and thus the functions are not as nicely behaved as the p-modes based on
Legendre polynomials.
~ L3 L4
-~, ~' -~, -1 -1 .
Ls L6 L7
-~, -~~tlr -~,

-1 -1
Figure 9.4. Second through seventh interpolation functions for a seventh-order Lagrange interpola-
tion
9.;1.2 Element Equations

The assumed solution consists of two linear Lagrange interpolation functions and any num-
ber of p-modes:
where up U z are nodal degrees of freedom and 01'0z" .. are unknown parameters asso-
... )
ciated with the p-modes. With the mapping the derivatives of the assumed solution with
l
UzI]
U
~I :iN d
T
respect to actual element coordinate x can be written as follows:
du _ du ds 2 du _ 2 (dN I dN z dP I
dx - ds dx = L ds - L ds ds ds
The weak form over the element is
lXl
x, (q(x)w;(x) + p(x)u(x)w;(x) - k(x)u' (x)w;(x)) dx
-k(x l )(- f31 - (Xlu(XI))wi(X I) + k(x z)(f3z + (Xzu(xz))w;(xz) =0

Note the prime indicates differentiation with respect to x. Using the mapping x = xes), all
terms inside the integral are expressed in terms .of s, and the weak form is
r ( q(s)w;(s) + p(s)u(s)wi(s)
J-I
l
-
-
2dU2dw.)L
k(s)L ds L ds' '"ids
- k(x l)( -f3 1 - (XI u(xl))wi(x l) + k(x z)(f3z + (Xzu(xz))w;(xz) =0

The weighting functions Wi"are NI' N z, PI' .... We get one equation with each weighting
function. Writing all equations together in a matrix form, we have
Noting that u(x l) = u I, u(x z) = uz, NI(-l) = 1, NI(l) = O;Nz(- l ) = 0, Nz(l) = 1, and
P;(±l) = 0, we have
592 p-FORMULATION
Substituting the assumed solution, we have
1: (qN+ pNN'd - kBB'd) ~d'-k(X,)(-P, -a,u,)[g]

+ k(~)$, +a,~) mm =
Rearranging the terms by keepirig the terms involving unknown parameters on the left-hand
side, we have
kexI)U'1 £II] [keXI)!3I]

t kBB d!:.. ds _ t pNN d~ ds _
T T keX2~U'2U2 = (I qN!:.. ds + k eX
O)!32
LI 2 LI - ( ·
LI 2
.
·· ..
Define ,I
I L
kk =
I -I
kBBT ?ds
I
-
L
k = -
P I I
-I
L
pNNT -ds
2
r
q
=
I -I
qN-ds
2
keXI)U'IUI] [-U'lkeXI)
keX2)U'2U2 0
- 0 = 0
[ ·· ...
·
As explained in detail in Chapter 3, during assembly, the natural boundary condition terms
are incorporated directly into the global equations as follows:
NBC atdof i: Add to global k Add to global r

ki], i) = leU, i) - a;le(x) rei) = rei) + le(,-":;)f3;
Thus at the element level the equations are simply
,9.1.3 Numerical Examples

Example 9.1 Using only one element model, shown in Figure 9.5, obtain the finite ele-
ment solution of the following boundary value problem. Consider 0, I, and 2 p-modes.
d
dx (ru") + (x - l)u =0; O<x<1
u(O) = 1; u'(l) =6
For this problem
k(x) = r;p(x) = x-I; q(x) = 0
EBCatx=O:u= 1
NBC at x = 1: a = 0, f3 = 6
Element nodes: 0,1; L= 1
Change of variables: xes) = s + 1

... 2
s+1 .
lees) = !(s -i- 1)2; pes) = -2- - 1; q(s) = 0
With no p-modes we get the standard linear element equations as follows:
Interpolation functions, NT = ( 1 ~ s s ~ 1)
UI Uz
:ct .. __... ~.~ -
':~~..; ~ ~-
XI= 0 xz=·l
-1-------------,- x
Figure 9.5.
594 p-FORMULATION
B T = dN TIdx = (VL)dN TIds = (-1 1)
kk = L\ Ws + I)2)BBT V2ds = (!~

kp = L\ t (1 - t(s + l))NNTLds = I
•
.
(
12
J
1)'
12
=(0)
(~ -~)(UI)
2...
12
u 0 2
The natural boundary conditions are
dof a f3
u2 0 6
dof k(x) -k(x)a k(x)[3
u2 1 0 6
The global equations after incorporating the NBC are
(~
/
The essential boundary condition is
dof Value
Incorporating the EBC, the final system of equations is as follows:

(f2)(u2) =(¥)
Solution of global equations: {u l -? 1, u2 -? IS}
The solution over elements is as follows:
Element 1
Nodes: {xI -? 0,x -? I}
2
Interpolation functions: NT = {t(2 - 2x), x}
dofvalues: aT = {I, IS}
Solution: u(x) = NTa = 14x + 1
p-FORMULATION FOR SECOND-ORDER 1D BVP 595
With one p-mode the element equations are as follows:
Interpolation functions, NT =( I ~ s s+l

2
l~?
-
2
-(s- - 1) )
2 .
dN T dN T
BT = -dx = (2IL)-
ds
= (-1 1 {6s)
u:
1 I
-3" --.(6
1 1
k, =LWlH 1)')BB'Ld, = 3" -.(6
1 4
-.(6 -.(6 5"
1 1
4 12
1 1
12· 12
1
TO
Note that the first 2 x 2 submatrix in these two matrices are exactly the same as those for
the previous case of no p-modes. This is a direct result of orthogonality of the ·p-modes. In
an actual implementation of p-formulation, we can take advantage of this fact and compute
only the new terms that are added to the equations when considering higher p-modes. The
complete element equations are as follows:
7 1 13
-4
(:: H~)
12 -10-.(6
1 5 z.y'f
-4 12 -5-
8~) 0
13 z.y'f 9
-10-.(6 -5- TO
The superscript over 8 indicates the element number while the subscript indicates the pa-
rameter number.
With only a single element the global equations before boundary conditions are the
same as the equations for the first element:
= [0)
0.583333 -0.25 I]
-0.530723)[ Ll
-0.25 0.416667 0.326599 LiZ 0
[ -0.530723 0.326599 0.9 AI) 0
The natural boundary conditions are
dof k(x) -k(x)a k(x){3

LiZ 1. 0 6.
596 p-FORMULATION
The global equations after incorporating NBC are
0.583333 -0.25
-0.25 0.416667 0.326599 U£II]
-0.530723)( (0)
z == 6.
[
-0.530723 0.326599 0.9 l
) 0 8i
dof Value
0.416667 0.326599)( uz) == (6.25 )

( 0.326599 0.9 1
) 8i
0.530723
Solution of global equations: {£II -7 1., Uz -7 20.3168, 8i l

) -7 -6.7830l}
The solution over elements is as follows:

Element 1
Nodes: {XI -7 0, X z -7 1}
1 dC2x-1l-1}
Interpolation functions: NT (' { 2'C2 - 2x), X, z Y6 z
dof values: dT == {I., 20.3168, -6.78301}
Solution: uCx) == NTd == -16.6149x2 + 35.9317x + 1.
With two p-modes the element equations are as follows:
Interpolation functions: NT == ( 1 ~ S, S; 1 ~ .j[Cs 2 _ 1) ~ .j[SCs

2 _ 1))
B d::
T
== == (~) d: T
== ( -1 Y6s ..jIC3s Z - 1))
1 1 1 1
3 -3 -{6 -3{fii
1 1 1 1
-3 3' {6 3{fii
I 1 4 2
-(6 {6 '5 -{l5
1 I 2 16
-3{fii 3{fii -{l5 2T
I I _-..II I
4 12 10 6{10
1
II ~ (1-
I I
12 12 - 5Y6 0
kp = !(s + l))NNTLds =
-I
-10
-..II - 5Y6
I I
10
I
- 14-{i5
I I I
6{10
0 - 14-{i5 42
7 I 13 I
12 -4 -1OY6 -6{10
z-..II
[~H~]
I 5 -5- 1
-4 12 3{10
13 z...{f
-5- 9 9-{f
-1OY6 10 14 8~) 0
I 1 9-{f II
-6{10 3{10 14 14
Once again, note that the lower p-mode equations are contained in the higher ones.
The global equations before the boundary conditions are
0.583333 -0.25 -0.530723 I]

-0.25 0.416667 0.326599 -0.0527046][
0.105409 LlLiZ 0 (0]
0.326599 0.9 0.497955 8\1) = 0
( -0.530723
-0.0527046 0.105409 0.497955 0.785714 8~l) 0
The natural boundary conditions are'
-k(x)a: k(x){3
LiZ 1. o 6.
The global equations after incorporating the NBC are
0.583333 -:0.25 -0.530723

-0.25 0.416667 0.326599 -0.0527046][.
0.105409 LlI]
LIZ (0]
6.
0.326599 0.9 0.497955 8\1) = 0
[ -0.530723
-0.0527046 0.105409 0.497955 0.785714 8~l) 0
dof Value
598 p-FORMULATION
0.4 16667 0.326599 2]

0.105409) [ U
0.326599 0.9 0.497955 oil) = (6.25
0.530723
)
(
0.105409 0.497955 0.785714 oil) 0.0527046
Solution of global equations:
(\) (I) }
{ u l -? 1., u2 -? 20.9794, 0\ -? -8.47513, 02 -? 2.62375
Solution over elements is as follows:

Element 1
Nodes: {XI -? 0, x2 -? 1}
NT =
I 2(2x - 1)2 - 2 ~(2x - 1)3 - 2(2x
-(2 _ 2x) X 2
{2
2 - 2
-l)}
" {6' -{16
dof values: d T = (1., 20.9794, -8.47513, 2.62375)

Solution: u(x) =NTd = 16.594h.3 - 45.6508x2 + 49.0361x + 1.
These solutions, together with the one obtained by using three p-modes, are shown in
Figure 9.6. The solutions are clearly converging. The plot of the first derivative shows that
there is still room for further improvement. The natural boundary condition is not satisfied
yet either but the solution is getting closer. The first derivative values at X = 1 are as
follows: i
Computed u' (l )
Linear solution 14.
With 1 p-mode 2.70186
With 2 p-modes 7.51665
With 3 p-modes 5.17712
u du/dx -3p
20 60
50 --2p
15 40 - lp
30 -Lin.
10 20 .~
10 I----=~-=---
x +------="""'''''''-''''"" x
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 9.6.
Figure 9.7. Heat transfer through a circular fin
Example 9.2 AIm x 1 m plate is at a temperature of 100°F. It is to be cooled by using

3-cm-long and 0.25-cm-diameter aluminum fins (k = 237 W/m- °C) with a center-to-center
distance of 0.6 em. A typical fin is as shown in Figure 9.7. The ambient air temperature
is 30°C and average convection coefficient is 35 W/m 2 • °C. Determine the temperature
distribution through the fins. What is the rate of heat transfer from the entire finned surface
of the plate?
"Assuming that the surrounding temperature Too is uniform, the problem can be treated
asone dimensional with the governing differential equation as follows:
-d (k 11-
dT)
dx x" dx
- hP(T - T )
00
= 0; O<x<L
dT
at x=O and - kJi.-
dx = M(T - T )
00
at x =L
where kx = thermal conductivity, h = convection coefficient, P = 2rrr = surface area per
unit length over which convection takes place, r = radius of the fin, A = rrr2 = area of cross
section, and Too = ambient air temperature. Once the temperature distribution is mown,
the total heat loss from a fin can be computed using the following equation:
Heat loss = LL hP(T(x) - Too) dx
Comparing with the general form, we have
p = -hP;
M f3 = MToo
EBC atz = 0: NBC atx = L: Q!=-_.
, kA' kA
The problem is solved using two elements with two p-modes each. The complete solution
details areas follows:
Element nodes: 0, L; L=L
Change of variables: xes) = !L(s + 1)
k(s) = kA; pes) = -hP; q(s) = hPToo
Interpolation functions, NT = ( 1 ; s s+1 1~-(s- -

- ?'
1)
2 2 2
600 p-FORMULATION
BT=dN
dx
T
=(~)dNT
L ds
=( "i.1 1
-
L
-Y6s {f(3t
L
-1))
kA kA
I: -I: 0 0
kA kA
-I: 0 0
kk =1\ !UcA)BBTLds =
0
I:
0 2kA
0
T
2kA
0 0 0 T
hPL /lPL /lPL /lPL
"3 6 - 2-f6 6-{16
/lPL /lPL /lPL /lPL
6 "3 - 2-f6 -6ViQ
kp =1\ ~(hP)NNTLds =
/lPL /lPL /lPL
0
- 2-f6 - 2-f6 "5
.l1f.b... /lPL 0 /lPL
6-{16 - 6-{16 21
T _
rq -
II-I 'i(hPTco)NLds
1 _
-
{hPTcoL hPTcoL
~'~' -
hPTcoL
-Y6 ,0
}
The complete element equations are asfollows:

!;d + /lPL 6
/lPL
-I:
kA hPL /lPL /lPT~L
L 3 - 2-f6 6-{16 -2-
[~+
!lPL kA !;d + !lPL hPL /lPL hPT~L
6-I: L 3 - 2-f6 -6-{16 --y-
/lPL !lPL 2kA + hPL 0 hPT~L
- 2-f6 - 2-f6 L 5 - -f6
8~)
/lPL /lPL
0 2kA + /lPL 0
6-{16 -6-{16 L 21
k(x) =0.00465348; p(x) =-0.549779; q(x) =16.4934

Two-element solution:
Nodal locations: {O, 0.015, 0.03}
Element 1:
Element nodes: (Xl -? 0, x2 -? 0.015}
0.312981 -0.308858 -0.00168335 I
0,000434638]( T ] [ 0.1237 ]
-0.308858 0.312981 -0.00168335 -0.000434638 Tzl 0.1237
[ -0.00168335 -0.00168335 0.622114 o 8i ) = -0.101001
0.000434638 -0.000434638 o 0.620857 8~1) 0
Element 2:
Element nodes: {x2 -? 0.015, x 3 -? 0.03}
0.312981 -0.308858 -0.00168335

0,000434638][ T2] [ 0.1237 ]
-0.308858 0.312981 -0.00168335 -0.000434638 T3 0.1237
2
[ -0.00168335 -0.00168335 0.622114 o 8i ) = -0.101001
0.000434638 -0.000434638 o O. 620857 8~2) 0 .
0.312981 -0.308858 o -0.00168335 o 0.000434638 o TI 0.1237

-0.308858 -0.00168335 -0.00168335 -0.000134638 0.000434638 T2 0.2474
-0.308858 0.625962
o -0.308858 0.312981 o -0.00168335 o -0.000434638
o
T,
0\11
0.1237
-0.00168335 -0.00168335 o 0.622114 o o -0.101001
o -0.00168335 -0.00168335 o 0.622114 o o 0\'1 -0.101001
0.000434638 -0.000434638 o o o 0.620857 o oill o
o 0.000434638 -0.000434638 o o o 0.620857 oi'l o
dof a (3
T3 -0.147679 4.43038
dof k(x) -k(x)a k(x){3

T3 0.00465348 0.000687223 0.0206167
Global equations after incorporating NBC:
0.312981 -0.308858 o -0.00168335 o 0.000434638 o TI 0.1237

-0.308858 -0.00168335 -0.00168335 -0.000434638 0.000434638 T2 0.2474
-0.308858 0.625962
o -0.308858 0.313668 o -0.00168335 o -0.000434638 T, 0.144317
o o o 0\11 -0.101001
-0.00168335 -0.00168335 o 0.622114
o -0.00168335 -0.00168335 o 0.622114 o o 0\'1 -0.101001
0.000434638 -0.000434638 o o o 0.620857 o oill o
o 0.000434638 -0.000434638 o o o 0.620857 0~1 o
Essential boundary condition:
dof Value
T1 100
T2
0.625962 -0.308858 -0.00168335 -0.00168335 -0.000434638 0.000434638 31.1332
T3
-0.308858 0.313668 0 -0.00168335 0 -0.000434638 0.144317
0\1)
-0.00168335 0 0.622114 0 0 0 0.0673339
0 0\2) -0.101001
-0.00168335 -0.00168335 0 0.622114 0
0 0 0 0.620857 0 O~l) -0.0434638
-0.000434638
0.000434638 -0.000434638 0 0 0 0.620857 0~2) O.
Solution of global equations:

(I) . (?)
{TI -7 100, T2 -7 97.1818, T3 -7 96.1534,01 -7 0.371193,01- -7 0.360785,
(I) (2) )
02 -7 -0.00197291, 02 -7 -0.00071994
602 p-FORMULATION

Nodes: {xI -t 0, x 2 -t 0.015}
NT ={ !(l - 66.6667(21:- 0.015)), !(66.6667(2x - 0.015) + 1),
6666.67(2x - 0.015)2 - ~ 740741.(2x - 0.015)3 - 166.667(2x - 0.015)}

~' ~
dofvalues: d T = {100, 97.1818, 0.371193, -0.00197291}

Solution: T(x) = NTd = -3697.13x3 + 4124.23x 2 - 248.912x + 100.
Nodes: {xI -t 0.015, x 2 -t 0.03}
NT ={!(l - 66.6667(2x - 0.045)), !(66.6667(2x - 0.045) + 1),
6666.67(2x - 0.045)2 - 740741.(2x - 0.045)3 - l66.667(2x - 0.045)}

~
dofvalues: d = {97.l818, 96.1534, 0.360785, -0.00071994}
T
Solution: T(x) = NTd = -1349.13x3 + 4018.8x 2 - 247.281x + 99.9913

Solution summary:
Range "Solution
1 0 5; x 5; 0.015 -3697.13x3 + 4124.23x 2 - 248.912x + 100.
2 0.015 5; x 5; 0.03 -1349.13x3 + 4018.8x 2 - 247.28lx + 99.9913
A plot of the solution is shown in Figure 9.8.
{-3697.13x3 +4124.232 - 248.912x+ 100., -1349.13x3 +4018.82 - 247.281x+ 99.9913}
T
100
99
98
0.005 0.01 0.015 .
Figure 9.8. Temperaturedistributionin the fin

The heat loss over the length of a fin is determined as follows:
i L
hP(T(x) - Too) dx
(0.015
= Jo 0.549779(-3697.13;2 + 4l24.23~ - 248.9l2x + 100. - 30) dx
0.03
+
= 1.11297
1 0.015
0.549779(-1349.13;2 + 40l8.8~ - 247.281x + 99.9913 - 30) dx
The following analytical solution for heat loss is available for the problem:
_~ 8inh[mL] + b/(mk) Cosh[mL]
m = yhF/(kA);"V hPkA (Tb - Too) []
Cosh mL + b/(mk) 81nh
. [ ]
mL
1.07569
The finite element solution compares fairly well with the analytical solution. To compute
the heat loss from the entire plate surface, we need to determine the total number of fins
and multiply the heat loss per fin by this number:
1mx 1m
Number of fins = (0.006m)(0.006m) = 27,778 fins
Heat loss through all fins = 27778 x 1.113 = 30,917 W
As mentioned earlier, because of the orthogonality properties of p-modes, additional p-
modes simply add new rows and columns to the element k matrix. The existing entries
in the matrix do not change. By ordering the global equations as we have done in this
example, the global K matrix also retains this property. Thus adding new p-modes simply
requires computation of the new element rows and columns and their assembly into the
existing global equations. This is clearly demonstrated in the following global equations'
obtained with two elements and zero, one, and two p-modes.
With no p-modes we get the following global equations:
0.312981 -0.308858 0 ][Tl ] [0.1237]

-0.308858 0.625962 -0.308858 Tz = 0.2474
[ o -0.308858 0.312981 T3 ' ... 0.1237
With one p-mode for each element two new rows and columns are ridded to the global
equations. Note the first 3 x 3 system of equations is exactly the same as that with no
p-modes:
0.312981 -0.308858 0 -0.00168335 .0 t,

-0.308858 0.625962 -0.308858 -0.00168335 -0.00168335 Tz [ 01237
0.2474
0 -0.308858 0.312981 0 -0.00168335 T3 = 0.1237
-0.00168335 -0.00168335 0 0.622114 0 8l1) -0.101001
0 -0.00168335 -0.00168335 0 0.622114 8~) -0.101001
604 p-FORMULATION
T be
- - Linear
100
- - 1 P mode
99 - - 2p modes
- 3p modes TI
98
- - 4 p modes
97
x
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Figure 9.9. Comparison of solutions using one element with zero to four p-modes
With two p-modes for each element the first 5 x 5 system of equations is exactly the same 9.
as that with one p-mode:
TI
TI CI
0.312981 -0.308858 0 -0.00168335 0 0.000434638 0 0.1237
-0.308858 0.625962 -0.308858 -0.00168335 -0.00168335 -0.000434638 0.000434638 T2 0.2474 ell
0 -0.308858 0.312981 0 -0.00168335 0 -0.000434638 T, 0.1237 WI
-0.00168335 -0.00168335 0 0
0\11
0 0.622114 0 -0.101001
·0 -0.00168335 -0.00168335 0 0.622114 0 0 0\21 -0.101001
0.000434638 -0.000434638 0 0 0 0.620857 0 0~1) 0
0 0.000434638 -0.000434638 0 0 0 0.620857 6~21 0
wI
an
Thus, taking advantage of this hierarchical nature of element and global equations, it is
in
possible to create very efficient computer implementations based on the p-formulation.
si:
The solution convergence can be demonstrated by evaluating solutions with increasing
number of p-modes. Figure 9.9 shows solutions obtained from using only one element
with zero through four p-modes. Except for the linear solution, all others are practically
indistinguishable from each other.
9.2 p-FORMULATION FOR SECOND-ORDER 20 BVP
In this section we consider p-formulation for the general two-dimensional boundary value
problem first introduced in Chapter 5. The differential equation defined over an arbitrary
two-dimensional area is as follows:
where kxCx, y), k/x, y), p(x, y), andq(x, y) are known functions defined over the area. The
solution variable is u(x, y). The area of the solution domain is denoted by A and its boundary
by C. The boundary is defined in terms of coordinate c and an outer unit normal to the
p-FORMULATION FOR SECOND·ORDER 20 BVP 605
ry n, The x and y components of the normal vector are denoted by nx and ny:
n=(n /1
x
) ,'Inl = ~/12x + nY2 = 1
y
undary conditions are of the following types:
Essential boundary condition specified on portion of the boundary indicated by Ce:
u(e) specified on C,
Natural boundary condition specified on portion of the boundary indicated by CIl :
au au au
k 73 == kx73 /1x + k y73 /1y = a(e)u(e) + {3(e) on CIl
on ox oy
p-Mode Assumed Solution

ution domain is discretized into arbitrary four-sided quadrilaterals. As discussed in
r 6, a quadrilateral element is mapped to a 2 x 2 square element called the master
t. The mapping between the actual element coordinates and the master element is
as follows:
N, (s, t), N2 (s, t), ... are serendipity interpolation functions for the master element
y j ' ••• are the coordinates of the key points of the actual quadrilateral element. The
ration functions for mapping a quadrilateral with straight sides and one with all
irved, are as follows:
rpolation functions for mapping when all four sides are straight lines: four key points
ure 9.10):
N=
t(-l+s)(-l+t)
-t(l+s)(-l+t)
t (1 +s)(l +t)
I 2
- t (-1 +s)(l +t)
1 I- 2 .~I
Figure 9.10.
606 p-FORMULATION
Interpolation functions for mapping when all four sides are quadratic curves: eight key
points (Figure 9.11):
-t (-1 +s)(-1 + t)(1 + s + t)

1. (-1 +s2)(-1 + t)
I
2
t (-1 +t)(1-S2+ t+ s t)
--} (1 +s)(-1 +r2)
N= 2 s
t (1 +s)(1 +t)(-1 +s + t)
--} (-1 +S2)(1 +t)
t (-1 + s) (1 + s - t) (1 + t)
-}(-I+s)(-I+t2)
1 I·
Figure 9.11.
The assumed solution for the p-formulation is developed in terms of s, t for the 2 X 2
master element. Each element has four corner nodal degrees of freedom up u2' u3' and u4
regardless of the number of key points used for mapping. Thus, even if an element has all
sides that are curved and is defined with eight key points for mapping, it still has only four
corner degrees of freedom. Linear Lagrange interpolation functions are used to interpolate
between the corner nodal unknowns. Higher order solutions are written by including a
number of p-modes identified with parameters 01'02' .... Thus the assumed solution is
written as follows:
u(s,t)=Nlul+· .. +N4U4+PI81+P202+···=(NI ... N4 PI ... ) U4

°1
NI = ~(1 - s)(1 - t); N2 = ~(s + 1)(1 - t); N3 = ~(s + 1)(t + 1);
N4 = ~(1 - s)(t + 1)
The p-modes must be chosen in such a way that during assembly it is possible to maintain
continuity of the assumed solution over the entire solution domain. With the standard finite
element formulation the continuity of the solution was maintained by simply matching ap-
propriate nodal degrees of freedom at a common element interface during assembly. Since
now the solution depends on the p-modes as well, we must account for nonzero p-modes
across common element interfaces during assembly. To make this process computationally
tractable, the p-modes are chosen carefully so that they are either zero on all four element
sides or nonzero on one side of the element only. Thus the p-modes are classified as side
modes and internalmodes. The side modes are zero along three sides of the element and
the internal modes are zero along all four sides of the element. The internal modes are in-
dependent for each element and do not require any special consideration during assembly.
The 'side-mode parameters along the common interface between the two elements must be
matched during assembly to maintain continuity of the assumed solution. The process will
become clear when we consider numerical examples.
The one-dimensional p-modes based on Legendre polynomials can easily be extended
to define both the side and the internal modes. The one-dimensional p-modes in terms of s
are as follows:
1
Pi(s) == .y2(2i + 1) (!/Ji+l (s) - !/Ji-l(s)); i = 1,2, ...
where !/Ji are the Legendre polynomials. The functions Pi(s) are 0 at both s = -1 and s = 1.
A suitable side mode for side 1-2 (t = -1; see Figure 9.10) of the master element must
have a value of 1 on side 1-2 and zero on all other sides. This can be accomplished by
multiplying Fj(s) by (i - t)l2. Thus suitable p-modes for side 1-2 of the element can be
written as follows: .
p,~1-2) _ (1 - t)12 .
I - .y2(2i + 1) (!/Ji+l (s) - !/Ji-l(s)), i = 1,2, ...
Following a similar reasoning, suitable p-modes for the other three sides of the element
can be written as follows:
p,(2-3) _ (l + s)12 t _ r l):
I - .y2(2i + 1) (!/Ji+J () !/Ji-J ( )), i =1,2, '"
p,~3-4) _ (1 + t)12 s _
I -
S'
.y2(2i + 1) (!/Ji+l () !/Ji-l ( )), i = 1,2, ...
p,(4-1) _ (1 - s)12 .
I - .y2(2i + 1) (!/Ji+l (t) - !/Ji-l(t)), i = 1,2, ...
The internal modes can be defined by simply taking the product of one-dimensional p-
modes in the s and the t directions:
i = 1,2, ... ; j = 1,2, ...

Denoting the order of the assumed solution by n, with n = 1 for linear, n = 2 for quadratic,
etc., an assumed solution of any order can be written systematically as follows:
Linear solution: n = 1. No p-modes:
NT =( ~(l - s)(l - t) ~(s + 1)(1 - t) ~(s + l)(t + 1) ~(l - s)(t + 1))
Quadratic solution: n = 2. Four nodal modes + 4 side modes:

NT = (Nl N 2 N3 N 4 p/- 2 Pt-3 p[.-4 pt- l)
Cubic solution: n = 3. Four nodal modes + 8 side modes:
._--------------------------
608 p·FORMULATION
Higher order solutions: n :2: 4. Four nodal modes + 4(n -1) side modes + (n - 2)(n - 3)/2
internal modes:
NT = (N N2 N3 N pl-2 pf-3 pr- 4 p~-I

I 4
Pi-2 p]:-3 pi- 4 Pi-I ... pll p12 ... )
The total number of interpolation functions increases rapidly with n, For example, with
n = 5 we have 4 nodal modes, 16 side modes, and 3 internal modes for a total of 27 interpo-
lation functions for each element. However, the computational effort does not increase that
rapidly because of orthogonality properties of the Legendre polynomials used in defining
these modes.
Example 9.3 Write explicit expressions for a fourth-order interpolation for a 2 x 2 master
element.
Here n = 4 and we have 4 nodal modes, 12 side modes, and 1 internal mode for a
total of 17 interpolation functions. Using the above equations the expressions for these
interpolation functions are as follows:
Nodalmodes ~(1 -.s)(1 - t) ~(s + 1)(1 - t) ~(s + 1)(t + 1) ~(1 - s)(t + 1)

(3~2 _~) (1 - t) (s + 1)(¥ - ~) (3t-~)(t+1) (1-s)(¥-~)
Side modes: 1st set
2{6 2{6 2{6 2{6
(5r - ¥) (1 - t) (s + 1)( ?f - ¥) (5r-¥)(t+1) (1 - s) (?f - ¥)
Side modes: 2nd set
2{l6 2{l6 2{l6 2{l6
Side modes: 3rd set

(3st - 2r + ~) (1 - t) (s + 1)(3r . /~2 + n (35$4 _21$2
8 4
+ 1)8 (1 ~ s) (3f - 2~2 + n
2{l4 2...[14 2...[14 2...[14
s2
Internalmode ~e _ ~)et2 _~)
6 2 222

The finite element equations consist of exactly the same terms as those derived in Chap-
ter 5. The only difference is that now we are using different interpolation functions. Thus
the element equations are as follows:
where
T
d = (u 1 u2 Lt3 u4 01 02 ... )
kk = IIA
T
BeB dA; kp =- II
A
T
pNN dA;
N =vector of interpolation functions

N; = vector of interpolation functions along a given element side
B T = '!ax
!:!.1 aN,
ax ... )
and
[ '!!:!.1 aN2 ' •••
ay ay
The quantities k cr and rfJ are a result of applied natural boundary conditions and will affect
only those elements that share the boundary with the NBC. For the interior elements these
terms will be zero. Theinterpolation functions are written over the master element in terms
of s, t. However, the element equations need x and y derivatives of these interpolation func-
tions. As shown in Chapter 6 using the mapping xes, t) and yes, t) and employing the chain
rule of differentiation, the derivatives of the ith interpolation can be written as follows:
J = ax
as ax)
7fi = ( J lI detJ = laxa y _ axaYI
( qz qz J?] as at at as
as at -
aN;
ax ) _ J- T [ q!!.J.)
as _ 1 ( 7fi ay
[ q!!.J. - q!!.J. - detJ _ill
~ at &
The matrix of derivatives of the interpolation functions B can be written as follows:
BT = [ a~1 a~, a:;, )_

'!!:!.1 aN, aN"
ay a; ay ,
122 '!!:!.1 1 aN, 1 '!!!:J.
BT __1_ as - 121 '!!:!.1
at 22fu - at 21 122. aN"
as - 121 aN"
at )
- detJ [ -J '!!:!.1 '!!:!.1 JaN, JaN,
as + JII aN"
-J12 aN"
-l-"J
12 as 11 at - 12fu + l1at at
In order to carry out integration, the given functions kx ' ky ' p, and q must be converted into
thes, t form by using the mapping functions. Frequently it is assumed that these quantities
are constant over an element, in which case they can simply be taken out of the integral
sign. All integrands are expressed in terms of s, t and, therefore, the above element matrices
can be established by evaluating integrals of the following form:
kk = r r BeB detl dsdt

)-1 )-1 ,
l
T
l
kp =- r t pNN detl dsdt T
J-I J-1
rq = rr
J-I J-I
l
qNdetldsdt
610 p-FORMULATION
Using an m x n Gauss quadrature formula the element matrices are then evaluated numeri-
cally as follows:
kk = (I
J-I J-I
t BCB T detl dsdt
III 1J
= L: L: wjwjB(sj> tj)C(sj> t)BT(Sj. t) detl(sj. t)

j=1 j=l
kp =- (I (I pNNT detl dsdt

J:.I J-I
III n
=- L: L: WjW jP(Sj. tj)N(sj' tj)NT (Sj' t) detl(sj' tj)

j=1 j=1
r, = (I (I qNdetldsdt
J-l J-1
m IJ
= L: L: WjW jq(Sj'tj)N(sj. t) detl(sj' tj)

j=1 j=1
where (Sj. t) are the Gauss points and wj and wj are the corresponding weights.
Elements involving a boundary where a nonzero natural boundary condition is specified
require computation of the ka matrix and the rf3 vector:
where c is a coordinate along the boundary and the integration is along the boundary of
the element. In general, the element boundary is an arbitrary curve in the x, y coordinate
system. After mapping each boundary curve, there is either a horizontal or a vertical line
representing a side of the master square element. The boundary coordinate c for each side
is mapped to a coordinate -1 s a s 1, as shown in Figure 9.12. The mapping for each side
x(a) and y(a) can be obtained from the element mapping as follows:
For side 1: a = s; t = -1
For side 2: S = 1; a = t
For side 3: a = -s; t = 1
For side 4: S = -1; a = -t
The boundary integrals along the first side of the element can now be written as follows:
rf3 = (I f3NJe da
J-I
where Ie is the Jacobian of the side:
Master element y Side 3

t
a
1---2-----1 ~..JL-----x
Figure 9.12. Boundary coordinates on the master and the actual element
Of course, the known quantities a and /3, if not constant, must be expressed in terms of
a using the mapping for the side. Now these integrals can easily be evaluated using one-
dimensional Gauss quadrature formulas:
I II
rf3 = r /3NJc da = I
Ll i=l
w;/3Ca)NcCa)JcCa)
where ai are the Gauss points and Wi are the corresponding weights.
Notation for the p-Mode Parameters The p-mode parameters are denoted by 0 with
subscripts and superscripts. For the side modes the subscripts indicate the mode number.
The superscripts consist of two numbers indicating the node numbers of the line segment
on which that side mode is nonzero. Thus O~-51 indicates the second side mode with
nonzero value on line 3-5 of the element. For the internal modes the subscript indicates
the mode number while the superscript indicates the element number. Thus o~ indicates
the second internal mode for the third element.
Example 9.4 Eight-Node Quadrilateral Element Consider solution of the following

equation over a quarter-circle annular domain using only one element as shown in Figure
9.13:
azu azu
2~ +2-z +3!i+4 =·0
or oy
au
2
an
=5u + 6 on side 3-4-5
u = 100 on side 1-2-3
612 p-FORMULATION
y Actual element
8 5
I2
6
4
6
1
2
7
0 3
x
1--2------l 0 2 4 6 8
Figure 9.13. Eight-node masterelement and actualelement
Comparing the given equation to the general form, we have lex == ley == 2, P == 3, and q 4.
On side 3-4-5 we have a natural boundary condition with a == 5 andf3 == 6. On side 1-2-3
we have an essential boundary condition with u == 100.
The nodal coordinates are as follows:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x 2 5. 8 4...[2 0 O. 0 ...[2
y 0 O. o 4...[2 8 5. 2 ...[2
Use second-order interpolation (n == 2) to evaluate element equations:
Interpolation functions for mapping:
{i(1 - s)(1- t) - i(l - s2)(1 - t) - i(l - s)(1 - t 2), 1(1 - s2)(1 - t),
i(s + 1)(1 - t) - i(1 - s2)(1 - t) - i(s + 1)(1 - t 2).1(s + 1)(1 - p),
i(s + 1)(t + 1) - i(1 - S2)(t + 1) - i(s + 1)(1 - t 2), 1(1 - s2)(t + 1),
i(1 - s)(t + 1) - i(1 - S2)(t + 1) - i(1 - s)(1 - t 2), 1(1 - s)(1 - t 2)}
Interpolation functions for assumed solution:

aNT :={t-1 1-t t+1 ~(-t-1)

as 4 ' 4 ' 4 '4 '
1 [3 3t 2 /2 - 3/2 1 [3
2~ 2s(1 - t), 2...[6 , 2~ 2s(t + 1),
aNT { s - 1 1 s+ 1 1- s
at:= T' 4(-s-1), -4-' -4-'
2
3s /2 - 3/2
2...[6 , 2 ~
~ fie2 + 1)
s t,
2
3s /2 - 3/2 ~fi(l _ )}
2...[6 , 2 ~ 2 st
The element equations are as follows:

z Element coordinates:
({2,O) {5.,0.} {8,O} (4-yz,4-YZ} {O,8} {O.,5.} {O,2} (-YZ, -YZ})
3st2 3st2 5t2 5t 2 3st 3s

xes, t) := - - + - - - + - - - - 2.5t + - + 3.53553
-YZ 2 -YZ 2 2 -YZ
3st2 3st2 5t 2 5t 2 3st 3s
Yes, t) := - - + - - - + - + - + 2.5t + - + 3.53553
-YZ 2 -YZ 2 2 -YZ
2 2
- f+i3t2_2It-+.1..
- 3t
fi -3-YZts + 3ts - 1':
2
- 5-YZt + 5t - 25J
.
1:= ( - f+i3t2
_3t2
2+2It-+.1..
fi -3.f2ts + 3ts + 1':
2
- 5-YZt + 5t + 2 5
.
9s
detl:= 1.86396st2 + 3.106~t2 + -YZ + 10.6066
Given element data: kx := 2; ky :=2; p :=3; q ix: 4

Use 2 x 2 Gauss quadrature for integration.
Gauss point « {s ~ -0.57735, t ~ -0.57735}; Weight « 1.
NT := {O.622008, 0.166667, 0.0446582, 0.166667, -0.321975,
-0.086273, -0.086273, -0.321975}
aNT
7); := (-0.394338 0.394338 0.105662 -0.105662
-0.557678 -0.204124 -0.149429 0.204124).
aNT
a t := ( -0.394338 -0.105662 0.105662 0.394338.:
0.204124 "':0.149429 -0.204124 -0.557678)
614 p-FORMULATION
r T = (0.317444 -0.137753)
0.36538 ; det] = 7.60918
0.11203
BT =( -0.0708591 0.139736 0.0189866 -0.0878632 -0.20515 -0.0442137 -0.0193168 0.14162 )
-0.188261 0.00557075 0.0504442 0.132246 0.0121062 -0.0774664 -0.0913233 -0.180896
0.615781 -0.166645 -0.164998 -0.284138 0.186541 0.269621 0.282473 0.365553
-0.166645 0.297627 0.0446525 -0.175634 -0.435236 -0.10059 -0.0488202 0.285825
-0.164998 0.0446525 0.0442111 0.0761344 -0.0499836 -0.0722447 -0.0756885 -0.0979496
-0.284138 -0.175634 0.0761344 0.383637 0.298678 -0.0967861 -0.157965 -0.553429
kk = 0.186541 -0.435236 -0.0499836 0.298678 0.642721 0.123766 0.0434829 -0.475472
0.269621 -0.10059 -0.0722447 -0.0967861 0.123766 0.121076 0.12066 0.11797
0.282473 -0.0488202 -0.0756885 . -0.157965 0.0434829 0.12066 0.132599 0.209776
0.365553 0.285825 -0.0979496 -0.553429 -0.475472 0.11797 0.209776 0.803218
-8.83185 -2.36649 -0.634098 -2.36649 4.5717 1.22498 1.22498 4.5717
-2.36649 -0.634098 -0.169906 -0.634098 1.22498 0.328234 0.328234 1.22498
-0.634098 -0.169906 -0.0455262 -0.169906 0.328234 0.0879499 0.0879499 0.328234
-2.36649 -0.634098 -0.169906 -0.634098 1.22498 0.328234 0.328234 1.22498
kp = 4.5717 1.22498 0.328234 1.22498 -2.36649 -0.634098 -0.634098 -2.36649
1.22498 0.328234 0.0879499 0.328234 -0.634098 -0.169906 -0.169906 -0.634098
1.22498 0.328234 0.0879499 0.328234 -0.634098 -0.169906 -0.169906 -0.634098
4.5717 1.22498 0.328234 1.22498 -2.36649 -0.634098 -0.634098 -2.36649
r~ = (18.9319 5.07279 1.35925 5.07279 -9.79987 -2.62587 -2.62587 -9.79987)

Similarly, evaluating at the remaining Gauss points and adding contributions,
1.61408 -0.592297 -0.72701 -0.294777 -0.85304 0.523564 0.206715 -0.553646

-0.592297 1.29396 0.0253502 -0.72701 0.149446 -0.523564 0.49688 0.553646
-0.72701 0.0253502 1.29396 -0.592297 0.49688 -0.523564 0.149446 0.553646
-0.294777 -0.72701 -0.592297 1.61408 0.206715 0.523564 -0.85304 -0.553646
-0.85304 0.149446 0.49688 0.206715 2.04632 -0.25158 0.592297 0.25158
0.523564 -0.523564 -0.523564 0.5235q<l- -0.25158 1.21948 -0.25158 0.134714
0.206715 0.49688 0.149446 -0.85304- 0.592297 -0.25158 2.04632 0.25158
-0.553646 0.553646 0.553646 -0.553646 0.25158 0.134714 0.25158 1.95799
-10.866 -7.76142 -3.88071 -5.433 7.60461 4.75288 3.80231 6.65403
-7.76142 -20.1797 -10.0899 -3.88071 11.4069 12.3575 5.70346 4.75288
-3.88071 -10.0899 -20.1797 -7.76142 5.70346 12.3575 11.4069 4.75288
-5.433 -3.88071 -7.76142 -10.866 3.80231 4.75288 7.60461 6.65403
kp = 7.60461 11.4069 5.70346 3.80231 -7.76142 -6.98528 -3.88071 -4.65685
4.75288 12.3575 12.3575 4.75288 -6.98528 -10.0899 -6.98528 -3.88071
3.80231 5.70346 11.4069 7.60461 -3.88071 -6.98528 -7.76142 -4.65685
6.65403 4.75288 4.75288 6.65403 -4.65685 -3.88071 -4.65685 -5.433
r~ = (37.2548 55.8823 55.8823 37.2548 -38.0231 -45.6277 -38.0231 -30.4184)
The natural boundary conditions are as follows:

Specified NBC values for side 2: ex = 5; f3 =6
Interpolation functions for mapping:
{o"0 2
1- a + ~(a2 _ 1) 1 _ a2 a + 1 + ~(a2 - 1) 0 0
2 ' '2 2 ' , ,
o}
Interpolation functions for solution:

2
o I - a a+I 0 0 3a /2 - 3/2 0 O}
{ , 2' 2'" -Y6 "
x(a) = -4V2a2 + 4a2 - 4a + 4V2; yea) = -4V2a2 + 4a2 + 4a + 4V2
Jc = (-8V2a + 8a '-- 4f + (-8V2a + 8a + 4t
Value in mapped coordinate: a(a) = 5; [3(a) = 6
Gauss point = -0.57735; Weight = 1.
N[ = {O., 0.788675, 0.211325, 0., 0., -0.408248, 0., O.}
Jc = 6.2706; a = 5.;[3 = 6.
O. O. O. O. O. O. o. O. O.
O. 19.5018 5.2255 O. O. -10.0949 O. O. -29.6728
O. 5.2255 1.40017 O. O. - 2.70492 O. O. -7.9508
k = O. O. O. o. O. O. O. o. O.
Q' O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O.
O. -10.0949 -2.70492 O. O. 5.2255 O. O. 15.3598
O. O. o. o. O. O. O. O. O.
O. O. O. O. o. O. O. O. O.
Gauss point = 0.57735; Weight = 1.
N[ = {O., 0.211325, 0.788675, 0., 0., -0.408248, 0., O.}
Jc = 6.2706; a = 5.;[3 = 6.
O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O.
O. 1.40017 5.2255 O. O. - 2.70492 O. O. -7.9508
O. 5.2255 19.5018 O. O. -10.0949 O. O. -29.6728
O. O. O. O.
ka =~:~: -~: ~:~: O. O. O. O.
o. - 2.70492 -10.0949 O. O. 5.2255 O. O. 15.3598
O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O.
O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O.
Adding contributions from all Gauss points,
O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O.
O. 20.902 10.451 O. O. -12.7998 O. O. -37.6236
O. 10.451 20.902 O. O. -12.7998 O. O. -37.6236
O. O. O. o. O. O. O. O. O.
O. O. O. O. o. o. o. O. ; '/3 = O.
O. -12.7998 -12.7998 o. O. 10.451 O. O. 30.7195
O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O.
O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O. O.
616 p-FORMULATION
Thus the complete element equations are as follows:
ul
-9.25191 -8.35372 -4.60772 -5.72777 6.75157 5.27645 4.00902 6.10039 37.2548
u3
-8.35372 2.01626 0.386502 -4.60772 11.5564 -0.965882 6.20034 5.30653 18.2586
-4.60772 0.386502 2.01626 -8.35372 6.20034 -0.965882 11.5564 5.30653 Us 18.2586
u7
-5.72777 -4.60772 -8.35372 -9.25191 4.00902 5.27645 6.75157 6.10039 37.2548
8\1,3 1
6.75157 11.5564 6.20034 4.00902 -5.71511 -7.23686 -3.28842 -4.40527 -38.0231
5.27645 -0.965882 -0.965882 5.27645 -7.23686 1.58063 -7.23686 -3.746 8\3.51 -14.9081
4.00902 6.20034 11.5564 6.75157 -3.28842 -7.23686 -5.71511 -4.40527 8\5,71 -38.0231
6.10039 5.30653 5.30653 6.10039 -4.40527 -3.746 -4.40527 -3.47501 8\1,71 -30.4184
Since there are no other elements, these are the global equations. The essential boundary
conditions are as follows:
On element 1, side 1, specified value = 100
{U I = 100, u3 = 100,0\1,31 = O}
(See the following section for details on setting parameter values corresponding to a
givenEBC.)
Global equations after the EBC:
Us
2016~
-8.35372 5.30653 -0.965882 11.5564
[ -8.35372
5.30653
-9.25191 6.10039
6.10039 -3.47501
5.27645
-3.746
6.75157
-4.40527
u7
0\1,7 1
=
[-1171.11
*W3Bl]
1070.8
-0.965882 5.27645 -3.746 1.58063 -7.23686 0\3.5 1 -445.964

11.5564 6.75157 -4.40527 -7.23686 -5.71511 0\5,71 -1058.96
[1,71 [3,51 (5,7) }

{Us = -392.717, u7 = -943.4,01 = -1263.19,01 = -558.828,01 = -41.996
The element solution is as follows:

The dof values for the element:
(1,3)
{u l 100, u3 = 100, Us = -392.717, u7 = -943.4,01 = 0,
0\3,5) = -558.828,0\5,7) = _41.996,0\1,7 1 = -1263,19}
aT = (100 100 -392.717 -943.4 0 -558.828 ,-41.996 -1263.19)
Element solution at {s -7 -0.57735, t -7 -0.57735}

Location: {3.02856, 1.14181}
NT = (0.622008 0.166667 0.0446582 0,166667
-0.321975 -0.086273 -0.086273 -0,321975)
:' a~T =(-0.394338 0.394338 0.105662 -0.105662

-0.557678 -0.204124 -0.149429 0.204124)
aNT
fit = (-0.394338 -0.105662 0.105662 0.394338
0.204124 -0.149429 -0.204124 -0.557678)
J- T = (0.317444 -0.137753)
0.11203' 0.36538
BJ = a:: = (-0.0708591 0.139736 0.0189866 -0.0878632

-0.20515 -0.0442137 -0.0193168 0.14162)
B; = a: T
= (~0.1882610.00557075 0.0504442 0.132246
y 0.0121062 -0.0774664 -0.0913233 -0.180896)
u = NTd= 362.646
au
-ax =B~d
. = -71.052
:; = BJd = 112.791
Solution at any other location over the element can be computed in a similar manner.
9.2.3 Assembly of Element Equations

As seen from the previous section, in the p-formulation there are three types of degrees of
freedom: the nodal degrees of freedom, side-mode parameters, and internal-mode parame-
ters. The internal modes do not influence solution outside of the element because they are
zero along the element sides. However, side modes are nonzero on one of the sides of an
element. Therefore, to maintain solution continuity, during assembly we must assign the
same global parameter to the common sides between elements. This will add contributions
of elements to the appropriate-parameters in a manner similar to that for the nodal degrees
of freedom. The following example numerically illustrates the procedure.
Example 9.5 Consider solution of the Laplace equation over a rectangular domain using
two elements as shown in Figure 9.14.
0< x < 3; O<y<l
Write element equations with order of interpolation ri = 2. Assemble these equations to

form the global system of equations. '
For this problem kx = ky = 1, P = q = O. There are no natural boundary conditions. The
element equations can be obtained easily using the procedure discussed in the previous
section. With the second-order interpolation, there will be four side modes for each ele-
ment, no internal modes, and the element equations will be 8 x 8. The complete model has
618 p-FORMULATION
5 4
o
------------ x
o 3
six nodes and seven unique element sides. Thus the global system will be 13 X 13. Using
the convention for numbering the nodal and the p-mode parameters as described earlier,
the global degrees offreedom are as follows:
(l,2) (l,6) (2,3) (2,5) (3,4) (4,5) 15,6}}
dof = { £II' £1 2, £1 3, £1 4 , u5' £1 6 , 81 .61 .61 .81 .61 .81 .61
The subscript 1 on the 6 terms indicates that all these parameters are associated with the
first set of side modes. As mentioned earlier, the superscripts indicate node numbers of
lines over which the mode has a nonzero value.
Global equations at the start of the element assembly process are
o 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0000000 0 0 0 0 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0
o 0 0 0 O. 0 ~. 0 0 0 0 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000
o 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.666667 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0.166667 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 o

-0.166667 0.666667 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 o
-0.333333 -0.166667 0.666667 -0.166667 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 o
-0.166667 -0.333333 -0.166667 0.666667 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 o
-0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 0.833333 o 0.166667 o o
0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 o 0.833333 o 0.166667 o
0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.166667 o 0.833333 o o
-0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 o 0.166667 o 0.833333 o
620 p-FORMULATION
Global locations to which this element contributes: (2, 3,4, 5, 9, 11, 12, lO)
Assembly locations for
[2,2] [2,3] [2,4] [2,5] [2,9] [2, 11] [2, 12] [2,10]
[3,2] [3,3] [3,4] [3,5] [3,9] [3, 11] [3, 12] [3, 10]
[4,2] [4,3] [4,4] [4,5] [4,9] [4, 11] [4, 12] [4,10]
[5,2] [5,3] [5,4] [5,5] [5,9] [5, 11] [5, 12] [5, 10]
k~
[9,2] [9,3] [9,4] [9,5] [9,9] [9, 11] [9, 12] [9, 10]
[11,2] [11,3] [II, 4] [11,5] [II, 9] [11, 11] [11, 12] [11, 10]
[12,2] [12, 3] [12,4] [12,5] [12,9] [12, 11] [12, 12] [12, 10]
[10,2] [10,3] [10,4] [10,5] [10,9] [10,11] [10, 12] [10, 10]
and for
2
3
4
5
r~
9
11
12
10
Global equations after assembling this element:
"I
0.666667 -0.166667 0 0 -0.333333 -0.166667 -0.204124 -0.204124 0 0.204124 0 0 0.204124 "2
-0.166667 1.5 0.166667 -0.416667 -0.75 -0.333333 -O.2QJU24 0.204)24 -0.408248 -0.306186 0.102062 0.408248 0.204124 "3
0 0.166667 0.833333 -0.583333 -0.416667 -0.408248 0.102062 -0.102062 0.408248 0 "4
0 0 0,1
0 -0.416667 -0.583333 0,833333 0.166667 0 0 0 0.'108248 0.102062 -0.102062 -0.408248 0 "5
-0.333333- -0.75 -0.416667 0.166667 1,5 -0.166667 0.304124 0.204124 0408248 -0306186 n 102062 -0.'108248 -0.204124 "6
.11.21
0
-0.166667
-0,204124
-0.204124
-0.333333
-0.204124
0.204124
0
0
0
0
0
0
-0.166667
0.204124
0.204124
0.666667
0.204124
-0.204124
0.2041'2.4
0.833333
0
-0.2041'2.4
0
0.B33333
0
0
0
0.204124
0
0.166667
0
0
0
0
0
0
-0.204124
0.166667
0
F
)~31
61 = ~
0
-0.166567
~
0 -0.408248 -0.408248 0.408248 0.408248 0 0 0 0.666667 0 0 0
0.204124 -0.306186 0.102062 0.102062 -0.306186 0.204124 0 0.166667 0 ~2S 0.583333 0 0 .1>.51
0 0.102062 -0.102062 -0.102062 0,102062 0 0 0 0 0.583333 . 1.41667 0 0 ./3.41 0
0
0.204124
0.408248
0.204124
0.408248
0
-0.408248
0
-0.408248
-0.204124
0
-0.20412'1
0
0.166667
0
0
-0.166667
0
0
0
0
0
0.666667
0
0
0.833333 .14•5 1 ~
./5.61
I
Since there are no other elements left, these are the global equations for the system.
9.2.4 Incorporating Essential Boundary Conditions

For the second-order boundary value problem being considered in this chapter, the essential
boundary condition is u = specified along portion of the boundary. In the conventional
h-formulation, the specified value is incorporated into the global equations by assigning
appropriate values to the nodal degrees of freedom. If the specified value is constant along
a line, the nodes at the ends of the line are simply assigned this value. The interpolation
functions ensure that the solution along the entire line is equal to the specified value. If
the specified value is not constant but is a function of x, y, then the essential boundary
condition is only approximated. The quality of the approximation depends on the order of
interpolation and can be improved by placing more nodes on the line.
In the p-formulation the situation is a little more complicated. In addition to the nodal
degrees of freedom, we must assign values to the side-mode parameters that are nonzero
for the side with the essential boundary condition. If the specified value is'constant, then the
node at the ends of the line are assigned the specified value and all side-mode parameters
for that line are set to zero. This will ensure that the solution is equal to the specified value
along the entire line. The was the situation in Example 9.4 and hence we assigned U = 100
to the end nodes and set the associated side-mode parameter to O. However, if the specified
value is a function, then we must find suitable values for the side-mode parameters as well.
As an example consider a situation where u = u(e) is specified along line 1-2 of an ele-
ment, where e is a coordinate along the line. Over the mapped element each line is repre-
sented in terms of a coordinate -1 ::; a ::; 1, as illustrated in Figure 9.12. The specified value
in terms of the mapped coordinate is u(a). The assumed solution along this line is written
as u = N~ d, where N; is a vector of interpolation functions and d = lUI' Uz, o)-Z, ot ... )
Z,
is'a vector of unknown parameters for this line. The values of nodal parameters are simply
the specified function values at the ends. Thus
ul = u(-I) and U z = u(l)

z
Our next task is to determine the parameter values o[-Z, o1- , ... such that the solution
along the line is as close to u(a) as possible. To determine the values of these parameters,
we define the total squared error between the interpolated solution and the specified value
as follows:
1
?
e= (u(a) -N~drJeda
-I
where Je is the Jacobian for the side introduced as a result of mapping. Writing N~
(N!, Nz' PI' Pz' ...), the error can be written as follows:
where superscripts 'on 0 terms are dropped for convenience. The necessary condition for
the error to be a minimum is that the partial derivative of e with respect to the unknown
parameters 0; be zero. Thus we get the following equations for determining these parame-
ters:
i = 1,2, ...
Writing all equations together in a matrix form and rearranging terms, we get the following
system of equations:
622 p-FORMULATION.
1:1 PIP3Jeda
II P2P3Jeda
·..
...
][~I] _
:2 -
(I:t(u(a) -Nlu l -N2
I I (£I(a) - Nt £II -
U2)P tJedaj
N2u2)P2Je da
.
.
. .
. "
...
In compact form these equations can be written as follows:
Ll
t pp i, da 6 = LIt LIPi, da
T
:=:} AD =b
where
p T = (PI P2 ••. ), vector of p-modes that are nonzero for the side
T
D = (8 1 82 ... ), vector of parameters corresponding to modes in vector P
Ti = u(a) - N, £II - N2u2
A = (I ppT i, da
Ll
b = (1 (u(a) -Nlu l -N2L0.)PJcda = (1 IlPJcda
J-l J-l
The integrals in matrix A and vector b are evaluated numerically using the one-dimensional
Gaussian quadrature. Solution of these equations give appropriate side-mode parameter
values to enforce the essential boundary condition along a given side of an element. The
procedure is further illustrated through the following numerical example.
Example 9.6 Consider the two-element model shown in Figure 9.14. The following es-
sential boundary condition is specified along side 3-4 of the domain:
£I = y sin(7Ql/6) along x = 3; O<y<l
Determine the appropriate parameter values to incorporate this boundary condition if a

third-order interpolation is to be used for developing element equations.
With the third-order interpolation, there will be two sets of side modes for a total of
eight side modes for each element. The unknown parameters along side 3-4 are as follows:
,,3-4 ,.3-4
{u3' £14, ul ,02 }
On element 2, side 2, specified value =ysin (y;)

. functi
Mappmg notions a1ong thee sid
Sl e: {I - a -2-
-2-' a + 1}
Mapped coordinates: x(a) = 3; yea) = ~ + ~; Je = ~

Specified value in mapped coordinates: u(a) = (~ + ~) sin (~ (~ + ~) n)
The-specified values at the two end nodes are as follows:
Left end £lC -1) = °

Right end £lCI) = ~.
Thus
Values at ends (£l 3 , u4 ) = {O, ~}
o a imterpoIanon
Nodal ' fu'nctions:
• {I-aa+1}
-2-' -2-
u = ~C
4
-a - I) + (~2 + ~)2 sin (~6 (~2 + ~)2 7T)
2
, , { 3a 3 Sa' Sa }
p-Modes for the side: pT = 2..{g 2, 2.;ToT
Gauss point = -0.774597; Weight = 0.555556
i, = 0.5; ti = -0.0497041; pT = {-0.244949, 0.244949)
A = ( 0.0166667 -0.0166667). b = ( 0.00338194)
-0.0166667 0.0166667' -0.00338194
Gauss point = 0.; Weight = 0.888889
s, = 0.5; Ii = -0.12059; pT = (-0.612372, 0.)
A = (0.166667 0.); b = (0.0328206)
0. O. 0.
Gauss point = 0.774597; Weight-= 0.555556
t, = 0.5; u = -0.0460909; pT =(-0.244949, -0.244949)
A = (0.0166667 0.0166667). b = (0.00313609)
0.0166667 0.0166667' 0.003.13609.
Adding contributions from all Gauss points:
3
0.2 O. )(01 ,41) (0.0393386 )
( O. 0.0333333 0~,41 = -0.000245849
3,41,
Solution gives {01 0~,41} = {0.196693, -0.00737546}
{U3' U4, 01[3,41 ,02[3,4)} = {0, 2,0.196693,

1
-0.00737546·}
Known values from EBC:
{3,41
{ U3
I
= 0, £l4 = 2,01 = 0.196693,02{3,41 = -0.00737546 }
624 p-FORMULATION
9.2.5 Applications
Example 9.7 Heat Flow in an L-Shaped Body Consider two-dimensional heat flow
over an L-shaped body with thermal conductivity k = 45 W/m· 'C shown in Figure 9.15.
The bottom is maintained at To = 110'C. Convection heat loss takes place on the top where
the ambient air temperature is 20'C and the convection heat transfer coefficient is h =
55 W/m 2 • 'C. The right side is insulated. The left side is subjected to heat flux at a uniform
rate of qL = 8000W/m2 • Heat is generated in the body at a rate of Q = 5 x 106W/m3 •
Determine the temperature distribution in the body.
The simplest finite element model using quadrilateral elements is the two-element
model shown in Figure 9.16.
With n = 2 the finite element solution is as follows.
Natural boundary conditions

Specified NBC values for side 3: 0: = -55; f3 = 1100
25.0962 19.9038 -6.05769 -38.9423 -29.6765 -5.65267 4.2395 5.65267 937.5
19.9038 70.0962 -38.9423 -51.0577 -43.8082 5.65267 32.5028 31.0897 937.5
-6.05769 -38.9423 43.5846 0.590385 14.1317 -20.4909 -27.9265 -16.2514 733.5
-38.9423 -51.0577 0.590385 88.5846 59.353 20.4909 -8.1422 -20.4909 733.5
-29.6765 -43.8082 14.1317 59.353 57.6923 4.61538 -10.3846 -34.6154 -765.466
-5.65267 5.65267 -20.4909 20.4909 4.61538 96.0577 5.76923 38.9423 -688.919
4.2395 32.5028 -27.9265 -8.1422 -10.3846 5.76923 35.4942 24.2308 -598.9
5.65267 31.0897 -16.2514 -20.4909 -34.6154 38.9423 24.2308 96.0577 -688.919
y (m)
0.03
0.015 go
o
--~-----~~----- x (m)
o 0.03 0.06
Figure 9.15. L-shaped body
6Y 5
x
Figure 9.16. Two element model

Natural boundary conditions
Specified NBC values for side 2: a = -55; f3 = 1100
Specified NBC values for side 3: a = -55; f3 = 1100
Specified NBC values for side 4: a = 0; f3 = 8000
22.5
T1
0 -11.25 -11.25 -9.18559 1.05988 9.18559 -7.41913 817.5
-18.3712
T4
0 44.725 -22.6375 -22.5 -1.95135 18.3712 14.8383 741.75
-11.25 -22.6375 -6.89743
T5
32.925 -0.275 9.18559 -18.0344 3.53292 725.25
T6
-11.25 -22.5 -0.275 33.2 18.3712 8.12571 -8.84878 -10.952 801.
-9.18559 -18.3712 9.18559 18.3712 33.75 6.05769 0 -8.65385
oPAl -688.919
1.05988 -1.95135 -6.89743 8.12571 6.05769 54.2375 1.44231 16.875 0\4.51 -605.636
9.18559 18:3712 -18.0344 -8.84878 0 1.44231 33.475 1.15385 0\5.61 -675.447
-7.41913 14.8383 3.53292 -10.952 -8.65385 16.875 1.153?5 46.875 0\1.6 1 -667.486
The global equations after assembling all elements are
II.ZI}
{ TI> TZ' 01 = (110, 110, OJ

lI,Z} }
{ T1 = 110, Tz = 110, OJ =0
Global equations after EBC:
T3
43.5846 0.590385 0 0 -16.2514 0 -20-4909 -27.9265 0 0 T4 5683.5
0.590385 133.31 -22.6375 -22.5 -38.8621 14.8383 20.4909 -8.1422 -1.95135 18.3712 Ts 11375.3
0 -22.6375 32.925 -0.275 9.18559 3.53292 0 0 -6.89743 -18.0344 T6 1962.75
0 -22.5 -0.275 33.2 18.3712 -10.952 0 0 8.12571 -8.84878 0\1,41 2038.5
-16.2514 -38.8621 9.18559 . '18.3712 129.808 -8.65385 38.9423 . 24.2308 6.05769 0 op.61 -4409.08
0 14.8383 3.53292 -10.952 -8.65385 46.875 0 0 16.875 1.15385 148.618
-20.4909 20.4909 0 0 38.9423 0 96.0577 5.76923 0 0 0\'-31 -688.919
-27.9265 -8.1422 0 0 24.2308 0 5.76923 35.4942 0 0 0\3,41 -4640.56
0 -1.95135 -6.89743 8.12571 6.05769 16.875 0 0 54.2375 1.44231 -722.223
0\4.51
0 18.3712 -18.0344 -8.84878 0 1.15385 0 0 1.44231 33.475 -1685.86
0\5.61
626 p-FORMULATION
{ TJ = 129.195, T4 = 138.48, T5 = 162.431, T6 = 160.634,81(IAI = -12.0338,

8\1.61 = ..:..15.6763,8\2.3 1 = -4.97674, 8\3AI = 11.6987,8\4,5) = -5.63838,8\5.6 1 = 4.39332}
dof values for the element
lI,21
{TI = 110, T2 = 110, T3 = 129.195, T4 = 138.48,81 = 0,
8\2,3 1 = -4.97674, 8\3AI = 11.6987,8\IAI = -12.0338}
dT = (110 110 129.195 138.48 0 -4.97674 11.6987 -12.0338)
x y T er/e« erro,
0.0375 0.0075 123.545 -199.205 1310.77
{TI = 110, T4 = 138.48, T5 = 162.431, T6 = 160.634,
8\IAI = -12.0338,8\4.5 1 = _5.63838,8\5.61 = 4.39332, 8\1.6 1 = -15.6763}
dT = (110 138.48 162.431 160.634 -12.0338 -5.63838 4.39332 -15.6763)
x y T aT/ax aT/Oy
0.D15 0.01875 151.752 72.87239 1210.35
Nodal Solution Summary:
dof x y Value
TI 0 0 110
T2 0.06 0 110
T3 0.06 0.D15 129.195
T4 0.03 0.015 138.48
T5 0.03 0.03 162.431
T6 0 0.D3 160.634
Element Solution Summary:

x y T aT/ax aT/ay
1 0.0375 0.0075 123.545 -199.205 1310.77
2 0.015 0.01875 151.752 -2.87239 1210.35
With n =3 the following finite element solution is obtained:

dof x y Value
T1 0 0 110
T2 0.06 0 110
T3 0.06 0.015 125.645
T4 . 0.03 0.Ql5 138.336
Ts 0.03 0.03 161.689
T6 0 0.03 159.31

x y T er/e» oT/oy
1 0:0375 0.0075 124.347 -220.205 1502.78
2 0.015 0.01875 151.263 -52.3684 1258.08
With n = 4 the following finite element solution is obtained:

dof x y Value
T1 0 0 110
T2 0.06 0 110
T3 0.06 0.015 126.672
T4 0.03 0.015 139.179
Ts 0.03 0.03 161.022
T6 0 0.03 157.838

x T er/e« oT/oy
1 0.0375 0.0075 124.811 -260.161 1481.78
2 0.015 ·0:01875 151.195 -23.981 1318.8
Example 9.8 Seepage through Soil The problem of determining the amount of water
that seeps through dams or from underneath sheet piles can be formulated in terms of the
following equation:
~ (Ie orjJ) + ~
ox .r ox
(Ie orjJ) -
oy y oy -
0
where rjJ(x, y) is the hydraulic head (or hydraulic potential) arid lex and ley are coefficients
of permeability in the x and y directions. Typical units for rjJ are meters and those for lex
and ley are rn/ day. The fluid velocity components in the x and y directions are related to the
hydraulic head as follows:
orjJ orjJ
]I =-le- and ]I =-le-
x x ox y y oy
628 p-FORMULATION
8¢j8n=O
8rp/8n=O
8rp/8n=O
Impermeable
Figure 9.17. Seepage through soil underneath a sheet pile wall
A typical situation is illustrated in Figure 9.17. The analytical model consists of the soil
on the downstream side. On the impermeable sides the no-flow condition is expressed in
terms of the normal derivative of ¢ being zero. On the top ¢ = hd , the hydraulic head on
the downstream side. On the left side the boundary condition on the soil below the pile is
¢ = h", the hydraulic head on the upstream side.
As a numerical example, consider the following numerical values:
a = b = 10m; h" = 10m; kx = Iey = 1 mls

The solution domain is divided into four elements, as shown in Figure 9.18. A solution
using a second-order (n = 2) p-formulation is as follows:
0.666667 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0.166667 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 tP 1 0
-0.166667 0.666667 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0.2p4124 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 tP4 0
-0.333333 -0.166667 0.666667 -0.166667 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 tP5 0
-0.166667 -0.333333 -0.166667 0.666667 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 tP2 0
-0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 0.833333 0 0.166667 0
oPAl 0
0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0 0.833333 0 0.166667 0\4.5 1 0
0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.166667 0 0.833333 0 0\l51 0
-0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 0 0.166667 0 0.833333 0\1.21 0
3Y 6 9
x
Figure 9.18. Four-element model for seepage under a sheet pile wall
0.666667 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0.166667 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 ¢2 0

-0.166667 0.666667 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 ¢5 0
-0.333333 -0.166667 0.666667 -0.166667 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 ¢6 0
-0.166667 -0.333333 -0.166667 0.666667 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 ¢3 0
8\2.51
-0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 0.833333 0 0.166667 0 0
0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0 0.833333 0 0.166667 8\5.61 0
0.204124 0.204124. -0.204124 -0.204124 0.166667 0 0.833333 0 8\3.61 0
-0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 0 0.166667 0 0.833333 8\2.31 0
0.666667 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0.166667 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 ¢4 0

-0.166667 0.666667 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124' 0.204124 ¢7 0
-0.333333 -0.166667 0.666667 -0.166667 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 ¢8 0
-0.166667 -0.333333 -0.166667 0.666667 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 ¢5 0
8\4.71
-0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 0.833333 0 0.166667 0 0
0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0 0.833333 0 0.166667 8\7.81 0
0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.166667 0 0.833333 0 8\5.8) 0
-0.204124 0.20412;+ 0.204124 -0.204124 0 0.166667 0 0.833333 8\4.5 1 0
0.666667 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0.166667 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 ¢5 0

-0.166667 0.666667 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 ¢8 0
-0.333333 -0.166667 0.666667 -0.166667 0.204124 ":0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 ¢9 0
-0.166667 -0.333333 -0.166667 0.666667 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 ¢6 0
8\5.8)
-0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 0.833333 0 0.166667 0 0
0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.204124 0 0.833333 0 0.166667 8\8.91 0
0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0.166667 0 0.833333 0 8\6.9) 0
-0.204124 0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 0 0.166667 0 0.833333 8\5.61 0

On element 1, side 4, specified value = 10:
{ 1}
rP2' rPP 6111.2 = {1O, 1O,OJ
On element 2, side 3, specified value = l:

{
rP6' rP3' 6113.61} = {1,!, OJ
On element 4, side 3, specified value = 1:

{
rP9' rP6' 6116.91} = [l, 1, OJ
630 p-FORMULATION
{¢1 = 10, ¢2 = 10, ¢3 = 1, ¢6 = 1, ¢9 = 1, 81

{~
= 0,81~ = 0,81~ = °}
Global equations after EBC:
"'I
"5
1.33333 -0.333333 -0.166667 -0.333333 -0,204124 0 0,204124 -0.'108248 -0.204124 0 0.204124 0.204124 0 'h 5.
-0.333333
-0.166667
2.66667
-0.333333
-0.333333
0,666667
-0.333333
-0.166667
0.204124
0
0,204124
0
-0.'108248
0
-0.408248
0.204124
0.20412'1
-0.204124
-0.408248
0
-0.'108248 0.204124
0.204124 -0.204124
0,204124
0 "s
,IIAI
1.66667
0
-0.333333
-0.204124
-0.333333
0.204124
-0.166667
0
1.33333
0
0
0,833333
0
0
0
0.166667
0,204124
0
O,2o.l124
0
0.204124
0
-0..108248 -0.204124
0 0
-0.204124
0
,1~31 OS
0
0 0.204124 0 0 0 0.8333)] 0 0 0 0.166667 0 0 0 i2.SI 204124
0.204124
-0.408248
-0.408248
-OA08248
0
O.2QJ1124
0 0,166667
0
0 1.66667 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~t4.51 1.63299
0.204124 0 0 1.66667 0 0 0 0.166667 0 -4.08248
-0.204124 0.20412" -0.204124 0.204124 0 0 0 0 0.833333 0 0,166667 0 0 ,/4,71 0
0 -0.408248 0 0.204124 0 0.166667 0 0 0 1.66667 0 0 0-,166667 ~15.61 -204114
0.204124 -0,408248 0.204124 -0,4082,18 0 0 0 0 0.166667 0 1.66667 0 0 -0.'108248
0.204124 0.204124 -0.204124 -0.204124 0 0 0 0.166667 0 0 0 0.S33333 0 /5.SI 0
0 0.204124 0 -0.204124 0 0 0 0 0 0.166667 0 0 0.833333 ./7,SI 0
.!S,91
Solving·the final system of global equations, we get
{¢4 = 6.12921, ¢s = 4.66596, ¢7 = 5.08248, ¢s = 3.96195,

8\IAI = 0,0857292,8\2,31 = 1.44833,8\2,SI = 1.36347,8\4,SI = -0.887807, 8\4.7l = 0.54473,
8\S,6 1 = -0,708827, 8\S,SI = 0.440829, 8\7.S} = -0,251281, 8\S,91 -0.0306799}

{¢1 = 10, ¢4 = 6.12921, ¢s = 4.66596, ¢2 = 10,8\IAJ = 0,0857292,
8\4.S} = -0.887807, 8\2,SJ = 1.36347,8\1.21 = O}
dT = (10 6.12921 4.66596 10 0,0857292 -0.887807 1.36347 0)

x y ¢ J¢/Jx J¢/Jy
2.5 2.5 7.5269 -0.811749 -0.302817
(2.S) {S,6}
{¢2 = 10, ¢s = 4.66596, ¢6 = 1, ¢3 = 1,81 = 1.36347,81 = -0,708827,
8\3.6 1 = 0,8\2,31 = 1.44833}
dT = (10 -0,708827 1.44833)

x y
4.66596
¢
1 1 1.36347
J¢/Jx J¢/ay
°
1 2.5 7.5 3.52259 -0,269207 -1.09961
M
s- {¢4 = 6.12921,¢7 = 5.08248,¢s = 3.96195,¢s = 4.66596, 01 = 0.54473,
or· S
} = -0.251281, o\s.S} = 0.440829,0\4.S} = -0.887807}
aT = (6.12921 5.08248 3.96195 4.66596

0.54473 -0.251281 0.440829 -0.887807)
x y a¢/ax a¢/ay
7.5 2.5 5.00691 -0.253032 -0.245653

. IS.SI {S.9}
{¢s = 4.66596,¢s = 3.96195,¢9 = 1,¢6 = 1,01 = 0.440829,01 = -0.0306799,
0\6.9} = 0, 0\S.6) = -0.708827}
aT = (4.66596 3.96195 0.440829 -0.0306799 0 -0.708827)
x y a¢/ax a¢/ay
7.5 7.5 2.74843 -0.153456 -0.608801
Computing a¢/ax and a¢/ay at several points within each element, the velocity field shown
in Figure 9.19 is obtained.
The following tables summarize solutions obtained at the element centers by increasing
the order of interpolation from 1 to 6. Complete calculations of these solutions can be
seen on the book web site. The n = 1 solution corresponds to the conventional rectangular
f
j
j
8 /, I
I
I .'
./
i
,
6 .- , ,
.'
~~ /~
, ./
4
.,"."
,
0
2 4 6 8
Figure 9.19. Velocity field for seepage under a sheet pile wall
632 p-FORMULATION .
element with bilinear solution and no p-modes.

x y ¢ 8¢/8x 8¢/8y
1 2.5 2.5 7.83036 -0.867857 -0.173571
2 2.5 7.5 4.19821 -0.520714 -1.27929
3 7.5 2.5 5.03393 -0.250714 -0.289286
4 7.5 7.5 2.65536 -0.0964286 -0.662143
Solution summary with 12 = 1:
x y ¢ 8¢/8x 8¢/8y
1 2.5 7.83036 -0.867857 -0.173571
2 2.5 7.5 4.19821 -0.520714 -1.27929
3 7.5 2.5 5.03393 -0.250714 -0.289286
4 7.5 7.5 2.65536 -0.0964286 -0.662143
x y ¢ 8¢/8x 8¢/8y
1 2.5 2.5 7.5269 -0.811749 -0.302817
2 2.5 7.5 3.52259 -0.269207 -1.09961
3 7.5 2.5 5.00691 -0.253032 -0.245653
4 7.5 7.5 2.74843 -0.153456 -0.608801
x y ¢ 8¢/8x 8¢/8y
1 2.5 2.5 7.51643 -0.804721 -0.279215
2 2.5 7.5 3.54361 -0.240051 -1.06869
3 7.5 2.5 5.00409 -0.243475 -0.245966
4 7.5 7.5 2.73426 -0.140519 -0.642457
Solution summary with n = 4:
x y ¢ 8¢/8x 8¢/8y
1 2.5 2.5 7.52003 -0.825071 -0.312494
2 2.5 7.5 3.73481 -0.189595 -0.996245
3 7.5 2.5 4.94684 -0.226552 -0.242614
4 7.5 7.5 2.63491 -0.0857831 -0.641989
x y ¢ 8¢/8x 8¢/8y
1 2.5 2.5 7.48739 -0.863053 -0.276887
2 2.5 7.5 3.68376 -0.316262 -1.10231
3 7.5 2.5 4.9193 -0.228476 -0.247952
4 7.5 7.5 2.62783 -0.0930979 -0.617761
x y ¢ o¢/ox o¢/oy
1 2.5 2.5 7.44143 -0.8635 -0.280942
2 2.5 7.5 3.57625 -0.322093 -1.10679
3 7.5 2.5 4.90475 -0.23055 -0.25038
4 7.5 7.5 2.62078 -0.0989251 -0.613286
Example 9.9 GroundwaterFlow-Free-Surface Problem The flow of water through

porous media gives rise to the so-called free-surface problem. A typical situation, illus-
trated in Figure 9.20, considers flow of groundwater toward a well. At a sufficient distance
away from the well the groundwater level is equal to the established water table in the area
and is unaffected by the well. Closer to the well the groundwater level is lower because
of the water flowing into the well. The exact shape and depth below ground of the top of
the groundwater surface depend on the coefficient of permeability of the soil and are not
known a priori. An iterative procedure is used in the analysis to establish this free surface.
The governing differential equation for the problem is as follows:
where ¢(x, y) is the hydraulic head (or hydraulic potential) and kx and k; are coefficients
of permeability in the x and y directions. Typical units for ¢ are meters' and those for kx
and ky are m/day. The fluid velocity components in the x and y directions are related to the
hydraulic head as follows: .
o¢
and v =-k-
y y oy
The computational domain consists of the region bounded by the unknown top of the
groundwater suface, side of the well, line extending from the water line in the well, and a
Ground surface
y
Well Groundwater surface
8¢!8n = 0
Figure 9.20. Groundwater flow problem and the computational domain

634 p-FORMULATION
vertical line at a sufficient distance away from the well. The boundary conditions on this
computational domain are as illustrated in Figure 9.20. Considering the water line in the
well as datum for the hydraulic head, ¢ on the side away from the well is equal to the water
depth h ll and that on the well side is equal to the elevation of the groundwater surface. On
the bottom there is no flow and therefore the boundary condition is 8¢/8n = O. On the top
surface ¢ = y, the height of the surface above the datum, and also 8¢/8n = O. It is unusual
to have two specified boundary conditions for one boundary. However, since the boundary
itself is not known, there is no inconsistency. One of the conditions is used to establish the
boundary while the other is used as a usual boundary condition. In finite elements a zero
natural boundary condition does not require any work. Thus computationally we simply
have to establish the free surface.
In an iterative procdure we arbitrarily choose the height of the free surface, say, equal
to the water level hll • The finite model is now established with zero natural boundary con-
ditions at the top and bottom, an essential boundary condition on the far side, and essential
and natural boundary conditions on the well side. The problem is solved in the usual man-
ner. In general, the computed ¢ values on the top suface will not be equal to the assumed
height. The top surface is now reestablished by setting y equal to the computed ¢ values and
the process is repeated until the difference between the computed ¢ values for the nodes on
the top surface are equal to the y coordinate for these nodes. The procedure is illustrated
using the following numerical data:
k-t =ky = 1mls; hll = 1m; L=2m
Initially the groundwater surface is assumed to be horizontal. Thus the computational do-
main is an L x hll rectangle as shown in Figure 9.21. It is discretized into 15 elements. The
essential boundary condition of ¢ = h" is specified for element 13, side 23-24; element 14,
side 22-23; and element 15, side 21-2f. For element 5, side 2-3, and element 6, side 1-2,
the specified boundary condition is ¢ = y. It is important not to specify ¢ value at node 4;
otherwise its elevation will not change and we will not be able to adjust the groundwater
surface.
A linear (n = 1) element is used to solve the problem. The computed nodal ¢ values are
as follows:
x
Figure 9.21. Initial finite element model for groundwater flow
To avoid badly shaped elements, a completely new finite element mesh, shown in Figure
9.22, is created.
Using this new finite element model, we get the following nodal solution:
636 p-FORMULATION
Figure 9.22. Second finite element model for groundwater flow
Nodal SolutionSummary
dof x y Value
0/ 1 0 0 O.
0/2 0 0.198719 0.198719
0/3 0 0.397438 0.397438
0/4 0 0.596157 0.398856
0/5 0.2 0 0.289648
0/6 0.2 0.206736 0.32478
0/7 0.2 0.413472 0.389915
0/8 0.2 0.620208 0.420311
0/9 0.4 0 0.419679
0/ 10 0.4 0.206614 0.430365
o/ll 0.4 0.413228 0.452748
0/ 12 0.4 /0.619842 0.46802
0/ 13 0.9 0 0.637184
0/ 14 0.9 0.233336 0.640101
0/ 15 0.9 0.466673 0.648756
0/ 16 0.9 0.700009 0.663723
0/ 17 1.4 0 0.812016
0/18 1.4 0.277139 0.815298
0/19 1.4 0.554278 0.825998
0/20 1.4 0.831418 0.846926
0/21 2 0 1
0/22 2 1 1
0/23 2 ~ 1
0/24 2 1 1
A new finite element mesh is created using the new coordinate values from this solution:
New y coordinates of top surface

= {0.398856,0.420311, 0.46802, 0.663723, 0.846926, I}
PROBLEMS 637
x x
x x
y Iteration 1.
x x
Figure9.23. Computed profiles for groundwater flow
The process is repeated several moretimes. The finite element meshes and the coordinates
ofthe groundwater surface are shown in Figure 9.23. Complete solution details can be seen
on the book web site.
The coordinates of the topsurface have converged now. We can use the solution from
the final mesh to compute the flow rate and fluid velocity.
PROBLEMS
9.1 By direct computation, verify the following orthogonality property for first three P:
modes:
(I dPi(s) dP}s) ds
LI ds ds
= {I .
0
for
for i
t=j
=1= j
9.2 Determine the axial stress in a bar that is rotating at 500 rpm, as shown in Figure
9.24. The problem can be treated as one dimensional with the governing differential
638 p-FORMULATION
Figure 9.24. Rotating bar
equation as follows:
(dU)
-d EA- +pAxw2 = 0; O<x<L
dx dx
U(O) = 0 EA dueL)
dx
where x is the coordinate along the axis of the bar, u(x) is the axial displacement,
L = length of the bar, E = Young's modulus, A = area of cross section, p = mass
density, and w = angular velocity in rad/s. The axial stress is iT" = E duldx. An exact
analytical solution of the problem is
Use one finite element. Compare solutions with zero, one, and two p-modes. Use the
following numerical data:
L = 80cm; E = 2000Pa; p =7850 kg/nr'
The duct is insulated by a layer of circular fiberglass that has a thermal conductivity
of 0.04 Wlm . DC. The outside surface of the fiberglass is subjected to convection
with h = 15W/m2 • °C and Teo = 30°C. Taking advantage of symmetry, a one-
element model of one-eighth of the section is shown in figure. Use one element with
p-formulation of order 2 to obtain a solution of the problem.
1 2 3 4 5
x l. 0.92388 0.707107 0.5 0.5
y O. 0.382683 0.707107 0.5 O.
PROBLEMS 639
Figure 9.25.
9.4 Consider solution of the Laplace equation over a rectangular domain using two ele-
ments as shown in Figure 9.26.
cPu
~
a2 u
+ - ? + 2(x + y) - 4 = 0; 0< x < 1; 0<y<2
axay-
au ? au
-
?
= 2 - 2x - r along y = 0
ax = 2 - 2y - y- along x = 0; ay
u =l along x = 1; u = y} along y =2
Use two square elements with the order of interpolation n = 2 to obtain an approx-
imate solution of the problem. Report the solution and its x and y derivatives at the
element centers.
y 6
2 5
o
------x
o 1
Figure 9.26.
640 p-FORMULATION
9.5 Consider solution of the Laplace equation over a rectangular domain using two ele-
ments as shown in Figure 9.27:
a2 u + -a22U + (1f2l - 2) sinorx) = 0;

-2 0< x < 1; O<y<l
ax ay
au
ay = 0 along y = 0
u =0 along x = 0; u = 0 along x = 1; u sinorx) along y =1
Use two rectangular elements with the order of interpolation 11 = 2 to obtain an
approximate solution of the problem. Report the solution and its x and y derivatives
at the element centers.
It can easily be verified that the exact solution of the problem is
u(x, y) = l sin(1fx)
Compare the finite element solution and its derivatives at the element centers with
the exact values.
y
3 6
1
2
0.5
o
---------- x
o 0.5
Figure 9.27.
APPENDIX A
wa F Wnid "91" fib az + M * '" '5
USE OF COMMERCiAL FEA SOFTWARE
A large number of finite element programs are commercially available around the world.
Some of the more widely used programs in the United States are ABAQUS, ALGOR,
ANSYS, and NASTRAN. Each program requires its own specific sequence of commands
and menu options to build and solve a finite element model. However, the general proce-
dures are very similar among different programs. Thus, if one is familiar with one program,
it is relatively easy to learn a different package. With this in mind this Appendix presents
some examples of finite element analyses performed using ANSYS and ABAQUS. The
following are the main reasons for choosing these programs.
1. They are widely available in the universities, in part because of generous academic
discounts offered to universities by their developers. The academic versions of these
programs are exactly the 'same as the commercial versions except for some restric-
tions on the size of the models that can be processed. In most cases the limits on
the model size are generous enough that the program can be used effectively in an
academic setting and one is not restricted to playing with simple toy problems.
2. Both programs consist of a large number of integrated modules that include pre-
and postprocessing and analysis modules for linear and nonlinear static and dynamic
analysis, buckling, fluid flow, optimization, and fatigue. Thus with these packages
students can be exposed to a variety of finite element applications.
3. There are several translators available for interchange of data between these pro-
grams and several popular modeling and design packages and other finite element
software. Thus, if one is already familiar with another modeling package, ABAQUS
or ANSYS can be employed as analysis engines.
4. Both programs are used widely in the industry and for research and are available for
Windows and Unix operating systems. ABAQUS was designed right from the be-
641
642 USE OF COMMERCIAL FEA SOFTWARE
ginning for nonlinear analysis and supports a variety of nonlinear material models.
Early versions of ANSYS had fewer material models and nonlinear analysis capabili-
ties. However, the current versions of the two programs have comparable capabilities
in this regard. Also, until fairly recently ABAQUS had a more primitive text-based
user interface while ANSYS has had powerful integrated graphical pre- and post-
processing capabilities for quite some time. The latest release of ABAQUS includes
an integrated cae (computer aided engineering) environment for creating complex
finite element models and viewing analysis results.
A.1 ANSYS APPLICATIONS
In the ANSYS release 6.1, used for the examples in this section, the user interface consists
of six main windows. The windows can be closed, resized, and moved around on the screen.
Their default locations are indicated in the following description.
1. ANSYS Utility Menu: This menu is usually near the top of the screen. It contains 10
pull-down menus: File, Select, List, Plot, PlotCtrls, WorkPlane, Parameters, Macro,
MenuCtrls, and Help. The File menu contains usual commands for interacting with
the file system. The Select menu contains commands that are used to select vari-
ous finite element entities. The List and Plot menus have commands that give sim-
ilar information about the finite element model; the list commands display results
as tables or lists while the plot commands show this information graphically. The
PlotCtrls and Workplane menus are used to set various graphics options. The Param-
eters and Macro menus are used primarily for more advanced ANSYS applications.
The MenuCtrls menu can be used to tum various menus off or on. The Help menu
gives access to comprehensive on-line help.
2. ANSYS Input: This small window is usually directly below the Utility menu. This
can be used for typing commands or entering numerical data. When creating models
graphically, it is often more convenient to enter some data numerically (for example,
nodal coordinates) rather than to use a mouse to pick a precise location on the screen.
3. ANSYS Toolbar: This small window is usually to the right of the Input window. It
. contains buttons for commonly used operations such as saving database to disk and
quitting the program. To safeguard against loss of data in case of a program crash,
the Save-DB button should be used frequently to save the current values to the disk.
4. ANSYS Main Menu: This menu is generally located on the left side of the screen
directly below the Input window. It provides access to the primary ANSYS functions
through a series of cascading menus.
5. ANSYS Graphics: This window, covering most of the remaining screen, is used for
displaying graphics.
6. ANSYS Output: Any text messages generated by ANSYS are placed in this window.
It usually is hidden behind the other windows. However, it is strongly encouraged
to periodically review the information in this window to see exactly how ANSYS is
interpreting the information supplied through the user interface.
ANSYS APPLICATIONS 643
Eaclr'graphical user interface action (selection of a menu item, clicking in a dialog box,
or picking an item from the graphical display) has a corresponding text-based command
associated with it. This feature makes ANSYS convenient for situations that require several
repetitions of a series of steps. You can prepare a text file containing these.commands using
any text editor (such as pico under Unix) and then use "Read Input From" option from the
File menu to execute these commands.
During an interactive session, ANSYS automatically writes commands equivalent to
a user's graphical actions to a file called the log file. It is a text file and is saved in the
working directory with a name jobname.log. (The jobname refers to the name a user has
assigned to the current analysis job. The default is 'File") The log file is very useful if
you want to repeat the same analysis with perhaps slightly modified values for some of
the parameters. If you are interested in this use, make sure to change the name of the file
fromjobname.log to any other convenient name before relaunching ANSYS. The file is
overwritten when you enter ANSYS the next time. It is also important to rememberthat the
log file contains everything that you did in an interactive session, including your mistakes
and Exit command that you used to get out of the program. Therefore some editing is
always necessary before you can use it as an input file.
ANSYS uses a combination of cascading menus, input windows, and dialog boxes. In
the examples presented in this section, the required selections to perform a specific task
are shown through a series of key words separated by'>' symbol. For example,
ANSYS Utility Menu> PlotCtrls > Capture Image> File> Print> Print to:
[lp -dlaser] > OK
This line means that we start with the ANSYS Utility Menu and choose PlotCtrls. This
choice leads to a submenu from which we select Capture Image. This menu opens up a
window with a File menu. From this lTIenu we select Print option, which leads to the Print
to: [lp -dlaser] dialog box, which is closed by clicking on the OK button.
A.1.1 General Steps

The ANSYS program is organized into several processors. A typical analysis involves
using three processors:
1. Preprocessing (PREP? processor), where you provide data such as the geometry,
materials, and element types to the program
2. Solution (SOLUTION processor), where you define analysis type and select associ-
ated options, apply loads, and initiate the finite element solution
3. Postprocessing (POSTl or POST26 processors), where you review the results of the
analysis through graphics display and tabular listings
Choose One or More Element Types for Analysis A proper choice of element
types is crucial to the success of the analysis effort. ANSYS has over 100 different element
types. The ANSYS elements corresponding to those discussed in this Appendix are as
follows:
LINKl-2D Spar: Plane truss element

PLANE55-2D Thermal Solid: Plane element for heat flow
PLANE42-2D Structural Solid: Element for stress analysis of plane stress, plane strain,
and axisymmetric problems
If needed, several different element types can be used in the same analysis. Elements cho-
sen for an analysis are identified as Type1, Type2,... , in the order that they are selected. A
typical menu path to define a truss element type is as follows:
Preprocessor> Element Type> Add/Edit/Delete> Add> Link> 2D spar 1> Element
type reference number [enter 1, 2, etc.]
The equivalent text commands for defining this element type are as follows:
/PREP? !* Enters the Preprocessor

ET,I,LLNKl !* Define element type las LINKl
Any text following "!*" characters is treated as a comment.
Assign Appropriate Physical Properties to Each Type For each element type ap-
propriate physical properties, such as area of cross section and thickness, must be defined.
ANSYS calls these properties real constants. Required real constants are given for each
element type in the ANSYS element documentation. For the elements identified above,
some of the common required real constants are as follows:
Real constant for LINKl: A (areas of cross section)
No real constant needed for PLANE55
Real constant for PLANE42: Thickness for plane stress model
r
Each element type can have several sets of real constants associated with it. They are
identified as Real I, ReaI2,... , in the order that they are defined. A typical menu path to
define a real constant for a truss element is as follows:
Preprocessor> Real Constants> AddlEditlDelete> Add> Type 1 LINKl> AREA
[enter value]
The equivalent text command for defining this real constant (A = 20) is as follows:
R,l,20, ,
Define One or More Sets of Materials Used in the Model Material properties,
such as modulus of elasticity E, Poisson's ratio v, and thermal conductivity, must be defined
for each material that is to be used in the analysis. Required material properties are given
for each element type in the ANSYS element documentation. For the elements identified
above, some of the common required material properties are as follows:
Material properties for LINKl: E (modulus of elasticity)
Material properties for PLANE55: Thermal conductivities in the x andy directions
Material properties for PLANE42:For an isotropic material E (modulus of elasticity)

and v (Poisson's ratio) .
Several different materials can be used in an analysis, in which case they are identified as
Matl , Mat2,... , in the order that they are created. A typical menu path to define material
properties is as follows.
Preprocessor> Material Props> Material Models> Material Model Number 1>

Structural> Linear> Elastic> Isotropic> EX [enter value] (double click on icons that
look like folders)
The equivalent text commands for defining this material property (E = 29000000) are as
follows:
MPTEMP"",,,,
MPTEMP,l,O
'MPDATA,EX,1,,29000000
Create Nodes The finite element model consists of elements connected together at
the nodes. For structural frameworks we create first the nodes and then the elements. The
nodes can be created manually by entering x, y, z coordinates for each node. The origin
of the coordinate system can be any conveniently chosen point and does not have to be a
node.
For two- and three-dimensional solid elements, there are a variety of tools available
for automatically creating finite element meshes. A typical process consists of defining
key points, joining key points to create lines, joining lines to create areas, and for three-
dimensional solids using areas to create volumes. Plane meshes can be created through
areas by defining the target size of elements or choosing a number of subdivisions along
selected lines. Three-dimensional meshes are created in a similar manner through volumes.
Typical menu paths to define nod~s directly are as follows:
Preprocessor> Modeling> Create» Nodes> On working plane [Pick locations if you.

have created a suitable grid]
Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Nodes> In the active CS [Enter node # and x, y, z
coordinates]
The equivalent text command for direct creation of nodal coordinates is N. For example,
N,1,-90""" !* Creates node 1 with coordinates (-90, 0, 0)

N,2,90""" !* Creates node 2 with coordinates (90, 0, 0)
N,3,-90,180"", !* Creates node 3 with coordinates (-90, 180, 0)
Nodes that are equally spaced along a line can be created more easily by defining a line
and then meshing this line. There are several different ways of creating lines as well. The
simplest is to create several key points and then define a line passing through these key
points.
It is important to understand the distinction between the key points and the nodes. Both
are just points defined at specified x, y, z locations. However, nodes are finite element enti-
ties and can be used to create elements. On the other hand, a key point is simply a geometric
entity and an element cannot be defined between a set of key points.
Create Elements For structural frameworks elements can be created by choosing the
nodes at the element ends. As the elements are created, ANSYS automatically numbers
them as E1, E2, etc. When creating elements, it is important to choose appropriate element
type, real constant type, and material type. By default, these attributes are set as type l,
reall , and rnatl , Appropriate attributes must be selected before creating elements with
those attributes.
Typical menu paths to create elements are as follows:
Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Elements> Elem Attributes [Select appropriate
element type, material number, and real constant]
Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Elements> Auto numbered> Thru nodes [pick
nodes associated with the element]
The equivalent text command for direct creation of elements is E. For example, the fol-
lowing lines create an element between nodes 1 and 2 with attributes TYPE 1, MAT 1,
REAL 1.
TYPE,l
MAT,1
REAL, 1
E,1,2
The following line creates an element between nodes 1 and 3 with attributes TYPE 1, MAT
1, REAL 2. /
REAL,2
E,1,3
Apply Loads and Specify Boundary Conditions By default each node has six
degrees of freedom (three translations and three rotations). However, some of these de-
grees of freedom may be automatically suppressed depending on the type of element used.
For example, nodes in a model consisting only of the plane truss elements have only two
translational degrees of freedom.
Concentrated loads are specified at the nodes in the global directions. Distributed loads
are defined along element sides. Specified boundary conditions in the global directions at
selected nodes can easily be defined. Typical menu paths to specify nodal displacements
and to create nodal loads are as follows:
Preprocessor> Loads> Define Loads> Apply> Structural> Displacement> On Nodes
[Pick all nodes with the same specified values]
Preprocessor> Loads> Define Loads> Apply> Structural> ForcelMoment> On
Nodes [Pick all nodes with the same specified values]
ANSYSAPPLICATIONS 647
In the resulting dialog box select appropriate degrees of freedom and specify known values
(typically zero for displacements). The equivalent text commands for specifying displace-
ments and nodal loads are D and F, respectively. For example, the following lines specify
zero values for x and y displacements at node 2 and a load of 1000 in the, negative y direc-
tion at node 9.
D,2, ,0, , , ,UX,UY, , , ,
F,9,FY,-1000
Boundary conditions that are not along the global directions (for example, an inclined
support) must be simulated through appropriate use of spring elements or by defining con-
straint equations. Time-dependent boundary conditions and loads are created as steps. Be-
tween any two time steps the loads are assumed to vary linearly with time. The initial time
is set to O. Loads specified without changing this time are suddenly applied at time O. At
each time when there is a change in load magnitude or position, the process of defining
loads is repeated,
Choose Appropriate Analysis Type and Initiate Solution The default is the lin-
ear static analysis, assuming small displacements. Other analysis types include static analy-
sis considering large displacement effects, modal analysis, transient response analysis, etc.
Within each analysis type several options are available to select an appropriate solution
algorithm or to set key solution parameters.
Typical menu paths to specify a solution type and initiate a solution are as follows:
Solution> Analysis Type> New Analysis> [Pick desired analysis type, e.g., Static
(default)]
Solution> Solve> Current LS (starts the finite element solution process for the current
load case)
The equivalent text commands are asfollows:
/SOLD
ANTYPE,O
SOLVE
FINISH
This step may take, a few seconds or several hours depending on the complexity of the
model and the type of solution required. ANSYS goes through the entire finite element pro-
cess of writing element equations, assembling to form global equations, imposing bound-
ary conditions, and then solving for the nodal unknowns. The results are saved in a database
that is retrieved in the next step for postprocessing.
View Results The Post! module can display results at a specified time step. The de-
fault is the first step. It is possible to draw deformed shapes and stress contours (for solid
models). For time-dependent problems, the entire time history of a chosen solution quan-
tity, say displacement at a selected node, can be plotted by using commands given in the
Post26 module.
Typical menu paths to plot and list results are as follows:
General postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Element solu> By sequence num
(Last entry. Use scroll buttons» SMISC, 1
General postproc> List Results> Nodal solution> DOF solution> All DOFs
General postproc» List Results> Element solution> By sequence num> SMISC, 1
In these examples the "By sequence num'' option is used. This is the last entry in the dialog
box that results from the above menu paths. Selecting this results in a display of commands
such as SMISC, NMISC. These commands, and with the appropriate number associated
with them, give access to' a large number of quantities computed for each element. For
example, to get axial forces at the first node of each truss element, we use the sequence
SMISC, 1. The information on the available options must be obtained from the documen-
tation of the element being used in the analysis. This information is accessible from the
help menu. For example, for the LINK.! element use the following menu path:
Help> Help Topics> ANSYS Documentation> ANSYS Element Reference> Element

Library> LINK1
In the element descriptions the specific information related to these commands is given
in the Element Output sections in Tables entitled "Item and Sequence Numbers for the
ETABLE and ESOL commands."
The equivalent text commands are as follows:
/POSTl !* Enter the postprocessor

SET,FIRST !* Process results of the first load step (default)
I
PRNSOL,DOF, !* Create a list of nodal displacements
PRESOL,SMISC, 1 !* Create a list of element axial forces
PLESOL,SMISC, 1,1,1 !* Show axial forces on a plot with deformed shape
A.1.2 Truss Analysis

Determine nodal displacements and axial forces in the transmission tower shown in Figure
A.1. The tower is made of steel (E = 29 x 106Ib/in2 ) angle sections. The main vertical
members (elements 2, 4, 6, 8,10, and 12) have a cross-sectional area of 20 in2 • All other
members have a cross-sectional area of 10 in2 .
The best way to create frame and truss models in ANSYS is to enter nodal coordinates
and element definitions directly into a text file and then use the following menu path to run
the commands:
File> Read Input from ... > [Select the appropriate file]
For this example the model can be created by using the input as follows:
1
ELEMENTS SEP 1 2003
ELEl.f Nut" 07:34:03
Figure A.I. Tower model in ANSYS
!* Model creation N,13,-60,600"", REAL,1

/PREP7 N,14,60,600"", E,S,7
!* Element type N,15, 180,570"", REAL,2
ET,l,LINKl N,16,300,540"", E,5,8
!'1' Real constants !* Create elements REAL,1
R,1,20" !':'with appropriate attributes E,6,8
R,2,10,0, MAT,1 REAL,2
!* Material property REAL,2 E,7,8
MPTEMP,,,,,,,, E,1,2 E,7,9
MPTEMP,l,O REAL,1 E,8,10
MPDATA,EX,1,,29000000··· E,1,3 E,9,1l
MPDATA,PRXY,l" REAL,2 E,1O,16
!* Create nodes E,l,4 E,1l,12
N,1,-96""" REAL,1 E,12,13
N,2,96""" E,2,4 E,13,l4
N,3,-96, 180"", REAL,2 E,14,15
N,4,96, 180"", E,3,4 E,lS,l6
N,5,-60,300"", REAL,1 E,9,12
N,6,60,300"", E,3,5 E,9,13
N,7,-60,420"", REAL,2 E,7,13,
N,8,60,420"", E,4,S E,8,13
N,9,-180,480"", REAL,1 E,8,14
N,1O,180,480"", E,4,6 E,10,14
N,11,-300,540",,, REAL,2 E,1O,15
N,12,-180,570"", E,5,6 !*
ELEMENT SOLOTION
SE.? 1 2003
STEP"l 07:31:4B
SUB =1
TIMe=l
SHISl
D:.fX :::l.007903
SIN =-2236
5HX =2000
.' .;:.~.,
4;~.-:',~:'-,
.~ :::
.,f·
/
~~:~~h_
~i"ffii~w:,:.",:r;1.'!;'.r,;:::'!::"(il,T:r:!Ii',.'~:f:rti:·P,I!j':f~jli~r::~rr~;'"~!\:;;':1'f.'\~~1:~
-2236 -1295' -353,371 597.977 . 1539'

-1765 -924.045 117.303 1059 2000
Figure A.2. Axialforcesshownon a deformed shape of the model
The remaining steps of specifying boundary conditions, loads, initiating solution, and ex-
tracting results are accomplished through the following commands:
!* Specify displacement boundary conditions !* Postprocessing

D,2, ,0, , , ,UX,UY, , , , /POSTl
D,l, ,0", ,UY"", SET,FIRST
/ .
!* Specify applied forces !* List nodal displacements
F,9,FY,-1000 PRNSOL,DOF,
F,1O,FY,-1000 !* List element results
F,l1 ,FY,-1000 PRESOL,ELEM
F,16,FY,-1000 !* List element axial forces
!* Solution module PRESOL,SMISC, 1
/SOLU !* Show axial forces on a plot with deformed shape
SOLVE PLESOL,SMISC,l,l,l
FINISH
A plot of the axial forces in the elements superimposed on a highly exaggerated deformed
shape of the tower is shown in Figure A.2. The numerical values of the maximum and
minimum displacements and axial forces obtained from the ANSYS output are as follows:
Nodal displacements Axial Compression Axial Tension

Node 7 11 Elem 14 Elem20
Value: 1.63 X 10-3 -7.89 X 10-3 Value: -2236.1 Value: 2000.
A.1.3~' Steady-State Heat Flow

Consider two-dimensional heat flow over the L-shaped body shown in Figure A.3. To
demonstrate how to handle situations involving different material properties, here we con-
sider the solid to be made of two different materials. The thermal conductivity in both
directions for the larger left area is 45 W/m . "C and that for the smaller right area is
25 W/m- "C. Heat is generated only in the left area at a rate of Q = 5 X 106 W1m3 • The bot-
tom is maintained at a temperature of To = l1O"C. Convection heat loss takes place on the
top where the ambient air temperature is 20"C and the convection heat transfer coefficient
is h = 55 W1m2 • DC. The right side is insulated. The left side is subjected to heat flux at a
uniform rate of qo = 8000 W1m2 .
For this analysis the most suitable element typeis PLANE55. There are no real constants
for this element. We must define two different materials. These are defined by using the
following menu paths:
Preprocessor» Element Type> AddlEditlDelete> Add> Thermal Solid> Quad 4node

55 [1 (default)]
Preprocessor> Material Props> Material Models>
Material> New Model> Material Model Number 1> Thermal> Conductivity>
Isotropic> k [45]
Material> New Model> Material Model Number 2> Thermal> Conductivity>
Isotropic> k [25]
Material> Exit
The next step is to create a suitable model. Instead of creating nodes and elements directly,
as was done for the truss example, it is much simpler to first create the geometry of the
model and then use automatic meshing to divide it into a suitable number of elements.
The simplest way to create the geometry is to first define seven key points at the corners of
the two areas as shown in Figure A.3. The key points can be created by using the following
menu path:
y (m)
0.03
O.DlS
Insulated
o
To
x (m)
o 0.03 . 0.06
Figure A.3. L-shaped region for heat flow

Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Keypoints> In the active CS (Enter keypoint # and

x, y, z coordinates)
After defining all key points, the two areas can be created by using the following menu
path and picking the appropriate key points for the areas:
Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Areas> Arbitrary> Through KPs (Pick key points)
For assigning boundary conditions using text commands, such as SFL and DL, it is neces-
sary to know the line numbers. When creating areas through key points, ANSYS automat-
ically creates lines around the boundary of the areas. The lines are sequentially numbered
as one moves around the area. Assuming the order of key points picked for defining area
1 is 1-2-5-6-7 and that for area 2 is 2-3-4-5, the line numbers are as shown in Figure A.3
with labels L1 through L8.
After creating the two areas and before actually creating a mesh, we must assign appro-
priate material properties to each area created. This is done by the following menu path:
Preprocessor> Meshing> Meshing Attributes> Picked Areas> [Pick area 1]
From the resulting dialog box associate material 1 with this area (it is actually the default
and thus not really necessary for this area).
Preprocessor> Meshing> Meshing Attributes> Picked Areas> [Pick area 2]
From the resulting dialog box associate material 2 with this area.
Next comes an important operation called Glue in ANSYS. Without this operation
ANSYS will create meshes in the two areas independently, and most likely along the
common line between key points 2 and 5 the nodes from the two areas will not match
up. During the gluing operation, ANSYS goes through the two areas and determines the
common lines between the areas and'keeps track of them during meshing. The gluing op-
eration does not cause any physical change to the areas. The menu path for this operation
is as follows:
Preprocessor> Modeling> Operate> Booleans> Glue> Areas [Pick the two areas]
Note that ANSYS also provides an operation by which two areas can be "added" together.
As might be expected, this operation creates an entirely new area by combining the two
areas together and the common line is completely eliminated. This will not be a useful
operation here because then we will not be able to assign different material attributes to
two areas.
The next step is to actually create a finite element mesh. We must decide on an approx-
imate size of each element, which will obviously determine the total number of elements
and nodes. One can specify a global element size for the entire model. To provide further
control over the mesh, it is possible to override the global size by specifying different el-
ement sizes for a given area. One can also specify the target number of subdivisions of a
given line or a specific element size near a key point (for example, to capture a solution
near a corner where the solution may change rapidly). For this example, looking at the
physical dimensions of the model, we choose a global element size of 0.002 m. The length
of the model will then be divided roughly into 30 segments and the width into 15, resulting
in a mesh of the order of 30 x 15· = 450 elements, which should give us reasonable re-
sults. Near the corner at key point 5 we expect rapid solution change and thus we specify a
smaller element size of 0.0005 m there. The following menu paths are used to accomplish
these tasks:
Preprocessor> Meshing> Size Cntrls> ManualSize> Global> Size [0.002]
Preprocessor> Meshing> Size Cntrls> ManualSize> Keypoints> Picked KPs [Pick
key point 5 and enter size as 0.0005]
Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh> Areas> Free [Pick both areas]
The final task before a solution can be initiated is to specify boundary conditions. This can
be done either in the Preprocessor or the Solution modules. Here we will use the Solution
module. Even though it is the default, we first explicitly specify that we are conducting a
steady-state thermal analysis as follows:
'Solution> Analysis type> New Analysis> Steady-State
The heat flow on the line between key points 1 and 7 is specified as follows:
Solution> Define loads> Apply> Thermal> Heat Flux> On lines [pick line and enter
Load FLUX value = 8000]
The heat generation over the left area is specified as follows:
Solution> Define loads> Apply> Thermal> Heat Generat> On areas [Pick area and
enter Load HGEN value = 5000000]
The constant temperature on the bottom is specified as follows:
Solution> Define loads> Apply> Thermal> Temperature> On lines [Pick the two
bottom lines and enter Load TEMP value = 110]
The convection on the top surface is specified as follows:
Solution> Define loads> Apply> Thermal> Convection> On lines [Pick the three
lines defining top of the solid and enter Film coefficient = 55 and Bulk temperature =
20]
In a heat flow problem, if no boundary condition is specified along a boundary, it auto-
matically means there is no heat flow across that face, which is equivalent to the insulated
boundary condition. Thus there is no need to explicitly specify a zero heat flux on the right
end of the solid. The model is shown in Figure A.4.
We are now ready to actually perform the finite element analysis, which is done by using
the following menus:
Solution> Analysis Type> New Analysis> [Pick Steady-State (default)]
Solution> Solve> Current LS
After the solution is done, the results are viewed using the general postprocessor. First the
results are read from the database:
1.
CUlttll1G
ltAT IMI
Figure A.4. Heat flow model in ANSYS
General postproc» Postprocessor> Read results> First set
The results can now be viewed as numerical lists or plotted in various forms. For example,
Figure A.S shows a contour plot of nodal temperatures and a vector plot of element heat
flux obtained using the following menus:
General postproc» Plot Results> Contour Plot> Nodal Soln> DOF Solution>
Temperature TEMP !
General postproc» Plot Results> Vector Plot> Predefined> Flux and Gradient>
Thermal Flux TF
Thermal flux can be plotted using either Nodal Soln or Element Soln. The Nodal Soln
values are average values from all elements connected to that node. The Elem Soln uses
, ,
lICC.\L:OIJJTIClI ,~
m'·l
:lIlI_l
Ttllt'l
-
roo>
=~.
'0
Figure A.s. Temperature contours and heat flux vectors

values' only from one element. To assess the accuracy of the finite element model, you
should always use the element solutions. If the flux or the gradients change drastically
from one element to the next, then the mesh needs further refinement. Since the nodal
values are averaged, this information is lost in the nodal solution plots.
The complete set of equivalent text commands to solve this example is as follows:
!* Model creation ASEL"" I !* Specify analysis type

/PREP7 !* Set mat 1 and type 1 ANTYPE,O
!* Element type AATT, 1" I, 0, !* Heat generation for area 1
ET, 1,PLANE55 !* Select area 2 BFA,I,HGEN,5000000
!* Material properties ASEL"" 2 !* Heat flux along line 5
MPTEMP"""" !* Set mat 2 and type I SFL,5,HFLUX,8000,
MPTEMP,I,O AATT, 2" I, 0, !* Temperature on lines
MPDATA,KXX,I,,45 !* Define global element size DL,I, ,TEMP,llO,O
MPTEMP"""" ESIZE,O.002,O, DL,6, ,TEMP, 110,0
MPtEMP,l,O !* Select key point 5 !* Convection on lines
MPDATA,KXX,2,,25 KSEL",,5 SFL,8,CONV,55, ,20,
!* Key points !* Size around this point SFL,3,CONV,55, ,20,
K,I,O,O, KESIZE,ALL,O.0005 SFL,4,CONV,55, ,20,
K,2,0.03,0 ASEL,ALL SOLVE
K,3,0.06,0 KSEL,ALL FINISH
K,4,O.06,O.015 !* Specify free meshing !* Postprocessing
K,5,0.03,0.Ql5 MSHKEY,O /POST1
K,6,0.03,0.03 !* Mesh areas SET,FIRST
K,7,0,0.03 AMESH,I,2 !* Nodal temperature contours
!* Create areas FINISH PLNSOL,TEMP, ,1,
A,I,2,5,6,7 !* Solution module !* Thermal gradient vectors
A,2,3,4,5 /SOLD PLVECT,TG, , , ,VECT,ELEM,ON,O
A.1.4 Plane Stress AnalysJ~

As a final example, consider the problem of finding stresses in a notched beam of rectangu-
lar cross section. Taking advantage of symmetry, we model just the right half of the beam,
which is shown in Figure A.6. The beam is 4 in thick in the direction perpendicular to the
plane of the paper and is made of concrete with modulus of elasticity E = 3 X 106 Ib/in2
and Poisson's ratio v = 0.2. The beam is loaded by a uniform pressure of 50 Ib/in2 on the
top surface.
For this analysis the most suitable element type is PLANE42. By default, this element
assumes a plane stress problem with a unit thickness. For any other thickness we must set
the element option to Plane strs w/thk (plane stress analysis with specified thickness). The
actual thickness value is entered as it real constant for the element The menu paths for this
setup are as follows:
Preprocessor> Element Type> Add/EditlDelete> Add> Structural Solid> Quad 4node

42 [1 (default)]
Y (ft)
6 L5
12
4
8
0 G
0 10 20
L3
30 40 50
x (ft)
Figure A.6. Key point locations for notched beam
In the Element types dialog box click on the Options button and set Element behavior K3
to Plane strs w/thk.
Preprocessor> Real Constants> AddlEdit/Delete> Add> Type 1 PLANE42>

Thickness [4J
Preprocessor> Material Props> Material Models> Material Model Number 1>
Structural> Linear> Elastic> Isotropic> EX [3000000] and PRXY [0.2]
Material> Exit
The geometry of the model can easily be created from the six key points at the corners of
the area, as shown in Figure A.6. For later reference the line numbers are also shown in the
figure. The key points can be created by using the following menu path:
Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Keypoints> In the active CS (Enter keypoint # and

x, y, z coordinates)
After defining all key points, the area tan be created by using the following menu path and
picking the key points:
Preprocessor> Modeling> Create> Areas> Arbitrary> Through KPs [Pick key points]
The next step is to actually create a finite element mesh. We must decide on an approximate
size of each element. Looking at the physical dimensions of the model, we choose a global
element size of 2 in. Thus the length of the model will be divided roughly into 27 segments
and the width into 6, resulting in a mesh of the order of 27 x 6 = 162 element mesh. We
expect high stresses in the notch area and near the fixed end. To capture these stresses, we
use a finer mesh in these parts by specifying element size of 0.5 in along lines L1 and L6
and around key point 2. An element size of 1 is specified around key points 4 and 5. The
following menu paths are.used to accomplish these tasks:
Preprocessor> Meshing> Size Cntrls> ManualSize> Global> Size [2]

Preprocessor> Meshing> Size Cntrls> ManualSize> Lines> Picked lines [Pick lines
L1 and L6 and enter size as 0.5]
key point 2 and enter size as 0.5]
ELEJ.lENTS
JlJL 27 2003
07:06:18
Figure A.7. Plane stress model of notched beam in ANSYS

key points 4 & 5 and enter size as 1]
Preprocessor> Meshing> Mesh> Areas> Free [Pick area]
The final task before a solution can be initiated is to specify boundary conditions. The
fixed-end condition on the right end is specified by constraining all nodes on line L4 as
follows:
Solution> Loads> Define Loads> Apply> Structural> Displacement> On lines [Pick
line L4 and set all dof to 0]
The symmetry boundary condition along line L6 is defined as follows:
Solution> Loads> Define-Loads> Apply> Structural> Displacement> Symmetry
B.C.> On lines [Pick line L6]
The pressure along line L5 is defined as follows:
Solution> Loads> Define Loads> Apply> Structural> Pressure> On lines [Pick line
L5 and specify Pressure = 50]
The model is now complete and is as shown in Figure A.7.
We are now ready to actually perform the finite element analysis, which is done by using
the following menus:
Solution> Analysis Type> New Analysis> [pick Static analysis (default)]
Solution> Solve> Current LS
After the solution is done, the results are viewed using the general postprocessor. First the
results are read from the database:
t
IIOOAl. 6OUl1'IOli
STl:P-t
sun -t
A"20,'1
TI1m"t
sCQV (AVGl
rHOC •• on102
Slltt -n.'lH
SIC( MZ1U
1~~.:;fiJrnc.'X:-::i,,;\,,".r;~i;:;:;2~G~fljj:i~:':f.H~·ir7';:~~":~."",,":-:,"~""":~':~:;~~.;,;-::::r:~;:7o'i~
27.356 ' 6 3 5 . 0 1 1 ' '1243' 1850' '2458 I
331.184 938.839 1546 2154 2762
Figure A.S. von Mises equivalent stress contours
General postproc> Postprocessor> Read results> First set
The results can now be viewed as numerical lists or plotted in various forms. For example,
Figure A.8 shows a contour plot of equivalent von Mises stresses obtained using the fol-
lowing menu path:
General postproc> Plot Results> Contour Plot> Nodal Soln> Stress> von Mises
SEQV
!
The complete set of equivalent text commands to solve this example is as follows:
!* Model creation !* Key points !* Select key points

/PREP? K,1,0,5 KSEL",,2
!* Element type K,2,6,5 !* Define element size
ET,1,PLANE42 K,3,6,0 KESIZE,ALL,.5
KEYOPT,l,l,O K,4,54,0 KSEL",,4
KEYOPT,1,2,0 K,5,54,12 KSEL,A",5
KEYOPT,1,3,3 K,6,0,12 KESIZE,ALL,l
KEYOPT,l,5,0 !* Create areas !* Select lines
KEYOPT,1,6,0 A,1,2,3,4,5,6 LSEL""l
!* Real constant !* Select area 1 LSEL",,6
R,l,4, ASEL,,,, 1 !* Define element size
!* Material properties !* Set mat 1 and type 1 LESIZE,ALL,.5
MPTE~""", AATT, 1" 1, 0, ASEL,ALL
MPTEMP,l,O !* Define global element size KSEL,ALL
MPDATA,EX,1,,3000000 ESIZE,2,0, LSEL,ALL
MPDATA,PRXY,1".2
OPTIMIZING DESIGN USING ANSYS 659
!'i' Specify free meshing !* Zero disp along line 4 !* Postprocessing

MSHKEY,O DL,4"ALL, /POSTl
!* Mesh area !'" Symmetry along line 6 SET,FIRST
AMESH,l DL, 6"SYMM !* Equivalent stress plot
FINISH !* Pressure on lines 5 PLNSOL,S,EQV,O,O
!* Solution module SFL,5,PRES,50,
/SOLU SOLVE
!* Specify analysis type FINISH
ANTYPE,O
A.2 OPTIMIZING DESIGN USING ANSVS
Most finite element analyses are carried out with an ultimate goal of making improvements
in a given design. Several iterations, each requiring a new finite element analysis, may be
necessary to achieve a satisfactory design. If an analysis is carried out using an input file, it
is generally easy to make the design changes and reanalyze the model. The process can be
streamlined even further by using the optimization capability built into ANSYS. By defin-
ing certain parameters as design variables and creating suitable objective and constraint
functions, it is possible to let ANSYS perform iterations to automatically create optimum
designs.
A.2.1 General Steps

1. Prepare an input file for analysis using variables for key parameters. In order to use
optimization capability, all analysis steps must be defined in an input file. Further-
more, the file must use variables, instead of fixed numerical values, for the key de-
sign parameters that are to be changed. Even if one is not interested in optimization,
it generally is a good idea to use variables in the input file to improve readability and
to facilitate making manual changes if necessary. The input file is used repeatedly
during optimization iterations, and thus it should not contain unnecessary commands
(for example, plot commands). These commands slow down the execution and the
overall process will take much longer.
2. Run an analysis using the inputfile and define additional parameters. From the anal-
ysis results define additional parameters that are based on computed results. These
parameters will be used to define constraints and the objective function in the opti-
mization module. Add the equivalent commands to the input file. A convenient way
to find the equivalent commands to menu selections is to use the Session Editor win-
dow. It is accessed by selecting the Session Editor command, which is the second to
the last option in the ANSYS Main Menu. For all menu selections, ANSYS records
equivalent commands in this window. These commands can simply be copied and
pasted into the input file. .
3. Enter the Optimization module interactively and define an optimization problem by
using the following menu paths:
ANSYS Main Menu> Design Opt>
Analysis File> Assign. Assign Analysis file [Enter input file name]
Design variables> Add. Define a Design Variable [Select name, enter min and
maximum values (Convergence tolerance can be left blank)] OK
State variables> Add (State variables are really the constraints.)
Define a State Variable [Select name, enter lower limit and upper limit
(Feasibility tolerance can be left blank)] OK
Objective> Define Objective Function [Select parameter name (Convergence
tolerance can be left blank)] OK
MethodlTool> Specify Optimization MethodITool [Sub-Problem] OK.
Controls for Sub-problem optimization [Maximum iterations, Maximum
infeasible sets (ANSYS will stop iterations if this limit on infeasible designs is
reached), Print frequency [1 - will save results for each optimization iteration]
OK
Run. Starts the optimization iterations
There are equivalent commands for these menu selections as well. However, these
commands cannot be placed in the file used for analysis. One can create a separate
file containing these commands, if desired.
Once the optimization iterations stop, the results can be viewed by using Design Opt>
Design sets> List. For each iteration ANSYS lists values of design and state variables
(constraints) and the objective function. The solutions are labeled Feasible or Infeasible
based on whether the design satisfies all constraints or not. The best feasible design is
indicated by an asterisk. Changes in any of the optimization variables as a function of
design iterations can be plotted on a graph using Design Opt> Design sets> GraphslTables.
A.2.2 Heat Flow Example

Consider design of an insulation system for a square duct as shown in Figure A.9. The
inside surface of the duct is at a temperature of 300 cC due to hot gases flowing from a
furnace. We would like to determine the suitable thickness of the insulation so that the duct
is not too hot to touch, say the outside surface temperature be less than 30cC. It has been
decided that the insulation geometry will be square to match that of the duct. The heat
conduction coefficient of insulation is 1.4 W/m· "C. The average convection heat transfer
coefficient on the outside of the duct is 27 W1m . "C. The ambient air temperature is 20 cC.
Because of symmetry, we create model of one-eighth of the domain as shown. The
insulation dimension is variable. We must choose some starting value based on prior ex-
perience. Here we start with w == 0.1 m. In the analysis file we create a variable parameter
using the following command:
*set, W, 0.1
Note the asterisk is part of the command and cannot be omitted.

OPTIMIZING DESIGN USING ANSYS 661
Figure A.9. Square duct
The area must be divided into a reasonable number of elements. The automatic mesh
generation capability of ANSYS is a powerful tool to accomplish this. To use this, we have
to create the area first. There are several ways of creating areas in ANSYS. For this simple
example the area can be defined in terms of four key points. With the origin at keypoint 4,
the coordinates of these points are as follows:
x y
1 w 0
2 w w+O.l
3 0 0.1
4 0 0
In ANSYS, the key points are defined by using the k command, which takes the key point
number and its coordinates as arguments. From the key points one can create an area-using
the a command. The arguments to the a command are the key point numbers, defined by
moving counterclockwise around the area. In the process ANSYS automatically creates.
lines between the pairs of key points. Each line is numbered sequentially, starting with line
1 defined between the first tw.O key points used to define the area. The lines are used for
defining boundary conditions.
After creating an area, we need to tell ANSYS how to create a mesh for the area. There
are several controls to accomplish this. Here we simply define a global element size of
say wllO with the ESIZE command. This will give us a rnesh of roughly 100 elements,
and as you will see from the plots of the element solution later, it produces reasonable
results. We also need to specify the type of finite element mesh to be generated using the
MSHKEY, 0 command. The argument 0 specifies the free-meshing method as opposed to
the mapped meshing (specified with 1). The free meshing is more flexible and can han-
dle essentially any geometry. The mapped meshing creates a more uniform mesh but is
restricted to quadrilateral areas. For this simple example wecan use either method. The
actual finite element mesh is generated using the AMESH command (area mesh). The
argument to the command is area number.
We can specify the boundary conditions on nodes and elements directly. However, in
order to have flexibility in changing the mesh size, we should specify the boundary con-
ditions on lines and areas. This way, if a new mesh is created, ANSYS will automatically
apply these boundary conditions to the nodes and elements defined along these lines. The
temperature along a line is specified using the DL command. The convection is specified
using the SFL command.
The model is now complete and we can use the Solve command to perform the analysis.
To prepare for optimization, in the postprocessor we must select quantities that we need
to define constraints and objective function. For a satisfactory design we have to make
sure that the outside surface temperature is less than 30°C. This requires that we monitor
temperature at a node on the outside. With automatic mesh generation we do not have a
prior knowledge of the node numbers. However, after some experience with ANSYS, you
will discover some of the patterns that ANSYS employs in numbering nodes and elements.
One such observation is that ANSYStypically assigns the same node number as key point
number at the locations where a key point exists. With this observation, we expect node 1
to be at the location of key point 1. (The numbering used for the key points was chosen
with this in mind.) Since this point is on the outside surface and is closest geometrically to
the hot duct, it is a good candidate to monitor temperature to satisfy the stated design goal.
The actual definition of this as a parameter is accomplished by the following command:
*GET,nt,NODE,1,TEMP
where nt is a label of the user's choice and 1 refers to node 1. The command defines a
parameter nt that is equal to the computed temperature at node 1.
The temperature goal can be met by malcing the insulation very thick. However, this will
be uneconomical. Thus we need to keep the total volume of insulation used to a minimum.
In order to obtain the total volume, we must compute the volume of each element and sum
them together. This is done b)' the following commands:
ETABLE,volu,VOLU, I
SSUM
*GET,totalvol,SSUM, ,ITEM,VOLU
ETABLE is a general command that is used to extract a variety of data from elements. Here
we are asking for VOLU (for volume) data. The second argument is any label of user's
choice. The second line tells ANSYS to create a sum over all elements of the ETABLE
quantity. The last line actually defines .a parameter called totalvol (the name is the user's
choice) that is equal to the sum of element volumes.
The complete input data file for the example is as follows:
/PREP7 !* Create key points

,* Element type k,l,w,O
ET,1,PLANE55 k,2,w,w+0.1
!* Material properties k,3,0.0,0.1
MPTEMP",,,,,, k,4,0,0,
MPTEMP,I,O !* Create area
MPDATA,KXX,1,,1.4 a,1,2,3,4
set,w,O.l
ABAQUSAPPLICATIONS 663
pi' Define global element size ! * Specified temperature along line

ESIZE, w/10,0, DL,3"TEMP,300,
!* Specify free meshing !* Convection on line
MSHKEY,O SFL,I ,CONV,27, ,20,
!* Mesh areas SOLVE
AMESH,1 FINISH
FINISH !* Postprocessing
!* Solution module /POSTl
/SOLU GET,nt,NODE,I,TEMP,
!* Specify analysis type ETABLE,volu,VOLU,
ANTYPE,O SSUM
GET,totalvol,SSUM, ,ITEM,VOLU
ANSYS Results
LIST OPTIMIZATION SETS FROM SET 1 TO SET 5 AND SHOW
d'NLY OPTIMIZATION PARAMETERS. (A "*" SYMBOL IS USED TO
INDICATE THE BEST LISTED SET)
SET 1 SET 2 SET 3 SET 4

(INFEASIBLE) (FEASIBLE) (INFEASIBLE) (INFEASIBLE)
NT (SV) > 109.72 28.584 > 36.232 > 31. 981
W (DV) 0.10000 0.86246 0.51147 0.65667
TOTALVOL(OBJ) 0.15000E-01 0.45816 0.18195 0.28127
*SET 5*
(FEASIBLE)
NT (SV) 29.053
W (DV) 0.82655
TOTALVOL(OBJ) 0.42425
The plot in Figure A.IO shows how the outside surface temperature changed with each
iteration. Figure A.II showsthe temperature distribution in the initial and the optimum
designs.
A.3 ABAQUS APPLICATIONS
A.3.1 Execution Procedure

To perform a finite element analysis using ABAQUS, one must prepare a text file and save
it with an extension .inp. Assuming a file named feajob.inp exists, the program can be
executed by typing the following command at the shellprompt:
ABAQUS job=feajob
The analysis proceeds entirely in the background without anyuser interaction. ABAQUS
writes analysis results in several files, all starting with the same job name but with dif-
664 USE OF COMMERCIAL FEA SOFlWARE
J\NI., .....
OPTII-1IZATION
SEP 19 2003
liT 15:18:21
LQl,>jER
OppeR
t:'jo
120 I
l:!'PF,F
110 \ I
'::\1
::'1\
Value I
I
j·l··
r----r-_.
I
J
""3O!--'--+"",,"",""""'+--+--i-F=i'-"-+-";
I
1.4
1.0
2.2 1
1.' 1.0 •. e
Set Number
Figure A.10. Outside surface temperature during optimization iterations
,r.:cI.l."'lJlTIW
n,u:<ol 10 It :"'l
on.. , 1~,OI.~~ ~"'l 1',::.\<1
""... ·1 Tl'lt_l
nUl'l tl:I, ,~I<ll
tel, (~'':IJ
__ no
~:=::~m
......:0.111
Figure A.n. Comparison of temperature in the initial and optimum designs
ferent extensions. The file with a .dat extension is a text file containing a summary of the
execution steps and any other requested output. Any warnings or errors produced during
execution are saved in this file as well. The file with extension .odb contains the entire
analysis database in a binary form. This file is used for graphical viewing of results using
the ABAQUS viewer as follows:
ABAQUS viewer database=feajob
The viewer has menus for standard operations of plotting contours of nodal and element
solutions, deformed shape, etc.
The input file can be created either manually by typing appropriate commands in a text
file or by using a graphical preprocessor for ABAQUS. To use the preprocessor, issue the
following command at the shell prompt:
ABAQUS cae
ABAQUS APPLICATIONS 665
The main screen of the cae environment contains the usual file manipulation, visualization,
and help menus. Near the top left-hand side, under the buttons for File Save, Print, etc., is
a drop-down list for accessing different modules for creating a finite element model. The
order in which these modules appear in the list reflects the intended sequence in which the
modules are to be used.
The following sections define typical commands and procedures from ABAQUS cae
to create an input file. For trusses, structural frameworks, and other situations involving
simple structured finite element meshes, the direct creation of the input file is generally
the most convenient option. For modeling situations involving generation of complex un-
structured finite element mesh, the use of ABAQUS cae is recommended. The following
sections show examples of both approaches.
A.3.2 Truss Analysis

Determine nodal displacements and axial forces in the transmission tower shown in Figure
A.I. The tower is made of steel (E = 29 X 106Ib/in2 ) angle sections. The main vertical
members (elements 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12) have a cross sectional area of 20in2 • All other
members have a cross-sectional area of 10 in2 .
The simplest way to create a model for structural frameworks is to manually create an
input data file. For this example the model can be created by using the input as follows:
*Heading *Nset, nseteloaded 18,11,12

Transmission tower 9,10,11,16 19,12,13
Node boundary 20,13,14
1,-96,0,0 pin,1,2 21,14,15
2,96,0,0 boundary 22,15,16
3,-96,180,0 roller,2 - 23,9,12
4,96,180,0 Element~type=T2D2 24,9,13
5,-60,300,0 1,1,2 25,7,13,
6,60,300,0 2,1,3 26,8,13
7,-60,420,0 3,1..,4 27,8,14
8,60,420,0 4,2,4 28,10,14
9,-180,480,0 5,3,4 29,10,15
10,180,480,0 6,3,5 * Element sets
11,-300,540,0 7,4,5 Elset,.elset=set1
12,-180,570,0 8,4,6 2,4,6,8,10,12
13,-60,600,0 9,5,6 Elset, elset=set2, generate
14,60,600,0 10,5,7 1,11,2
15,180,570,0 11,5,8 13,29,1
16,300,540,0 12,6,8 solidsection, elset=setl, materialesteel
* Node sets for be 13,7,8 20
Nset, nset=pin 14,7,9 solidsection, elset=set2, materialesteel
2 15,8,10 10
Nset, nset=roller 16,9,11 material, name=steel
1 17,10,16 elastic
29000000,0.3 loaded, 2, -1000 *nodeprint, frequency=l

Step, nameeStep-I output, field, variable=preselect U,
Vertical load 1000 lb output, history, variable=preselect RF,
static elprint, frequency» 1 endstep
cload S,
The keywords starting with an asterisk are ABAQUS commands. The commands are not
case sensitive. Lines starting with two asterisks are comment lines. The line following
the *Heading command is used on output and plots to identify the analysis. The nodal
coordinates are entered as node number and x, y, and z coordinates following the *Node
command. In preparation for defining boundary conditions and loads, three nodal sets are
created using the *Nset command. Nodes with pin supports are identified as a set called
"pin," those with roller support are called "roller," and those with vertical load are called
"loaded." Using the *Boundary command, the degrees of freedom 1 and 2 (x and y displace-
ments) are suppressed for node set "pin." The roller support is represented by suppressing
only the second degree of freedom (y displacement). The command *Element starts the
definition of elements. The plane truss element in ABAQUS is identified as T2D2. The
following lines define elements as element number, node at one end, and node at the other
end. For assigning material and section properties the elements are classified into two sets
identified as setl and set2. Using the *Elset command, the elements in setl are assigned
material as "steel" and section as *solidsection with area = 20 and those in set2 are assigned
the same material but an area = 10. The elastic material properties for steel are defined us-
ing *Material and *Elastic commands. A load of 1000 is applied in the -y direction to the
"loaded" nodes using the *Cload command.
The actual analysis commands are between the *Step and *Endstep commands. *Static
specifies a static analysis. *Output, *Elprint, and *Nodeprint commands control the results
information written to the database, element results written to the .dat file, and nodal results
written to .dat file, respectively. The label S refers to stresses, U to displacements, and RF
to reaction forces.
Using this input file the following command is used to perform the analysis:
ABAQUS job=tower
The ABAQUS output consisting of results and any error or warning messages are saved in
a text file called tower.dat. The results can be viewed using the viewer as follows:
ABAQUS viewer database=tower

A plot of the axial stresses in the elements on a highly exaggerated deformed shape of
the tower is shown in Figure A.12. The numerical results are exactly the same as those
obtained from ANSYS.
A.3.3 Steady-State Heat Flow

Consider two-dimensional heat flow over an L-shaped body shown in Figure A.3 using
ABAQUS. The thermal conductivity in both directions for the largerleft area is 45 W/m·oC
and that for the smaller right area is 25 W1m . DC. Heat is generated only in the left area at
S, HlsliIs
(Ave. Crit. t "}S~l
I
"~ ~5:m~~g~
/'eTI1·'l·'····
'::: +1.86'38+02
" H.677e+02
.," +1.49113+'02
:~! +1. j 04 s+02
~"." +1 • .l.l8ei-02
~.~ ~. :gJ:~gI
;.~;
..
ti: ~~~~tgI
H.86Jet-Ol
-. ".
-
"'l.S9ge~14
!.
1/
!L,_ ....
-"-..
,_o, _ _
I
l.
L,
2
~:~:~OOO'Mj,.)]. .
Step I
Increment
Step~
1. Vertical lO~oo-Ib
11 Step Time =
primary Vdr IS, Hises
1. 000
s.. oa " " ' ' ' ' =, co,
Deformed Vdrl U De!ormation Scale Pactorl t-7.601et-OJ
Figure A.12. Axial stresses shown on a defamed shape of the model
a rate of Q = 5 X 106 W/m3 • The bottom is maintained at a temperature of To = no°c.

Convection heat loss takes place on the top where the ambient air temperature is 20°C and
the convection heat transfer coefficient is h = 55 W1m 2 . "C. The right side is insulated. The
left side is subjected to heat flux at a uniform rate of qo = 8000 W1m 2 .
For this example it is convenient to use the ABAQUS cae to prepare the input file.
Model Creation Using ABAQU$ cae
1. Part Module. The overall geometry is created using the Part module in the ABAQUS
cae system. A model may consist of several different parts. Interactions among these parts
are specified in a later module. For this heat flow example we create a single part consisting
of the L-shaped region:
Part> Create [Name: Patt-I, Modeling space: 2D Planar, Type: Deformable,Base

feature: Shell, Approximate size: 0.1]. Continue
Add> Line> Connected lines [Enter x,y coordinates orcorners of the L-shape]. Enter
return after entering each pair: 0,0; 0.06,0; 0.06,0.015; 0.03,0.015; 0.03,0.03; 0,0.03;
0,0. Click on any other icon to get out of line define mode. Click on Done next to
"Sketch the section for planar shell."
In order to assign different properties, we must partition the ~-shaped region into two as
follows:
Tools> Partition> Face> Shortest path between two points. Select a point (0.03,0) at
the bottom edge and the inside corner ofL-shape (0.03,0.015) and click on Create
partition. The L-shaped region should now be divided into the left square area and the
right rectangular area.
2. Property Module. Different material and section properties are created in this mod-
ule. For this example two materials are defined with appropriate thermal conductivity val-
ues:
Material> Create> Material-Ic- Continue>Thermal> Conductivity [Enter

Conductivity (k) =45] OK
Material> Create> Material-2> Continue>Thermal> Conductivity [Enter
Conductivity (k) =25] OK
In order to use these materials later, they must be associated with appropriate sections. Two
sections are defined and associated with these materials as follows:
Section> Create> Section-l > Solid> Homogeneous> Continue> [Set Material to

Material-l and plane stress/strain thickness to 1] OK
Section> Create> Section-2> Solid> Homogeneous> Continue>[Set Material to
Material-2 and plane stress/strain thickness to 1] OK
The next task is to actually associate these sections to different areas of the part as follows:
Assign> Section> [Select left square area and click Done on the button next to 'Select
the regions to be assigned a section']> Section-l > OK
Assign> Section> [Select right rectangular areaand click Done]> Section-2> OK
3. Assembly Module. Different parts in a model are assembled in this module. Different
contact and interface conditions can be /created between these parts. For this example, we
only have a single part and thus our task is very simple. The assembly is just the part and
is defined as follows:
Instance> Create> Part-l > OK
4. Step Module. This module defines the analysis type and sets desired output solution
parameters:
Step> Create> [Name: Step-l , Procedure type: General]> Heat transfer> Continue>
[Response: Steady state]
The desired output solution parameters are defined as follows:
Output> Field output requests> Create> [Name: F-Output-2, Step-I]» Continue>

Thermal [Select NT, Nodal temperature and HFL, Heat flux vector]
5. Interaction Module. For structural problems contact and sliding-type boundary con-
ditions are defined in this module. For heat transfer problems, the main purpose of this
module is to define the convection boundary condition:
-Interaction> Create> [Name: Int-I, Step: Step-I]» Film condition> Continue. Select
the lines on the top of the region by clicking. Keep the shift key pressed to be able to
select multiple lines. Click on Done next to "Select the surface." In the resulting dialog
box enter h value (55) in the Film coefficient and surrounding fluid temperature (20) in
the Sink temperature fields and click OK. .
6. Load Module. For structural problems loads and boundary conditions are created in
this module. For heat transfer problems, this module is used to specify known temperature
and heat flux boundary' conditions.
Load> Create> [Name: Load-I, Step: Step-I, Category: Thermal]> Surface heat flux>
Continue. Select the line on the Ieft of the region by clicking. Click on Done next to
the "Select surfaces for the load." In the resulting dialog box enter Magnitude = 8000
for the specified heat flux on this side and click OK.
Load> Create> [Name: Load-2, Step: Step-I, Category: Thermal]> Body heat flux>
Continue. Select the left area by clicking. Click on Done next to the "Select bodies for
the load." In the resulting dialog box enter Magnitude =5000000 for the specified
body heat flux on this area and click OK.
BC> Create> [Name: BC-I, Step: Step-I, Category: Other]> Temperature> Continue.
Select the bottom lines by clicking. Click on Done next to the "Select regions for the
boundary condition." In the resulting dialog box enter Magnitude = 110 for the
specified temperature on this bottom and click OK.
If no boundary condition is specified along a boundary, it automatically means there is no

heat flow across that face, which is equivalent to the insulated boundary condition. Thus
there is no need to explicitly specify a zero heat flux on the right end of the solid.
7. Mesh Module. The next step is to actually create a finite element mesh. We must
decide on an approximate size of each element, which will obviously determine the total
number of elements and nodes. One can specify a global element size for the entire model.
To provide further control over the mesh, it is possible to specify the target number of sub-
divisions of a given line. The subdivisions can be biased toward a chosen end of the line
(for example, to capture a rapidly changing solution near a comer). For this example, look-
ing at the physical dimensions of the model, we choose a global element size of 0.002 m.
Thus the length of the model will be divided roughly into 30 segments and the width into
15, resulting in a mesh of the order of 30 x 15 = 450 elements, which should give us rea-
sonable results. Near the comer at key point 5 we expect arapid solution change and thus
we specify 20 subdivisions for each of the three lines meeting at the comer. A bias toward
the comer is created by clicking near the comer end of each line (the bias direction is in-
dicated by an arrow by ABAQUS graphics). The following steps are used to accomplish
these tasks:
Seed> Edge biased> Click on the three lines meeting at the interior comer (pick near
the end where the mesh must be denser). Click on Done m~ar "Enter edges to be
assigned local seeds." Enter Bias ratio =2 (larger value implies more bias).
Seed> Instance> Enter global element size (approximate): 0.002.
Mesh> Controls> Select both areas (with shift key pressed to be able to select multiple
areas) and then click on Done next to "Select the regions to be assigned mesh
controls." In the resulting dialog box choose Element shape: Quad-dominated,
Technique: Free, and Algorithm: Advancing front and then click OK and Done.
Mesh> Controls> Select both areas and then click on Done next to "Select the regions
to be assigned element types." In the resulting dialog box choose Element Library:
Standard, Geometric Order: Linear, and Family: Heat transfer and then click OK and
Done.
Mesh> Instance> Click on Yes button next to "OK to mesh part instance?"
The resulting finite model is shown in Figure A.l3. The model generation is now complete.
Additional information, such as boundary conditions and load symbols, can be displayed
on the model by selecting View> Assembly display options. The graphics can be saved to
a file by using File> Print menu and setting the Destination to File, giving a file name and
specifying the desired format.
8. Job Module. We are now ready to actually create the finite element analysis input file
as follows:
Job> Create> [Name: LShapeHeat, Model: Model-I]> Continue. In the resulting

dialog box accept the default options [Job Type: Full analysis, Run Mode:
Background, Submit Time: Immediately]
This step will create an input file named LShapeHeatinp.
Figure A.l3. Heat flow model in ABAQUS

1m ...... ,,~, I
Figure A.14. Temperature contours and heat flux vectors
Solution The actual analysis can be performed in the batch mode using the input file by
issuing the command abaqus job=LShapeHeat at the shell prompt. Alternatively we can
use the menu Job> Submit from within the job module of ABAQUS cae. With this option
the progress of the solution can be monitored using jhe Job> Monitor option; Once the
analysis is complete, the results will be saved in a database LShapeHeat.odb and summary
of the execution steps and requested output will be written to a text file LShapeHeat.dat.
Postprocessing UsingABAQUS Viewer The postprocessing of the results is done

using the viewer module. If the ABAQUS cae environment is already open, one can simply
switch to the viewer module and open the results database. Otherwise the viewer can be
launched separately by issuing the abaqus viewer database=LShapeHeat command at the
shell prompt.
The results can now be viewed as numerical lists or plotted in various forms. For ex-
ample, Figure A.14 shows a contour plot of nodal temperatures and vector plot of element
heat flux obtained using the following steps:
Results> Field output> [Select ~ame: NTll, Nodal temperatures at nodes]
Plot> Contours
Results> Field output> [Select-Name: HFL, Heat flux vector at integration points,
Invariant: Magnitude]
Plot> Contours
A.3.4 Plane Stress Analysis

As a final example, consider the problem of finding stresses in a notched beam of rectangu-
lar cross section shown in Figure A.6. The beam is 4 in thick in the direction perpendicular
to the plane of paper and is made of concrete with modulus of elasticity E = 3 x 1061b/in2
and Poisson's ratio v = 0.2. The beam is loaded by a uniform pressure of 50 Ib/in2 on the
top surface.
Model Creation Using ABAQUS cae
1. Part Module. The overall geometry is created using the Part module in the ABAQUS
cae system. A model may consist of several different parts. Iriteractions among these parts
are specified in a later module. For this example we create a single part as follows:
Part> Create [Name: Part-I, Modeling space: 2D Planar, Type: Deformable, Base
feature: Shell, Approximate size: 60] Continue
Add> Line> Connected lines [Enter x, y coordinates of the comers (Figure A.6)].
Enter return after entering each pair: 0,5; 6,5; 6,0; 54,0; 54,12; 0,12; 0,5. Click on any
other icon to get out of line define mode. Click on Done next to "Sketch the section for
planar shell."
2. Property Module. Different material and section properties are created in this mod-
ule. For this example one material is defined with appropriate modulus of elasticity and
Poisson's ratio values:
Material> Create> Material-l > Continuec-Mechanical> Elasticity> Elastic [Enter

E = 30000000 and v = 0.2] OK
In order to use this material later, it must be associated with appropriate sections. For this
example one section is defined and associated with the material as follows:
Section> Create> Section-L> Solid> Homogeneous> Continue> [Set Material to

Material-l and plane stress/strain thickness to 4] OK
The next task is to actually associate the sections to different areas of the part. In this
example there is only one section and one area:
Assign> Section> [Select the area and click on Done next to "Select the regions to be
assigned a section"]> Section-L» OK
3. Assembly Module. Different contact. and interface conditions can be created between
parts using this module. For this example.we only have a single part and thus the assembly
is just the part and is defined as follows:
Instance> Create> Part-I> OK
4. Step Module. This module defines the analysis type and sets desired output solution
parameters:
Step> Create> [Name: Step-I, Procedure type: General]> Static General> Continue>
[Nlgeom: Off]
Nonlinear large displacement effects can be included in the analysis by setting Nlgeom:
On. For a conventional small-displacement linear analysis Nlgeom must be set to off.
The desired output solution parameters are defined as follows:
Output> Field output requests> Create> [Name: F-Output-Z, Step-L[> Continue>

[Select Stresses: S, Stress components and invariants,
DisplacementlVelocity/Acceleration: U, Translations and rotations, and
Forces.Reactions: Loads, Uniform distributed loads and RF, Reaction forces and
moments]
5. Interaction Module. Contact and sliding-type boundary conditions are defined in this
module. These conditions do not exist in this example and thus there is'no need to use this
module.
6. Load Module. Loads and boundary conditions are created in this module:
Load> Create> [Name: Load-I, Step: Step-I, Category: Mechanical]> Pressure>

Continue. Select the line on the top of the region by clicking. Click on Done next to
"Select surfaces for the load." In the resulting dialog box enter Magnitude = 50 for the
specified load on this side and click OK.
BC> Create> [Name: BC-I, Step: Step-I, Category: Mechanical]>
Symmetry/AntisymmetrylEncastre> Continue. Select the left side symmetry .line by
clicking. Click on Done next to "Select regions for the boundary condition." In the
resulting dialog box click XSYMM for symmetry in the x direction and click OK.
BC> Create> [Name: BC-2, Step: Step-I, Category: Mechanical]>
Symmetry/AntisymmetrylEncastre> Continue. Select the right line by clicking. Click
on Done next to "Select regions for the boundary condition." In the resulting dialog
box click ENCASTRE for fixed-end condition and click OK.
7. Mesh Module. The next step is to actually create a finite element mesh. We must
decide on an approximate size of each element. Looking at the physical dimensions of
the model, we choose a global element size of 2 in. Thus the length of the model will be
divided roughly into 27 segments and the width into 6, resulting in a mesh of the order of
27 X 6= 162 element mesh. We expect high stresses in the notch area and near the fixed
end. To capture these stresses, we use a finer mesh by specifying element size of 0.5 in
the notch region. An element size CJf I is used for the line on the fixed end. The following
menu paths are used to accomplish these tasks: .
Seed> Edge by size> Click.on the three lines in the notch region. Click on Done near
"Enter edges to be assigned local seeds." Enter element size along edges (approximate)
=0.5.
Seed> Edge by size> Click on the line on the fixed end. Click on Done near "Enter
edges to be assigned local seeds." Enter element size along edges (approximate) = 1.
Seed> Instance> Enter global element size (approximate): 2.
Mesh> Controls. In the resulting dialog box choose Element shape: Quad-dominated,
Technique: Free, and Algorithm: Advancing front and then click OK and Done.
Mesh> Controls. In the resulting dialog box choose Element Library: Standard,
Geometric Order: Linear, and Family: Plane stress and then click OK and Done. Make
sure Reduced integration and Incompatible modes are not selected. (These options
could be useful but one must understand associated theoretical details before relying
on these ad hoc measures at improving solution accuracy.):
Mesh> Instance> Click on Yes button next to "OK to mesh part instance?"
COBI NotchadBe<1m.odb ABAQUs/standard 6.'3-1 Pd Jul 25 16104147 COT 200'3
Stepl step-l
IncrQmaot 11 step Time = l.000
Figure A.IS. Planestress modelof notched beamin ABAQUS
The resulting finite model is shown in Figure A.IS. The model generation is now complete.
Additional information, such as boundary conditions and load symbols, can be displayed
on the model by selecting View> Assembly display options. The graphics can be saved to
a file by using File> Print menu and setting the Destination to File, giving a file name and
specifying the desired format.
8. Job Module. We are now ready to actually create the finite element analysis input file
as follows:
I
Job> Create> [Name: NotchedBeam, Model: Model-I]> Continue. In the resulting

dialog box accept the default options [Job Type: Full analysis, Run Mode:
Background, Submit Time: Immediately]
This step will create an input file named NotchedBeam.inp.
Solution The actual analysis can be performed in the batch mode using the input file
by issuing the command abaqus job=NotchedBeam at the shell prompt. Alternatively, we
can use the menu Job> Submit from within the job module of ABAQUS cae. With this
option the progress of the solution can be monitored using the Job> Monitor option. Once
the analysis is complete, the results will be saved in a database NotchedBeam.odb and
summary of the execution steps and requested output will be written to a text file Notched-
Beam.dat.
Postprocessing Using ABAQUS Viewer The postprocessing of the results is done

using the viewer module. If the ABAQUS cae environment is already open, one can simply
switch to the viewer module and open the results database. Otherwise the viewer can be
';
S. HiGes
{Ave. edt.:
~Um~gl
75~l
i'~,: ~i: ~~~:~gj

.....:.. +2.24'39t-0'3
:',: t-1.572et-0'3
~. H.3490'l"03
~:' +1.12Se+Ol
":' 1"9. OlGe+O::!
.-/ +6. 730et'02
.,'~ +4. SHet-02
+2. )08et-02
t'7.15get-OO
Ll COBI NotchedBeam.odb
Step: Step-l
Increment
ABAQUS/Stl!ndard 6. '3~ 1
1: step Time = 1.000

pri Jul 25 161.04147 COT 2003
Primary Voir: S. Hises

Deformed Var: U Deformation SCAle Pactorl 1"8.17181'02
Figure A.16. von Mises equivalent stress contours
launched separately by issuing the abaqus viewer database=NotchedBeam command at the

shell prompt.
The results can now be viewed as numerical lists or plotted in various forms. For ex-
ample Figure A.l6 shows a contour plot of equivalent von Mises stresses obtained using
the following menu path:
Results> Field output> [Select Name: S, Stress components at integration points,

Invariant: Mises]
Plot> Contours
APPENDiX B
PH
VARIATIONAL FORM FOR

BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
For some classes of boundary value problems it is possible to derive an equivalent varia-
tional or energy form. The variational form is written as an integral functional (function
of a function) whose necessary conditions for a minimum imply that the boundary value
problem is satisfied. Thus, instead of deriving the wealc form using the Galerlcin criteria,
we can use this functional to obtain an approximate solution of the problem.
The derivation of functionals employs concepts from calculus of variations. The ba-
sic concept of variation of a function is presented in the first section. The second section
presents a procedure to develop a suitable functional for a given boundary value problem.
The last section presents a procedure to do the opposite, i.e., to find the equivalent boundary
value problem corresponding to a given functional.
B.1 BASIC CONCEPT OF VARIATION OF A FUNCTION
In ordinary calculus the derivative of a function is defined by using the limiting process
on the difference of values of the function at two neighboring points. In a similar man-
ner we can define the variation of a function that is related to the difference between two
closely related functions. As an example, consider the following function of three parame-
ters ao. a l • a2 :
Denoting infinitesimal changes in the coefficients as oao' oal> oa2 , a closely related function
is written as follows:
676
BASIC CONCEPTOF VARIATION OF A FUNCTION 677
The variation of u(x), denoted by Su is defined as the difference between these two func-
tions:
Using the same concept, we can talk about the variation offunctionals. For example, the
variation of a square of function u(x) is written as follows:
F == u(x)2
o(F) == ft(x)2 - u(x)2 = ((a o + oao) + (a l + oaj)x + (a 2 + oa z)x2/ - (a o + alx + a2x2)2
Expanding
o(u(xf) = (oa~x4 ,.: 2a 20a2x4 + 2a zoa j :2 + 2a l oa2x3 + 20a j oa 2:2 + oai~ + 2a20aO~
+ 2a j oaj~ + 2aOoa2~ + 20a Ooa2x2 + 2a loa Ox + 2a Ooajx + 20a o oajx
+ oa5 + 2a ooao)
Since the changes in parameters are infinitesimal, the higher order terms are neglected,
giving
o(u(xf) = (2a Zoa 2x4 + 2a20a j :2 + 2a 1oa 2:2 + 2a20aO~

+ 2a 1oa1x 2 + 2aOoa2~ + 2a joa Ox + 2a ooa 1x + 2a ooao)
As another example, consider the variation of the first derivative of function u(x):
d U) dft du
o.( -
dx
== - - -
dx dx
= (a l + oa j + 2(a 2 + oa 2)x) -
>
(a j + 2a 2x)
•
Simplifying
dU)
o ( dx = oa j + 2xoa z
Using this basic concept, we can demonstrate that the order of differentiation and variation
can be interchanged:
d U) d(ou) d . 2
o (-
dx
== - -
dx
= -(oao
dx
+ oajx + oa2:r) = Sa, + 2xoa 2
which is same as before. Thus the variation of the derivative of a function is the same as
the derivative of its variation.
From a computational point of view, it is convenient to relate variation to the total
derivative. To accomplish this, we note that the coefficients of the changes in parameters
are simply the derivatives of the function u(x) with respect to the parameters:
678 VARIATIONAL FORMFOR BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
Using this, the definition of a variation of function can be expressed as a total differential,
as follows:
Using this concept of variation, it is easy to compute the variation of functionals. For
example,
F == u(x)2
o(F) == 2uou = 2(a o + ajx + a2x2)(oao + oa1x + oa2x2)

Expanding
o(u(xf) = (2a 20a2x4 + 2a 20aj XJ + 2a joa 2,'.? + 2a 20aox2

+ 2aloal~ + 2aOoa2~ + 2a joa Ox + 2a ooa lx + 2aooao)
which is same as the one obtained from the basic definition. The following example shows
the computation of variations of more complicated functionals.
Example Bot Here are some more examples of the computation of the variation of func-
tionals:
(i) F(u(x), x) = u3 + Xlu + 4

of = 3u 20u
+ x 38Lt
(ii) F(u(x), x) = (~~ r + u2 sin(x) + 4u
of = 3( ~~ f (~:)
0 + 2u sin({)Ou + 40u == r
3( ~: d~~t) + 2u sin(x)ou + 40u
" ') F ( u)
( ll1 = Jo(j(l(dU)2 .
2: dx + u sm(x) )dx
of = i l
(~:o(~:) + uSin(x)Ou)dX == i l
(~: d~~t) +'O(USin(X)))dX
Useful Properties of Variation With the interpretation of variation as a total deriva-
tive, it is easy to derive the following properties of the variation of functionals:
(i) Given two functional F and G, we have
o(F + G) = of + oG
o(FG) = (oF)G + (F)oG
o(aF) = aoF; a is a given constant
o(F") = nF"-IoF; 11 is a given integer

DERIVATION OF EQUIVALENT VARIATIONAL FORM 679
;, (ii) We can interchange the order in which integration or differentiation and variation
is carried out. That is,
6(J FdX) =J 6Fdx; 6 ( -dF ) = -(6F)

d
dx dx'
(iii) The necessary condition for the minimum of a functional is that its first variation
must be equal to zero:
Necessary condition for minimum of F ===> 6F = 0
(iv) The following identities, used frequently in the derivation of equivalent variational
forms, follow immediately from these properties:
f(x)6u = 6(f(x)u(x)); f(x) a given function of x

1
u(x)6u = 26(u2)
du d(6u) = !6 [(dU)2]
dxdx 2 dx
B.2 DERIVATION OF EQUIVALENT VARIATiONAL FORM
For certain types of boundary value problems it is possible to find equivalent variational
forms by a series of mathematical manipulations. The procedure is illustrated through the
following examples.
-
Example B.2 Find an equivalent variational functional for the following boundary value
problem:
-u" + sinorx) =0; a<x<b
with the boundary conditions u'(a) = c and u(b) = d, where a, b, c, and d are given
constants.
The process starts by multiplying the differential equation by the variation in the solu-
tion and integrating over the solution domain:
Lb(-U" + sin(7l'x))6ud x =0
Our goal now is to manipulate this expression so that we end up with the following form:
6(00') =0
The reason for doing this is because this form indicates that the variation of the quantity
inside the parentheses is equal to zero, which is a necessary condition for the minimum
of a functional. Thus the quantity inside the parentheses is the required functional and its
minimum corresponds to the solution of the given boundary value problem.
In order to create the desired form, we use integration by parts to make each term appear
with the same order of derivative for the solution and its variation. In this example, the
second term inside the integral is fine because it involves a function of x and Bu. The first
term, however, involves u" and ou. Using integration by parts, we need to move one of the
derivatives from u" to Su, which will result in both parts involving u', Thus integrating the
first term by parts, we get
(-ouu'\:b ~ (-ouu')x:a + 1b(OU'U' + sin(7fx)ou)dx =0

Using properties of variations, the terms inside the integral can be written as follows:
-ou(b)u'(b) + ou(a)u'(a) + 1b (0 (!u'2) + o(sin(7fx)u)) dx =0

Using the boundary condition u'(a) = c, combining the terms inside the integral, and
changing the order of integration and variation, we get
-ou(b)u'(b) + ou(a)c + o(lb (!u'2 + Sin(7fX)U)dX) =0

The boundary term at x = b still involves OU and u', We cannot simplify this term like the
others. The only way to proceed is to require that the admissible trial solutions satisfy the
boundary condition at x = b. Then for all such functions ou(b) = 0, and we have
o(cu(a)) + 0 (1:. (!u'2 + sin(7fx)u) dX) =0 .
We now have the sum of two terms involving variations. These can be combined together
to give
s [cu(a)) + 1b (!u'2 + Sin(7fX)u)dX] = 0

This is the form that we were seeking, and thus the equivalent functional for the given
boundary value problem is
F(x, u, u') = cu(a) + 1b (!U,2 + sin(7fx)u) dx

with assumed solutions satisfying u(b) = d.
ExampleB.3 Find an equivalent variational functional for the following boundary value
problem:
d(x2u') I
2
X u" + 2xu' + u + I =0 or ---+u+
dx
=0
DERIVATION OF EQUIVALENT VARIATIONAL FORM 681
with the boundary conditions u(l) = 1, u'(2) = 1.

Multiply the differential equation by the variation in the solution and integrate over the
solution domain:
JI(2 (d(x2u')
---;r;- + U + I ) Su dx = 0 or JI(2 (d(x2U') . )
---;r;-0U + UOU + OU dx = 0
Use integration by parts to make each term have the same order of derivative for the so-
lution and its variation.' In this example, the second and the third terms inside the integral
are fine because they involve U and Su. The first term, however, involves u" and Su. Using
integration by parts, we need to move one of the derivatives from u" to Su, which will
result in both involving u', Thus integrating the first term by parts, we get
(ou~u')X=2 - (ou~u')x=1 + 1 ~u' + OU U+ ou)dx = 0

2
(-ou'
or
Using the boundary condition u'(2) = 1, we get
The boundary term at x = 1 still involves Su and u', We cannot simplify this term like the
others. The only way to proceed is 10 require that the admissible trial solutions satisfy the
boundary condition at x = 1. Thenfor all such functions ou(l) = 0, and we have
O(4U(2~.)+o[12 (_!x2u'2 + !u2 + U)dX] = 0

2
s [4U(2) + 1 (_!~U'2 + !u2 + U)dX] = 0
Then the equivalent functional is
F(x, u, u') = 4u(2) + (2 (_!~u'2 + !u2 + u)dx

JI .
Example '8.4 Two-Dimensional BVP Find an equivalent variational functional for the
following boundary value problem:
au2 au2
-:2 + - 2 = sin(x); O<X<1T; -1T12 < y < 1T12
axay
682 VARIATIONAL FORMFOR BOUNDARY VALUEPROBLEMS
7fY
2 ,......--------,
du jdy =x(x-7f)
o u=O u=O
n du jdy =x(x -7f)

2 ==========-
o 7f
x
Figure Bd,
with the boundary conditions (see Figure B.1)
U=o on (x = 0, y) and (x = 1T,y)
-OU = X(X-1T) on (x, y = -1TI2) and (x, y = 1T12)

oy
The variational functional can be obtained as follows:
ou2
If (
A
o~
ou2 )
+ oyZ - sin(x) oudxdy = 0
Using Green's theorem
I(tounx+ ~~OUny)dc-ff(~;o:~t + ~~o:;t +sin(x)Ou)dXdy=O

A
I
Using admissible trial solutions, ou will be zero over the boundaries on which u is specified.
Thus
(" (OOU ounx + °ou ouny) dx + t" (OOU Su », + °ou ouny) dx

Jx=o x Y y=-,,12 J,=o x Y y=,,12
-
If(
A
-OUO
- OU + -ouoou
ox ox
. ()")d
- + sm
oy oy
x uU x dy =0
Using the specified natural boundary condition and noting direction cosines for the outer
normals for top side '».
= 0 and ny = 1) and for the bottom side (n., = 0 and ny = -1), we
have
(" x(x -1T)OU (x, ~) dx - (" x(x -1T)OU (x, -~2) dx

Jx=o 2 Jx=o
-
If (2:
A
0 1 (OU)2
ox + 2:1 (OU)2 .
oy + sm(x)u) dxdy =0
BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEM CORRESPONDING TO A GIVEN FUNCTIONAL 683
This san be written as follows:
8
r"
[Jt=o x(x - If)U (x, 2) dx - r
If
Jx=o x(x - If)U (x, -2) dx
If
- ff( 21(OU)2+ 21(OU)2 + sm(x)u

A
ox
. ) oy dx dy = 0
]
Thus the variational functional is as follows:
leu) =
L" x=O
x(x - If)U (x, If)
- dx -
2
L"
x=O
x(x - If)U (x, - If
- ) dx
2
- ff (21(OU)2 + 21(OU)2 + .
'A
ox oy sm(x)u dxdy
)
8.3 BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEM CORRESPONDING

TO A GIVEN FUNCTiONAL
In this section we consider the situation opposite to that of Section B.2. Here yve assume
that a functional is known. Our goal then is to find the corresponding boundary value
problem. The procedure is useful in verifying that a given functional indeed is the correct
functional for the problem.
Since the minimum of the functional corresponds to the equivalent differential equation,
we start the process by setting the first.variation of the functional to zero. Mathematical ma-
nipulations involving integration by parts are then carried out to bring boundary conditions
into the picture. The process is illustrated through the following example.
Example JB.5 Axial Deformations In Chapter 2 we used the following potential en-
ergy functional for the nonuniform bar shown in Figure B.2:
II = U - W = 21 Jo r L
(du)2
EA(x) dx dx - Jor q(x)u(x)dx -
L
Pu(L)
To show that this is a suitable functional for the governing equation for the axial deforma-
Figure B.Z. Tapered axially loaded bar

684 VARIATIONAL FORM FOR BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS
tions, we take its first variation as follows:

L
orr = 2:1 Jr
o
0 [ EA(x) (dU)2]
dx dx - r
Jo o[q(x)u(x)]dx - POu(L)
From the definition of variation
orr =
1
o
L
du (dU)
EA(x)-o -
dx dx
dx - 1 0
L
q(x)oudx - Pou(L)
Noting that order of differentiation and variation can be interchanged, we have
orr =
1
o
L
du d(ou)
EA(x)--d-dx -
dx x
1 0
L
q(x) ou dx - Pou(L)
Integrating the first term by parts, we have
orr = [EA(x)-ou
du]L -
dxo
1 L
[d dU)] Su dx-«
- ( EA(;Ii)-d
odx x
1 0
L
q(x)oudx-Pou(L)
At x = L, EA du/dx = P, the applied load, and thus at the this point the boundary term
cancels with the last term, and we have
du(O) ou(O) - Jo
orr = -EA(O)---;r;- r [d
dx (EA(x)
d Udx) ] Su dx -
L
Jor q(x) ou dx
At x = 0 we have a specified displacement. Requiring all assumed solutions to satisfy this

boundary condition means that ou(O) = O. Thus, with this restriction, the variation of the
potential energy functional can be written as follows:
For orr to be zero (a necessary condition for the minimum), we have
1 L
[:x (EA(X)~:) + q(X)] Sudx =0
Since the variation ou is arbitrary, the only way this integral can always be zero is if the
term inside the square brackets is zero. Thus
d (EA(x) dU)
dx dx + q(x) = 0
This is exactly the differential equation governing the axial deformation of a nonuniform
bar. Thus, as long as we 'restrict ourselves to solutions that satisfy the displacement bound-
ary condition, the given potential energy is the appropriate functional for the problem.
PROBLEMS 685
PROBLEMS
B.1 Compute the variation of the foliowing functionals:

u2
(a) F[u,x] = .0 + ~
(b) F[u', u, x] = L\~u/2 + u3 + x) dx

. 0
(c) F[u, x] = u2u,2 + x 3
(d) F[u",u',u,x] = (I(U"

+u'x)dx
u J-l
B.2 Determine an equivalent variational form for the following boundary value problem:
0<x<1
with the boundary conditions
u(O) = 1; u'(1) + 2u(l) =1

B.3 Consider the following boundary value problem:
u" sin(x) + u' cos(x) + u sin(x) =0; 7T/4 < x < 7T12
u(7T/4) =1 and U'(7TI2) = 2
Derive an equivalent variational functional for the problem. Note that the differential
equation can be written as follows:
~ [u' sin(x)] + u sin(x) = 0

dx
B.4 Consider the finite element solution of the following boundary value problem:
<u" +x = 0;' 7T/4 < x < 7T12
u(7T/4) = 1 and U'(7TI2) +2 =0

Verify that the following is an appropriate functional for the problem: .
leu) =2u(~) + l:2 Gu,2 +XU)dX

B.5 A functional is given as follows:
leu) =
L'(1
o 2
• (7fX))
-EAu'-? - u sm -
1
1
dx - -~u(l)
2
1
2 - -u(O)
7T
Determine the corresponding boundary value problem.

B.6 The potential energy for the problem of the torsion of a thin-walled section with
warping restraint can be written as follows:
II = Jo(L(EJ G1
-::frfJ1I2 + -frfJ/2 - t(x)rfJ ) dx
where E is the modulus of elasticity, G is the shear modulus, JIV is the warping
constant, Jo is the torsional constant, t is the thickness of the section, and rfJ is the
angle through which a cross section rotates. Determine the governing differential
equation and appropriate boundary conditions.
!
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!
INDEX
A Assembly of element equations, 21

ABAQUS applications, 641, 663 Assembly with p-modes,617
plane stress analysis, 671 Axial deformation, 99
steady-state heat flow, 666 bars, 99
truss analysis, 665 tapered bar, 102, 113, 158
ABAQUS execution procedure, 663 uniform bar, 101, 109
Admissible assumed solution, 108, 116, 122, using Galerkin method, 104,109, 113
135 using Rayleigh-Ritz method, 131,
Analysis of elastic solids, 467 133
Analytical solution for B
axial deformations, 102, 103 Backward substitution, 59
beams, 242, 244 Bars subjected to torsion, 282, 317, 342
circular fin, 603 Basic conjugate gradient, 62
pressure vessel, 518 algorithm, 64
rotating disk, 524 method,62
ANSYS applications, 641, 642 Beam bending, 236
plane stress analysis; 648 Beam element, 244
pressurevessel, 523 Bending moment, 236
rectangular shaft, 346 Body forces, 480
rotating disk, 529 Boundary conditions, 36
steady-state heat flow, 342, 651 for beams, 238
transient heat flow, 556 at infinity, 4S2
truss analysis, 655 Boundary element method, 1
weld stresses, 530 Boundary integral, 320, 438
ANSYS execution procedure 642 Boundary value problem (BVP), 115, 173,
Applied surface forces, 471 ' 311,586,604
Area coordinates, 372
Area integral, 428 C
Area of a triangle, 11 Cantilever bracket, 32
Aspect ratio, 404 Characteristic equation, 204
695
696 INDEX
Choleski decomposition, 58 linear element for ID BVP, 185

algorithm, 60 mapped quadrilateral elements for plane
method,58 stress/strain, 508
Circular fin, 599 nine-node rectangular element for 2D
Completeness requirement, 136 BVP, 354
Computation ofreactions, 41 p-formulation element for ID BVP, 593
Concentrated loads, 6 p-formulation element for 2D BVP, 609
Conjugate gradient method, 62 plane frame element, 266
Constitutive equations, 19,478,492,494 plane truss element, 5, 225, 232
Continuity, 141 quadratic element for ID BVP, 186
Contour plot, 395 quarter-point element for crack-tip
Convection, 8 singularity, 533
Crack-tip singularity, 531 space frame element, 284
Culvert model, 406 space truss element, 229, 232
torsional spring element, 234
D
triangular element for 2D BVP, 361
Degrees offreedom, 3, 139
triangular element for heat flow, 11
Differential equation
triangular element for plane stress, 18,
for axial deformations, 99
498
for beam bending, 236
Element interfaces, 15
for linear elasticity, 483
Element shapes, 3
Discretization, 2, 14
Element solution, 49
Displacement constraint, 502
Elementary beam theory, 236
Dynamic equilibrium, 100, 238, 557
Equilibrium check, 41
E Equilibrium equations, 100,237,481
EBC (Essential Boundary Condition), 36, Equivalent stress, 55, 474
312 Equivalent variational form, 679
EBC approximate treatment, 40 Essential boundary condition (EBC), 36,
EBC with p-modes, 620 312
Eig command, 568 EBC by modifying equations, 39
Eigensystem command, 568 EBC by rearranging equations, 37
Eigenvalue-eigenvectors, 204, 354, 567 Euler buckling, 205
Eight-node rectangular element, 346 ! Evaluation of
Elastic buckling of bars, 178, 202 area integrals, 428
Elastic solids, 467 boundary integrals, 436
Elastic solids subjected to dynamic loads, Exact solution of differential equations, 101
557 Excessive curvature, 404
Electromagnetics, 319, 353 Extensional spring support, 240
Element, 2
Element with curved edges, 399 F
Element equations Field problems, 545
axial deformations, 153 Finite difference method, 1
axial spring element, 234 Finite element
beam element, 247 computations involving mapped elements,
eight-node quadrilateral element for 2D 420
BVP, 447 discretization, 2, 14
eight-node rectangular element for 2D equations in the presence of initial strains,
BVP, 348 489
four-node quadrilateral element for 2D form of assumed solutions, 138
BVP, 443 method, I
four-node rectangular element for 2D solution of axial deformation problems,
BVP, 332 155
infinite element for 1D BVP, 454 steps, 2
infinite element for 2D BVP, 458 Finite element equations for 2D BVP, 326
INDEX 697
..
;
Fixed-end beam solution Hierarchical interpolation functions, 586
trapezoidal loading, 262 Higher-order boundary value problems,
uniform loading, 259 119
Flow around Higher-order triangular elements, 371
a cylinder, 363
I
an object, 313
Inclined roller support, 73, 76
Forward elimination, 59
Incomplete Choleski preconditioning, 70
Four-node rectangular element, 329
Incorporating NBC for 1D BVP, 184
Fourth-order equation, 122.
Infinite boundary, 452
Frames in multistory buildings, 293
Infinite elements, 452
Free-vibration analysis, 567
Initial strains in trusses, 231
Free-surface problem, 633
In-plane rigid floor system, 293
Functional, 684
Integration using change of variables, 382
Fundamental concepts in elasticity, 467
Integration by parts, 107
G Integration by parts in higher dimensions,
Galerkin method, 104, 115, 135 320
Galerkin versus Rayleigh-Ritz, 138 Integration by parts in two dimensions, 322
Galerkin weighting function, 106 Integration over a triangle, 361
Galerkin weighting functions in the finite Interelement derivatives, 214
element form, 143 Internal hinge in a beam, 253
Gauss's divergence theorem, 320 Internal modes, 606
Gauss points and weights, 411 Interpolation functions
Gauss quadrature, 408 Hermite, 146,245
for area integrals, 414 Lagrange, 142,350
for one-dimensional integrals, 409 serendipity, 347, 399, 400
for volume integrals, 417 triangle, 359
General formula for Hermite interpolation Invalid mesh, 15
(2D BVP), 146 Irrotational fluid flow, 313
Generalized eigenvalue problem, 567 Isotropic material, 478
Generalized Hooke's law, 478
Global and local coordinates, 223, 266, 285
J
Jacobian, 384
Global equations, 21
Jacobi preconditioning, 68
Governing differential equations, 480
Joints in frames, 294
Green-Gauss theorem, 321
Groundwater flow, 633 L
Guidelines for mapped element shapes, Lagrange interpolation, 142
403 Lagrange interpolation for rectangular
elements, 350
H Lagrange multipliers, 75
Handling concentrated loads, 6
Least-squares weighted residual, 106
Handling essential boundary conditions,
Least-squares weighting function, 106
37
Legendre polynomials, 588
Heat conduction through household iron,
Linear assumed solution, 151
189
Linear interpolation functions for
Heat flow
second-order problems, 185
differential equation, 8
LinearSolve command, 58
L shape, 8, 13, 337,445,449,624
Linear solution, 185
through thin fins, 175, 190
Local to global transformation, 224, 228,
Heat flux, 8 266,285 .
Heat loss, 194
Hermite interpolation, 144,245 M
Hermite interpolation for fourth-order Mapped elements, 381
problems, 144 Mapped mesh generation, 405
h-fonnulation, 586 Mapped quadrilateral elements, 508
698 INDEX
Mapping plane stress problem, 58

a curve, 389 plane truss, 51, 227
a quadraticcurve, 391 plane truss element equations, 7
a straight line, 387 plane truss element results, 51
Mapping lines, 387 second-orderBVP using Galerkin
Mappingquadrilateral areas, 392 method,119
Mappingquadrilaterals, 392 solution of 1D BVP, 187
Mappingquadrilaterals using interpolation solution of axial deformationproblems,
functions, 392 163
Mass matrices for common structural solution of bucklingproblem, 207
elements,561 space frames, 293
axial deformation element, 561 space truss, 231
beam element,564 tapered bar using Rayleigh-Ritz, 135
frame element,565 transient analysisof a plane frame, 576
plane stress/strainelement,566 transient analysisof a plane truss, 573
plane truss element,562 triangularelementfor 2D BVP,371
space truss element,563 triangularelement for heat flow, 14
Master area, 393 triangularelementfor plane stress, 21
Master line, 388 triangularelementfor plane stress and
Mathematica examples plane strain, 507
eight-nodequadrilateral elementfor plane triangularelement for transient2D BVP,
stress and plane strain, 525 557
1D BVP involvinginfinitedomain,454 Matrix notation, 11
third-orderequation, 125 Maximumshear-stressfailure, 472
TM modesfor waveguides, 353 Mesh compatibility, 15, 73
MathematicalMATLAB implementations Midside node for a quadratic curve, 392
beams, 262 Minimumof potential energy, 154
eight-nodequadrilateralelementfor 2D Modal analysis, 567
BVP,447 Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, 474
eight-noderectangularelementfor 2D Moment equilibrium,468
BVP,350 Multipointconstraints,2, 72
finiteelement assemblyprocedure,25 Multistorybuilding,293
five-barplane truss assembly, 28 /
N
four-node quadrilateral elementfor 2D
Natural boundarycondition (NBC), 36, 312
BVP,442
Naturalfrequency, 567
four-nodequadrilateral elementfor plane
NDSolvefunction,556
stress and plane strain, 516
Newmark's method, 561
four-noderectangularelement for 2D
Nine-noderectangularelement, 352
BVP,342
Nodal degrees of freedom, 3, 139
fourth-orderBVP using Galerkinmethod,
Nodal solution, 36
125
Node, 2
heat flow, 53
Normal derivative, 312
heat flowelement results, 53
Normal stress, 468
heat flow example assembly, 32
Notation for derivatives, 116
heat flow throughfins; 198
Notchedbeam, 16,510
imposingessential boundaryconditions,
Numericalintegration, 408
39
mapping areas, 405 o
mappinglines, 392 Ode23command, 573
modal analysisof a plane frame, 570 One-dimensional BVP (lD BVP), 173,586
modal analysisof a plane truss, 568 One-dimensional BVP using Galerkin
plane frames, 277 method,115
plane stress element results, 58 One-dimensional integrals,409
plane stress example assembly, 32 One-pointformula, 409
INDEX 699
Opfimizing design using ANSYS, 659 Rigid-body motion, 502

Orthogonality property, 588 Rigid diaphragm, 293
Orthotropic material, 478 Rigid element, 74
Overall solution procedure using Galerkin Rigid zone at beam-column connection, 294
method,115 Rotating disks and flywheels, 524
Overall solution procedure using the Rotational spring support, 240
Rayleigh-Ritz method, 130
S
p Second-order lD BVP, 173,586
Penalty function, 79 Seepage through soil, 627
p-formulation, 586 Selected applications of 1D BVP, 174
Planar finite element models, 490, 517 Selected applications of the 2D BVP, 313
Plane frame element, 266 Serendipity shape functions, 347, 399, 400
Plane frames, 266 Shape functions
Plane strain problem, 493 Hermite, 146,245
Plane stress analysis, 492 Lagrange, 142,350
Plane truss element, 4, 223 serendipity, 347, 399, 400
Plane trusses, 4, 223 triangle, 359
p~mode assumed solution, 605 Shear force, 236
p-mode parameters, 611 Shear stresses in beams, 240
p-modes,587 Side modes, 606
Potential energy Six-node rectangular element, 351
axial deformation, 129 Skew in elements, 404
beam bending, 240 Skew symmetry, 530
elastic solids, 484 Slider bearing, 177
Potential function, 315 Small displacement, 476
Preconditioned conjugate gradient Solution for different right-hand sides, 59
algorithm, 68 Solution of linear equations, 58
method,66 Solution of second-order 1D BVP, 208
Preconditioning matrix, 66 Space frames, 279
Pressure vessels, 517 Space truss element, 227
Principal directions and principal stresses, Spring elements, 233
471 Square duct, 28
Principal moment of inertia, 279 Steady-state heat conduction, 174, 188
Principle of virtual displacements, 108, 486 Steady-state heat conduction and convection,
Properties of variation, 678 175, 190
Strain(s),475
Q Strain-displacement, 476
Quadratic form, 62
Strain energy
Quadrilaterals
axial, 129
with curved sides, 399
bending, 241
with straight sides, 392
elastic solids, 484
Quarter-point elements, 532
Strain due 'to truss fabrication error, 231
R Stream function, 314
Rayleigh-Ritz method, 128, 130, 135 Stress(es),467
Reactions, 41 on an inclined plane, 469
Real constants, 644 Stress components; 469
Rectangular finite elements, 329 Stress equilibrium equations, 481
Removing rows for boundary condition, 38 Stress failure criteria, 472
Residual stresses due to welding, 530 Stress tensor, 4"68
Restrictions on mapping Strong and weak forms, 105
of areas, 394 Symmetry boundary conditions
oflines, 390 beams, 250
Rigid-body modes for plane triangle, 75 eigenvalue problem, 354
700 INDEX
Symmetry boundary conditions (continued) Triangular element for plane stress/strain,

fluid flow, 314, 363 497,566
frames, 277, 291 Triangular element for two dimensional heat
general remarks, 15 flow, 7
heat flow; 28 Triangular element for two dimensional
plane stress/strain, 502, 510, 518,525, stress analysis, 16
530 Triangular elements by collapsing
torsion, 342, 367 quadrilaterals, 451
Truss analysis, 4, 223, 227
T Truss supporting rigid plate, 80
Taper in elements, 404
Trusses, beams, and frames, 222
Tapered bar, 102, 133
Two-dimensional area integrals, 383
Tapered beam fixed at both ends, 242
Two-dimensional BVP, 311
Temperature changes in trusses, 231
Two-dimensional potential flow, 313
Temperature effects and initial strains, 231
Two-node beam element, 244
Thermal and initial strains, 480
. Two-node linear element, 185
Thermal stresses, 502
Two-node uniform bar element for axial
Thermal stresses in trusses, 231
deformations, 150
Third-order equation, 125
Two-point formula, 409
Three-dimensional volume integrals, 417
Three-node method, 286 U
Three-node quadratic element, 185 Uniform bar, 109
Three-node triangular element, 358, 497, Uniform beam, 259
549,566 Units, 83
Three-point formula, 410 Use of commercial FEA software, 641
TM modes, 353
Torsion of a C shape, 367
V
Valid mesh, 15
Torsion of a rectangular shaft, 342
Variation as total derivative, 677
Torsional constant, 280
Variation of a function, 676
Transformation matrix, 49, 225, 229, 268,
Variation of functionals, 677
285
Vector notation, 11
Transient field problems, 545
Vibration modes, 567
Transient heat flow, 551 ! Viscous fluid flow between parallel plates,
Transient problems, 545
176,198
Transient response examples, 573
von Mises failure criterion, 473
Transition elements, 516
von Mises stress, 474
Transition region, 73
Transverse deformation of beams, 236 W
Transverse deformation of a uniform beam, Waveguides in electromagnetics, 319, 353
241 Weak form, 105,181,325 .
Tresca criterion, 472 Weak form for axial deformations, 105
Triangle shape functions, 11 Weighted residual, 105
Triangular element, 358, 497, 549, 566· Weld bead, 530

Fundamental Finite Element Analysis and Applications

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FUN AMEN L FINITE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Printed in the United States of America

CONTENTS OF THE BOOK WEB SITE xi

1 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD: THE BIG PICTURE 1

1.6 Multipoint Constraints / 72

2 MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATION OF THE

3 ONE-DIMENSIONAL BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEM 173

3.1.3 Viscous Fluid Flow between Parallel Plates-Lubrication

4 TRUSSES, BEAMS, AND FRAMES 222

6 MAPPED ELEMENTS 381

7 ANALYSIS OF ELASTIC SOLIDS 467

8 TRANSIENT PROBLEMS 545

A USE OF COMMERCIAL FEA SOFTWARE 641

B VARIATIONAL FORM FOR BOUNDARY

Full Detail Text Examples

Full Detail Text Examples\ChaplExarnples.pdf

Full Detail Text Examples\Chap8Examples.pdf

Sample Course Outlines, Lectures, and Examinations

The equation can easily be recognized as a generalization of the one-dimensional bound-

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:

1. Development of element equations

1.1 DISCRETIZATION AND ELEMENT EQUATIONS

Figure 1.1. Typical finite element shapes

1.1.1 Plane Truss Element

Figure 1.4. Planetruss element model of the transmission tower

First node (node 7) = (-60, 420) in; XI = -60; YI = 420

Element length: L = ~(X2 -xll + (Y2 - YI)2 = 60-{5 in

E = 29000000Ib/in2 ; E: = 373945. lb/in

z2 Isms -I; -149578. -299156.

299156. -149578. -299156.

~ MathematicafMATLAB Implementation :n..l on the Book Web Site:

1.1.2 Triangular Element for Two-Dimensional Heat Flow

(i) Known temperature along a boundary:

st (aT aT) =h(T -

where h is the convection coefficient, T is the unknown temperature at the bound-

As a specific example, consider two-dimensional heat flow over an L-shaped body

45 Wlm . °C. The bottom is maintained at a temperature of To = 110°C. Convection heat

On the horizontal portions of aT ) ei 55

On the vertical portion of the aT

The quantities Ni , i = 1, 2, 3, are known as interpolation or shape functions. The.superscript

II =XiY3 - x3Y 2 ; 12 =X3YI -XIY3; 13 = X IY2 - X2YI

where det indicates determinant of the matrix.

where kx = heat conduction coefficient in the x direction, ky = heat conduction coefficient

Convection along side 2: e" =hL23[~

Applied flux along side 1: r, ~ q~" UJ

Applied flux along side 2: r,~ qi'[!j

Node 1 (global node 4) = (O., 0.0225) m; XI =0.; YI =0.0225

b, =0.; b2 = 0.0075; b 3 = -0.0075

1.1.3 General Remarks on Finite Element Discretization

Figure 1.9. Valid and invalid mesh for four-node elements

Figure 1.11. Notched beam

1.1.4 Triangular Element for Two-Dimensional Stress Analysis

The element area A can be computed as follows:

where E = Young's modulus and v = Poisson's ratio.

where k is the element stiffness matrix given by

A pressure component is considered positive if it is along the positive direction of the

where L 23 = ~ (x3 - x 2 )2 + (Y3 - Y2)2 is the length of side 2 and

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[ ~:~~:i =~:~][.~]s = [~i:]