CAD/CAM

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN:

CAD is defined as the use of computer system to assist in the creation ,
modification , analysis or optimization of design.
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING:
CAM is defined as the use of the computer system to plan , manage and
control the operations of a manufacturing plant through either direct or indirect computer
interface with the plants production resources.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN AUTOMATED SYSTEM:

POWER

PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION

CONTROL SYSTEM

PROCESS

Power to accomplish the process and operate the system.

A program of instruction.
Control systems to actuate the instructions.

(1) Power to accomplish the process and operate the system.

Electrical power is widely available at moderate cost.
Electrical power can be readily converted to alternative energy.
Electrical energy can be stored in long life batteries.
(2) Power for the process:

Loading and unloading the work unit:

Parts must be moved into the proper position and orientation for
the process to be performed, and power is required for this
transport and placement function.
Material transport between operations:
In addition to loading and unloading at given operation, the work
units must be moved between operations.

(3) Power for automation:

Power is required for the following functions.

Controller unit.
Power to actuate the control signal.
Data acquisition and information processing.

Program of instruction:
The action performed by an automated process are defined by program of
instruction whether the manufacturing operation involves low, medium or high
production.
LEVELS OF AUTOMATION:
The concept of automated systems can be applied to various levels of
factory operations.

ENTERPRISE LEVEL

Corporation information system

Flow of data

PLANT LEVEL

Production system

CELL OR SYSTEM LLEVEL

Manufacturing system

MACHINE LEVEL

Individual machines

DEVICE LEVEL

Sensors, actuators,
Other hardware elements

(1) Device level:

It includes the actuators, sensors and other hardware components that
comprise the machine level.
(2) Machine level:

Hardware at the device level is assembled into individual machines.

Control functions at this level include performing the sequence of steps in
the program of instructions in the correct order.
(3) Cell or system level:
This is the manufacturing cell or system level, which operates under
instructions from the plant level. A manufacturing cell or system is a
group of machines or work stations connected and supported by a material
handling system, computer and other equipment appropriate to the
manufacturing process.
(4) Plant level:
This is factory or production system level. It receives instructions from the
corporate information system and translates them into operational plans
for production.
(5) Enterprise level:
This is the highest level, consisting of the corporate information system. It
is concerned with all of the functions necessary to manage the company.
E.g. Marketing and sales, accounting, design.

THE DESIGN PROCESS:

The design process consists of six phases.

Recognition of need

Definition of problem

Synthesis

Analysis and optimization

Evaluation

Presentation

(1) Recognition of need:

It involves the realization by some one that a problem exists for which
some corrective action should be taken. This should be identification of
some defect in a current machine design by an engineer or perception of a
new product design by an engineer.

(2) Definition of a problem:

It involves a thorough specification of the item to be designed. This
specification includes physical and functional characteristics, cost, quality
and operating performance.

(3) Synthesis and analysis:

These are closely related and highly iterative process. A certain
component is conceptualized by the designer, subjected to analysis,
modifies the analysis procedure and redesigned. The process is repeated
until the design has been optimized within the constraint imposed on the
designer.

(4) Evaluation:
It is concerned with the measuring of design against the specifications
established in the problem definition phase. This evaluation requires the
fabrication and testing of the prototype model to assess operating
performance, quality, reliability and other criteria.

(5) Presentation:
This includes documentation of the design by means of drawings, material
specifications, assembly lists.Essentialy the documentations requires that a
design database be created.

The applications of computers for design:

The modern computer aided design system can be grouped into four
functional areas.
The design process

Recognition of need

Definition of problem
Computer aided design

Synthesis

Geometric modeling

Analysis and optimization

Engineering analysis

Evaluation

Presentation

Design review
& Evaluation

Automated drafting

(1) Geometric modeling:

In CAD, geometric modeling is concerned with the computer compatible
mathematical description of the geometry of an object. The mathematical
description allows the image of the object to be displayed and manipulated
on a graphics terminal through signals from CPU of the CAD system. The
software that provides geometric modeling capabilities must be designed
for efficient use both by the computer and the human designer.
(2) Analysis:
The analysis may involve stress strain calculations, heat transfer
computations or the use of differential equation to describe the dynamic

behavior of the system being designed. The computer can be used to aid in
this analysis work.
(3) design review and evaluation:
Checking the accuracy of the design can be accomplished conveniently on
the graphic terminal. Design review can be carried out by different
procedures.
E.g. Layering, interference checking etc.
Some of the CAD systems provide kinematics as it evaluation feature. The
available kinematics package provides the capability to animate the
motion of simple designed mechanism such as hinged components and
linkages. This capability enhances the designers visualization of the
operation of the mechanism and helps to ensure against interface with
other components.
(4) Automated drafting:
Automated drafting involves the creation of hard copy engineering
drawings directly from the CAD database is that it can be used to develop
a parts classification and coding system.

BENEFITS OF CAD
(1) Improved Engineering productivity.
(2) Shorter lead time.
(3) Reduced engineering personal requirements.
(4) Customer modifications are easier to make.
(5) Minimized transcription errors.
(6) Improved accuracy of design.
(7) In analysis, easier recognition of component interactions.
(8) Assistance in preparation of documentation.
(9) Designs have more standardization.
(10) Improved productivity in tool design.
(11) Assistance in inspection of complicated parts.
(12) Saves materials and machining time by optimizing algorithms.

Computer configuration for CAD applications:

Secondary storage

CPU

Design work station

Graphic terminal

Input devices

Output
plotters , etc

The design work station:

The CAD work station is the system interface with the outside world.
The work station must accomplish the following functions.
(1) It must interface with the CPU.
(2) It must generate a steady graphic image for the user.
(3) It must translate computer commands
The work station would consist of the following hardware components.
A graphic terminal
Operator input device.

A graphic terminal:
Image generation in computer graphics:

Focusing system

Phosphor coating

Cathode
CRT Screen
Deflection system

All the computer graphic terminals use the cathode ray tube (CRT) as the
display device.
These are the techniques used in computer graphic terminals for generating
image on the CRT screen.
(1) Stroke writing.
(2) Raster scan

(1) Stroke writing

The stroke writing system uses as electron beam which operates like a pencil to create a
line image on the CRT screen.
Image is generated by means of sequence of straight line segments. Each line segment is
drawn on the screen by directing the beam to move from one point to other where each
point is defined by x and y coordinates.

Raster scan:

In the raster scan approach the viewing screen is divided into number of discrete
phosphor picture elements called pixels.
The matrix of pixel constitutes raster.
The number of pixels in the raster display ranges from 256 x 256 (65000) to
1024 x 1024 (100,000) points.
Each pixel on the screen can be made to glow with different brightness.
During operation electron beam creates an image by sweeping along a horizontal
line on the screen from left to right and energizing the pixels in that line during
the sweep.
When the sweep of one line completed it move on the next line below and
proceeds in a fixed pattern.
The process is repeated at the rate of 30 60 entire scans of the screen per sec.

Graphical terminals for computer aided design:

There are three types of graphical terminals available in the CAD system.
1. Direct beam refresh (DBR).
2. Direct view storage tube (DVST).
3. Raster scan (Digital TV).
(1) Direct beam refresh:

It is otherwise called as vector refresh or stroke writing refresh.

It utilizes stroke writing approach to generate the image on the CRT
screen.
The term Refresh means the image must be regenerated many times /
sec, in order to avoid flickering of the object.
The phosphor elements present in a CRT screen are capable of
maintaining their brightness only a short time.
To overcome that the image can be regenerated by means of directed beam
to Retrace the image repeatedly.

Advantage:
The image can be continuously refreshed.
Selective erasure possible.
Alteration of the image is accomplished.
Animation of the image with refresh tube possible.
Disadvantage:
It is expensive.
(2) Direct view storage tube:

It is also used stroke writing approach.

The term storage means ability of the screen to retain the image, thus avoid
rewriting of the image constantly.
Once phosphor coating illuminated then have been energized by electron beam
which gives flicker free image.
Advantage:
Lowest cost.
It can be able to display large amount of data either graphical or textual.
Disadvantage:

Selective erasure is not possible

Lack of colour capability.
Lack of animation capability.
Alteration of image is difficult.

(3) Raster scan terminal (Digital TV)

It is operated by means causing as electron beam to trace a zigzag pattern

across the viewing screen.
It is similar to that of TV set by video cameras to construct image on the
screen.
The raster scan ICG terminal uses digital signal generated by the
computer.
In this lowest level category utilizes two beam intensity levels on / off
state.
A picture tube with 256 x 256 resolutions requires generating an image on
the screen (or 65, 00 bits of memory arrays).
Each bit of memory contain on / off status of the corresponding pixel on
the CRT screen.
This memory is called frame buffer (or) refresh buffer.
The picture quality can be improved by two ways.
(1) Increasing pixel density.
(2) Adding grey scale.

Advantage:

Feasibility to use low cost TV monitors.

Capability for animation of the image.
OPERATOR INPUT DEVICE:

Operator input devices are provided at the graphical work station to

facilitate convenient communication between the user and the system.
Workstation generally has several types of input devices to allow the
operator devices to allow the operator to select the preprogrammed input functions.
It can be dividing into three categories
Cursor control device
Digitizer
Alpha numeric and other key board terminals.
(1) Cursor control device:

It forms a bright spot on the CRT screen to indicate the drawing or

lettering.
The computer is capable of reading the current position of the cursor.
It is used for the user or designer to position the cursor to select an item
from a menu of functions displayed on the screen.

These are varieties of cursor control device available in the CAD systems are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Thump wheel.
Keyboard terminal.
Joysticks.
Tracker ball.
Light pen.
Electronic tablet / pen.

(1) Thump wheel:

It uses two thump wheels, one to control the horizontal position of the
cursor. The other one is to control the vertical position of the cursor.
(2) Keyboard terminal:
Four keys are used for each of the four directions in which cursor can be
moved right , left up and down.
(3) Joystick:
The vertical toggle stick that can be pushed in any direction to cause the
cursor to be moved in any direction.
(4) Tracker ball:
Its operation is same the only difference is the cursor movement can be
performed by operator controlled ball.
(5) Light pen:
It is a pointing device in which the computer seeks to identify the position
whereas the light pen is in contact with the screen.
(6) Digitizer:

Digitizer board or tablet are electromechanical vector graphic input

devices that resemble the drafting board.
These are used together with a movable stylus or riticule called a
cursor or a puck.
It consists of a three basic elements a locator in the form of a pen
or stylus or puck or cursor , a tablet and a software package .

The physical motion of the stylus is converted by the wires into

digital location signal received by the locator.
It is a common technique in CAD system for taking x , y
coordinates from a paper drawing.

Drum plotters:
It uses a round drum usually mounted horizontally and a slide
which can be moved along a track mounted axially with respect to the drum.
The paper is attached to the drum and the pen is mounted on the
slide. The relative motion between the pen and pare is achieved by rotation of the drum.
Advantage:

Low cost.

The width of drawing is limited.

It uses a flat drawing surface to which the paper is attached.

In some model the surface is horizontal , while in others it is
vertical.
A parallel tracks are located on two sides of the flat surface.
A bridge is driven along there track to provide the x coordinate
movement.
A writing head is mounted on the bridge which moves relative to
the x coordinate movement.

Disadvantage:

Flat bed plotters:

Merits:

Compact and efficient.

Demerits

It is expensive.

Hard copy unit:

It is a machine that can make copies from the same image data displayed on the
screen.
Most hard copy units are dry silver copies that use light sensitive paper exposed
through a narrow CRT window inside the copier.
The window is 216 mm.
The paper is exposed by moving it past the window and coordinating the CRT
beam to gradually transfer the image.

Disadvantage:

It will darken with time ,when it is exposed to light.

Electro static plotters:

It consists of a series of wire styli mounted on a bar which spans the width of the
charge sensitive paper.
The paper is gradually moved past the bar and certain styli are activated to place
dots on the paper.
By coordinating the generation of the dots with proper travel the image is
progressively transferred from database into hard copy form.

Advantage:

It is fast and accurate.

Disadvantage:

The data must be in raster format in order to readily converted into hard copy
using electro static method.

CAD DATABASE STRUCTURE:

GRAPHIC
TERMINAL
APPLICATION
DATABASE

APPLICATION
PROGRAM

GRAPHIC
PACKAGE

USER INPUT
DEVICES

Functions of graphic package:

Generation of graphic elements.
Transformations
Display control and windowing functions.
User input functions.
(1) Generation of graphic elements:
A graphic element in computer graphics is a basic entity such as line ,
circle , polygon.
(2) Transformations:

It is used to change the image on the display screen and to reposition the
item in the data base.
Transformations are applied to the graphic elements inorder to aid the user
in constructing model.
E.g., scaling , rotation , translation.
(3) Segmentation function:
It provides user with the capability to selectively replace delete or modify the
portion of the image.
(4) User input function:
It permits the operator to enter commands or data to the system. It is
accomplished by input device.
CAD SOFWARE
SOFTWARE

SYSTEM

PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGE

UTILITIES

APPLICATION

OS
MATRIX PROGRAM
INTERPRETER

COMPILER

EDITOR
CAD
BASIC

LOW LEVEL

HIGH LEVEL

DEBUGGER
C, C ++

PASCAL

CAD / CAM

LINGER
VB

APT

FEM

DBMS
CAD Software:

It is the collection of programs written to make it convenient for a user to operate

the computer graphic system.
Software represents that segment of the computing system , which determines the
way the computer is to be used.
Better software makes for a better utilization of the computing system.

System software:

This represents the essential part of the software without which no computer
system can operate.
The operating system generally forms part of the hardware and together with it,
facilitates the use of all the hardware elements in an optimal manner.
E.g., windows 95, 98, NT, VB in IBM computers
The editors means creating and modifying disc files.
Linker is to be used in program development to identify run time errors.

Programming language:

Programming language through which the software which the software

development takes place.
Various languages have been developed to meet different requirements of the
applications.
These are essential translators.
It can be classified into interpreter and compiler.
In interpreter language is translated and executed immediately.
In compiler the complete programme is translated into the machine language and
it can be executed into any number of times.
Object oriented programming (oops) has now become the norm of most of the
programming.
The objects are reusable codes that can be used in many programs.

Utilities:

It refers to a set of small programs which the application developer can

incorporate in his program for performing any task.
E.g., Numerical procedures, matrix programs.

Application software:

These are stand alone programs that are meant for doing specific task.
E.g., Word processing , data base management , computer aided design.