AP Biology Name _________________________

Chapter 6 Guided Reading Assignment

1. What is resolving power and why is it important in biology?

a. Resolving power, or resolution, is the measure of clarity of an object. It is important to
biology because we would not be able to see the structure of certain objects if it was
not at optimal resolving power.

2. How does an electron microscope work and what does is the difference between a
scanning and transmission electron microscope?
a. An electron microscope focuses a beam of electrons through a specimen.
b. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is commonly used to analyze the surface of
an object, using an electron beam to scan its surface. A transmission electron
microscope (TEM) sends the electron beam through the specimen, allowing it to see
the internal structure.

3. Describe the process and purpose of cell fractionation.

a. The purpose of cell fractionization is to isolate cell components for better research.
b. Cell tissue is placed in a centrifuge where x1000 gravity or more is applied, isolating
the cell parts.

4. Label the prokaryotic cell below – list structure and function.

5. Why is surface area to volume such an important concept as it applies to the size of
a cell?

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6. For each of the structures below – note the specific structure and the function of
the organelle or part of the organelle.

a. Nucleus – contains the majority of the genes; largest and central organelle;
i. Nuclear envelope
1. double envelope of membrane enclosing nucleus;
2. perforated by pores;
3. continues with the ER;
ii. Nuclear lamina
1. netlike array of protein filaments
2. maintains shape of nucleus
3. supports nucleus
iii. Chromosomes
1. structures that carry DNA
2. located inside nucleus
3. coils of chromatin
iv. Chromatin
1. complex of proteins & DNA
2. coils up to form chromosomes
3. each cell has specific number of chromosomes
v. Nucleolus
1. specialized structure inside nucleus
2. formed from various chromosomes;
3. rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is formed here
4. proteins assembled with rRNA form into small & large
ribosomes
b. Ribosomes – made up of rRNA & proteins; carry out protein synthesis; not
enclosed in membrane like the nucleolus;
i. Free ribosomes
1. suspended in cytosol
2. synthesize proteins for cytosol
ii. Bound ribosomes
1. attached to ER/nuclear envelope
2. synthesis proteins for export
c. Endoplasmic reticulum – accounts for more than half of all membrane in a
eukaryotic cell; runs along nuclear envelope; synthesizes protein for export;
i. Smooth ER
1. synthesizes lipids, including oils, phospholipids and steroids
2. enzymes here help detoxify

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 3. stores calcium ions
ii. Rough ER
1. ribosomes are attached to its surface
2. rich in glyceroproteins
3. transport vesicles bud off from transitional ER, a portion of
the rough ER
4. grows membranes
d. Golgi Apparatus
i. products of ER are modified, stored, and then shipped to other
destinations
ii. consists of flattened membranes sacs
iii. Golgi apparatus has two poles: cis and trans: cis is for receiving, located
near ER, trans is for shipping
iv. products of ER are modified from cis to trans;
e. Lysosomes
i. membrane sac of enzymes that animal cells use to digest macromolecules
ii. work best in acidic environments
iii. recycles own material;
iv. made by rough ER;
v. lysosomes fused with food vacuoles and break down polysaccharides into
simple sugars;
f. Vacuoles - digestive enzymes similar to lysosomes
i. Food
1. formed by phagosytosis (consumption of smaller organisms)
2. typically fuse with lysosomes, digesting food
ii. Contractile
1. freshwater protosists typically have them
2. pump excess water out of cell
iii. Central w/tonoplast
1. found in mature plants
2. enclosed by membrane called tonoplast
3. develops by fusion w/ other smaller vacuoles
4. tonoplast is semi-permeable
5. used for storage of proteins, byproducts, pigments, and even
poisons;

g. Endomembrane system – flow of membranes & lipids through system;

synthesize, transport, then digest

h. Mitochondria – organelles that convert energy to usable forms; site of cellular

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 respiration; not part of endomembrane system; not created by ER ribosomes;
contain its own ribosomes and small DNA

i. Mitochondrial matrix – enclosed by inner membrane; contains many

enzymes & DNA;

ii. Cristae – infoldings inside the inner membrane; divides mitochondria into
two internal parts: narrow region inbetween outer & inner membranes

i. Plastids – Closely related collection of plant organelles

i. Amyloplast – colorless plastids that store starch

ii. Chromoplast – have colored pigments

iii. Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis; separated from cytosol by 2

membranes, creating an intermembrane; divided into three spaces: the
intermembrane, the stroma, and the thylakoid;

1. thylakoids – interconnected membrane system

2. stroma – fluid inside the chloroplasts, surrounding the granums;

contains DNA & ribosomes

j. peroxisomes – specialized metabolic compartment bound by a single

membrane; contains enzymes that transfer hydrogen to oxygen, releasing
hydrogen peroxide; has many metabolic functions; found in all leaf cells

k. cytoskeleton – network of fibers extending through the cytoplasm; gives cell

mechanical support; can be quickly dismantled and relocated inside cell;
composed of three parts: microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate
filaments

i. microtubules – thickest of the three parts of the cytoskeleton; found in

the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells; constructed by globular protein
called tubulin; grows by adding tubulin to it’s ends; serve as support and
tracks for organelles w/ motor proteins to move; responsible for
separation of chromosomes during cell division; compression resisting;

1. centrosomes and centrioles – centrosome is “mictrotubule-

organizing center” found near nucleus that microtubules grow out

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 of; centrioles are found inside centrosome, each composed of nine
sets triplet microtubules arranged in a ring; not essential for
functions

2. cilia and flagella (include basal body) – locomotive parts that

protrude from certain cells; can move fluid when cell is attached
to membrane; flagella are limited to one or few per cell, where
cilia are abundant; both have microtubule cores; microtubule
doublets are arranged in a ring with two single microtubules in the
center, ‘9 + 2’ arrangement; anchored by basal body, which is
structurally identical to a Centriole; attached motor proteins are
called dynein;

3. dynein walking – responsible for the bending of the of cilia and

flagella; dynein grips doublets, releases, the doublets move up
then the dyein grips again, repeat; this allows for movement;

ii. microfilaments – also called actin filaments; twisted double strain of

actin subunits; form structural networks; bears tension of pulling
forces; supports cell, giving it a gel like consistency;

1. actin – globular protein that forms microfilaments;

2. myosin – motor proteins that act as arms that walk along these
microfilaments; muscle contractions result from myosin and
actin sliding past eachother;

3. pseudopodia – cellular extensions that extend and contract;

4. cytoplasmic streaming – circular flow of cytoplasm within cells;

speeds the distribution of materials within a cell;

iii. intermediate filaments – specialized for bearing tension, such as the

microfilaments; each is constructed differently and by a keratin
subunit; are more permanent than microtubules and microfilaments;

l. Cell walls – extracellular structure of plant cells; protects, maintains shapes,

and prevents excess water uptake; much thicker than plasma membranes;

i. Primary cell wall – thin and flexible; secreted by a young plant cell;

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 ii. Middle lamella – thin layer made of sticky polysaccharides called pectins;
glues the primary and secondary wall together;

iii. Secondary cell wall – strong, durable matrix that offers protection &
support;

m. Extracellular matrix – found in animals cells; made of glycoproteins (proteins

w/ covalently bonded carbohydrates, usually short chains of sugars);

i. Collagen – glycoprotein that forms strong fibers outside of cell; half of

the protein in human body;

ii. Proteoglycans – glycoproteins that are attached to integrins;

iii. Fibronectin – another binding glycoprotein;

iv. Integrins – membrane proteins that are bound to ECM on one side and to
proteins attached to microfilaments on the other;

n. What are intercellular junctions and why are they important?

i. Intercellular junctions are important because they provide molecular and
chemical communication between cells.

o. Contrast plasmodesmata, tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.

i. Plasmodesmata are perforated channels on plant call walls; cystosol
passes through these channels and connects the chemical environments;
ii. Tight junctions are neighboring cell membranes that are very tight
together, bound by specific proteins; prevent leakage of fluids;
iii. Desmosomes function as rivets. Fastening cells together; intermediate
filaments anchor these to the cytoplasm;
iv. Gap junctions provide channels from one cell to another for which small
molecules may pass.