Cells and Tissues

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Cells and tissues
Overview
The cell is the basic unit of life. A cell caries out a number of activities including protein
synthesis, cell division and is where hereditary materials is. Specialized cells constitute tissues.
General objective
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to describe the structure, function and
organization of cells in an organization of cells in an organism.
Specific objectives:
The student should be able to
a. Identify plant and animal cell structures visible under the light microscope.
b. Draw and label detailed animal and plant cells.
c. State the functions of cell structures as seen in an electron microscope
d. Distinguish the plant and animal cell as seen through an electron microscope
e. Explain the theory behind the structure of plasma membrane
f. Describe the fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane.
1. There are two types of cells

a. Prokaryotic cells have DNA which is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane. They do not
have true nuclei. They lack membrane bound organelles. Examples are bacteria and blue
green algae,
A diagram of a bacterial cell
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b. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane bound organelle including a true nucleus,
mitochondria, chloroplast and others.
Advantages of membrane bound organelle

1. Many metabolic processes involve enzymes embedded in membranes, so the membrane
bound organelles increase the surface area for activities like respiration and
photosynthesis.
2. Maintain enzymes of a particular path way in one area for easy accessibility.
3. The metabolic pathway inside an organelle can be controlled by controlling substances
that enter and leave the organelle.
4. Harmful reactants can be isolated
Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1. DNA not enclosed in membrane DNA enclosed in a double membrane
nucleus
2. Has small ribosome (70s) Has big ribosome (80s)
3 Lack mitochondria Has mitochondria
4 Has no endoplasmic reticulum Has endoplasmic reticulum
5 Small size 1000-1000 times the size of prokaryotes
6 Lack lysosomes and peroxisomes contain lysosomes and peroxisomes
7 Lack Golgi apparatus Has Golgi apparatus
8 Simple flagella Complex flagella
9 Respiration occur in mesosome Respiration occur in mitochondria
10 Lack chloroplasts Plant cells have chloroplasts
11 Have ability to fix nitrogen Lack ability to fix nitrogen

Fine structure of animal cell
Fine structure of plant cell

Differences between plant cell and animal cell
Plant Cell Animal cells

1 Has chloroplast Lack chloroplast
2 Has cell wall Lack cell walls
3 Has large central vacuole Lack a vacuole or has small vacuoles
4 Has starch granule Lack starch granule
5 Nucleus at the side Nucleus centrally placed
6 Tonoplast present around vacuole Tonoplast absent
7 Centrioles absent Centrioles present
8 Cilia and flagella absent in higher Cilia and flagella present
plants
9 Few cells are capable of division Almost all cells are capable of division
Parts of the cell

1. Cytoplasm
All cells have a cytoplasmic matrix. It is an aqueous solution or colloidal suspension of
mainly vital cellular materials. It is the site for protein synthesis and metabolic activities
Functions of the cytoplasm

1. Contain or keep organelles
2. Contains nutrients for organelles
3. Stores materials
4. Maintain conductive atmosphere for cellular reaction
2. Cell membrane
It serves as a boundary between the cell and its environment. It may permanently exclude
some items from the cell while permanently retaining others.
Functions of the cell membranes

1. It separates the contents of the cell from the external environment.
2. Controls exchange of materials between the cells and external environment
3. It separates compartment with specialized functions inside the cell
4. Acts as receptor site for recognizing external stimulus such as hormones.
5. Allows uptake of materials by phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
6. Support enzymes of complex metabolic pathways in place for close proximity.
The fluid mosaic model of the cell

- The cell membrane is about 7nm thick
- It consists of a continuous phospholipid bilayer in which proteins are scattered in a
mosaic manner.
- Proteins penetrate through the bilayer at a varying degree to form intrinsic and extrinsic
proteins

- Intrinsic protein are those that penetrate through the bilayer while extrinsic proteins are
those that float on top as islands in a sea.
Protein molecule pore
Phospholipid
8nm approx
bilayer
Extrinsic protein
Components of cell membrane and their function
1. Phospholipids: affect the fluidity and permeability of the membrane
2. Cholesterol: make the membrane less fluid at higher temperature.
3. Glucolipids: act as recognition sites e.g. human blood group system is as result of
different glycolipids on the cell membrane of red blood cell.
4. Proteins:
(i) provide structural support for the membrane,
(ii) assist in active transport across the membrane
(iii) act as recognition sites
(iv) act as enzyme, energy transducers and electron carriers
5. Glycoproteins are recognition sites, e.g., for neurotransmitters and hormones.
The nucleus
This is the largest cell organelle enclosed by a double membrane perforated by nuclear pores. It
contains chromatin which is the form of chromosomes during interphase. The nucleus also
contains nucleolus that produces ribosomes
Function of nucleus
1. Contains DNA for inheritance controlling cell division and protein synthesis.
2. The nucleolus manufactures ribosome
3. Controls all activities of the cell

28. Growth in size of a single cell is limited by the
A. cytoplasm.
B. nucleus.
C. cell vacuole.
D. cell membrane.
Nuscloli
Functions of nucleoli
The nucleolus is the site of synthesis of ribosomal RNA which is combined with proteins in the
cytoplasm to make ribosomes.
Mitochondria
It a cell organelle surrounded by two membranes, the inner being folded to form cristae. The
mitochondrion contains a matrix with a few ribosomes a circular DNA molecule and
phosphate granules. Its main function is producing energy by aerobic respiration.
Double membrane
DNA
matrix
Crista
Ribosome
Adaptations of mitochondria to its function

1. The inner membrane is folded to form cristae that increase surface area for enzymatic
activities.

2. Contains circular DNA to produce the necessary enzymes.
3. Has a large surface area for diffusion of gases.
4. Matrix contain necessary enzymes for Krebs cycle
Endoplasmic reticulum
This is a system of flattened membranes bound sacs called cisternae, forming tubes and
sheet. Is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. Some of its parts is
covered by ribosome and this is called rough endoplasmic reticulum. The part without
ribosomes is called smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Functions of endoplasmic reticulum
1. Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is a site of lipids and steroid synthesis.
3. The tubes are for intracellular transport
Golgi apparatus
Consists of stack flattened membrane-bound sacs, called cisternae, continuously being
formed at one end of the stack and budded off as vesicles at the other.
Functions of Golgi apparatus
1. Producing glycoproteins by adding carbohydrates to proteins
2. Producing secretory enzymes, e.g. digestive enzymes
3. Replenishing the cell wall
4. Produces materials for synthesis of plant cell wall.
5. Produces lysosomes concerned with breakdown of worn out structures in the cell.
Lysosome
Single small organelle that contain enzymes to destroy worn out parts of the cell and autolysis
(digestion of the cell)

Chloroplasts
It is restricted to plant cell and used for photosynthesis. It is surrounded by an envelope of two
membranes and contains a gel-like stroma through which runs a system of membranes that are
stacked in places to form grana. The stroma contains ribosomes, circular DNS and lipid
droplets.
Similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts
1. Both have double membrane, circular DNA
2. Inner membrane is folded to increase the surface area
3. Contain ATPase enzyme for ATP synthesis
4. Both occur in plant
5. Both contain carrier proteins
6. Both contain circular DNA
7. Both contain ribosome,
Differences between mitochondria and chloroplasts

Chloroplast Mitochondria
Structural difference
1. Contain chlorophyll Does not contain chlorophyll
2. Inner membrane form grana Inner membrane folded to form cristae
3. May contain starch granules Does not contain starch granules
Functional difference
4. Use water Produce water
5. Produce O2 Produce CO2
6. Use sunlight and store its energy in Set energy free from food for work
food made
7. Occur only in green plants Occur in both plants and animals

Histology
Specific objective
The learner must be able to
- Explain how epithelia tissues are adapted to diversity of functions in the body
- Distinguish between different levels of organization
- State the advantages and disadvantages of being unicellular
- State the advantages of being multicellular
Definition
A tissue is a group of similar cells linked with associated intercellular substances to perform a
particular function(s). In complex organism, different tissues combine to form organs and organs
combine to form organ system. Organ system combine to form organism
Advantages of unicellular state Advantages multicellular state
Can exist on its own There is specialization
Do not need gaseous exchange surface Indefinite growth
Types of animal tissues

Classification of tissues depending on their function lead to the following:
Animal tissues
a. Epithelial tissues
b. Connective tissue
c. Skeletal tissue
d. Nerve tissue
e. Reproductive tissue
Plant tissue
a. Meristematic tissue
b. Epidermal tissue
c. Parenchyma
d. Collenchyma
e. Sclerenchyma
f. Vascular
g. Cork
Animal tissues

1. Epithelium
These are tissues that cover the external and internal surfaces of animal body. They may be made
up of one or more layers of cells resting on a basement membrane. The cells are connected
together by substance called hyaluronic acid.
The epithelial tissues function to protect underlying structures from injury through abrasion or
pressure and from infection. Stress is combated by the tissues becoming thickened and
keratinized, and where cells are sloughed off due to contact friction the epithelium shows a very
rapid rate of cell division so that lost cells are speedily replaced. The free surface of the
epithelium often is highly differentiated and may be absorptive or secretory in function
Epithelial tissues are subdivided into two major categories
a. Simple epithelium
b. Compound epithelium
Simple epithelium
This type of epithelium is made up of only one layer of cells. Simple epithelium is divided into 5
types
(i) Squamous
(ii) Cuboidal
(iii) Columnar
(iv) Ciliated
(v) Pseudostratified
(a) Squamous epithelium consists of a sheet of flattened cells which fit closely together rather
like crazy paving
Top View
Vertical section
Basement membrane

Location of squamous epithelial tissue
- Skin outer layer
- Bowman‟s capsule in the kidney
- Alveoli of lungs
- Capillary walls
Squamous epithelium is thin and therefore allows easy diffusion of materials across it.
Function
- Protective
- Aloe easy diffusion
(b) Cuboidal
Heights of the cell is approximately equal to its width, when viewed in vartial section the
cells appear square.
Location
- Salivary duct
- Collecting duct of the kidney
- Thyroid gland
Functions
- Secretory
- Absorptive and its surface may be increased by microvilli to increase surface area.
(c) Columnar epithelium

It is made of elongated cells at right angles to the basement membrane.
Basement membrane
Goblet cell
Location
Lining of the stomach and small intestines
Functions

- Secretory e.g. secretion of mucus in the stomach
- Absorptive e.g. absorption of digested food in the intestines.
(d) Ciliated epithelium
Basement membrane
Goblet cell
This is made of columnar shaped cells but having numerous cilia at their end. The cells
are associated with mucus secreting goblet cells producing fluids in which cilia set up
current.
Location
- Oviduct
- Trachea
- Bronchi
(e) Pseudo-stratified epithelium

This is made up of one layer of cells but some cells do not reach the free surface. It
appears as if it is stratified.
Basement membrane
Goblet cell
Location
- Urinary tract
- Trachea
- Olfactory mucosa
Function
Secretory
Compound epithelium
made up of more than one layer of cells. There are two types of compound epithelium
a. Stratified epithelium

Made up of a number of layers of cells. The cells are made by mitotic division of the germinal
layer which rests on the basement membrane
Occurrence: vagina, esophagus and skin
Function: protects the body against friction.
b. Transitional epithelium
This is made of 3-4 layers of cell. The cells are able to modify their shape when placed under
different conditions.
Location: urinary bladder, ureter and pelvis
Glandular epithelium
These are epithelium cells that are folded inwards forming invagination where cells lining the
bottom of the invagination are secretory.
There are two types
(i) Exocrine glands: these are glands whose secretion are released through ducts
(ii) Endocrine glands: are glands without ducts and pass their secretion into blood
streams.
Types of exocrine glands
There are different types of glands depending on the epithelial folding.
Types of gland Structure Examples
1. Simple saccular Mucus glands in the skin of
amphibian
2. Simple tubular Crypts of Lieberkühn of the

walls of mammalian small
intestines
Fundic region of the stomach
3. Coiled tubular Sweat gland
4. Simple branched tubular Brunner‟s gland in walls of

mammalian small intestines

5. Simple branched saccular Secretory sebaceous glands in
mammalian skin
6. Compound tubular gland Parts of the pancreas which

secretes digestive enzyme and
mammary glands
7. Compound saccular Mammary gland
8. Compound tubular-
saccular
Connective tissue
These are the tissues that hold specialized tissues and organs in the right position and fill the
spaces between them. They consist of jelly-like ground substances or matrix in which several
types of cells are embedded.
Classification
(i) Loose connective tissue
(ii) Fibrous tissue (white and yellow)
(iii) Adipose tissue
(iv) Dentine tissue
(v) Skeletal tissue
(vi) Blood cell making tissue

(i) Areolar
This is the fundamental type of connective tissue found allover the body beneath the skin and
therefore connecting the skin and therefore connecting the skin to structures below it. It binds
sheets of epithelium to mesenteric (capillary network around alimentary canal). It joins blood
vessel and nerves whereby they enter or leave body organs. It also fills up space between
adjacent tissue and therefore acts like packing tissue.
Functions
- packing tissue
- insulator due to accumulation of fat cells
- support other organs
Structure
Macrophages
Elastin fibre
Fibroblasts
Matrix
Collagen fiber
Fat cell Mast Cells
Functions of parts of connective tissue

- Fat cells store fats
- Collagen and elastic fibers provide mechanical support and flexibility.
- Matrix provide nutrients to the cell
- Fibroblast produce ground substance
- Neutrophil, macrophages, mast cells for defense
2. White fibrous tissue

This a tough tissue composed of organized bundle of collagen fiber closely packed together
and running parallel to each other. Rows of fibroblast are scattered among the collagen and
run alongside the bundles. Each bundle is bound to a neighboring tissue by areolar tissue.
Fibrous tissue is abundant in tendons, ligament, sclera and cornea of the eye. These are areas
where great strength and limited flexibility is required.
Areolar tissue
Fibroblast
Collagen fibers
Areolar tissue

3. Yellow fibrous tissue
This contains a glycoprotein matrix containing only elastic fibers. The fibers are irregularly
arranged and are branched. Fibroblasts are randomly distributed throughout the matrix. The
elastic fiber provides the tissue with elasticity and flexibility. It also contains some few
bundles of collagen which give it strength. It is found in ligaments, walls of arteries as
components of lung and associated passage.
Bundle of white fiber
Fibroblast
Glycoprotein matrix
Fibroblast
4. Adipose tissue
This tissue has no specific matrix but closely packed fat filled cells arrange in two lobules
The bone
Is a tissue that provided skeletal network in the body
Functions of bones
1. Provided shape that allow easy movement and recognition.

2. Protect delicate parts of the body; for, example rib cage protects the hear and the lung
3. Provide support
4. Provide a means of attachment of the muscle to allow movement
5. Store minerals like calcium and phosphorus
6. Produce blood cells like red blood cell
Structure
The bone is made of a matrix and cells.
The matrix of compact bone is made of collagen fibers together with inorganic substances such
as calcium, magnesium and phosphorous. These components are arranged in concentric circles
called lamellae, around an Haversian canal containing an artery, a vein, lymph vessel and nerve
fibers.
Bone cells are found in spaces in the lamellae known as lacunae and fine channels called
canaliculi link lacunae.
The system of lamellae around one Haversian canal is called an Haversian system.

Drawing of cross section of a bone
Periosteum-dense connective
tissue
Lacuna – containing osteocyte
Haversian canal- contain blood

vessels, arteries and nerves
Harvesian
system
Lamellae
Bone formation, also called ossification, process by which new bone is produced.
Ossification begins about the third month of fetal life in humans and is completed by
late adolescence. The process takes two general forms, one for compact bone, which
makes up roughly 80 percent of the skeleton, and the other for cancellous bone,
including parts of the skull, the shoulder blades, and the ends of the long bones.
Bone of the first type begins in the embryonic skeleton with a cartilage model, which is
gradually replaced by bone. Specialized connective tissue cells called osteoblasts
secrete a matrix material called osteoid, a gelatinous substance made up of collagen, a
fibrous protein, and mucopolysaccharide, an organic glue.

Soon after the osteoid is laid down, inorganic salts are deposited in it to form the
hardened material recognized as mineralized bone. The cartilage cells die out and are
replaced by osteoblasts clustered in ossification centres. Bone formation proceeds
outward from these centres.
This replacement of cartilage by bone is known as endochondral ossification. Most

short bones have a single ossification centre near the middle of the bone; long bones of
the arms and legs typically have three, one at the centre of the bone and one at each
end. Ossification of long bones proceeds until only a thin strip of cartilage remains at
either end; this cartilage, called the epiphyseal plate, persists until the bone reaches its
full adult length and is then replaced with bone.
The flat bones of the skull are not pre-formed in cartilage like compact bone but begin
as fibrous membranes consisting largely of collagen and blood vessels. Osteoblasts
secrete the osteoid into this membrane to form a sponge like network of bony
processes called trabeculae. The new bone formation radiates outward from ossification
centres in the membrane. This process is called intermembranous ossification. There are
several ossification centres in the skull. At birth, bone formation is incomplete, and
soft spots can be felt between these centres. The lines where the new bone from
adjacent centres meets form cranial sutures visible on the surface of the adult skull.
Both endochondral and intermembranous ossification produce immature bone, which

undergoes a process of bone resorption and deposition called bone remodeling to
produce mature bone.
Plant tissues
Simple plant tissues consist of only one type of cells. They are grouped according to the degree
of thickening present in the cell wall
1. Parenchyma
It is a simple permanent tissue of unspecialized usually spherical cells with thin cell walls.
Parenchyma form the bulky of packing tissue within the plant.
Cell wall
Vacuole
Chloroplast
Air space
Nucleus
Functions of parenchyma tissue

(i) Store water and food reserve

(ii) When tightly packed and turgid provide support for herbaceous plants
(iii)It is a ground tissue
(iv) Air spaces allow buoyancy in floating plants
(v) Air spaces allow gaseous exchange
Example
Which one of the following plant tissues performs both storage and supportive functions?
A. Parenchyma.
B. Sclerenchyma.
C. Collenchyma.
D. Phloem.
The answer is A
Parenchyma is the plant tissue that has both storage and supportive function. It store water
and starch in most plants and also serves as the main supporting tissue in non-woody plants.
2. Collenchyma
Contains cells with additional cellulose deposited in the corners.
Vacuole
Nucleus
Cell wall with corner

thickened
Function
(i) It provides mechanical strength to the petiole, leaves and stem of young dicot plants.
(ii) Collenchyma confers flexibility to various parts of the plant like petiole and stem, allowing for easy bending
without breakage.
(iii)It allows for growth and elongation of plant organs.

(iv) Collenchyma present in leaves also prevents them from tearing.
(v) The living cells of collenchyma store food.
(vi) Collenchyma when containing chlorophyll performs the function of photosynthesis.
3. Sclerenchyma
Mature sclerenchyma cells are dead and cannot grow. They develop fully when the growth of
surrounding tissue is complete. Sclerenchyma cells have large deposits of lignin in the cell wall
and the cell content is lost in places, lignin is not deposited due to presence of plasmodesmata in
primary cell wall, such regions are called pits. Some sclerenchyma cells are roughly spherical
and are known as sclereids. These are usually found in small group in fruits and seeds, cortex,
pith and phloem.
Function of sclerenchyma
(i) They provide mechanical support
(ii) They make up xylem and tracheid for water transport
(iii) In hypodermis of xerophytic plant, they prevent water lost
(iv) Sclerenchyma cells in the fruit walls help in its dehiscence and seed
dispersal
(v) Sclerenchyma of seed coat protect the seed from desiccation

Xylem
Consist of parenchyma cells and fibers together with vessels and tracheid.
Vessels are made of cylindrical dead cells, one on top of another with the cross
wall broken down to form a long continuous tube from the roots to the leaves.
The type of vessel found depend on the degree and nature of cell thickening. In the
protoxylem the lignin is deposited in rings or spirals to the cells is still capable of
expansion. In metaxylem there is more extensive lignification arranged in patterns
known as reticulate, scalariform or pitted.

Tracheid are spindle-shaped cell arranged in rows with ends of the cells
overlapping. The cells have heavily lignified cell wall with no cell contents.
Functions of xylem
Transport water and mineral salts
They provide mechanical support.
Adaptations of the xylem

1. Cross walls are perforated or completely removed to form continuous tubes
from roots to stems and leaves
2. Xylem vessels have no living contents to allow water to flow freely
3. Contain bordered pits to allow water cross to living cells
4. Lignified to prevent water loss
5. Lignified to prevent them from collapsing under negative pressure of
transpiration pull.
6. Small tube to enable high capillarity
7. Xylem walls have high adhesive forces.
Adaptation to provide support
1. Walls are lignified

2. Vessels are circular for additional support.
Development of xylem
Cells destined to form xylem vessel elongate and develop thickened secondary
wall. The walls are later lignified. The cell content die and cross section walls
degenerate to form continuous open tube.

Phloem
Sieve filament
The phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells.

Sieve tubes consist of columns of elongated, thin walled living cells called sieve
tubes/elements. They have cross walls with many holes or pores called sieve
plates. Each sieve tube has a companion cell.
Function
Transport of manufactured food (sucrose and amino acid) from leaves to other
parts of the plant.
Adaptations
- Lack a nucleus and most cell organelles to leave room for transportation of
food
- The sieve plates are perforated to allow rapid flow through
- Has filament for quick transport by streaming
- Intimate association with companion cells to obtain energy and materials

Differences between xylem and phloem
Xylem Phloem
1 Vessels are made of dead Elements are made from living cells
cells
2 Vessels have lignified cell Phloem do not have lignified cell walls
walls
3. The end wall disappears The end wall form sieve plates. They
completely do not disappear completely
4. Have pits Have plasmodesmata
5. Thick walls Thin walls
6 Transport water and mineral Transport food (sucrose and amino
salts acids)
Development of phloem
Cells destined to become sieve elements elongate, most cell organelles degenerate
leaving cytoplasmic filament. The plasmodesmata of the end wall widen forming
sieve pores.

Exercise
1. 2015/1/15 Which of the following epithelium tissues line blood capillaries?
A. Cuboidal tissue
B. Squamous tissue
C. Columnar tissue
D. Glandular tissue
2. 2014/1/4 The function of the nucleoli in a cell is to form
A. The nuclear membrane
B. Ribose
C. The spindle during nuclear division
D. Centrioles
3. 2013/1/4 The figure below shows a glandular tissue
In which part of the mammalian body is the tissue likely to be?

A. Ileum
B. Lungs
C. Stomach
D. Skin
4. 2013/1/12 Which one of the following consists of a pair of tissues specialized for
support?
A. Parenchyma and collenchyma
B. Collenchyma and sclerenchyma
C. Parenchyma and sieve tubes
D. Xylem and phloem
5. The type of feeding mechanism shown in figure below is
droplets
Plasma membrane
A. Pinocytosis
B. Phagocytosis
C. Filter feeding
D. Predation

6. 2012/1/28 One disadvantage of multicellular state is the individual cells
A. Are always small in size
B. Lose independence
C. Becomes less functional
D. Become less specialized
7. 2012/1/36 The walls of collenchyma cells stained deep blue by methylene blue
but not aniline hydrochloride. This shows that the wall
A. Are not thickened
B. Are thickened by lignin
C. Contains living protoplasm
D. Are thickened by material other than lignin
8. 2012/12 Squamous epithelium is made up of thin and delicate sheets of cell as

an adaptation to
A. Rapid cell division
B. Facilitation of liquid movement
C. Shortening diffusion distance
D. Protecting the body from abrasion
9. 2010/1/4 The figure below represents a human tissue
The tissue would most likely be lining the

A. Salivary gland
B. Stomach
C. Ileum
D. Oviduct
10. 2010/1/7 1. The figure below represents a
A. Tracheid
B. Xylem vessel element
C. Sieve tube
D. Phloem parenchyma cell

11. Which of the following is not correct about cells of a tissue?
A. Are of one type
B. Have the same origin
C. Have same particular function
D. Are physically linked
12. 2008/1/2 The epithelial type lining the mammalian alveoli is
A. Columnar
B. Cuboid
C. Stratified
D. Squamous
13. 2008/1/16 A probable function of cell membrane is to

A. Control entry and exist of materials form the cells
B. Rapid conversion of sugar to starch
C. Act as a template for in protein synthesis
D. Enable substances diffuse against concentration gradient
14. 2007/1/1 Which of the following is a simple branched tubular gland?

A. Brunner‟s gland
B. Salivary gland
C. Sweat gland
D. Mammary gland
15. 2007/1/9 Which of the following is not correct about cells of a tissue?
A. Have similar function
B. Are of the same origin
C. Are of one type
D. Have physical linkage
16. 2007/1/24 A property of cells in a multicellular organism is that they
A. Small
B. Less functional
C. Less specialized
D. Dependent
17. 2007/1/25 Which one of the following tissues has the least power of
regeneration?
A. Blood tissue
B. Epithelial tissue
C. Bone tissue
D. Nerve tissue
18. 2006/1/3 Which one of the following structures is found in both xylem and
phloem in higher plants
A. Sieve tracheid
B. Parenchyma cells
C. Companion cells
D. Hollow vessels
19. 2006/1/11 Which of the following have a sole function of offering support to the

plants?
A. Sclerenchyma and vessel elements
B. Vessel elements and tracheid
C. Sclerenchyma and collenchyma
D. Parenchyma and collenchyma
20. 2006/1/31 Which one of the parts of a mammal possesses an epithelial tissue as
shown in the figure below?
A. Oviduct
B. Ileum
C. Respiratory tract
D. Loop of Henle
21. 2005/1/4 The main distinguishing character of a eukaryotic cell is

A. Membrane organelles
B. Lack of a nucleus
C. Presence of a nucleus
D. Presence of DNA double strand
22. 2005/1/6 Which of the following organelle would most likely be abundant in the
tail of a tadpole at a time of its reabsorption during metamorphosis?
A. Centrioles
B. Lysosomes
C. Golgi apparatus
D. Endoplasmic reticulum
23. 2004/1/11 In higher plants, the lateral roots originate from the
A. Endodermis
B. Epidermis
C. Pericycle
D. Cambium
24. 2003/1/3 A plant tissue which is tubular, open ended, with lignified and
thickened walls is
A. Tracheid
B. Xylem vessel
C. Parenchyma
D. Sieve tube
25. 2003/1/21 Viruses cannot reproduce outside the body because

A. Not all of them contain DNA
B. They are too small to reproduce
C. They are unable to synthesize their own DNA
D. They are unable to absorb raw materials from the surroundings.

26. 2003/1/28 Rapid transport of materials within the cytoplasm of a cell is associated
with the presence of
A. Spindle fibers in the dividing cell
B. An extensive endoplasmic reticulum
C. Many plasma membrane pores
D. Extensive Golgi apparatus
27. 2003/1/34 Which of the following types of epithelia lines the walls of the
mammalian alveoli?
A. Columnar epithelium
B. Cuboidal epithelium
C. Stratified epithelium
D. Squamous epithelium
28. Which of the following does not always form part of a bacterium cell?
A. Cell wall
B. Flagellum
C. Cytoplasm
D. Ribosome
29. 2002/1/10 Which one of the following cell organelles would be most active at
sites where substances move against diffusion gradient?
A. Ribosome
B. Lysosome
C. Mitochondria
D. Golgi bodies
30. 2002/1/15 Which one of the following is not correct about viruses? They
A. can only reproduce in living cells
B. Are the smallest living organisms
C. Are facultative parasites
D. Do not have cellular structures
31. 2001/1/16 Which one of the following structures operate independently of
nervous control?
A. cilia of paramecium
B. flagella of euglena
C. stinging cells of coelenterates
D. pigment cells of fishes
32. 2001/1/26 Which one of the following features would be prominent in mucus
secreting cells?
A. Large nucleus and dense matrix
B. Numerous rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body
C. Numerous mitochondria and lysosome
D. Dense matrix and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
33. 2001/1/40 Which one of the following types of epithelia experiences the highest
wearing?
A. Stratified
B. Columnar
C. Glandular
D. Ciliated

34. 2000/1/21 In which one of the following is ciliated epithelium found?
A. Kidney tubules
B. Small intestines
C. Lining of capillaries
D. Lining of alveoli
35. 2000/1/35 Which of the following gland is compound saccular?
A. mammary gland
B. sebaceous gland
C. sweat gland
D. gastric gland
36. 2000/1/37 Which one of the following cell organelle is associates with the final
stage of most cell secretion?
A. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
B. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
C. Ribosome
D. Golgi Apparatus
37. 1999/1/1 Which of the following is a function of the Golgi body in the cell?
A. Secreting substances out of the cells
B. Synthesis of proteins
C. Assembling of raw materials for secretion
D. Synthesis of carbohydrates
38. 2000/1/2 Which of the following cell types are unlikely to be found in the
mammalian intestines?
A. Columnar
B. Ciliated
C. Stratified
D. Squamous
39. 1998/1/24 Which one of the following glands has a compound tubular structure?
A. Mucus gland in the skin of frog and other amphibians
B. Salivary gland in the mouth of a mammal
C. Brunner‟s gland in the walls of a mammalian small intestine
D. pancreas
40. 1999/1/25 2. What role is associated with the endoplasmic reticulum?
A. Site for protein synthesis
B. Isolation and transport of the proteins synthesized
C. Synthesis and transport of lipids and steroids
D. Production of amino acids
41 Which of the following is the main function of the Golgi apparatus in a

living cell?
A. Destruction of worn out cell organelles
B. Synthesis of cell wall components
C. Synthesis of proteins
D. Intracellular transport

42 1997/1/32 Which one of the following epithelial tissue is illustrated in figure
below?
A. Columnar
B. Squamous
C. Cuboidal
D. stratified
43 1997/1/39 Cells with uniformly thickened and lignified walls are likely to be
A. Phloem
B. Parenchyma
C. Collenchyma
D. Sclerenchyma
44. 2015/1/23 Which one of the following plant tissues perform both storage and
support functions?
A. parenchyma
B. sclerenchyma
C. collenchyma
D. phloem
45. 2015/1/27 The figure below shows an epithelial tissue
The function of the tissue is to

A. Increase surface area for absorption of material
B. Provide smooth lining for movement of materials
C. Act as a junction between different tissues
D. Move materials along the surface
46 The figure below is a section of a structure from a plant tissue.
The tissue with such a structure is the

A. Collenchyma
B. Parenchyma
C. Phloem
D. Xylem

47. Viruses resemble living organism because they possess
A. A nucleus
B. Genetic material
C. A cell membrane
D. Oxidative enzymes
49. 2012/1/7 A companion cell has a large nucleus because
A. It supports the sieve tube element which has no nucleus
B. It controls a large volume of cytoplasm
C. Movement of material in the sieve tube is active process
D. of its high metabolic rate
50. Which one of the following tissues would be stained deepest red by a
dye that stains nucleic acid?
A. Sieve tube
B. Tracheid
C. Collenchyma
D. cambium
51. 2015/21 Which one of the following plant tissues, have cell with walls least
adapted to support?
A. Sclerenchyma
B. Collenchyma
C. Tracheid
D. Xylem vessels
52. 2014/1/28 Growth in size of a single cell is limited by the
A. Cytoplasm
B. Nucleus
C. Cell wall
D. Cell membrane
53. 2004/1/18 The tails pf the phospholipids lie in the center of the cell membrane
due to their being
A. Light
B. Hydrophilic
C. Polar
D. Hydrophobic
54. 1998/1/10 A young herbaceous stem maintains an erect position mainly due to
A. Lignified tissue in the stem
B. Water pressure in xylem tissue
C. High turgor pressure in the parenchyma cells
D. Low osmotic pressure in the parenchyma cells
55. 2015/1/26 In sponges, the different types of cells are independent of each other in
function because
A. The different cell show division of labor
B. Collar cells maintain the flow of water
C. Sponges are made of collar flagellates
D. The cell are not coordinated

56 2012/1/8 Which one of the following parts would show a distinct blue color if a
cross section of a dicotyledonous plant was stained with iodine
solution?
A. Pericycle
B. Poriferous layer
C. Endodermis
D. pith
57 1996/1/21 Chromophores are
A. reproductive cells
B. fat-containing cells
C. carotenoid containing cells
D. pigment-containing cells in certain vertebrates

Paper 1 Section B
1. (2013/1/44) (a) Name two areas in plants where each of the following tissue is found?
(i) Sclerenchyma (1mark)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Collenchyma (1marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Give three structural adaptation of the sclerenchyma tissue for its function (3marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Explain the importance of collenchyma tissue in leaves and young stems (02marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(d) Outline three structural differences between the chlorenchyma and sclerenchyma
tissue. (03marks)
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. (2012/1/43) (a) Describe the adaptations of each of the following tissues for their
functions, giving one example of the site where each of them is found.
(i) Stratified tissue (3marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

(ii) Collagen tissue (3marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Explain how the structure of proteins enable them to form body tissues and structures
(4marks)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. (1996/1/part B No. 6)
(a)State two important difference which can be recognized under the light microscope
between plant and animal cells
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) (i) Name the membrane-bounded channels which form a network and almost fill the
cytoplasm of most cells and are only recognizable under the electron microscope
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) What are the „small granules‟ associated with the channels mentioned in (i) and
what is their function?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
C (i) Give one way by which you would recognize the “colloidal state” of protoplasm
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) Which constituent of the protoplasm are responsible for its colloidal state?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
(c)Viewed under the electron microscope, the cell membrane has a three-layered
structure. What is the chemical nature of each of these layers?

Paper 2
1. (2012/1/4) Describe how each of the following tissues are related to their functions
(i) Parenchyma (03marks)
(ii) Collenchyma (03marks)
(iii) Sclerenchyma (06marks)
(b) Explain the distribution pattern of mechanical tissue in a stem and root of a
dicotyledonous plant. (08marks)
(2011/2/2) (a) Describe the structure of the plasma membrane according to fluid mosaic
model (10marks)
(b) Explain how exocytosis and endocytosis occur across the plasma membrane.
(05marks)
(c) Explain the role of proteins within plasma membranes.
(05marks)
3. (2010/2/2) (a) Describe the structure of the vascular system in higher plants (7marks)
(b) How is the stem in (a) adapted to its function? (13marks)
4. (2010/2/4) (a) Explain how organisms have overcome the challenges of being
multicellular. (12 marks)
5. (1999/2/2) (a) Describe the structure of cartilages and bones
(b) How is cartilage replaced by bone?
6. (a) Describe the fluid mosaic structure of the plasma membrane. (10marks)
(b) How does the structure account for the movement of materials in and out of the
cells.
7. (2007/2/3) Explain how the epithelial tissue is adapted for its function. (20marks)

Answers to the objective type questions
1 B 11 B 21 A 31 A 41 B
2 B 12 D 22 B 32 B 42 B
3 D 13 A 23 33 A 43 D
4 B 14 A 24 B 34 A 44 A
5 A 15 B 25 C 35 A 45 D
6 B 16 D 26 B 36 D 46 D
7 D 17 D 27 D 37 C 47 B
8 C 18 B 28 B 38 D 48
9 D 19 C 29 C 39 D 49 D
10 B 20 A 30 C 40 B 50 B
52 B
a. Figure 1 shows an epithelial tissue
Fig. 1
The function of the tissue is to

A. increase surface area for absorption of materials.
B. provide smooth lining for movement of materials.
C. act as a junction between different tissues.
D. move materials along the surface.
The answer is D
The epithelium shown is a ciliated epithelium. The beating of the cilia creates a current of fluid
which moves material along the surface lined by this kind of epithelium.
Recall
 To increase surface area for absorption of material, epithelial surfaces are often highly
folded and sometimes the membrane of individual cells are finely folded into microvilli
 A smooth lining is provided by simple squamous epithelium
 Tissues that act as a junction between different tissue are not epithelia but connective
tissue fibres.
Examples
a. Growth in size of a single cell is limited by the
A. cytoplasm.
B. nucleus.
C. cell vacuole.
D. cell membrane.
The answer is B

The nucleus directly dictates the size of a cell because it directs the formation of materials
that sustain cell content. Since the genetic constitution of the nucleus is content, a cell
grows only up to a size that the nucleus can sustain.
4. Figure 1 shows a glandular tissue.
Fig 1
In which part of the mammalian body is the tissue likely to be?
A. Ileum.
B. Lungs.
C. Stomach.
D. Skin.
4. The answer is D
The figure shows a coiled tubular. this is typical of the sweat glands in the mammalian skin.
Note:
The ileum contains simple, tubular glands called crypt of Lieberkühn
The stomach contains simple, branched, tubular glands called gastric glands.
The lungs do not contain glandular epithelium. Their air sacs are lined with simple squamous
epithelium, whose function is to allow exchange of gases between the blood and alveolar air

12. Which one of the following consists of tissues specialized for support?
A. Parenchyma and collenchyma.
B. Collenchyma and sclerenchyma.
C. Parenchyma and sieve tubes.
12. The answer is B.
Collenchyma and sclerenchyma are plant tissue specialized for support.
Note:
Parenchyma is a packing tissue, filling space in plant organs, between other tissues. It also
functions as a storage tissue but may also be involved in support, especially when turgid, in
non-woody plants.
Sieve tubes are then main functional components of phloem and responsible for transport as
manufactured food within the plant.
Xylem is primarily responsible for transport of water mineral salts, but its lignified walls serve as
extra support for the plant.
43. (a) Name two areas in plants where each of the following tissues is found
(i) Sclerenchyma
(ii) Collenchyma
(b) Give three structure adaption of the sclerenchyma tissue for its function.
(a) Explain the importance of collenchyma tissue in leaves and young stems
(b) Outline three structure difference between the collenchyma and sclerenchyma tissue
Solution
(a) (i) Sclerenchyma is found in:

 Vascular bundles.
 Hypodermis of monocotyledonous stems.
Others
 Pericycle of dicotyledonous stems, in form of strands of secondary xylem and secondary
phloem.
 Sclerenchymatous fibres on the surface of seeds, e.g. cotton
 Endocarp of nut.
 Gritty mass in the pulp skin of pears and guava fruits
(ii).Collenchyma is found in:
 In petiole and leaf lamina.

 Stems of herbaceous plants.
(b) Cells have highly lignified thick walls provide enough resistance to forces of the
environment.
 Cells are dead and therefore place no extra metabolic demand on the plant.
 Sclerechyma fire are elongated and arranged in sheets or stands to increase their
strength
Others:
 Sclerenchyma fibre are interlocked to enhance their combined strength
 Sclerenchyma is the strengthen mechanical tissue of leave and young stems. It
supplements the effects of turgid parenchyma in maintaining shape and form of leave
and young stems.
Collenchyma sclerenchyma
Consists of living cells Consists of dead cells
Cell wall is thickened with cellulose Cell wall is thickened with mainly lignin
Cell wall thickening is non -uniform Cell wall thickening is uniform

others
Collenchyma sclerenchyma
May contain chloroplasts Does not contain chloroplasts
Cell cavity is wide Cell cavity is very narrow or even closed
Has no pores May be perforated with pore in the walls
8. Which one of the following parts would show a distinct blue colour if a cross section of a root
of a dicotyledonous plant was stained with iodine solution?
A. Pericycle. B. Piliferous layer.
C. Endodermis. D. Pith.
The answer is C
In a dicotyledonous plant, endodermis cells have a high content of starch grains. As such, they
show a distinct blue colour in a cross-section of root stained with iodine. It is for this reason
that the endodermis is also sometime called the starch sheath.
28. One disadvantage of the multicellular state is that individual cells
A. are always small in size. B. lose independence.
C. become less functional. D. become less specialized.
28. The answer is B
I n Multicellular organisms, cells often become specialized to perform certain functions and
therefore lose ability to perform other functions. As a result, cells become dependent on each
other for the function(s) which they are not specialized to perform.

36. The walls of collenchyma cells are stained deep blue by methylene blue but not aniline
hydro chloride. This shows that the walls
A. are not thickened.
B. are thickened by lignin.
C. contain living protoplasm.
D. are thickened by materials other than lignin.
The answer is D
Thickening of plant cell occurs by deposition of extra layers cellulose or deposition of lignin or
suberin (cork). These materials are identified in microscopy by their ability to take up certain
stains.
Lignin, for example, stains yellow with aniline hydrochloride but not stain with methylene blue
Cellulose does not stain with aniline hydrochloride but stains deep blue with methylene blue.

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Cells and tissues

1. There are two types of cells

A diagram of a bacterial cell

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Advantages of membrane bound organelle

Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

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Fine structure of plant cell

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Plant Cell Animal cells

Parts of the cell

Functions of the cytoplasm

Functions of the cell membranes

The fluid mosaic model of the cell

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Protein molecule pore

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Adaptations of mitochondria to its function

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Differences between mitochondria and chloroplasts

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Types of animal tissues

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(c) Columnar epithelium

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(d) Ciliated epithelium

(e) Pseudo-stratified epithelium

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2. Simple tubular Crypts of Lieberkühn of the

4. Simple branched tubular Brunner‟s gland in walls of

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6. Compound tubular gland Parts of the pancreas which

7. Compound saccular Mammary gland

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Fat cell Mast Cells

Functions of parts of connective tissue

2. White fibrous tissue

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Bundle of white fiber

1. Provided shape that allow easy movement and recognition.

The bone is made of a matrix and cells.

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Haversian canal- contain blood

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This replacement of cartilage by bone is known as endochondral ossification. Most

Both endochondral and intermembranous ossification produce immature bone, which

Functions of parenchyma tissue

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Cell wall with corner

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Adaptations of the xylem

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