The question "What is hydraulics ?

" can be
answered in the following way:

“Hydraulics is the transmission and control of

forces and motions through the medium of
fluids”.

Short and simple.

Hydraulic systems and equipment have wide-spread application throughout industry.
 For example:
- machine tool manufacturing
- press manufacturing
- plant construction
- vehicle manufacturing
- aircraft manufacturing
- shipbuilding
- injection molding machines

Prerequisites that hydraulics requires of the user and serviceman:

- knowledge of the basic physical laws of hydrostatics and

hydrodynamics
- knowledge of the symbols of hydraulic control elements
- knowledge of hydraulic circuit diagrams
- knowledge of the maintenance of a hydraulic system
Fluid power systems can be divided into two major groups: open loop and closed loop.
Note that the terms system and circuits are used interchangeably.
In a closed-loop system, a feedback mechanism continually monitors system output,
generating a signal proportional to this output and comparing it to an input or
command signal. If the two match, there is no adjustment and the system
continues to operate as programmed.
If there is a difference between the input command signal and the feedback signal,
the output is adjusted automatically to match command requirements.

There is no feedback mechanism in an open-loop system.

The performance characteristics of the circuit are determined entirely by the

characteristics of the individual components and their interaction in the circuit. A
typical open-loop circuit is illustrated in Fig. 1. Most industrial circuits fall in this
category.
Hydraulics and electrics are analogous, because they both deal with flow, pressure and
load. The components in each type of circuit perform similar functions and therefore
can be related, a few examples are listed below:
Various forms of energy are converted to accomplish mechanical movement in the injection molding
machine. Electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy, which in turn is converted to hydraulic
energy to operate and control the moving components of the machine.

The hydraulic energy is converted to mechanical energy to achieve the final desired result, which may be
"mold clamping pressure" or "material injection". The figure above summarizes the energy conversions
for an injection molding machine. Click on the thumbnail for a larger view
Pascal's Law
Pascal's Law states that a
pressure acting on a
confined fluid is
transmitted equally and
undiminished in all
directions. In the figure
below, a 10 pound force
acting on a 1 square inch
area generates a
pressure of 10 pounds
per square inch (psi)
throughout the container
acting equally on all
surfaces.
This principle is important to
remember, that the pressure in any
portion of an hydraulic system is
equal throughout that system.

This statement is valid with the

omission of the force of gravity,
which would have to be added,
according to the fluid level.

Due to the pressures that hydraulic

systems operate at, this smaller
amount need not be considered e.g.
a 32 foot head of water pproximately
equals 14.5 psi. (a 10 meter head of
water approximately equals 1 bar.)`
Area and Force
As the clamp piston is moved forward during the clamp close
function, the pressure developed acts upon the clamping piston
which has a certain size or area.

A basic formula in hydraulics states that pressure

multiplied by area to which that pressure is applied
equals force. i.e. pressure x area = force
pxA=F
The formula can be manipulated to calculate any
one of the three variables p, A or F, if any of the
other two variables are known.
As follows:
pxA=F
F/p=A
F/A=p
 
Pressure
Hydraulic pressure is generated when a flowing fluid meets resistance which is generally related
to the load that is being moved.

A force is applied via the lever to produce

system pressure (p = F/A or F = p x A).
If more force is applied, the system pressure
rises until the load moves, if the load remains
constant the pressure will increase no further.
The load can therefore be moved if the
necessary pressure is generated. The speed at
which the load moves will be dependent upon
the volume of fluid which is fed to the load
cylinder
Pressure Control
In order to safeguard the
system, pressure relief valves
are installed. The valves serve
to limit the amount of
pressure that can develop in
the hydraulic system since the
various hydraulic components
are expensive and they are
subject to pressure limitations
before failure occurs. Pressure
would continue to rise in the
circuit consistent with the load
being moved.
The pressure relief valve is
always set to allow flow to
travel through the relief valve
well before pressure rises
above safe levels and causes
damage to the system and its
components
Pressure Override
An extremely important concept to understand about pressure relief valves is their pressure override
characteristics. Pressure override is the difference between the pressure at which the relief valve just
starts to crack open and the pressure at the full open position. For direct acting pressure relief valves this
pressure differential can be as high as 30% and proportional pressure relief valves range from
10% - 20%.
Pressure Intensification
Another important concept to keep in mind is that of pressure intensification. This law
of hydraulics is often forgotten when troubleshooting hydraulic circuits.

Let’s Say, if two pistons of different size are connected by a rod, the pressure existing on the smaller area will
always be greater. This principle also applies to the cap side and the rod side of a normal double acting piston.

If P1 = 1,000 psi and A1 = 10 square inches, then F1 = 10,000 pounds of force.

If F1 = 10,000 pounds of force and if A2 = 5 square inches, then P2 = 2,000 psi.
Speed in Hydraulics
The speed of a hydraulic component can be calculated based on the formula below:
As well as understanding the concept of speed in hydraulics, it is also important to have some
insight into flow characteristics. For example, the drawing below shows that when oil is
flowing through different diameter pipes an equal volume flows in an equal unit of time. If
that is true and if the shaded quantity Q1 equals
the shaded quantity Q2, then velocity V2 must be greater than velocity V1.

As the diameter of the pipe decreases, the flow rate will increase. Specifically, if the pipe
diameter decreases by one half in the direction of oil flow, the cross sectional area will
decrease by four times, and visa versa. Oil flow velocity through different pipe sizes can be
calculated using the formula:

The same gallons per minute will have to travel 4 times faster through
the smaller pipe.
Another important concept in hydrodynamics is how fluids flow based on certain critical flow speeds
or as the result of meeting restrictions to flow such as bends in the pipe or system components.

One goal in the initial design of hydraulic power transmission systems is to encourage laminar flow
as much as possible since an increase in turbulence will increase flow resistance and hydraulic
losses as well. The diagram below illustrates the concept of turbulent flow.

 
Although turbulent flow is wasteful in most hydraulic applications, it is desirable to have turbulence
in the oil flow as it travels through the heat exchanger for cooling purposes. If turbulence exists as
the oil flows through the heat exchanger, more of the oil molecules come into contact with the heat
exchanger cooling tubes and more efficient cooling is the result.
One of the main advantages of hydraulic based systems is that the oil flow direction is easily
controlled. The drawing below shows a piston being extended, held stationary and then retracted,
simply by changing the position of a directional valve. Even though the drawing is simple in nature,
it still demonstrates the principle involved in directional control. In addition to simple directional
control valves, we also employ proportional directional control valves on some machines to control
the clamp opening and closing function.