Chapter 02
Chapter 02
Chapter 02
Laplace Transforms
Exercises 2.2.6
1 1 1 1 s
1(a) L{cosh 2t} = L{ (e2t + e−2t ) = + = 2 , Re(s) > 2
2 2 s−2 s+2 s −4
2
1(b) L{t2 } = , Re(s) > 0
s3
3 1 3s + 1
1(c) L{3 + t} = + 2 = , Re(s) > 0
s s s2
1
1(d) L{te−t } = , Re(s) > −1
(s + 1)2
5 3 5s − 3
3(a) L{5 − 3t} = − 2 = , Re(s) > 0
s s s2
6 3 42 6
3(b) L{7t3 − 2 sin 3t} = 7. 4
− 2. 2 = 4 − 2 , Re(s) > 0
s s +9 s s +9
3 2 s 3s − 2 4s
3(c) L{3 − 2t + 4 cos 2t} = − 2 + 4. 2 = 2
+ 2 , Re(s) > 0
s s s +4 s s +4
s
3(d) L{cosh 3t} = , Re(s) > 3
s2 − 9
2
3(e) L{sinh 2t} = , Re(s) > 2
s2 −4
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5 3 s
3(f ) L{5e−2t + 3 − 2 cos 2t} = + − 2. 2 , Re(s) > 0
s+2 s s +4
4
3(g) L{4te−2t } = , Re(s) > −2
(s + 2)2
4 4
3(h) L{2e−3t sin 2t} = = , Re(s) > −3
(s + 3)2 + 4 s2 + 6s + 13
2
3(i) L{t2 e−4t } = , Re(s) > −4
(s + 4)3
3(j)
36 6 4 2
L{6t3 − 3t2 + 4t − 2} = 4
− 3+ 2−
s s s s
36 − 6s + 4s2 − 2s3
= , Re(s) > 0
s4
s 3 2s + 15
3(k) L{2 cos 3t + 5 sin 3t} = 2. + 5. 2 = 2 , Re(s) > 0
s2 +9 s +9 s +9
3(l)
s
L{cos 2t} =
s2
+4
d s s2 − 4
L{t cos 2t} = − =
ds s2 + 4 (s2 + 4)2
3(m)
d 3 6s
L{t sin 3t} = − 2
= 2
ds s + 9 (s + 9)2
d 6s (s2 + 9)2 6 − 6s(s2 + 9)2 4s
L{t2 sin 3t} = − = −
ds (s2 + 9)2 (s2 + 9)4
18s2 − 54
= 2 , Re(s) > 0
(s + 9)3
2 3s
3(n) L{t2 − 3 cos 4t} = 3
− 2 , Re(s) > 0
s s + 16
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3(o)
2 (s + 1) 3
L{t2 e−2t − e−t cos 2t + 3} = 3
+ 2
+
(s + 2) (s + 1) + 4 s
2 s+1 3
= 3
+ 2 + , Re(s) > 0
(s + 2) s + 2s + 5 s
Exercises 2.2.10
1 14 1
1
4(a) L−1 = L−1 − 4 = [e−3t − e−7t ]
(s + 3)(s + 7) s+3 s+7 4
s+5 −1 2
4(b) L−1 = L−1 + = −e−t + 2e3t
(s + 1)(s − 3) s+1 s−3
s−1 4
−1 9
1
3
4
9 4 1 4
4(c) L−1 2
= L − 2
− = − t − e−3t
s (s + 3) s s s+3 9 3 9
2s + 6 s 2
4(d) L−1 2
= L−1 2. 2 2
+ 3. 2 = 2 cos 2t + 3 sin 2t
s +4 s +2 s + 22
4(e)
1 1
−1 1 −1 0 16 16
L = L + −
s2 (s2 + 16) s s2 s2 + 16
1 1 1
= t− sin 4t = [4t − sin 4t]
16 64 64
s+8
−1 (s + 2) + 6
4(f ) L−1 = L = e−2t [cos t + 6 sin t]
s2 + 4s + 5 (s + 2)2 + 1
4(g)
s+1 1 − 18 s + 12
L−1 = L −1 8
+
s2 (s2 + 4s + 8) s (s + 2)2 + 22
1 1 1 (s + 2) − 3(2)
= L−1 . −
8 s 8 (s + 2)2 + 22
1
= [1 − e−2t cos 2t + 3e−2t sin 2t]
8
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4(h)
4s 1 1 2
L−1 = L −1
− +
(s − 1)(s + 1)2 s − 1 (s + 1) (s + 1)2
= et − e−t + 2tet
s+7
−1 (s + 1) + 3(2)
4(i) L−1 = L = e−t [cos 2t + 3 sin 2t]
s2 + 2s + 5 (s + 1)2 + 22
4(j)
−1
s2 − 7s + 5 −1
12 3 1
L =L − + 2
(s − 1)(s − 2)(s − 3) s−1 s−2 s−3
1 11
= et − 3e2t + e3t
2 2
4(k)
5s − 7 −2 2s − 1
L−1 = L−1
+
(s + 3)(s2 + 2) s + 3 s2 + 2
√ 1 √
= −2e−3t + 2 cos 2t − √ sin 2t
2
4(l)
−1
s −1
15 1 s−2
L = L −
(s − 1)(s2 + 2s + 2) s − 1 5 s2 + 2s + 2
15 1 (s + 1) − 3
= L−1 −
s − 1 5 (s + 1)2 + 1
1 1
= et − e−t (cos t − 3 sin t)
5 5
s−1 (s + 1) − 2
4(m) L−1 = L−1
= e−t (cos 2t − sin 2t)
s2 + 2s + 5 (s + 1)2 + 22
4(n)
s−1 12 2 3
L−1 = L−1 − + 2
(s − 2)(s − 3)(s − 4) s−2 s−3 s−4
1 3
= e2t − 2e3t + e−4t
2 2
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4(o)
3s 3s
L−1 = L−1
(s − 1)(s2 − 4) (s − 1)(s − 2)(s + 2)
−1 3 1
= L−1 + 2 − 2
s−1 s−2 s+2
3 1
= −et + e2t − e−2t
2 2
4(p)
9 1
36 −1 4 2s 2s
L−1 2 2
= L − 2
+ 2
s(s + 1)(s + 9) s s +1 s +9
9 1
= 4 − cos t + cos 3t
2 2
4(q)
2s2 + 4s + 9 9 7s + 9
L−1 2
= L−1 − 3 2
(s + 2)(s + 3s + 3) s + 2 (s + 2 ) + 3/4
√ √
−1
9 7(s + 32 ) − 3. 3/2
=L − √
s+2 (s + 32 )2 + ( 3/2)2
√ √
3 3 √ 3
= 9e−2t − e− 2 t 7 cos e2t − 3 sin t
2 2
4(r)
1 19 1 1 1
90 s + 9
L−1 2
= L −1
− 10
− 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 2s + 10) s + 1 s + 2 s + 2s + 10
1 1
−1 9 10 1 s + 10
=L − −
s + 1 s + 2 90 (s + 1)2 + 32
1 1
−1 9 10 1 (s + 1) + 3(3)
=L − −
s + 1 s + 2 90 (s + 1)2 + 32
1 1 1
= e−t − e−2t − e−t (cos 3t + 3 sin 3t)
9 10 90
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Exercises 2.3.5
5(a)
1 2s + 5
(s + 3)X(s) = 2 + =
s+2 s+2
2s + 5 1 1
X(s) = = +
(s + 2)(s + 3) s+2 s+3
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e−2t + e−3t
5(b)
2 s2 + 6
(3s − 4)X(s) = 1 + =
s2 + 4 s2 + 4
35 3 4
s2 + 6 26 26 s + 26
X(s) = = −
(3s − 4)(s2 + 4) 3s − 4 s2 + 4
35 4 t 3 2
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e 3 − (cos 2t + sin 2t)
78 26 3
5(c)
1
(s2 + 2s + 5)X(s) =
s
1
1 5 1 s+2
X(s) = = − ·
s(s2 + 2s + 5) s 5 s2 + 2s + 5
1
1 (s + 1) + 12 (2)
= 5 −
s 5 (s + 1)2 + 22
1 1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = (1 − e−t cos 2t − e−t sin 2t)
5 2
5(d)
4s 2s2 + 4s + 8
(s2 + 2s + 1)X(s) = 2 + =
s2 + 4 s2 + 4
2s2 + 4s + 8
X(s) =
(s + 1)2 (s2 + 4)
12 6
25 5 1 12s − 32
= + −
(s + 1) (s + 1)2 25 s2 + 4
12 −t 6 −t 12 16
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e + te − cos 2t + sin 2t
25 5 25 25
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5(e)
2 s+6
(s2 − 3s + 2)X(s) = 1 + =
s+4 s+4
1 7 4
s+6
X(s) = = 15 − 5 + 3
(s + 4)(s − 1)(s − 2) s+4 s−1 s−2
1 −4t 7 t 4 2t
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e − e + e
15 5 3
5(f )
3
(s2 + 4s + 5)X(s) = (4s − 7) + 16 +
s+2
4s2 + 17s + 21 3 (s + 2) + 1
X(s) = 2
= +
(s + 2)(s + 4s + 5) s + 2 (s + 2)2 + 1
5(g)
5(2)
(s2 + s − 2)X(s) = s + 1 +
(s + 1)2 + 4
s3 + 3s2 + 7s + 15
X(s) =
(s + 2)(s − 1)(s2 + 2s + 5)
− 13 13
12
1 5
4s − 4
= + +
s + 2 s − 1 s2 + 2s + 5
− 13 13
12 1 (s + 1) − 3(2)
= + +
s + 2 s − 1 4 (s + 1)2 + 22
1 13 1 3
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = − e−2t + et + e−t cos 2t − e−t sin 2t
3 12 4 4
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5(h)
3
(s2 + 2s + 3)Y (s) = 1 +
s2
s2 + 3 − 23 1 2 4
3s + 3
Y (s) = 2 2 = + 2+ 2
s (s + 2s + 3) s s s + 2s + 3
1
√
− 23 1 2 (s + 1) − √2 ( 2)
= + 2+ √
s s 3 (s + 1)2 + ( 2)2
2 2 √ 1 √
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = − + t + e−t (cos 2t + √ sin 2t)
3 3 2
5(i)
1 2 1
(s2 + 4s + 4)X(s) = s+2+ 3 +
2 s s+2
s5 + 6s4 + 10s3 + 4s + 8
X(s) =
2s3 (s + 2)3
3 1 1 1 3
8 2 2 8 4 1
= − + + + +
s s2 s3 s+2 (s + 2)2 (s + 2)3
3 1 1 1 3 1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = − t + t2 + e−2t + te−2t + t2 e−2t
8 2 4 8 4 2
5(j)
1
(9s2 + 12s + 5)X(s) =
s
1 1 4
1 5 5 s + 15
X(s) = = −
9s(s2 + 43 s + 59 ) s (s + 23 )2 + 1
9
1
5 1 [(s + 23 ) + 23 ]
= −
s 5 (s + 23 )2 + ( 13 )2
1 1 −2t 1 1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = − e 3 (cos t + 2 sin t)
5 5 3 3
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5(k)
5(l)
1
(9s2 + 12s + 4)Y (s) = 9(s + 1) + 12 +
s+1
9s2 + 30s + 22
Y (s) =
(3s + 2)2 (s + 1)
1 0 18
= + +
s + 1 3s + 2 (3s + 2)2
2
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = e−t + 2te− 3 t
5(m)
2 1
(s3 − 2s2 − s + 2)X(s) = s − 2 + + 2
s s
s − 2s2 + 2s + 1
3
X(s) = 2
s (s − 1)(s − 2)(s + 1)
5 1 5 2
4 21 12
= + − + − 3
s s2
s−1 s−2 s+1
5 1 5 2
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = + t − et + e2t − e−t
4 2 12 3
5(n)
s
(s3 + s2 + s + 1) = (s + 1) + 1 +
+9s2
3 2 9
s + 2s + 10s + 18 20 1 7s − 25 1 s+9
X(s) = 2 = − −
(s + 9)(s + 1)(s2 + 1) s + 1 16 s2 + 1 80 s2 + 9
9 −t 7 25 1 3
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e − cos t + sin t − cos 3t − sin 3t
20 16 16 80 80
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6(a)
1 1
2sX(s) − (2s + 9)Y (s) = − +
2 s+2
(2s + 4)X(s) + (4s − 37)Y (s) = 1
Eliminating X(s)
1 1
[−(2s + 9)(2s + 4) − 2s(4s − 37)]Y (s) = (− + )(2s + 4) − 2s = −3s
2 s+2
3s 1 s
Y (s) = = ·
12s2 − 48s + 36 4 (s − 3)(s − 1)
3 1
1 2
= − 2
4 s−3 s−1
1 3 3t 1 t 3 3t 1 t
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = e − e = e − e
4 2 2 8 8
dx
Eliminating from the two equations
dt
dy
6 + 4x − 28y = −e−2t
dt
1 dy 1 −2t 21 3t 7 t 27 3t 3 t
x(t) = −e−2t + 28y − 6 = −e + e − e − e + e
4 dt 4 4 2 3 4
1 15 3t 11 t 1
i.e. x(t) = e − e − e−2t , y(t) = (3e3t − et )
4 4 4 8
6(b)
5
(s + 1)X(s) + (2s − 1)Y (s) =
+1 s2
1
(2s + 1)X(s) + (3s − 1)Y (s) =
s−1
Eliminating X(s)
5 s+1
[(2s − 1)(2s + 1) − (3s − 1)(s + 1)]Y (s) = (2s + 1) −
+1 s2 s−1
10s + 5 s+1
Y (s) = 2
−
s(s + 1)(s − 2) s(s − 1)(s − 2)
− 52 5
5 12 2 3
= + 2 − 2 − − + 2
s s−2 s +1 s s−1 s−2
5 5 1 3
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = − + e2t − 5 sin t − + 2et − e2t
2 2 2 2
2t
= −3 + e + 2e − 5 sin t
t
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dx
Eliminating dt from the original equations
dy
+ x − y = 10 sin t − et
dt
x(t) = 10 sin t − et − 3 + e2t + 2et − 5 sin t − 2e2t − 2et + 5 cos t
6(c)
1 3s + 10
(s + 2)X(s) + (s + 1)Y (s) = 3 + =
s+3 s+3
5 4s + 13
5X(s) + (s + 3)Y (s) = 4 + =
s+2 s+2
Eliminating X(s)
3 27 21 3
5x = 5e−2t + e−3t − cos t + sin t − e−3t
2 2 2 2
9 7
+ sin t + cos t
2 2
x(t) = 3 sin t − 2 cos t + e−2t
6(d)
1 6s − 5
(3s − 2)X(s) + 3sY (s) = 6 + =
s−1 s−1
1 3s + 1
sX(s) + (2s − 1)Y (s) = 3 + =
s s
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Eliminating X(s)
dx
Eliminating from the original equations
dt
1 3 9 t 3 3 t
x(t) = 3 − et − 3 + et + e 3 − et − e 3
2 2 2 2 2
3 t 1
= e 3 − et
2 2
6(e)
3 5s −s2 + 5s + 2
(3s − 2)X(s) + sY (s) = −1 + + =
s2 + 1 s2 + 1 s2 + 1
1 s −s2 + s
2sX(s) + (s + 1)Y (s) = −1 + + =
s2 + 1 s2 + 1 s2 + 1
Eliminating Y (s)
1
[(3s − 2)(s + 1) − 2s2 ]X(s) = [(−s2 + 5s + 2)(s + 1) − (−s2 + s)s]
s2 +1
3s2 + 7s + 2 3s + 1
X(s) = 2
=
(s + 2)(s − 1)(s + 1) (s − 1)(s2 + 1)
2 2s − 1
= − 2
s−1 s +1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = 2et − 2 cos t + sin t
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dy
Eliminating from the original equation
dt
dx
y(t) = −2 sin t − 4 cos t − 2x +
dt
= −2 sin t − 4 cos t − 4et + 4 cos t − 2 sin t + 2et + 2 sin t + cos t
i.e. y(t) = −2et − 2 sin t + cos t, x(t) = 2et − 2 cos t + sin t
6(f )
1 s2 + 1
sX(s) + (s + 1)Y (s) = 1 + =
s2 s2
1 s+1
(s + 1)X(s) + 4sY (s) = 1 + =
s s
Eliminating Y (s)
s2 + 1 (s + 1)2 3s2 − 2s + 3
[4s2 − (s + 1)2 ]X(s) = 4s − =
s2 s s
2
3s − 2s + 3 −3 1 9
X(s) = = − +
s(s − 1)(3s + 1) s s − 1 3s + 1
t
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = −3 + et + 3e− 3
dy
Eliminating from the original equation
dt
1 dx
y= 4t − 1 + x + 3
4 dt
1 t t
= 4t − 1 − 3 + et + 3e− 3 − 3et + 3e− 3
4
1 3 t t
i.e. y(t) = t − 1 − et + e− 3 , x(t) = −3 + et + 3e− 3
2 2
6(g)
12 7 14 + 7s
(2s + 7)X(s) + 3sY (s) = + =
s2 s s2
14 14 14 − 14s
(5s + 4)X(s) − (3s − 6)Y (s) = 2 − =
s s s2
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Eliminating Y (s)
1
[(2s + 7)(3s − 6) + (5s + 4)(3s)]X(s) = [(3s − 6)(14 + 7s) + 3s(14 − 14s)]
s2
21
21(s2 + s − 2)X(s) = 21(s + 2)(s − 1)X(s) = 2 (−s2 + 2s − 4)
s
2
−s + 2s − 4
X(s) = 2
s (s + 2)(s − 1)
−1 1 0 2
= + + + 2
s−1 s+2 s s
x(t) = L {X(s)} = −et + e−2t + 2t
−1
dy
Eliminating from the original equations
dt
dx
6y = 28t − 7 − 11x − 7
dt
= 28t − 7 + 7e + 14e−2t − 14 + 11et − 11e−2t − 22t
t
7 1
giving y(t) = t − + 3et + e−2t , x(t) = −et + e−2t + 2t.
2 2
6(h)
(s2 + 2)X(s) − Y (s) = 4s
−X(s) + (s2 + 2)Y (s) = 2s
Eliminating Y (s)
d2 x √ √
y(t) = 2x + 2
= 6 cos t + 2 cos 3t − 3 cos t − 3 cos 3t
dt √ √
i.e. y(t) = 3 cos t − cos 3t, x(t) = 3 cos t − cos 3t
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6(i)
35 83
(5s2 + 6)X(s) + 12s2 Y = s + 12 = s
4 4
2 2
35 99
5s X(s) + (16s + 6)Y (s) = s + 16 = s
4 4
Eliminating X(s)
s
[60s4 − (5s2 + 6)(16s2 + 6)]Y (s) =
[83(5s2 ) − 99(5s2 + 6)]
4
s
4
[−20s − 126s − 36]Y (s) = [−80s2 − 594]
2
4
s(40s2 + 297)
Y (s) =
4(s2 + 6)(10s2 + 3)
− 14 s 25
2 s
= 2 +
s + 6 10s2 + 3
1 √ 5 3
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = − cos 6t + cos t
4 4 10
d2 x
Eliminating from the original equations
dt2
d2 y 15 3 3 3 √
3x = 3y + 3 2 = − cos t + − + 3 cos 6t
dt 4 4 10 4
3 3 √ 5 3 1 √
i.e. x(t) = cos t + cos 6t, x(t) = cos t − cos 6t.
10 4 4 10 4
6(j)
(2s2 − s + 9)X(s) − (s2 + s + 3)Y (s) = 2(s + 1) − 1 = 2s + 1
(2s2 + s + 7)X(s) − (s2 − s + 5)Y (s) = 2(s + 1) + 1 = 2s + 3
Subtract
1
(−2s + 2)X(s) − (2s − 2)Y (s) = −2 ⇒ X(s) + Y (s) =
s−1
⇒ x(t) + y(t) = et (i)
Add
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1 t 2 1 2 2 1
x(t) = e + cos 2t + sin 2t, y(t) = et − cos 2t − sin 2t
3 3 3 3 3 3
Exercises 2.4.3
1 di1 di2
i1 dt + 2 − = E. sin 100t
5.105 dt dt
2.104 100
I1 (s) + 2s[I1 (s) − I2 (s)] = E. 2
s s + 104
50s
(104 + s2 )I1 (s) − s2 I2 (s) = E. 2 (i)
s + 104
di1 di2
100i2 (t) − 2 − =0
dt dt
Substituting in (i)
50s2
(104 + s2 )(50 + s)I2 (s) − s2 I2 (s) = E.
s2 + 104
2 4 Es2
(s + 200s + 10 )I2 (s) = 2
s + 104
s2
I2 (s) = E 2
(s + 104 )(s + 100)2
s(50 + s)
then from (ii) I1 (s) = E 2
(s + 104 )(s + 100)2
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1
− 200 1 1
2 200 s
I2 (s) = E + +
s + 100 (s + 100)2 s2 + 104
1 −100t 1 −100t 1
i2 (t) = L−1 {I2 (s)} = E − e + te + cos 100t
200 2 200
10
(s + 2)I1 (s) + sI2 (s) =
s2 +1
sI1 (s) + 2(s + 1)I2 (s) = 0
Eliminating I1 (s)
10s
[s2 − 2(s + 1)(s + 2)]I2 (s) =
s2 + 1
10s 10s
I2 (s) = − =− 2
(s2 2
+ 1)(s + 7s + 6) (s + 1)(s + 6)(s + 1)
12 25
−1 s + 35
=− + 37 + 37 2 37
s+1 s+6 s +1
12 −6t 25 35
i2 (t) = L−1 {I2 (s)} = e−t − e − cos t − sin t
37 37 37
9 Applying Kirchhoff’s law to the left and right hand loops gives
d
(i1 + i2 ) + (i1 + i2 ) + 1 i1 dt = E0 = 10
dt
di2
i2 + − 1 i1 dt = 0
dt
c Pearson Education Limited 2004
94 Glyn James: Advanced Modern Engineering Mathematics, Third edition
1 10
(s + 1)I1 (s) + (s + 1)I2 (s) + I1 (s) =
s s
1
(s + 1)I2 (s) − I1 (s) = 0 ⇒ I1 (s) = s(s + 1)I2 (s) (i)
s
10
s(s + 1)2 I2 (s) + (s + 1)I2 (s) + (s + 1)I2 (s) =
s
10
(s2 + s + 2)I2 (s) =
s(s + 1)
10
I2 (s) =
s(s + 1)(s2 + s + 2)
10 10
I1 (s) = = 1 7
s2
+s+2 (s + 2 )2 + 4
√
20 1 7
i1 (t) = L−1 {I1 (s)} = √ e− 2 t sin t
7 2
giving
ẍ1 + 4x1 − 3x2 = 0, x1 (0) = −1, x2 (0) = 2
ẍ2 + 12x2 − 3x1 = 0
Eliminating X2 (s)
1 √ √ 1 √ √
Thus x1 (t) = − (3 cos 3t + 7 cos 13t), x2 (t) = [21 cos 13t − cos 3t]
10 √ √ 10
Natural frequencies are 13 and 3.
The problem is then an investigative one where students are required to investigate
for different h values either analytically or by simulation.
Eliminating X1 (s)
(M1 s + B1 s + K2 ) B1 s
x1 (t) = L−1 {X1 (s)} = L−1 U1 (s) + U2 (s)
∆ ∆
Exercises 2.5.7
13
f (t) = tH(t) − tH(t − 1)
= tH(t) − (t − 1)H(t − 1) − 1H(t − 1)
Thus, using theorem 2.4
1 −s 1 −s 1 −s 1 −s
L{f (t)} = − e − e = (1 − e ) − e
s2 s2 s2 s
14(a)
Thus
6
L{f (t)} = − e−4s L[3t2 + 22t + 43] − e−6s L[2t + 4]
s3
6 6 22 43 −4s 2 4
= 3− 3+ 2 + e − 2 + e−6s
s s s 5 s s
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14(b)
f (t) = tH(t) + (2 − 2t)H(t − 1) − (2 − t)H(t − 2)
= tH(t) − 2(t − 1)H(t − 1) − (t − 2)H(t − 2)
Thus
1
L{f (t)} = 2
− 2e−s L{t} + e−2s L{t}
s
1
= 2 [1 − 2e−s + e−2s ]
s
e−5s 1
15(a) L−1 4
= L−1 {e−5s F (s)} where F (s) = and by the first
(s − 2) (s − 2)4
1
shift theorem f (t) = L−1 {F (s)} = t3 e2t .
6
Thus by the second shift theorem
e−5s
L−1 = f (t − 5)H(t − 5)
(s − 2)4
1
= (t − 5)3 e2(t−5) H(t − 5)
6
3e−2s
15(b) L−1 = L−1 {e−2s F (s)} where
(s + 3)(s + 1)
3 − 23 3
F (s) = = + 2
(s + 3)(s + 1) s+3 s+1
3 3
f (t) = L−1 {F (s)} = e−t − e−3t
2 2
3e−2s
so L−1 = f (t − 2)H(t − 2)
(s + 3)(s + 1)
3
= [e−(t−2) − e−3(t−2) ]H(t − 2)
2
s+1
15(c) L−1 e−s
= L−1 {e−s F (s)} where
s2 (s2 + 1)
s+1 1 1 s+1
F (s) = = + 2− 2
s2 (s2
+ 1) s s s +1
f (t) = L−1 {F (s)} = 1 + t − cos t − sin t
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so
s+1
L−1 e−s = f (t − 1)H(t − 1)
s2 (s2 + 1)
= [1 + (t − 1) − cos(t − 1) − sin(t − 1)]H(t − 1)
= [t − cos(t − 1) − sin(t − 1)]H(t − 1)
s+1
15(d) L−1 e−πs
= L−1 {e−πs F (s)} where
s2 + s + 1
√
s+1 (s + 12 ) + √1 ( 3 )
3 2
F (s) = = √
(s2
+ s + 1) (s + 1 2
) + ( 3 2
2 2 )
√ √
1 3 1 3
f (t) = e− 2 t cos t + √ sin t
2 3 2
so
√ √
s+1 1 −
1
(t−π)
√ 3 3
L−1 e−πs
= √ e 2 3 cos (t − π) + sin (t − π) .H(t − π)
s2 + s + 1 3 2 2
s
15(e) L−1 e−4πs/5
= L−1 {e−4πs/5 F (s)} where
s2 + 25
s
F (s) = ⇒ f (t) = L−1 {F (s)} = cos 5t
s2 + 25
so
s 4π 4π
L−1 e−4πs/5 = f t − H t−
s2 + 25 5 5
4π
= cos(5t − 4π)H t −
5
4π
= cos 5t H t −
5
e−s (1 − e−s )
15(f ) L−1 = L−1 {(e−s − e−2s )F (s)} where
s2 (s2 + 1)
1 1 1
F (s) = = − 2
s2 (s2 + 1) s2 s +1
−1
f (t) = L {F (s)} = t − sin t
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so
L−1 {(e−s − e−2s )F (s)} =f (t − 1)H(t − 1) − f (t − 2)H(t − 2)
=[(t − 1) − sin(t − 1)]H(t − 1)
− [(t − 2) − sin(t − 2)]H(t − 2)
dx 1
16 + x = f (t), L{f (t)} = 2 (1 − e−s − se−s )
dt s
Taking Laplace transforms with x(0) = 0
1 (1 + s)
(s + 1)X(s) = 2
− e−s
s s2
1 1
X(s) = 2 − e−s 2
s (s + 1) s
1 1 1
=− + 2 + − e−s L{t}
s s s+1
Sketch of response is
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d2 x dx
17 + + x = g(t), x(0) = 1, ẋ(0) = 0
dt2 dt
1
with L{g(t)} = (1 − 2e−s + e−2s )
s2
Taking Laplace transforms
1
(s2 + s + 1)X(s) = s + 1 + (1 − 2e−s + e−2s )
s2
s+1 1
X(s) = + 2 2 (1 − 2e−s + e−2s )
(s2
+ s + 1) s (s + s + 1)
(s + 1) 1 1 s
= 2 + − + 2+ 2 [1 − 2e−s + e−2s ]
(s + s + 1) s s s +s+1
√ √
(s + 12 ) + √13 ( 23 ) 1 1 (s + 1
2 ) − √1 ( 3 )
3 2
= √ + − + 2+ √ [1 − 2e−s + e−2s ]
3 s s 3
(s + 12 )2 + ( )2 (s + 12 )2 + ( )2
2 2
√ √
1 3 1 3
−1 −2t
x(t) = L {X(s)} = e cos t + √ sin t
2 3 2
√ √
1 3 1 3
+ t − 1 + e− 2 t cos t − √ sin t
2 3 2
√
1
− 2 (t−1)
3
− 2H(t − 1) t − 2 + e cos (t − 1)
2
√
1 3
− √ sin (t − 1)
3 2
√
1
− 2 (t−2)
3
+ H(t − 2) t − 3 + e cos (t − 2)
2
√
1 3
− √ sin (t − 2)
3 2
i.e.
1 √
x(t) = 2e− 2 t cos 3
+t−1
2 t
√ √
1
− 2 (t−1)
3 1 3
− 2H(t − 1) t − 2 + e cos (t − 1) − √ sin (t − 1)
2 3 2
√ √
1
− 2 (t−2)
3 1 3
+ H(t − 2) t − 3 + e cos (t − 2) − √ sin (t − 2)
2 3 2
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18
π π π
f (t) = sin tH t − = cos t − H t−
2 2 2
π
since cos t − = sin t.
2
Taking Laplace transforms with x(0) = 1, ẋ(0) = −1
π π
(s2 + 3s + 2)X(s) = s + 2 + L cos t − H t−
2 2
π
= s + 2 + e− 2 s L{cos t}
π s
= s + 2 + e− 2 s · 2
s +1
1 π s
X(s) = + e− 2 s
s+1 (s + 1)(s + 2)(s2 + 1)
1 π −1 2
1 s+3
= + e− 2 s 2
+ 5 + · 2
s+1 s + 1 s + 2 10 s + 1
1 π 1 2 1
= + e− 2 s L − e−t + e−2t + (cos t + 3 sin t)
s+1 2 5 10
1 π 2 π 1 π
so x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e−t + − e−(t− 2 ) + e−2(t− 2 ) + (cos t −
2 5 10 2
π π
+ 3 sin t − ) H t−
2 2
1 π π
= e−t + sin t − 3 cos t + 4eπ e−2t − 5e 2 e−t H t −
10 2
19
f (t) = 3H(t) − (8 − 2t)H(t − 4)
= 3H(t) + 2(t − 4)H(t − 4)
3 3 2
L{f (t)} = + 2e−4s L{t} = + 2 e−4s
s s s
Taking Laplace transforms with x(0) = 1, ẋ(0) = 0
3 2
(s2 + 1)X(s) = s + + 2 e−4s
s s
s 3 2
X(s) = 2 + 2
+ 2 2 e−4s
s + 1 s(s + 1) s (s + 1)
s 3 3 1 1 −4s
= 2 + − 2 +2 2 − 2 e
s +1 5 s +1 s s +1
3 2
= − 2 + 2e−4s L{t − sin t}
5 s +1
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20
θ̈0 + 6θ̇0 + 10θ0 = θi (1)
θi (t) = 3H(t) − 3H(t − a)
3 3 3
so L{θi } = − e−as = (1 − e−as )
s s s
Taking Laplace transforms in (1) with θ0 = θ̇0 = 0 at t = 0
3
(s2 + 6s + 10)Φ0 (s) = (1 − e−as )
s
1
Φ0 (s) = 3(1 − e−as )
s(s2 + 6s + 10)
3 1 (s + 3) + 3
= (1 − e−as ) −
10 s (s + 3)2 + 1
3
= (1 − e−as )L 1 − e−3t cos t − 3e−3t sin t
10
3
θ0 (t) = [1 − e−3t cos t − 3e−3t sin t]H(t)
10
3
− [1 − e−3(t−a) cos(t − a) − 3e−3(t−a) sin(t − a)]H(t − a)
10
3 −3T
θ0 (T ) = − [e cos T − e−3(T −a) cos(T − a)]
10
3
− [3e−3T sin T − 3e−3(T −a) sin(T − a)]
10
3 −3T
=− e {cos T + 3 sin T − e3a [cos(T − a) + 3 sin(T − a)]}
10
21
θi (t) = f (t) = (1 − t)H(t) − (1 − t)H(t − 1)
= (1 − t)H(t) + (t − 1)H(t − 1)
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so
1 1
L{θi (t)} = − 2 + e−s L{t}
s s
1 1 1 s−1 1
= − 2 + 2 e−s = 2
+ 2 e−s
s s s s s
Then taking Laplace transforms, using θ0 (0) = θ̇0 (0) = 0
s−1 1 −s
(s2 + 8s + 16)Φ0 (s) = + e
s2 s2
s−1 −s
1
Φ0 (s) = + e
s2 (s + 4)2 s2 (s + 4)2
1 3 2 3 10 e−s 3 2 1 2
= 2 − 2− − + + + +
s s s s + 4 (s + 4)2 32 s s2 s + 4 (s + 4)2
which on taking inverse transforms gives
1
θ0 (t) = L−1 {Φ0 (s)} = [3 − 2t − 3e−4t − 10te−4t ]
32
1
+ [−1 + 2(t − 1) + e−4(t−1) + 2(t − 1)e−4(t−1) ]H(t − 1)
32
1
= [3 − 2t − 3e−4t − 10te−4t ]
32
1
+ [2t − 3 + (2t − 1)e−4(t−1) ]H(t − 1)
32
22
1
Ri + idt = e
C
1 e0
RI(s) + I(s) = (e−st1 − e−st2 )
Cs s
e0 C
I(s) = (e−st1 − e−st2 )
RCs + 1
e0 /R −st1
= 1 (e − e−st2 )
s + RC
e0 /R −st1 e0 /R −st2
= 1 e − 1 e
s + RC s + RC
then
i(t) = L−1 {I(s)}
e0 −(t−t1 )/RC
= e H(t − t1 ) − e−(t−t2 )/RC H(t − t2 )
R
23
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1
L{f (t)} = F (s) = F1 (s)
1 − e−4s
1
= 2 (3 − 3e−2s − 6se−4s )
s (1 − e−4s )
24 Take
K
f1 (t) = t, 0<t<T
T
= 0, t>T
K Kt K K
then f1 (t) = tH(t) − H(t − T ) = tH(t) − (t − T )H(t − T ) − KH(t − T )
T T T T
K K K K K
L{f1 (t)} = F1 (s) = 2
− e−sT 2 − e−sT = 2
(1 − e−sT ) − e−sT
Ts Ts s Ts s
1 K K e−sT
L{f (t)} = F (s) = F 1 (s) = −
1 − e−sT T s2 s 1 − e−sT
Exercises 2.5.12
25(a)
2s2 + 1 10s + 11 9 19
=2− =2+ −
(s + 2)(s + 3) (s + 2)(s + 3) s+2 s+3
2
2s + 1
L−1 = 2δ(t) + 9e−2t − 19e−3t
(s + 2)(s + 3)
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25(b)
s2 − 1 5
2
=1− 2
s +4 s +4
s − 1
2
5
L−1 2 = δ(t) − sin 2t
s +4 2
25(c)
s2 + 2 2s + 3
2
=1− 2
s + 2s + 5 s + 2s + 5
2(s + 1) + 12 (2)
=1−
(s + 1)2 + s2
s2 + 2 1
L−1 2 = δ(t) − e−t 2 cos 2t + sin 2t
s + 2s + 5 2
2
26(a) (s2 + 7s + 12)X(s) = + e−2s
s
2 1 −2s
X(s) = + e
s(s + 4)(s + 3) (s + 4)(s + 3)
1 2 1 1
6 3 1 −2s
= − + 2 + − e
s s+3 s+4 s+3 s+4
1 2 −3t 1 −4t −3(t−2)
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = − e + e + e − e−4(t−2) H(t − 2)
6 3 2
26(b)
(s2 + 6s + 13)X(s) = e−2πs
1
X(s) = e−2πs
(s + 3)2 + 22
1
= e−2πs L e−3t sin 2t
2
1
so x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e−3(t−2π) sin 2(t − 2π).H(t − 2π)
2
1
= e6π e−3t sin 2t.H(t − 2π)
2
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26(c)
s+8 1 −3s
X(s) = + e
(s + 4)(s + 3) (s + 4)(s + 3)
5 4 1 1 −3s
= − + − e
s+3 s+4 s+3 s+4
27(a)
Generalised derivative is
where
6t, 0 ≤ t < 4
g (t) = 2, 4 ≤ t < 6
0, t≥6
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27(b)
1, 0 ≤ t < 1
f (t) = g (t) = −1, 1 ≤ t < 2
0, t≥2
27(c)
where
2, 0≤t<2
g (t) = −3, 2≤t<4
2t − 1, t≥4
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28
(s2 + 7s + 10)X(s) = 2 + (3s + 2)U (s)
1 5s + 6
= 2 + (3s + 2) =
s+2 s+2
5s + 6
X(s) =
(s + 2)2 (s + 5)
19 4 19
9 3 9
= − −
s+2 (s + 2)2 (s + 5)
∞
29 f (t) = δ(t − nT )
n=0
Thus
∞
∞
F (s) = L{f (t)} = L{δ(t − nT )} = e−snT
n=0 n=0
This is an infinite GP with first term 1 and common ratio e−sT and therefore
having sum (1 − e−sT )−1 . Hence
1
F (s) =
1 − e−sT
Assuming zero initial conditions and taking Laplace transforms the response of the
harmonic oscillator is given by
1
(s2 + w2 )X(s) = F (s) =
1 − e−sT
∞
−snT 1
X(s) = e
n=0
s2 + w2
1
= [1 + e−sT + e−2sT + . . .]L sin wt
w
1
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = [sin wt + H(t − T ). sin w(t − T ) + H(t − 2T ).
w
sin w(t − 2T ) + . . .]
1 ∞
or x(t) = H(t − nT ) sin w(t − nT ) .
w n=0
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29(a)
∞
π 1 nπ
T = ; x(t) = H t− sin(wt − nπ)
w w n=0 w
1 π 2π
= sin wt − sin wt. H t − + sin wt. H t − + ...
w w w
29(b)
∞
2π 1 2πn
T = ; x(t) = H t− sin(wt − 2πn)
w w n=0 w
1 2π 4π
= sin wt + sin wt.H t − + sin wt.H t − + ...
w w w
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d2 q dq 1
L 2 + R + q = e(t)
dt dt C
1
Ls2 + Rs + Q(s) = L{Eδ(t)} = E
C
E/L E/L
Q(s) = 1
= 2
s2 +R
Ls + LC (s + R 21
2L )
+ ( LC − 4L
R
2)
E/L R 1 R2
= , µ = , η = −
(s + µ)2 + η 2 2L LC 4L2
E −µt
Thus q(t) = e sin ηt
Lη
E −µt
and current i(t) = q̇(t) = e (η cos ηt − µ sin ηt)
Lη
Exercises 2.5.14
31
M 1
Load W (x) = H(x) + W δ x − − R1 δ(x) , where R1 = (M + W )
2 2
so the force function is
M M + W
W (x) = H(x) + W δ x − − δ(x)
2 2
M (M + W )
W (s) = + W e−s/2 −
s 2
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1 M W −s/2 M + W 1 y1 (0) y3 (0)
Y (s) = + e − + + 4
EI s5 s4 2 s4 s2 s
1 1 M 4 1 3 1 3
y(x) = x + W (x − ) · H x − − (M + W )x
EI 24 6 2 2 12
1
+ y1 (0)x + y3 (0)x3
6
for x > 2
1 1 M 4 1 3 1 1
y(x) = x + W x− − (M + W )x + y1 (0)x + y3 (0)x3
3
EI 24 6 2 12 6
1 1M 2 1
y2 (x) = x +W x− − (M + W )x + y3 (0)x
EI 2 2 2
1 M 3 W 3 1 3 1 3
0= + − M − W + y1 (0)
EI 24 24 12 2
1 1 2 1 2
y1 (0) = M + W
EI 24 16
1 2 4 3 3 2
so y(x) = M x + 8W (x − ) H x − − 4(M + W )x + (2M + 3W ) x
48EI 2 2
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32
w 1 1
y(x) = (x − x1 )4 H(x − x1 ) − (x − x2 )4 H(x − x2 )
EI 24 24
1 3
x2 x3
− (x2 − x1 )x + y2 (0) + y3 (0)
6 2 6
For x > x2
w 1 1 1 x2 x3
y(x) = (x − x1 )4 − (x − x2 )4 − (x2 − x1 )x3 + y2 (0) + y3 (0)
EI 24 24 6 2 6
w 1 1
y2 (x) = (x − x1 )2 − (x − x2 )2 − (x2 − x1 )x + y2 (0) + y3 (0)x
EI 24 2
w
y3 (x) = (x − x1 ) − (x − x2 ) − (x2 − x1 ) + y3 (0) ⇒ y3 (0) = 0
EI
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w 1 2 1
0= ( − 2x1 + x21 ) − (2 − 2x2 + x22 ) − x2 + x1 + y2 (0)
EI 2 2
w 2 2
⇒ y2 (0) = (x − x1 )
2EI 2
w
y(x) = (x − x1 )4 H(x − x1 ) − (x − x2 )4 H(x − x2 ) − 4(x2 − x1 )x3
24EI
+ 6(x22 − x21 )x2
w 4 4 4 w4
ymax = { − 4 + 6 } =
24EI 8EI
33
W 1 3 1 3 x2 x3
y(x) = − (x − b) H(x − b) − x + y2 (0) + y3 (0)
EI 6 6 2 6
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For x > b
W 1 1 x2 x3
y(x) = − (x − b)3 − x3 + y2 (0) + y3 (0)
EI 6 6 2 6
W
y2 (x) = − (x − b) − x + y2 (0) + y3 (0)x
EI
W
y3 (x) = − 1 − 1 + y3 (0) ⇒ y3 (0) = 0
EI
W Wb
0=− (−h) + y2 (0) ⇒ y2 (0) = −
EI EI
giving
W x3 (x − b)3 bx2
y(x) = − H(x − b) −
EI 6 6 2
W x2
− (3b − x), 0 < x ≤ b
= 6EI
2
− W b (3x − b), b < x ≤
6EI
Exercises 2.6.5
34(a) Assuming all the initial conditions are zero taking Laplace transforms
gives
X(s) 3s + 2
G(s) = = 2
U (s) s + 2s + 5
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s2 + 2s + 5 = 0
34(c) The transfer function poles are the roots of the characteristic equation
s2 + 2s + 5 = 0
which are s = −1 ± j . That is, the transfer function has single poles at s = −1 + j
and s = −1 − j .
The transfer function zeros are determined by equating the numerator polynomial
2
to zero; that is, a single zero at s = − .
3
s3 + 5s + 6
G(s) =
s3 + 5s2 + 17s + 13
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s3 + 5s2 + 17s + 13 = 0
s3 + 5s2 + 17s + 13 = 0
i.e. (s + 1)(s2 + 4s + 13) = 0
s = −1, s = −2 + j3, s = −2 − j3
s2 + 5s + 6 = 0
(s + 3)(s + 2) = 0
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√
2 2 1 3
36(d) Poles at (s + s + 1)(s + 1) = 0 ; i.e. s = −1 (repeated), s = − ± j .
2 2
Since all the poles are in the left hand half of the s-plane the system is stable.
√
1 39
36(e) Poles at (s + 5)(s2 − s + 10) = 0 ; i.e. s = −5, s = ± j .
2 2
Since both the complex poles are in the right hand half of the s-plane the system
is unstable.
37(a) s2 − 4s + 13 = 0 ⇒ s = 2 ± j3 .
Thus the poles are in the right hand half s-plane and the system is unstable.
37(b)
5s3 + 13s2 + 31s + 15 = 0
a3 a2 a1 a0
Routh–Hurwitz (R-H) determinants are:
13 5
∆1 = 13 > 0, ∆2 = > 0, ∆3 = 15∆2 > 0
15 31
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37(c) s3 + s2 + s + 1 = 0
R-H determinants are
1 1
∆1 = 1 > 0, ∆2 = = 0, ∆3 = 1∆2 = 0
1 1
Thus system is marginally stable. This is readily confirmed since the poles are at
s = −1, s = ±j
37(e) s3 + 2s2 + 2s + 1 = 0
R-H determinants are
2 3
∆1 = 2 > 0, ∆2 = = 1 > 0, ∆3 = 1∆2 > 0
1 2
√
1 3
and the system is stable. The poles are at s = −1, s = − ± j confirming the
2 2
result.
d3 x d2 x dx
38 m 3
+ c 2
+K + Krx = 0; m, K, r, c > 0
dt dt dt
R-H determinants are
∆1 = c > 0
c
∆2 =
m = cK − mKr > 0 provided r < c
Kr K m
∆3 = Kr∆2 > 0 provided ∆2 > 0
c
Thus system stable provided r <
m
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39
s4 + 2s2 + (K + 2)s2 + 7s + K = 0
a3 a2 a1 a0
R-H determinants are
∆1 =| a3 |= 9 > 0
a3 a4 1 3
∆2 = = 2 = 2K − 3 > 0 provided K >
a1 a2 7 K + 2 2
a3 a4 0 2 1
0
∆3 = a1 a2 a3 = 7 K + 2 2 = 10K − 21 > 0 provided K > 2
0 a0 a1 0 K 7
∆4 = K∆3 > 0 provided ∆3 > 0
∆1 = 15K > 0
15K 1
∆2 = = 30K 2 − 20K
5K (2K − 1)
∆3 = 5K∆2 > 0 provided ∆2 > 0
2
Thus system stable provided K(3K − 2) > 0 that is K > , since K > 0 .
3
d2 h dh
2
+ 15 + 56h = 3δ(t)
dt dt
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(s2 + 8s + 25)H(s) = 1
1
H(s) =
(s + 4)2 + 32
1
so h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = e−4t sin 3t
3
Since h(t) → 0 as t → ∞ the system is stable.
(s2 − 2s − 8)H(s) = 4
4 2 1 2 1
H(s) = = −
(s − 4)(s + 2) 3s−4 3s+2
2
so h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = (e4t − e−2t )
3
Since h(t) → ∞ as t → ∞ system is unstable.
(s2 − 4s + 13)H(s) = 1
1 1
H(s) = =
s2 − 4s + 13 (s − 2)2 + 32
1 2t
so h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = e sin 3t
3
Since h(t) → ∞ as t → ∞ system is unstable.
dx 7 2
42 Impulse response h(t) = = e−t − 3e−2t + e−4t
dt 3 3
System transfer function G(s) = L{h(t)} ; that is
7 3 2
G(s) = − +
3(s + 1) s + 2 3(s + 4)
s+8
=
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 4)
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2 3s
43(a) f (t) = 2 − 3 cos t , F (s) = − 2
s s +1
3s2 3
sF (s) = 2 − =2−
2
s +1 1 + s12
43(b)
43(c)
f (t) = t + 3 sin 2t , lim = 0
t→0+
1 6 1 6
F (s) = − 2 so lim sF (s) = lim + =0
s2 s +4 s→∞ s→∞ s s + 4s
44(a)
thus confirming the f.v. theorem. Note that sF (s) has its poles in the left half of
the s-plane so the theorem is applicable.
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44(b)
f (t) = t2 3e−2t , lim f (t) = 0
t→∞
2 2s
F (s) = and lim sF (s) = lim =0
(s + 2)3 s→0 s→0 (s + 2)3
thus confirming the f.v. theorem. Again note that sF (s) has its poles in the left
half of the s-plane.
44(c)
f (t) = 3 − 2e−3t + e−t cos 2t , lim f (t) = 3
t→∞
3 2 (s + 1)
F (s) = − +
s s + 3 (s + 1)2 + 4
2s s(s + 1)
lim sF (s) = lim 3 − + =3
s→0 s→0 s + 3 (s + 1)2 + 4
confirming the f.v. theorem. Again sF (s) has its poles in the left half of the
s-plane.
1.22s 4.86s
lim i2 (t) = lim sI2 (s) = lim 3.64 + −
t→∞ s→0 s→0 s + 59.1 s + 14.9
= 3.64
which confirms the answer obtained in Example 2.28. Note that sI2 (s) has all its
poles in the left half of the s-plane.
28s2
sI2 (s) =
(3s + 10)(s + 1)(s2 + 4)
and since it has poles at s = ±j2 not in the left hand half of the s-plane the
f.v. theorem is not applicable.
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4 1
(7s + 5)Y (s) = + +2
s s+3
4 1 2
Y (s) = + +
s(7s + 5) (s + 3)(7s + 5) 7s + 5
4 s 2s
sY (s) = + +
7s + 5 (s + 3)(7s + 5) 7s + 5
4 s 2s
lim y(t) = lim sF (s) = lim + +
t→∞ s→0 s→0 7s + 5 (s + 3)(7s + 5) 7s + 5
4
=
5
4 s 2
lim+ y(t) = y(0+) = lim sF (s) = lim + +
t→0 s→∞ s→∞ 7s + 5 (1 + 3s )(7s + 5) 7 + 5s
2
=
7
2
Thus jump at t = 0 = y(0+) − y(0−) = 1 .
7
Exercises 2.6.8
48(a)
t
f ∗ g(t) = τ cos(3t − 3τ )dτ
0
1 1 t
= − τ sin(3t − 3τ ) + cos(3t − 3τ )
3 9 0
1
= (1 − cos 3t)
9
t
g ∗ f (t) = (t − τ ) cos 3τ dτ
0
t τ 1 t 1
= sin 3τ − sin 3τ − cos 3τ = (1 − cos 3t)
3 3 9 0 9
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48(b)
t
f ∗ g(t) = (τ + 1)e−2(t−τ ) dτ
0
1 1 t
= (τ + 1)e−2(t−τ ) − e−2(t−τ )
2 4 0
1 1 1
= t + − e−2t
2 4 4
t
g ∗ f (t) = (t − τ + 1)e−2τ dτ
0
1 1 t
= − (t − τ + 1)e−2τ + e−2τ
2 4 0
1 1 1 −2t
= t+ − e
2 4 4
1 1 1 2 −3t
49(a) Since L−1 = 1 = f (t) and L−1 = t e
s (s + 3)3 2
−1
1 1 t
L · 3
= f (t − τ )g(τ )dτ
s (s + 3) 0
t
1
= 1. τ 2 e−3τ dτ
0 2
1 2 2 t
= −τ 2 e−3τ − τ e−3τ − e−3τ
4 3 9 0
1
= [2 − e−3t (9t2 + 6t + 2)]
54
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Directly
1 1 −1 1
2 18 6 2
L−1 · = L − − −
s (s + 3)3 54 s (s + 3)3 (s + 3)2 (s + 3)
1
= [2 − e−3t (9t2 + 6t + 2)]
54
1 1
49(b) L−1 2
= te2t = f (t), L−1 2
= te−3t = g(t)
(s − 2) (s + 3)
−1
1 1 t
L 2
· 2
= (t − τ )e2(t−τ ) .τ e−3τ dτ
(s − 2) (s + 3) 0
t
−2t
=e (tτ − τ 2 )e−5τ dτ
0
1 1 2 −5τ t
= e2t − (tτ − τ 2 )e−5τ − (t − 2τ )e−5τ + e
5 25 125 0
t 2 t 2
= e2t e−5t + e−5t + −
25 125 25 125
1 2t
= e (5t − 2) + e−3t (5t + 2)
125
Directly
−2 1 2 1
1 125 25 125 25
= + + +
(s − 2)2 (s + 3)2 s − 2 (s − 2)2 (s + 3) (s + 3)2
1 −2 2t 1 2 −3t 1
∴ L−1 2 2
= e + te2t + e + te−3t
(s − 2) (s + 3) 125 25 125 25
1 2t
= [e (5t − 2) + e−3t (5t + 2)]
125
1 1
49(c) L−1 2
= t = f (t), L−1 = e−4t = g(t)
s (s + 4)
−1
1 1 t
L · = (t − τ )e−4t dτ
s2 s + 4 0
1 1 t
= − (t − τ )e−4τ + e−4τ
4 16 0
1 −4t 1 1
= e + t−
16 4 16
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Directly
1
−1 1 1 1 1 1 1
L−1 = L · − · + ·
s2 (s + 4) 16 s + 4 16 s 4 s2
1 −4t 1 1
= e − + t
16 16 4
1 1
F (s) = and G(s) =
s2 s+1
so
1
y(t) = L−1 {F (s)G(s)} = L−1
+ 1) s2 (s
1 1 1
= L−1 − + 2 +
s s s+1
−t
= (t − 1) + e
d2 h 7dh
+ + 12h = δ(t)
dt2 dt
(s2 + 7s + 12)H(s) = 1
1 1 1
H(s) = = −
(s + 3)(s + 4) s+3 s+4
giving h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = e−3t − e−4t
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t
x(t) = A [e−3(t−τ ) − e−4(t−τ ) ]dτ H(t)
0
t −3(t−τ )
−A [e − e−4(t−τ ) ]dτ H(t − T )
T
1 1 1 −3t 1 −4t
=A − − e + e H(t)
3 4 3 4
1 1 1 −3(t−T ) 1 −4(t−T )
− − − e − e H(t − T )
3 4 3 4
1
= A 1 − 4e−3t + 3e−4t − (1 − 4e−3(t−T ) + 3e−4(t−T ) )H(t − T )
12
or directly
A
u(t) = A[H(t) − H(t − T )] so U (s) = L{u(t)} = [1 − e−sT ]
s
A
(s2 + 7s + 12)X(s) = [1 − e−sT ]
s
1 1 1 1 1 1
X(s) = A · − · + · (1 − e−sT )
12 s 3 s + 3 4 s + 4
A
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = [1 − 4e−3t + 3e−4t − (1 − 4e−3(t−T ) + 3e−4(t−T ) )H(t − T )]
12
d2 h dh
2
+4 + 5h = δ(t), h(0) = ḣ(0) = 0
dt dt
(s2 + 4s + 5)H(s) = 1
1 1
H(s) = =
s2 + 4s + 5 (s + 2)2 + 1
so h(t) = L−1 {H(s)} = e−2t sin t.
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e−2t 2τ t
θ0 (t) = e [2 sin(t − τ ) + cos(t − τ )] 0
5
1 1 −2t
= − e (2 sin t + cos t)
5 5
Check
Solving
d2 θ0 dθ0
+ 4 + 5θ0 = 1 , θ̇0 (0) = θ0 (0) = 0
dt2 dt
gives
1
(s2 + 4s + 5)Φ0 (s) =
s
1 1 1 s+4
Φ0 (s) = 2
= − ·
s(s + 4s + 5) 5s 5 (s + 2)2 + 1
1 1
so θ0 (t) = L−1 {Φ0 (s)} = − [cos t + 2 sin t]e−2t .
5 5
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d2 x dx
1(b) 5 2 − 3 − 2x = 6, x(0) = ẋ(0) = 1
dt dt
Taking Laplace transforms
2 6 5s2 + 2s + 6
(5s − 3s − 2)X(s) = 5(s + 1) − 3(1) + =
s s
5s2 + 2s + 6
X(s) =
5s(s + 25 )(s + 1)
13 15
3
=− + 7 + 7 2
5 s−1 s+ 5
13 t 15 − 2 t
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = −3 + e + e 5
7 7
2(a)
1 1 1 1 1 s+2
2
= − · − · 2
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 2s + 2) s + 1 2 s + 2 2 s + 2s + 2
1 1 1 1 (s + 1) + 1
= − · − ·
s + 1 2 s + 2 2 (s + 1)2 + 1
1 1 1
Thus L−1 2
= e−t − e−2t − e−t (cos t + sin t)
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 2s + 2) 2 2
2(b) From equation (2.26) in the text the equation is readily deduced.
Taking Laplace transforms
1
(s2 + 3s + 2)I(s) = s + 2 + 3 + V.
(s + 1)2 + 1
s+5 1
I(s) = +V 2
(s + 2)(s + 1) (s + 2)(s + 1)(s + 2s + 2)
4 3
= − + V extended as in (a)
s+1 s+2
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1 1
i(t) = L−1 {I(s)} = 4e−t − 3e−2t + V e−t − e−2t − e−t (cos t + sin t)
2 2
1
(s2 − 1)X(s) + 5sY (s) =
s2
2
−2sX(s) + (s2 − 4)Y (s) = −
s
Eliminating Y (s)
s2 − 4 11s2 − 4
[(s2 − 1)(s2 − 4) + 2s(5s)]X(s) = + 10 =
s2 s2
11s2 − 4
X(s) =
s2 (s2 + 1)(s2 + 4)
1 5 4
=− 2 + 2 − 2
s s +1 s +4
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = −t + 5 sin t − 2 sin 2t
From the first differential equation
dy 1 d2 x
= t+x− 2
dt 5 dt
1
= [t − t + 5 sin t − 2 sin 2t + 5 sin t − 8 sin 2t]
5
= (2 sin t − 2 sin 2t)
then y = −2 cos t + cos 2t + const.
s
(s2 + 2s + 2)X(s) = sx0 + x1 + 2x0 +
s2 +1
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sx0 + x1 + 2x0 s
X(s) = +
s2 + 2s + 2 (s2 + 1)(s2 + 2s + 2)
x0 (s + 1) + (x1 + x0 ) 1 s + 2 1 s+4
= 2
+ · 2 − ·
(s + 1) + 1 5 s + 1 5 (s + 1)2 + 1
giving
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)}
1
= e−t (x0 cos t + (x1 + x0 ) sin t) + (cos t + 2 sin t)
5
1 −t
− e (cos t + 3 sin t)
5
i.e.
1 1 3
x(t) = (cos t + 2 sin t) + e−t (x0 − ) cos t + (x1 + x0 − ) sin t
5 5 5
↑ ↑
steady state transient
1 2
Steady state solution is xs (t) = cos t + sin t ≡ A cos(t − α)
5 5
1 2 2 2 1
having amplitude A = ( 5 ) + ( 5 ) = √
5
and phase lag α = tan−1 2 = 63.4◦ .
5 Denoting the currents in the primary and secondary circuits by i1 (t) and i2 (t)
respectively Kirchoff’s second law gives
di1 di2
5i1 + 2 + = 100
dt dt
di2 di1
20i2 + 3 + =0
dt dt
Taking Laplace transforms
100
(5 + 2s)I1 (s) + sI2 (s) =
s
sI1 (s) + (3s + 20)I2 (s) = 0
Eliminating I1 (s)
[s2 − (3s + 20)(2s + 5)]I2 (s) = 100
−100 20
I2 (s) = = −
5s2 + 55s + 100 s2 + 11s + 20
20 20 1 1
=− 11 2 41 = − √ √ − √
(s + 2 ) − 4 11
41 (s + 2 − 41 11 41
2 ) (s + 2 + 2 )
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20 −(11+√41)t/2 √
i2 (t) = L−1 {I2 (s)} = √ e − e−(11− 41)t/2
41
6(a)
(i)
L{cos(wt + φ)} = L{cos φ cos wt − sin φ sin wt}
s w
= cos φ 2 − sin φ
s + w2 s2 + w2
= (s cos φ − w sin φ)/(s + w2 )
2
(ii)
s
(s2 + 4s + 8)X(s) = (2s + 1) + 8 +
s2
+4
3 2
2s + 9s + 9s + 36
= 2
(s + 4)(s2 + 4s + 8)
1 s+4 1 39s + 172
= · 2 + · 2
20 s + 4 20 s + 4s + 8
1 s+4 1 39(s + 2) + 47(2)
= · 2 + ·
20 s + 4 20 (s + 2)2 + (2)2
1 1
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = (cos 2t + 2 sin 2t) + e−2t (39 cos 2t + 47 sin 2t).
20 20
7(a)
s−4
−1 (s + 2) − 2(3)
L−1 = L
s2 + 4s + 13 (s + 2)2 + 32
= e−2t [cos 3t − 2 sin 3t]
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4 2s 4
(s + 2)Y (s) = −3 + + 2 + 2
s s +1 s +1
−3s3 + 6s2 + s + 4
Y (s) =
s(s + 2)(s2 + 1)
2 5 2
= − + 2
s s+2 s +1
5 2s s2 − 2s + 6
(s + 5)X(s) + 3Y (s) = 1 + − =
s2 + 1 s2 + 1 s2 + 1
6 3s 6 − 3s
5X(s) + (s + 3)Y (s) = − =
s2 + 1 s2 + 1 s2 + 1
Eliminating Y (s)
s3 + s2 + 9s
(s2 + 8s)X(s) =
s2 + 1
s2 + s + 9 1 1
X(s) = = +
(s + 8)(s2 + 1) s + 8 s2 + 1
dx
3y = 5 sin t − 2 cos t − 5x − = 3e−8t − 3 cos t
dt
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100
(s2 + 300s + 2 × 104 )Q(s) = 200·
s2
+ 104
2
(s + 100)(s + 200)Q(s) = 104 · 2
s + 104
2.104
Q(s) =
(s + 100)(s + 200)(s2 + 104 )
1 1 2 1 1 3s − 100
= · − · − ·
100 s + 100 500 s + 200 500 s2 + 104
1 −100t 2 −200t 1
giving q(t) = L−1 {Q(s)} = e − e − (3 cos 100t − sin 100t)
100 500 500
i.e.
1 1
q(t) = [5e−100t − 2e−200t ] − [3 cos 100t − sin 100t]
500 500
↑ ↑
transient steady state
3 1
Steady state current = sin 100t + cos 100t ≡ A sin(100t + α)
5o 5
where α = tan−1 51 18 12 .
o
Hence the current leads the applied emf by about 18 12 .
10
dx
4 + 6x + y = 2 sin 2t (i)
dt
d2 x dy
2
+x− = 3e−2t (ii)
dt dt
dx
Given x = 2 and = −2 when t = 0 so from (i) y = −4 when t = 0 .
dt
Taking Laplace transforms
4 8s2 + 36
(4s + 6)X(s) + Y (s) = 8 + =
s2 + 4 s2 + 4
3 2s2 + 6s + 7
(s2 + 1)X(s) − sY (s) = 2s − 2 + 4 + =
s+2 s+2
Eliminating Y (s)
8s2 + 36 2s2 + 6s + 7
[s(4s + 6) + (s2 + 1)]X(s) = +
s2 + 4 s+2
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8s2 + 36 2s2 + 6s + 7
X(s) = +
s(s2 + 4)(s + 1)(s + 15 ) 5(s + 2)(s + 1)(s + 15 )
11 227 1 3 49
5 505 1 76s − 96 3 4
= − 1 − · 2 + − + 60 1
s+1 s+ 5
505 s + 4 s+2 s+1 s+ 5
29 1 445
20 3 1212 1 76s − 96
= + + −
s+1 s+2 s + 15 505 s2 + 4
giving
29 −t 1 −2t 445 − 1 t 1
x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = e + e + e 5 − (76 cos 2t − 48 sin 2t)
20 3 1212 505
2
(s2 + 8s + 16)Φ(s) =
s2 +4
2
Φ(s) =
(s + 4)2 (s2
+ 4)
1 1 1 1 1 2s − 3
= · + · 2
− · 2
25 s + 4 10 (s + 4) 50 s + 4
1 −4t 1 1
so θ(t) = L−1 {Φ(s)} = e + · te−4t − (4 cos 2t − 3 sin 2t)
25 10 100
1
i.e. θ(t) = (4e−4t + 10te−4t − 4 cos 2t + 3 sin 2t)
100
Eliminating I2 (s)
1 4t
giving i1 (t) = L−1 {I1 (s)} = (e + 6e−3t )
7
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di1 6 6
6i2 = −2i1 − = − e4t + e−3t
dt 7 7
1 −3t 1
giving i2 (t) = (e − e4t ), i1 (t) = (e4t + 6e−3t ).
7 7
d2 i di
LCR 2
+ L + Ri = V
dt dt
2
3 2d i di
2R C + 2R2 C + Ri = E
dt2 dt
1
which on substituting CR = leads to
2n
1 d2 i 1 di E
2 2
+ +i=
2n dt n dt R
2n2 E 1
(s2 + 2ns + 2n2 )I(s) = ·
R s
E 2n2
I(s) = 2 2
R s(s + 2ns + 2n )
E 1 s + 2n
= − 2 2
R s (s + n) + n
so that
E
i(t) = [1 − e−nt (cos nt + n sin nt)]
R
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13 The equations are readily deduced by applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the
left and right hand circuits.
Note that from the given initial conditions we deduce that i2 (0) = 0 .
Taking Laplace transforms then gives
E
(sL + 2R)I1 (s) − RI2 (s) =
s
−RI1 (s) + (sL + 2R)I2 (s) = 0
Eliminating I2 (s)
E
[(sL + 2R)2 − R2 ]I1 (s) =(sL + 2R)
s
E
(sL + 3R)(sL + R)I1 (s) = (sL + 2R)
s
E s + 2R
L
I1 (s) = 3R
L s(s + R
L )(s + L )
E 23 1 1
= − 2R − 6
R s s+ L s + 3R
L
1 E R 3R
giving i1 (t) = L−1 {I1 (s)} = 4 − 3e− L t − e− L t
6R
For large t the exponential terms are approximately zero and
2E
i1 (t)
3R
di1
Ri2 = 2Ri1 + L −E
dt
4E E 1E
i2 − =
3R R 3R
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2
(s2 + 2)X1 (s) − X2 (s) =
s2 +4
−X1 (s) + (s2 + 2)X2 (s) = 0
Eliminating X1 (s)
2
[(s2 + 2)2 − 1]X2 (s) =
s2 +4
2
X2 (s) =
(s2 + 4)(s2 + 1)(s2 + 3)
2 1
3 3 1
= + −
s2 +4 s2 +1 s2 +3
1 1 1 √
so x2 (t) = L−1 {X2 (s)} = sin 2t + sin t − √ sin 3t
3 3 3
d2 x2 2 2 2 √ 4 1 √ √
x1 (t) = 2x2 + = sin 2t + sin t − √ sin 3t − sin 2t − sin t + 3 sin 3t
dt2 3 3 3 3 3
2 1 1 √
or x1 (t) = − sin 2t + sin t + √ sin 3t
3 3 3
15(a)
(i)
s+4 (s + 1) + 3
L−1 = L−1
s2 + 2s + 10 (s + 1)2 + 32
= e−t (cos 3t + sin 3t)
(ii)
s−3 1 2 1
L−1 2
= L−1 + 2
−
(s − 1) (s − 2) (s − 1) (s − 1) s−2
= et + 2tet − e2t
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16(a)
5 5 2
F (s) = = ·
s2 − 14s + 53 2 (s − 7)2 + 22
5
∴ f (t) = L−1 {F (s)} = e7t sin 2t
2
d2 θ dθ 2 n2 i
16(b) + 2K + n θ = , θ(0) = θ̇(0) = 0, i const.
dt2 dt K
2 2 n2 i
(s + 2Ks + n )Φ(s) =
Ks
n2 i
∴ Φ(s) =
Ks(s2 + 2Ks + n2 )
Ki K12 1
K2
1
Φ(s) = = Ki − − K
s(s + K)2 s s+K (s + K)2
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Thus
i
θ(t) = L−1 {Φ(s)} = [1 − e−Kt − Kte−Kt ]
K
17(a)
(i)
(ii)
se−αs (s + 1) − 1
L−1 2
= L−1 e−αs
s + 2s + 5 (s + 1)2 + 4
1
= L−1 eαs L[e−t (cos 2t − sin 2t)]
2
1
= e−(t−α) [cos 2(t − α) − sin 2(t − α)]H(t − α)
2
1 −e−sπ
(s2 + 2s + 5)Y (s) = − by (i) above in part (a)
s2 + 1 s2 + 1
1 + e−πs
= 2
s +1
1+e −πs 1 s−2 1 s
Y (s) = 2 = − + (1 + e−πs )
(s + 1)(s2 + 2s + 5) 10 s2 + 1 10 s2 + 2s + 5
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giving
1
y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = [2 sin t − cos t + e−(t−π) [2 sin(t − π) − cos(t − π)]H(t − π)]
10
1
+ e−t (cos 2t − sin 2t) + e−(t−π) [cos 2(t − z)
2
1
− sin 2(t − π)]H(t − π)]
2
1 −t 1
= e (cos 2t − sin 2t) + 2 sin t − cos t
10 2
1
+ [e−(t−π) (cos 2t − sin 2t) + cos t − 2 sin t]H(t − π)
2
18 By theorem 2.5
T
1
L{v(t)} = V (s) = e−st v(t)dt
1 − e−sT 0
T /2
T
1 −st −st
= e dt − e dt
1 − e−sT 0 T /2
1 1 −st T /2 1 −st T
= − e − − e
1 − e−sT s 0 s T /2
1 1
= · (e−sT − e−sT /2 − e−sT /2 + 1)
s 1 − e−sT
1 (1 − e−sT /2 )2 1 1 − e−sT /2
= =
s (1 − e−sT /2 )(1 + e−sT /2 ) s 1 + e−sT /2
1 1 1 1 − e−sT /2
250I(s) + · · I(s) = V (s) =
10−4 s s 1 + e−sT /2
1 1 − e−sT /2
(s + 40)I(s) =
250 1 + e−sT /2
1 1 − e−sT /2
or I(s) = ·
250(s + 40) 1 + e−sT /2
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1 3
I(s) = (1 − e−sT /2 )(1 − e−sT /2 + e−sT − e− 2 sT + e−2sT . . .)
250(s + 40)
1 3
= [1 − 2e−sT /2 + 2e−sT − 2e− 2 sT + 2e−2sT . . .]
250(s + 40)
1 1 −40t
Since L−1 = e using the second shift theorem gives
250(s + 40) 250
1 T −40(t−T /2)
i(t) = e−40t − 2H t − e + 2H(t − T )e−40(t−T )
250 2
3T −40(t−3T /2)
−2H t − e + ...
2
If T = 10−3 s then the first few terms give a good representation of the steady
1
state since the time constant of the circuit is large compared to the period T .
4
d2 h 2dh
+ + 2h = δ(t)
dt2 dt
d2 xs 2dxs
Solving + + 2xs = 1 directly we have taking Laplace transforms
dt2 dt
1
(s2 + 2s + 2)Xs (s) =
s
1
Xs (s) =
s(s2 + 2s + 2)
1 1 1 s+2
= · − 2
2 s 2 (s + 1) + 1
giving as before
1 1 −t
xs (t) = − e (cos t + sin t)
2 2
20
d4 y
EI = 12 + 12H(x − 4) − Rδ(x − 4)
dx4
y(0) = y (0) = 0, y(4) = 0, y (5) = y (5) = 0
With y (0) = A, y (0) = B taking Laplace transforms
12 12 −4s
EIs4 Y (s) = EI(sA + B) + + e − Re−4s
s s
A B 12 1 12 1 −4s R 1 −4s
Y (s) = 3 + 4 + · 5+ · 5e − · e
s s EI s EI s EI s4
giving
A B 1 4 1
y(x) = L−1 {Y (s)} = x2 + x3 + x + (x − 4)4 H(x − 4)
2 6 2EI 2EI
R
− (x − 4)3 H(x − 4)
6EI
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or
1 1 1 1 R
EIy(x) = A1 x2 + B1 x3 + x4 + (x − 4)4 H(x − 4) − (x − 4)3 H(x − 4)
2 6 2 2 6
32
y(4) = 0 ⇒ 0 = 8A1 + B1 + 128 ⇒ 3A1 + 4B1 = −48
3
y (5) = 0 ⇒ 0 = A1 + 5B1 + 6(25) + 6 − R ⇒ A1 + 5B1 − R = −156
y (5) = 0 ⇒ 0 = B1 + 12(5) + 12 − R ⇒ B1 − R = −72
√
12 × 4 × 2 + 24 × 4.5 − 4R = 18 = M0
21(a)
1 −s
(s + 1)X(s) = (e − e−2s )
s
1
X(s) = (e−s − e−2s )
s(s + 1)
1 1 −s 1 1 −2s
= − e − − e
s s+1 s s+1
E
21(b) I(s) =
s[Ls + R/(1 + Cs)]
(i) By the initial value theorem
E
lim i(t) = lim sI(s) = lim =0
t→0 s→∞ s→∞ Ls + R/(1 + Cs)
(ii) Since sI(s) has all its poles in the left half of the s-plane the conditions of
the final value theorem hold so
E
lim i(t) = lim sI(s) =
t→∞ s→0 R
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di
+ i = v(t)
dt
1
(s + 1)I(s) =
(1 + s2 )(1
− e−πs )
1 1 s+1 1
I(s) = − ·
1 − e−πs s + 1 s2 + 1 2
1 1 s + 1
= − 2 1 + e−πs + e−2πs + . . .
2 s+1 s +1
1 1 s + 1 1
Since L−1 − 2 = (sin t − cos t + e−t )H(t) = f (t)
2 s+1 s +1 2
we have by the second shift theorem that
∞
i(t) = f (t) + f (t − π) + f (t − 2π) + . . . = f (t − nπ)
n=0
The graph may be plotted by computer and should take the form
1 1
23(a) Since L{t} = 2
, L{te−t } =
s (s + 1)2
−t
taking f (t) = t and g(t) = te in the convolution theorem
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gives
−1
1 1 t
L 2
· 2
= f (t − τ )g(τ )dτ
s (s + 1) 0
t
= (t − τ )τ e−τ
0
t
= −(t − τ )τ e−τ − (t − 2τ )e−τ + 2e−τ 0
1 1
i.e. L−1 2
· 2
= t − 2 + 2e−t + te−t .
s (s + 2)
t
23(b) y(t) = t + 2 0
y(u) cos(t − u)du
s
Taking f (t) = y(t), g(t) = cos t ⇒ F (s) = Y (s), G(s) = 2 giving on taking
s +1
transforms
1 s
Y (s) =
2
+ 2Y (s) 2
s s +1
2
s +1
(s2 + 1 − 2s)Y (s) =
s2
s2 + 1 2 1 2 2
or Y (s) = 2 2
= + 2− +
s (s − 1) s s s − 1 (s − 1)2
and y(t) = L−1 {Y (s)} = 2 + t − 2et + 2tet .
Taking transforms
1 2
y(t) = 0 or y(t) = t + ty1
2
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24
d4 y
EI = −W δ(x − )
dx4
−3W B
For x > , y (x) = (x − )2 + Ax + x2
6EI 2
so y (3) = 0 and y(3) = 0 gives
2W 2 2
0=− + 3A + 9B
EI 2
3
4W 9 9
0=− + A2 + B3
3EI 2 2
4W 20 W
giving A = − and B =
9EI 27 EI
W 2 W 2 10 W 3
y(x) = − (x − )3 H(x − ) − x + x
6EI 9 EI 81 EI
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With the added uniform load the differential equation governing the deflection is
d4 y
EI = −W δ(x − ) − w[H(x) − H(x − )]
dx4
1 −as
(s2 − 3s + 3)X(s) = e
s
1 −as
16 1 1
6s − 2
−as
X(s) = · e = − ·e
s(s2 − 3s + 3) s s2 − 3s + 3
√ √
1 1 (s − 32 ) − 3( 23 ) −as
= − √ e
6 s (s − 3 )2 + ( 3 )2
2 2
√ √
e−as 3
−2t 3 √ 3
= L 1−e cos t − 3 sin t
6 2 2
giving
√ √
−1 1 3
− 2 (t−a)
3 √ 3
x(t) = L {X(s)} = 1−e cos (t − a) − 3 sin (t − a) H(t − a)
6 2 2
25(b)
w
X(s) = G(s)L{sin wt} = G(s)
s2 + w2
w
= G(s)
(s + jw)(s − jw)
Since the system is stable all the poles of G(s) have negative real part. Expanding
in partial fractions and inverting gives
F (jw)w jwt
x(t) = 2Re ·e + terms from G(s) with negative exponentials
2jw
Thus as t → ∞ the added terms tend to zero and x(t) → xs (t) with
ejwt F (jw)
xs (t) = Re
j
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s = −3 and s = 1
G(s) 1 1
26(b) G1 (s) = = = 2
1 + KG(s) (s − 1)(s + 3) + K s + 2s + (K − 3)
√
26(c) Poles G1 (s) given by s = −1 ± 4−K.
These may be plotted in the s-plane for different values of K . Plot should be as
in the figure
26(d) Clearly from the plot in (c) all the poles are in the left half plane when
K > 3 . Thus system stable for K > 3 .
a2 a1 a0
26(e) 2
1s + 2s + (K − 3) = 0
Routh–Hurwitz determinants are
∆1 = 2 > 0
a1 a2 1
∆2 = = 2 = 2(K − 3) > 0 if K > 3
0 a0 0 K − 3
G(s) 2
G1 (s) = = 2
1 + G(s) s + αs + 5
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2
Thus L−1 2 = h(t) = 2e−2t sin t
s + αs + 5
−1
2 α
−2t α2
i.e. L 2 = 2e sin (5 − 4 )t = 2e−2t sin t
(s + α2 )2 + (5 − α4 )
giving α = 4
s2 + (10K − 1)s + 10 = 0
which are both in the negative half plane of the s-plane provided (10K − 1) > 0 ;
1
that is, K > 10 . Thus the critical value of K for stability of the closed loop system
1
is K = 10 .
K
X(s) = G(s)L{1.H(t)} =
s[s2 + s(1 + KK1 ) + K]
wn
=
s[s2
+ 2ξwn s + wn2 ]
1 s + 2ξwn
= − 2
s s + 2ξwn s + wn2
1 (s + ξwn ) + ξwn
= −
s (s + ξwn )2 + [wn2 (1 − ξ 2 )]
1 (s + ξwn ) + ξwn
= −
s (s + ξwn )2 + wd2
ξ
giving x(t) = L−1 {X(s)} = 1 − e−ξwn t cos wd t + sin wd t , t ≥ 0.
1 − ξ2
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dx
28(c) The peak time tp is given by the solution of =0
dt t=tp
dx −ξwn t
ξwd ξ 2 wn
=e ξwn − cos wd t + wd sin wd t
dt 1 − ξ2 1 − ξ2
wn
= e−ξwn t sin wd t
1 − ξ2
wn
e−ξwn tp sin wd tp = 0
1 − ξ2
i.e. sin wd tp = 0
π
wd tp = π or tp =
wd
− wn
ξw π ξ
Mp = x(tp ) − 1 = e d cos π + sin π
1 − ξ2
ξw π √
− wn 1−ξ 2
=e d = e−ξπ/ π
and
π
tp = = 1 giving wd = 3.14
wd
wd
Then it follows that wn = = 3.53 from which we deduce that
1 − ξ2
K = wn2 = 12.5
2wn ξ − 1
and K1 = = 0.178.
K
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ξ
x(tr ) = 1 = 1 − e−ξwn tr cos wd tr + sin wd tr
1 − ξ2
Since e−ξwn tr = 0
ξ
cos wd tr + sin wd tr = 0
1 − ξ2
1 − ξ2
giving tan wd tr = −
ξ
1 1 − ξ 2 π − 1.10
or tr = tan−1 − = = 0.65s.
wd ξ wd
e−ξwn t
so the curves 1 ± are the envelope curves of the transient response to a
1 − ξ2
1
unit step input and have a time constant T = . The settling time ts may
ξwn
be measured in terms of T . Using the 2% criterion ts is approximately 4 times
the time constant and for the 5% criterion it is approximately 3 times the time
constant. Thus
4
2% criterion : ts = 4T = = 2.48s
ξwn
3
5% criterion : ts = 3T = = 1.86s
ξwn
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1 w
X(s) = · 2
M1 s2 + Bs + K1 s + w2
The steady state response will be due to the forcing term and determined by the
αs + β
term in the partial fractions expansion of X(s) . Thus, the steady state
s2 + w2
response will be of the form A sin(wt + δ) ; that is, a sinusoid having the same
frequency as the forcing term but with a phase shift δ and amplitude scaling A .
In the situation of Figure 2.63(b) the equations of motion are
d2 x dx
M1 2
= −K1 x − B + K2 (y − x) + sin wt
dt dt
d2 y
M2 2 = −K2 (y − x)
dt
Assuming an initial quiescent state taking Laplace transforms gives
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To examine the motion of the secondary mass M2 solve for Y (s) giving
K2 w
Y (s) =
(s2 + w2 )p(s)
Clearly due to the term (s2 + w2 ) in the denominator the mass M2 possesses an
undamped oscillation. Thus, in some sense the secondary system has absorbed the
energy produced by the applied sinusoidal force sin wt .
30(a) Students should be encouraged to plot the Bode plots using the steps
used in example 2.62 of the text and using a software package. Sketches of the
magnitude and phase Bode plots are given in the figures below.
30(b) With unity feedback the amplifier is unstable. Since the −180◦ crossover
gain is greater than 0dB (from the plot it is +92dB) .
30(c) Due to the assumption that the amplifier is ideal it follows that for
1
marginal stability the value of must be 92dB (that is, the plot is effectively
β
lowered by 92dB) . Thus
1
20 log = 92
β
1 92
= antilog ⇒ β 2.5 × 10−5
β 20
30(d) From the amplitude plot the effective 0dB axis is now drawn through
the 100dB point. Comparing this to the line drawn through the 92dB point,
corresponding to marginal stability, it follows that
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30(e)
K
G(s) =
(1 + sτ1 )(1 − sτ2 )(1 + sτ3 )
Given low frequency gain K = 120dB so
Thus
106
G(s) = s s s
(1 + 106 )(1 + 10.106 )(1 + 25.106 )
24
250.10
=
(s + 106 )(s+ 107 )(s + 52 .107 )
The closed loop transfer function G1 (s) is
G(s)
G(s) =
1 + βG(s)
or
s3 + 36(106 )s2 + (285)1012 s + 1019 (25 + 25β106 ) = 0
↓ ↓ ↓
A1 A2 A3
By Routh–Hurwitz criterion system stable provided A1 > 0 and A1 A2 > A3 . If
β = 1 then A1 A2 < A3 and the system is unstable as determined in (b). For
marginal stability A1 A2 = A3 giving β = 1.40−5 (compared with β = 2.5.10−5
using the Bode plot).
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80
60
1/β = 92 dB
40
Gain dB
20
0
Corresponds to 180° phase lag
To phase plot
– 90°
16 MHz
– 270°
1 10 25 ln freq. MHz
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