Structure 201101
Structure 201101
Structure 201101
STRUCTURE
Special Section: Anchors, Piers, Foundations
and Underground Construction
A Joint Publication of NCSEA | CASE | SEI
overhead applications.
Drill the appropriate size hole. Attach the anchor to the setting Anchor has been set. Put fixture in place and bolt in.
tool and tap into predrilled hole.
Turn the tool clockwise to
pre-expand the anchor. Unscrew Ultimate and Allowable Load Capacities for Hollow-Set Dropin
the setting tool and your anchor in Hollow Concrete Masonry1,2,3
is set.
Rod/ Minimum Drill f´m ≥ 1,500 psi (10.4 MPa)
Anchor Embedment Bit
Ultimate Load
Great For Diameter Depth Diameter Allowable Load
d hv dbit Tension Shear Tension She
Anchoring in.
(mm)
in.
(mm)
in. lbs.
(kN)
lbs.
(kN)
lbs.
(kN)
lbs
(kN
In Wall 1/4
(6.4)
7/8*
(22.2)
3/8 530
(2.4)
1,575
(7.1)
105
(0.5)
315
(1.4
Thickness 5/16
(7.9)
1*
(25.4)
5/8 1,035
(4.7)
1,815
(8.2)
205
(0.9)
365
(1.6
As Little 3/8
(9.5)
1*
(25.4)
5/8 1,225
(5.5)
2,485
(11.2)
245
(1.1)
495
(2.2
As 1”! 1/2
(12.7)
1 1/4*
(31.8)
3/4 1,790
(8.1)
3,655
(16.4)
360
(1.6)
730
(3.3
5/8 1 1/2* 1 1,790 3,740 360 750
(15.9) (38.1) (8.1) (16.8) (1.6) (3.4
1. Tabulated load values are applicable to anchors with carbon and stainless steel cones.
Powers Fasteners, Inc. 2. Tabulated load values are for anchors installed in minimum 6-inch wide, minimum Grade N, Type II, lightweight, medium-w
2 Powers Lane or normal-weight concrete masonry units conforming to ASTM C 90. Mortar must be minimum Type N. Masonry cells may
grouted. Masonry compressive strength must be at the specified minimum at the time of installation (f'm ≥ 1,500 psi).
Brewster, NY10509 3. Allowable load capacities listed are calculated using and applied safety factor of 5.0. Consideration of safety factors of 20
www.powers.com higher may be necessary depending upon the application such as life safety, and in sustained tensile loading applications.
*Anchors were installed with sleeve flush to face shell surface and with setting tool for hollow base materials.
P: (914) 235-6300
F: (914) 576-6483
Interested in learning more about Powers’
Hollow Set Drop-Ins and to request a
FREE sample, simply fax your request to
(914)576-6483
Make your connection
to HALFEN.
Global connections from a global company.
Superior performance
HALFEN cast-in channels offer safety and
Easy installation reliability over the widest load range.
They are available in stainless steel and
high quality galvanized finish.
Halfen Anchoring Systems · Meadow-Burke Products · 8521 F.M. · Road 1976 · Converse · TX 78109 · USA ·
Phone: 800 323 6896 · www.halfenusa.com
27
FEATURES
Shrinkage-Compensating
CONTENTS January 2011
Concrete in Post-Tensioned
Buildings – Part 2
By Kenneth B. Bondy, S.E.
COLUMNS
Case studies of four projects which demonstrate the effective
use of shrinkage-compensating concrete to mitigate restraint-to- 7 Editorial
shortening (RTS) cracking in post-tensioned concrete buildings. What Are Your New Year’s
Resolutions?
30 South Tower of the Milwaukee By John A. Mercer, Jr., P.E., SECB
STRUCTURE
THE 18 InSights
300 New Jersey Avenue is a 10-story concrete office building with an Glazing Retrofits for
Special Section: Anchors, Piers, Foundations
and Underground Construction
adjacent atrium and 6-story parking garage. It is the first commercial Blast Mitigation
office building designed and built in the United States by world By Jon A. Schmidt, P.E.,
renowned architectural firm, Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners. SECB, BSCP
A Joint Publication of NCSEA | CASE | SEI
The 300 New Jersey Avenue project was one of the 2010 NCSEA 22 Professional Issues
Excellence in Structural Engineering award winners. Sustainability and the
January 2011 Concrete
See the Spotlight article on page 51. Structural Engineer
By Zak Kostura, M.Eng, EIT and
Publication of any article, image, or advertisement in STRUCTURE® magazine does not constitute endorsement Jennifer Pazdon, EIT
by NCSEA, CASE, SEI, C 3 Ink, or the Editorial Board. Authors, contributors, and advertisers retain sole
responsibility for the content of their submissions. 42 Historic Structures
Critical Skills for Structural
I
am committed to cleaning up my desk sometime in 2011. I
How Structural Engineers Can Work Effectively with
cleaned it off sometime in 2010 and I was so proud. It lasted
Architects Who Use AIA C401
for a week or two, but it seems like one thing adds to another
and here we are again, buried in paper, books, and magazines. If your firm works as a sub-consultant to architects, examine
I’ve heard that a messy desk is a reflection of a creative mind. That CASE’s Commentary on AIA Document C401, the Standard Form of
gives me pause to consider whether or not I should even attempt Agreement Between Architect and Consultant. AIA Contract Document
to clean it. I can still find my pencils and pens, but where did I put C401 incorporates by reference AIA Contract Document B101, the
that job file…? Standard Form of Agreement Between Owner and Architect.
The only other issue that I am committed to is my continuing The interplay between C401 and B101 cannot be over-emphasized.
education. I am signed up to try some of the webinar approaches to Using C401 without understanding fully the interrelationships with
obtaining PDH’s, but I still look forward to traveling in February to B101 is a recipe for disaster. This presentation will cover how the
a southern location to spend a few days where there isn’t any snow or engineer’s rights and obligations are impacted by these two agreements
ice. I also get to see some of you there as well. (I live in the beautiful and CASE’s recommended provisions to include in your contract
state of North Dakota in case you were wondering.) with the architect.
I have a question for you. In your opinion, whose responsibility is
The Changing Face of Indemnity: Meaner and Uglier!
it to maintain your continuing education? Personally, I believe that
it is every engineer’s responsibility, not their employer’s. “A carpenter This program will present an overview of some recent California cases
without a hammer and saw doesn’t build much”. Some firms may having received national attention, which could present potentially
offer a policy to participate in partial or even full reimbursement for disastrous results for the engineering community. The program will
continuing education expenses as a part of their benefits program. conclude with a description of some legislative and practical efforts
Past experience has taught me that anyone considering starting to defend against this unfortunate tide.
their own firm should join ACEC and become a participating CASE
New Tools for Managing Risk and Project Implementation
member immediately. I joined ACEC for the insurance benefits when
I started my firm, but didn’t participate in any of the conventions The CASE Tool Kit Committee has developed a number of new
or other activities for the first 12 years of membership. I missed on tools that will be presented in this session. Developing a Culture of
many education opportunities, not counting the relationships and Quality provides a white paper and PowerPoint presentation used to
networking I’ve been able to establish with other engineers like your- engage firm leaders in a discussion about their firm culture and key
self. I discovered the true value of my membership to be centered in aspects that contribute to quality.
my participation in ACEC and CASE. A new tool on staffing projections provides a method for firms to
In the March 2008 STRUCTURE magazine Editorial, John project future revenues and staffing demands based on contract values
Grieshaber, P.E. discussed the issue of mandatory continuing education and potential work.
(MCE) requirements and listed states’ annual, biennial, or triennial Managing Computer Software Use provides a white paper on key
PDH requirements to maintain licensing. At the time of its writing, aspects and responsibilities of the project manager and principal in
33 out of 55 registration boards required continuing education. How charge relative to software use on projects.
many of your registrations require continuing education?
Lessons Learned from Arbitration, Mediation and Litigation
I encourage you to take advantage of the perfect storm currently
forming for CASE structural engineers to attend the CASE Winter A panel discussion will focus on applying lessons learned from the
Meeting, and leverage their travel expenses to stay on and attend the speakers’ involvement with arbitration,
NCSEA Winter Institute to be held in Jacksonville, FL at the end mediation and litigation. The speak-
®
Now is a perfect time for CASE member firms and new structural engineer & arbitrator, an attorney
engineering firm principals to make plans to attend both meetings. specializing in construction law, and
a member benefit
Get a bigger bang for your buck by attending the CASE Winter a professional liability insurance agent,
meeting and NCSEA Winter Institute, and receive PDH continuing will share some of their own lessons
education credits for the presentations you attend. Look for dates, learned and anecdotes.
times and accommodations information in other sections of this and So there you have it. My winter and
future issues. early spring schedule is set. How about
Looking forward to 2011, a CASE Risk Management Convocation yours? I will look forward to meeting
will be held at the Structures Congress in Las Vegas in April 2011, you at one of our CASE meetings. Step STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
INSTITUTE
Don’t Gamble on your Future. CASE will discuss the following topics: forward and introduce yourself.▪
A
rallying cry often serves to unite people behind a particular There is a more specific lesson to be learned as well. The fundamental
cause, especially in a time of war. Texans urged each other mistake in the case of the Hyatt failure was the design of the skywalk
to “Remember the Alamo!” During the Spanish-American hanger rod connections – or, rather, the fact that these connections
War, it was “Remember the Maine!” For World War II, the were never truly designed at all. The engineering team did not take
exhortation was to “Remember Pearl Harbor!” The objective in such any steps to ascertain the load capacity of the conceptual arrange-
cases was to highlight a particularly egregious offense committed by ment, and then overlooked it again when the fabricator proposed
the enemy – often whatever it was that provoked the conflict in the changing it during submittal review. In what we do for a living, the
first place. devil really is in the details.
Structural engineers should remind each other of certain past events What specific steps can we take to “Remember the Hyatt”? For one
for a different reason – we need to invoke occasions when our pre- thing, a non-profit organization, the Skywalk Memorial Foundation,
decessors, our colleagues, and we ourselves have made mistakes, so is currently raising funds for a permanent memorial to honor the
that hopefully we can avoid similar errors in the future. One such 114 people who perished and the 216 people who were injured by
case study is the collapse of the skywalks at the Hyatt Regency hotel the collapse – many of whom were permanently disabled – and to
in Kansas City, Missouri. This year will mark the 30th anniversary of recognize the emergency and medical personnel, firefighters, police
the deadliest structural engineering failure in United States history, officers, public servants, and others who bravely responded immedi-
which happened on July 17, 1981. ately afterwards. The site is a small tract of land donated by the City of
The details should be familiar to most of us already. The architect Kansas City in Hospital Hill Park, just east of the Hyatt facility itself.
wanted the walkways that traversed the main lobby to look as light The preliminary design, prepared by local architect Lorie Bowman,
and airy as possible, suspended by thin rods hanging down from the includes a series of concentric circles in an outdoor gathering space.
structural steel framing above. The preliminary drawings showed each The concrete plaza will have 114 LED pinlights in the inner circle
rod supporting the end of a box member formed by welding two and 216 pinlights in the next ring. The remaining bands of colored
channels together at the flange tips. The fourth floor walkway was concrete will have hundreds of additional lights in a more dispersed
directly above the second floor walkway, and the rods were depicted formation, to represent the families, the rescue workers, and those
as continuous, with nuts and washers at both levels. who suffered psychological trauma as a result of the tragedy. The
As the fast-track project proceeded, the fabricator notified the objective is to provide a place for quiet contemplation and small
engineering team that continuous rods would not be practical and gatherings, with lots of colorful landscaping; to celebrate the lives,
suggested, as an alternative, providing two separate rods – one to hang but remember the loss.
the fourth floor from the roof, and the other to hang the second floor I think that our profession would do well to take up this cause.
from the fourth floor. The engineers approved this modification, but We are widely (and wrongly) perceived as mere number-crunchers,
never performed any calculations to verify its structural adequacy. rather than front-line preservers of human life, liberty, and happiness.
They did not realize that this arrangement would double the bearing Creation of the Skywalk Memorial, with generous financial assistance
load from the upper rod’s nut and washer on the bottom of the box from the nation’s structural engineering community, would highlight
member at the fourth floor level. the crucial role that we play in modern society and the importance
On that fateful Friday night, during a popular tea dance event, this of taking further steps – like separate licensure – to reduce the likeli-
nut and washer pulled through the built-up box member, sending hood of a similar disaster in the future. Please join me in supporting
the second and fourth floor walkways crashing down to the floor this worthy endeavor.▪
below. The subsequent forensic investigation revealed that even the
original connection was not adequate for the loads specified by the
governing building code – a situation that was greatly exacerbated
How to Contribute
by the revised configuration, which was barely able to support just The Skywalk Memorial Foundation needs roughly $400,000 to
the weight of the walkways. Based on these findings, the structural cover design and construction. This translates to only about $12
engineers in responsible charge were stripped of their licenses by the per recipient of STRUCTURE magazine. To make your tax-
Missouri board. deductible donation, or to learn more about the project, please visit
What should “Remember the Hyatt” bring to mind? The most www.skywalkmemorial.org.
important thing is that structural engineers have a uniquely significant
responsibility to hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of
Jon A. Schmidt, P.E., SECB (chair@STRUCTUREmag.org) is an
the public. Architectural, mechanical, and electrical system failures
associate structural engineer at Burns & McDonnell in Kansas City,
usually result in unattractiveness, poor functionality, discomfort,
Missouri, and chairs the STRUCTURE magazine Editorial Board.
and/or inconvenience. A structural system failure almost always has
more serious consequences; even in the best cases, there are often
substantial costs associated with correcting what is or could become
a life-threatening situation.
Blocks
professionals no longer consider
fiber reinforced concrete as exotic. This
positive assessment is the result of several
factors, including:
• Conclusive experience (especially for
updates and information steel fiber concretes which have been
on structural materials used since the 1970s);
• Technical understanding of the materi-
als (formulation, use, physical, chemical
and mechanical properties, etc.);
• National and international recommen-
dations on the sizing of the structures
or structural elements made up of
these materials.
In industrial flooring, steel fibers are a proven and
recognized solution. Already more than 1/3 square
Comparisons meters is reinforced with steel fibers.
There are now two types of fiber available
on the market: steel and synthetic fibers. without saying that the anchoring of the fibers
Unfortunately, when is essential as well.
reviewing the available Cracks appear at different times over the life
Steel or Synthetic literature on these two
types, certain approxi-
of the material, from the initial shrinkage up
to advanced age. Although cracks result from
Fiber Reinforcement? mations are made shrinkage, creep and cyclic loading, the struc-
and even errors can tural (e.g. density) and mechanical characteristics
be found in the texts. (resistance in compression, Young modulus) of
By Pierre Rossi
Our objective is not to call out these discrep- concrete, which develop progressively, also have
ancies but to offer some of the more objective an effect on crack development.
elements regarding these fibers, so that users • During the first three hours after place-
can make their own determinations. We have ment of the concrete, its resistance and
chosen not to make an exhaustive compara- Young modulus are very low: compres-
tive analysis between suppliers, but rather to sion resistance is lower than 3 MPa,
focus on two important problem areas where traction resistance is below 0.3 MPa
differences between the fibers can be found. and Young modulus is below 5 GPa. If
The two problem areas are mechanical per- the concrete cracks during this period,
formance and durability. loads to be taken by the fiber and the
size of crack openings will be low.
Pierre Rossi is the Research Director at the
• After 24 hours, the mechanical
LCPC (Laboratoires Centrale des Ponts et Mechanical Performance properties of the concrete increase
Chaussées), Paris, France.
It is useful to remember the two main points considerably: compression resistance
about fiber reinforced concrete. Fiber rein- higher than 10 MPa, traction resistance
forced concrete is a composite material made is above 1 MPa and Young modulus is
up of a matrix – the concrete, and the rein- above 15 GPa. During this maturation
forcement (e.g. the fiber). In a fiber reinforced period if the concrete is “pushed” again
concrete, the fibers distribute the strain across to crack, the load resisted by the fibers
the cracks created in the matrix. In the sim- and the size of the crack widths will be
plest analogy, fibers are only useful if cracks more significant.
exist in the material. If the material does not
present the potential for cracking, there would
be no need for the addition of fiber. And, the
Behavior
potential for cracking makes concrete a prime Steel fibers have a high modulus of elasticity
candidate for the addition of fibers. (200 GPz) and a high resistance in traction
When cracks occur, the mechanical proper- (between 800 and 2,500 MPa). At the very
ties of the fiber are important. The modulus earliest age of the concrete matrix, small cracks
of elasticity defines the rigidity of the fiber. may appear as the concrete shrinks. Also during
The higher the modulus of elasticity of the this period, the fibers are not yet adequately
Figure 1: Example of Dramix® steel fibers. fiber, the better it will control the cracks in anchored in the immature concrete matrix.
terms of length and opening. And, it goes As such, these steel fibers are not very effective
10 January 2011
against crack propagation. As the concrete ages, the literature related to the product, illustrates
the effectiveness of the steel fibers increases and this phenomenon. It presents a comparative
crack propagation decreases. study of the creep of pre-cracked girders with
The most common synthetic fibers used in steel fibers and macro-synthetic fiber rein-
concrete mixtures are primarily polypropylene forced concrete. This is only an illustration;
fibers. They have a low modulus of elastic- the size of the creep depends on the initial
ity, varying between 3 and 5 GPa. Available opening of the cracks, which is not speci-
polypropylene fibers are typically short in fied here.
length and small in diameter.
Recently, another type of synthetic fiber has
become available for structural applications
Durability
– polymer fiber, also called macro-synthetic. Apart from some aramid fibers, there is no
Example of macro synthetic fibers.
In comparison to the polypropylene fibers, durability problem associated with synthetic
these macro-synthetics are larger in length and fibers in concrete. Corrosion of steel fibers arise when using steel fiber concretes. When
diameter, and have a higher modulus of elas- may occur. Superficial corrosion of the fibers the steel fibers have small diameters, less than
ticity (between 5 and 10 GPa, approximately). may cause discolorations on exposed surfaces. approximately 0.25 mm, any protrusions at
Two other types of synthetic fibers are also used However, surface corrosion of the fibers does the surface may be “sharp” and cause injuries.
in concrete, but less frequently. These are polyvi- not affect the load carrying capacity of the And, regardless of size, one can never guaran-
nyl alcohol (PVA) fibers and aramid fibers, with structures of which it is comprised. This tee 100% that any steel fiber will not show on
Young Modulus of 30 and 70 GPa respectively. potential corrosion of steel fibers may be the surface of the structure. Designers should
These fibers are used in very high and ultra high minimized in practice by: examine technical solutions to mitigate this
performance fiber reinforced concretes. • Optimizing the formulation of the problem. Protrusion of synthetic fibers does
Polypropylene and other synthetic fibers fiber reinforced concrete; not present the same hazard level.
restrain plastic shrinkage during the first 24 • Using non steel frameworks or ones
hours after concrete is poured. This is primar- with an “internal skin” (synthetic
ily due to their low Young Modulus, making tissue for example);
Conclusions
them very reactive to potential cracks. Indeed, • Using galvanized fibers. In conclusion, the following is a brief synopsis
slight displacements on the fibers as small The second aspect regarding the durability of the pros and cons of various fiber additives.
crack openings begin generate sufficient loads of fiber reinforced concretes concerns the fire • Steel fiber concretes do not perform in
to combat the propagation of cracks. Some resistance of structures. Steel fibers are not a the early stages of the concrete matrix
types of polypropylene fibers are fibrillated determining factor in the fire resistance of cure, but they are very effective for the
and therefore anchor into the matrix very structures. What we can underscore is that cracking in concrete structures which
well, increasing their effectiveness. a structure with fiber reinforced concrete have reached maturity.
Conversely, as the concrete becomes more behaves no worse in the presence of fire than • Polypropylene micro fiber concretes
mature, synthetic fibers become less effective. a normal reinforced concrete structure. are effective in young age cracking
Indeed, because of their high elongation or Conversely, some synthetic fibers, par- (plastic shrinkage).
“stretchiness” relative to their low Young modu- ticularly polypropylene microfibers, have a • Macro-synthetic fibers in concrete are
lus, synthetic fibers are able to undergo larger significantly positive impact in a fire. This is technically less significant than steel
displacements as cracks widen. Therefore, in due to a very simple phenomenon: in the case fiber concretes in relatively stressed
aged and cracked concrete structures with of a fire, polypropylene fibers disappear (they structures, due to varying abilities to
macro-synthetic fibers, cracks can be much have reached their fusion point) to leave in maintain certain functions over time;
wider than with steel fibers and the deforma- place a significant network of fine canaliza- • Polypropylene microfibers can
tion of these structures may be (too) significant. tions (capillaries) shared through the volume improve the fire resistance of con-
It is also important to consider mechani- of the structure. These canalizations act as crete structures;
cal properties related to problems of creep expansion vessels for the water vapor gener- • Care is needed regarding portable
with fibers. The creep of a material describes ated under pressure by the fire (evaporation structures or surfaces in contact
how it flows in the direction perpendicular of the water present in the concrete). with users when they contain
in time under sustained strains. Steel fibers in Additionally, the durability of the fiber micro steel fibers. These micro
strain in the concrete matrix do not creep, or reinforced concrete structures is affected by steel fibers can cause cuts if no
hardly ever creep. However, creep associated the progression of time. A fiber reinforced technical solution is adopted.
with synthetic fibers is potentially significant. concrete matrix must ensure a seal, e.g. pre- There are pros and cons to both synthetic
This may have negative effects. Indeed, one vent water infiltrations. As discussed above, and steel fibers; in some cases the two fibers
may encounter a situation where the concrete the problem of creep with synthetic fibers have been combined, which is not as strange
with synthetic fibers responds correctly to the increases over time. Because of this, the abil- as you may have thought.▪
specifications of the structure (mechanical ity of the synthetic fiber and concrete matrix
stability, deformation, openings of cracks) but to provide sealing properties to the structure This article is a translation of Pierre Rossi’s
the creep of fibers (between cracks) makes the may diminish with time. This problem is not papers published in Béton Magazine,
structure “sway” which is not acceptable with encountered in steel fiber concrete matrixes. March 2009.
deformation (good use of the structure) and Finally, in the case of prefabricated portable
crack openings which become too significant elements, or structures which may come into
(durability problems). Figure 1, taken from direct contact with users, safety problems may
Three-dimensional schematic showing a typical container wharf and an example of highly variable pile
lengths. Water is cut away to show slenderness of waterside piles, often having a length of 60 feet or more
from deck level to the mudline below. Piers would be oriented normal to the shoreline with many long
piles being needed to support the pier deck.
W
hen learning reinforced con- structures along the west coast of the United
crete and structural steel States. When used in a deep water pier, pile
design as an undergraduate lengths near the shore can be 40 to 50 feet
in college, one might begin long from the soffit of the pier deck to an
to think that unlike the assumed point of fixity below the mudline,
potential for local and resulting in an average slenderness ratio of
ACI 318 and Pile Stability global buckling that
might occur for struc-
l/r = 85 for the 24-inch octagonal pile section.
Piles farthest from shore can often support
tural steel elements, decks in water as deep as 50 feet or more,
concrete accommodates compression very resulting in a pile slenderness of l/r = 175 or
well. While mostly true, concrete piles used greater between soffit to point of fixity for the
By Stephen P. Schneider, Ph.D., P.E., S.E. for piers and wharfs may be the exception, typical octagonal pile section.
and C. Scott Branlund, P.E., S.E. at least where global instability is concerned. Piles supporting a pier may be installed in
This article reviews slenderness effects for con- a plumb (vertical) or battered configuration.
crete compression elements needed for the In the high seismic region of the west coast,
pile design, and the apparent direction of plumb piles are typically preferred, where
future codes. It is possible provision changes resistance to lateral loads is due exclusively to
in ACI 318 may compromise a critical provi- flexural resistance of the pile at the top and
sion for structures similar to wharfs and piers bottom. Consequently, the effective length
that may be susceptible to overall instability. factor must be larger than k=1, and generally a
Typically, wharfs run parallel and are often value of k=1.2 is used as a minimum assuming
Stephen P. Schneider Ph.D., P.E., S.E. connected to the shoreline and piers are ori- a pile length with good fixity at the pier deck
is a Project Manager and helps with the ented perpendicular to the shoreline. Both and good knowledge of the location of fixity
technical aspects on a variety of projects types of structures can have pile lengths varying of the pile below mudline. When considering
at BergerABAM. Steve can be reached at dramatically over their width and/or length. that the average length of a pile for a long pier
steve.schneider@ABAM.com. Because the mudline typically slopes near the can be over 65 feet long, the pier is effectively
shore and then remains fairly flat over a consid- a 5- to 6-story building with virtually all of
Scott Branlund, P.E., S.E. is a Senior Project
erable distance away from shore, piers generally its mass at the roof.
Manager/Diver in the Waterfront division
have far longer piles as a percentage of the total To accommodate a wide variety of present and
and has been with BergerABAM for 27
pile count compared to wharfs. However, pile future demands, owners are more frequently
years. Responsible for the design and QA/
design for wharfs and piers involves one of the requiring piers and wharfs to be designed to
QC on numerous pier and wharf projects,
more slender concrete compression elements accommodate substantial live load, in the range
Scott also leads dive teams on underwater
faced by the structural engineer, particularly of 600 to 1,000 pounds per square foot. The
inspection of piles after constructed. Scott can
when the structure must accommodate ships large gravity load requirements and long slen-
be reached at scott.branlund@ABAM.com.
with deep drafts where required water depths der piles in flexural resistance coalesce into a
along the face needs to be 50 feet or more. fairly extreme stability demand on the piles.
While slenderness must be considered for both Design standards, such as the Minimum Design
piers and wharfs, piers are more susceptible Loads for Buildings and Other Structures by the
to overall pile instability and will thus be the American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE
primary focus of this discussion. 7-05 and others, typically specify the require-
Because of their economy and availability, ments of the 2005 edition of the Building
solid 24-inch octagonal prestressed concrete Code Requirements for Structural Concrete by
piles are used for many major waterfront the American Concrete Institute, ACI 318-05.
12 January 2011
The design of slender elements such as these and the method in which
elastic buckling is considered in the ACI provisions may not necessarily
be apparent. This article summarizes our understanding of the current
design philosophy of ACI 318-05 Chapter 10.10 “Slenderness Effects
in Compression Elements” and, more importantly, our understanding
of the future provisions in ACI 318-08.
In general, the ACI 318 provisions for slender column design address
column instability exclusively by the moment magnification method.
The 1989 ACI suggests that this is “similar to the procedure used as
part of the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) specifica-
tions.” However, there are some distinct differences in the way each
code accommodates instability that may not be apparent by casual
Section of wharf showing the dramatic variation in pile lengths.
inspection. In structural steel, the column demand is intended to be
amplified for the P-δ and P-∆ effects (slenderness along the element
chord and slenderness due to frame sway), in all cases. In addition, system. Non-sway moments, Mns , are amplified by a similar method
the column compressive capacity is limited by either elastic Euler with associated factors needed for the P-δ effect. ACI 318-05 allows
buckling or by the inelastic behavior of the column considering amplified moments, δMs, to be computed by one of three methods:
residual stresses. In contrast, the capacity of a long concrete column a) A second-order elastic frame analysis, often called
is the same as the short column capacity (the axial load-moment P-M a P-∆ analysis.
interaction surface for the cross section) and is therefore not reduced b) Use of the approximation Q = ΣP∆/ΣVh , where ΣP is the
for Euler buckling directly. For long concrete columns, slenderness sum of all of the gravity loads in the story, ∆ is the story
is accommodated by the moment magnification method in which drift, ΣV is the total story shear and h is the story height.
the moments are amplified depending on if the applied loads induce Q is termed the “stability coefficient” by other codes such
sway or no sway on the structural system. The general form of this as ASCE 7-05, Chapter12.8.7.
moment amplification is: c.) Substituting Q with the ratio of ΣPu / 0.75ΣPc where ΣPu is
the sum of the factored gravity loads in a story, ΣPc is the
δMs = ( 1 –1 Q ) M
s Equation 1 sum of the critical buckling loads for all columns in the story
and 0.75 is a stiffness reduction factor, φk .
where δ is the moment amplification factor and Ms is the moment Regardless of which method above is used in computing the ampli-
on the column induced by loads producing sway of the structural fied moments, it is important that the stiffness is reduced for the
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PracticeS
get to work crunching numbers tems and ground improvement techniques?
and working on projects. This is great –
Improvement Tasks
every firm needs fresh young talent for many
• Review drawings of other project types
reasons. Most young engineers tend to be
that you have not worked on
task-oriented, whose metrics might include:
• Ask questions
practical knowledge beyond the textbook How many hours did I work this week? Was
• Make it known that you would like
my day filled with productive work? Did I
to work on a certain building type or
complete my assignment on time? Was the
structural material that interests you or
input data on my structural model correct?
that you are not very experienced with
Did I learn something new today?
• Educate yourself by reading books, trade
As younger engineers grow and become
magazines, engineering journals, etc.
more experienced in their field, some will
• Take classes and attend seminars
be interested in maturing into something
• Join a professional organization
other than task-oriented engineers. Many
• Be curious about other people’s projects
firms have in-house training and mentoring
and discuss them together, even if you
programs that help younger engineers transi-
are not associated with that project
tion into becoming results-oriented engineers.
• Review drawings for projects pre-
For results-oriented engineers, it matters less
pared by other engineering firms
how many hours
whenever possible to see how other
they work than what
Becoming a Results-Oriented results are achieved
firms do things
16 January 2011
Improvement Tasks • Take a class or two in areas in which • Cite conclusions in the calculations
• A set of drawings that goes to the you are weak or inexperienced and indicate any assumptions made
Principal for final review should • Cite references when appropriate
represent the best possible and most • Pay special attention to organization
complete effort on your part
Writing Skills and completeness when you know the
• Make sure the general notes, specifica- Are you able to clearly and succinctly express project will be reviewed out-of-house
tions and drawings always agree a thought or technical concept in writing? Are • Remember that, although most
• Make sure your drawings follow your paragraphs and sentences grammati- building departments require struc-
common drafting rules and cally correct? Is your writing professional and tural calculations to be submitted for
office standards liability free? Are you as careful with emails as building permit, they are not part of
• Make sure drawings are well organized you are with other types of correspondence? the construction documents and are
and appropriate for the project only used as a guide to assist in making
Improvement Tasks
• Discuss the drawing organization at the engineering decisions
• Read The Business Writer’s Handbook
start of the project • Consider purging your files of the
(St. Martins Press) or Handbook of
• Determine if the project size or com- calculations when a job is complete as a
Technical Writing (St. Martins Press) or
plexity warrants the need to over-do a part of your records retention policy
similar books on how to write
set of drawings
• Practice writing as often as you can
• Read the American Institute of Steel
• Write correspondence and reports in
Desire to Learn New Things
Construction (AISC) Code of Standard
third person active voice Do you embrace new software? Do you view
Practice and the American Concrete
• Read Design Professional Insurance Building Information Modeling (BIM) as a
Institute (ACI) Detailing Manual
Corporation’s (DPIC) Lessons in hindrance or an advantage? Do you want to
• Review the drawings for constructability
Liability booklet to understand the work with new materials and building types?
problem with words like “all”, “final”, Do you want to learn how the consulting
Technical Skills “inspect”, “certify”, “best”, “worst” and business operates? Are you open to new
Are you conversant with all the computer scores of others. structural systems? What are your thoughts
software available in your office? How is your • Read everything you write AT LEAST on Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) and
knowledge of Building Code requirements? three times before you send it out to Design/Build (D/B) delivery?
Do you have a good understanding of struc- catch grammatical and syntax errors.
Improvement Tasks
tural analysis and design techniques? Are you Then read it again from the perspective
• Do not be afraid to use new software
familiar with all the various material codes? of a lawyer, and then again from the
• Take a class or two and go to seminars
Do you have a detailed understanding of the perspective of the intended recipient.
– continue your education
basis for seismic loads, wind loads, snow loads, • Try using the Oxford English
• Ask to review the office or company
etc.? How much experience do you have with Dictionary (OED) instead of MS
financials with one of the principals
geotechnical issues? Are you familiar with all Word’s thesaurus
• Take a leading role in the implementa-
the various framing systems? Do you have a
tion of BIM in your office
good inventory of rules of thumb? Quality and Organization • Become an expert in emerging technol-
Improvement Tasks of Calculations ogy or techniques
• Read and learn the International You may find it surprising that many
Are your calculations neat and orderly, easy
Building Code (IBC), the American of the architects, contractors, and build-
to follow, complete, and correct? Why do you
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) ing owners who hire structural engineers
perform calculations? Do you dive into the
codes and other similar building codes don’t always know, or care, whether we’re
detailed beam design first thing on a proj-
• Be familiar with all material codes technically superior compared to the next
ect? Does your level of effort change if you
(AISC, ACI, National Wood Products engineer or another firm. They may take it
know your calculations will be reviewed by
Association, American Iron and Steel for granted that all structural engineers have
an outside party? Do the calculations help
Institute, Steel Deck institute, Steel a similar level of technical ability. Having
the contractor? Should you save calculations
Joint Institute, etc.) a command of the technical aspects of our
after the project is constructed?
• Be familiar with American Society of profession is certainly essential and basic,
Testing and Materials (ASTM) Improvement Tasks but many of the consumers of our services
• Learn about Factory Mutual (FM) • Organize calculations into sections value other skill sets, like our ability to
requirements and Underwriters Labs such as foundations, floor framing, make good decisions, our ability to take
(UL) assembly ratings lateral analysis, etc. ownership, whether we embrace BIM and
• When you review a geotechnical • It is helpful to have a calculations index IPD, and our capability to understand a
report, you should have an intimate on larger projects project from their point of view. In Part
understanding of all geotechnical • Develop a written design criteria Two, we will explore a broad set of man-
aspects of the site. Read the geotechni- document tailored for each project so agement skills that should be mastered to
cal report AT LEAST three times that you and all other engineers on the round out your ability to make a significant
• Become familiar with all available project work with the same parameters contribution to the success of your firm and
structural engineering software in the • Imagine someone who did not work on achieve results.▪
office – go through the software guide the project having to read and under-
and practice every program or go stand your thought process by reading
through every tutorial your calculations
InSIghtS
fragments from broken
windows and glazed doors Glass Anti-Shatter
cause the vast majority of non-fatal injuries. Film (applied to
exposed glass
Conventional annealed or heat strengthened only)
glass shatters into relatively large, jagged
new trends, new techniques shards that can produce multiple lacerations Outside Inside
18 January 2011
Curtain Rod Attached to Wall
Wall
One thing that all retrofits using FRF have in Acknowledgment
Net Curtain common is the limited service life of the film
Much of the information in this article and
itself – typically about 10 years. When evalu-
Window Frame all of the accompanying figures are taken from
ating replacement vs. retrofit, it is important
the Window Analysis Guide, published by
Glass with Anti- to keep this life-cycle cost consideration in
the US Army Corps of Engineers Protective
Shatter Film on mind. A somewhat larger up-front investment
Inside Surface Design Center (pdc.usace.army.mil) as part
in laminated glass may pay off by eliminating
of the Help file for its Window Fragment
Curtain Box Attached the need for removal and replacement of FRF
to Wall (holds excess Hazard Level Analysis (HazL) software.
curtain and weighted
in the future.▪
curtain edge) Elevation View
No Scale
Glass Anti-Shatter
Film
Outside Inside
Section View
No Scale Film anchoring device
attached to frame
Film extended onto
frame surface
Frame
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STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS: IN THEORY AND PRACTICE
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People Helping People Build a Safer World™
ISSUES
plays a major role in the sustain-
ability of our future. The process of
creating a green building by today’s standards
requires the input and cooperation of every
professional on the design team. The process
issues affecting the structural beckons for a form of leadership equipped
engineering profession with the capability to envision and realize
a rational end product amongst an ocean
of competing objectives. It could be argued
that, as structural engineers, we are the best principles will ultimately settle upon profes-
outfitted among consultants to take the lead sional fields that are themselves in a constant
in this respect. By doing so, our efforts would state of flux.
at once drive the evolution of modern sus-
tainable design and the enhancement of the
structural engineering profession.
Symbiosis
There are indisputable truths worth noting. Enter the structural engineer. With extensive
In the United States and around the world, technical training and an affinity for interpret-
more available resources go into creat- ing complex systems, structural engineers
ing buildings than have the capacity to preserve and enhance
any other manmade the principles behind modern sustainable
Sustainability and the enterprise in exis- design. By harnessing these principles, the
22 January 2011
the structural engineer can uphold and pro- Structural engineers are equipped with
mote the design team’s sustainable objectives. excellent analytical tools; if they lack in any
Bearing in mind the already considerable field, it is in regard to communication and
complexity of our profession, the difficult leadership skills. Favorably, the altruistic
balance of market interests, building secu- nature of interest in sustainability is often
rity concerns, architectural intentions, and accompanied by a personality interested in
technological advances, one might proffer people and communication. Thus, in addi-
that a leadership role in sustainability is a tion to benefiting the practicing engineer by
second helping on an already too full plate. enhancing the value associated with our work
But how do we prioritize? As the industry by others, respecting sustainability increases
advances, we should look toward making the appeal of our industry to the kind of
the process better and not simply faster. In employees firms seek to hire and keep.
truth, the fact is that the choice is no longer
one to be made. The building industry, via
bodies such as the USGBC, the AIA COTE,
Conclusion
the GSA, a swarm of publications such as By approaching structural engineering in
Ecostructure and Metropolis Magazine, pri- a sustainable fashion, structural engineers
vately funded research, and a multitude of have the opportunity to serve as role models
inspired individuals have already blazed a within the building community, which col-
path in the direction of sustainable building lectively contributes in enormous proportion
practices. It is now vital to the profession that to the ever growing levels of consumption and
the structural engineer take a primary lead waste in America. Change begins with small
in the further development of techniques, steps, such as individual engineers adhering
metrics and standards related to sustainability. to practical and proven methods of design
T
o limit damage of wood-framed Some pre-fabricated shear panels can also
light commercial buildings, multi- be used as part of a single- or double-portal
family structures and homes frame system installed on a concrete foun-
against lateral forces from earth- dation. Code-evaluated portal frames have
quakes and high wind, the International been tested as an assembly consisting of 1 or
Wood pre-fabricated shear panels can accommodate
Building Code (IBC) and International 2 panels with a header spanning the opening high lateral loads in narrow wall segments.
Residential Code (IRC) allow several bracing and connected to the panel(s) with a moment-
methods. These include shear walls and braced resistive connection. Load capacities vary by time-consuming to build. If contractors do
wall panels built on-site, and pre-fabricated manufacturer and for steel versus wood shear not follow design details closely, there is also
shear panels as allowed under the alterna- panels but, as an example, an 18-inch wide a risk of red tag delays due to mistakes such as
tive materials section of the code. From an by 9-foot tall wood shear panel in a single- over-driven nails, incorrect nail spacing, nails
engineering standpoint, these are all workable portal system can have an allowable seismic that miss framing members, misplaced hold-
solutions – depending on the specific wall shear load of 1,905 lbs and an allowable wind downs and over-bent straps, to name a few.
design and building characteristics. shear load of 2,090 lbs. The same size panel in Wood pre-fabricated shear panels are easier
However, pre-fabricated shear panels offer a double-portal system can have an allowable to install than site-built options since they
a number of advantages to consider, such seismic load of 3,810 lbs and an allowable come in one-piece units and have simple
as consistent and predictable performance wind load of 4,180 lbs. brackets for attachment to the building’s
to satisfy code requirements, and the ability Pre-fabricated shear panels have also been foundation (additional fasteners are required
to accommodate high loads in narrow wall tested and used successfully in tall walls up at the top). Because of their consistency and
segments and other applications. For wood- to 20 feet high and in two-story structures pre-attached hold-down components, pre-
framed structures, wood pre-fabricated shear to meet the latest code requirements. Refer fabricated shear panels also typically can pass
panels also help simplify work for building to ICC-ES ESR-2652, April 1, 2010, for inspection easier than site-built shear walls
crews when compared to steel panels. details on one such product. The code evalua- and braced wall panels.
tion report justifies using the panel as a shear While engineers often specify steel shear
wall in Type V construction, wood-framed panels given a general familiarity with them,
Structural Applications buildings and as a one-to-one replacement for such panels can be more difficult to use on-
Because many modern building designs call braced wall panels specified in IBC Section site than wood pre-fabricated shear panels for
for numerous window and door openings 2308.9.3 and IRC Section R602.10. contractors working on wood-framed build-
along a wall line, the required length of site- Because they come in a variety of sizes ings. Steel panels require additional framing
built shear wall segments or braced wall panels (heights ranging from 7 to 20 feet and widths materials to attach finish products, and the
may be too wide to meet the architect’s desired ranging from 12 to 48 inches), wood pre-fab- ability to modify the panels in the field is lim-
aesthetic. For engineered designs, the code- ricated shear panels provide design flexibility ited. Wood pre-fabricated shear panels, on the
established height (h) to width (b) ratios are for a variety of wall sizes and loading condi- other hand, can be nailed, making them easier
3.5 to 1 for wind-controlled design loads and tions. As these details vary by product, it is for contractors to attach exterior siding and
2 to 1 for seismic-controlled design loads important to confirm specific capabilities in interior wallboard. Crews can also trim some
(with an exception for 3.5 to 1 for seismic the manufacturer’s literature. wood panels in height, which allows modifica-
if the allowable shear load is multiplied by tions to fit uneven foundations and varying
2b/h). For prescriptive design, even though wall heights. In addition, wood pre-fabricated
the height-to-width ratios can be increased
Ease of Construction shear panels can be drilled to accommodate
beyond 3.5 to 1 under certain rules, the Beyond structural considerations, specifying wiring or plumbing. It is important to follow
required brace wall length may still be limited wood pre-fabricated shear panels can help the manufacturer’s guidelines for field trim-
by the architectural design. streamline construction. Although ensuring ming or drilling.
Pre-fabricated shear panels are tested to a stable, code-compliant structure is the top For more information, contact a shear panel
industry standards, and can thus exceed code design concern, taking into account the chal- manufacturer. They can provide details on
limits on height-to-width. This allows for lenges building crews face on the jobsite can product sizes, applications, allowable loads,
accommodating high loads in narrow wall help reduce labor time and costs. and code compliance.▪
segments. For example, a 24-inch wide by Due to the extensive list of components
8-foot tall wood pre-fabricated shear panel for site-built shear walls or braces (e.g.,
Renee Strand, P.E., is a senior engineer for
can have an allowable shear load of 4,435 lbs studs, plates, sheathing, anchor bolts, hold-
iLevel by Weyerhaeuser. She can be reached
based on seismic controlled designs or 4,880 downs, nails, etc.), site-built shear walls
at renee.strand@weyerhaeuser.com.
lbs based on wind controlled designs. and braced wall panels can be difficult and
Uncracked
CONCRETE 2009
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Use of Shrinkage-Compensating
Concrete in Post-Tensioned Buildings Figure 1: Efflorescence at crack
on L1 slab soffit.
This is the second of a two-part article presenting case studies of four projects which demonstrate the effective use of shrinkage-compensating concrete
to mitigate restraint-to-shortening (RTS) cracking in post-tensioned concrete buildings. Two of these projects were built more than 40 years ago, one
has been in service for 12 years, and one is new, completed just 19 months before this writing. The first two buildings surveyed were presented in the
April, 2010 issue of STRUCTURE magazine.
John Wayne Airport Parking Structures were measured and repaired in the 480,000 square feet of floor area in
both structures. Prior to repair, some of the cracks allowed the passage
A2 and B2, Santa Ana, CA of water through the slab, resulting in unsightly efflorescence at the
Construction began on Parking Structures A2 and B2 at John Wayne slab soffit and potential damage to cars below (Figure 1).
Airport in Santa Ana, CA in the early 1990s. Virtually everyone in the Construction proceeded on the upper two levels in the late 1990s.
Southern California construction community during that period was The most significant structural change made in the upper levels was
aware of the project because of its dramatic RTS cracking problems the use of Type K shrinkage-compensating concrete. Virtually all other
and the ultimate resolutions. details relating to RTS were unchanged: dimensions, pourstrips, join-
The buildings are framed with cast-in-place, monolithic post-tensioned ery details, and the contractor executing the work. The two expanded
concrete slabs, beams, and girders. Each contains three elevated levels structures were completed and went into service in 1998.
(L1, L2, and L3), and each is three bays wide (about 175 feet) in the A visual inspection of all three elevated levels of both structures was
direction of the beam spans, and very long (over 1,000 feet) in the direc- made in February 2009, about eleven years after completion of the
tion of the slab spans. The long direction is separated into independent second phase. There is a striking difference in the performance of the
sections, each slightly over 300 feet in length, with two permanent upper levels (L2 and L3) where shrinkage-compensating concrete was
expansion joints. Each independent section has two pourstrips. used, and the lower level (L1) where it was not. The L1 level is laced
The buildings were built in two phases: first an initial level (L1), and with thousands of feet of unsightly repaired cracks (Figure 2). The
then two upper levels (L2 and L3) as the need for additional parking upper two levels, L2 and L3, are virtually crack free. Since the only
arose. The first elevated level (L1), built with normal-weight portland significant and relevant variable is the use of shrinkage-compensating
cement concrete, was completed in the early 1990s and immediately concrete in the upper levels, the performance difference can be reason-
began to crack severely. Eventually, over 70,000 linear feet of cracks ably attributed to the cement.
continued on next page
Figure 2: Typical repaired cracks on structure A2 Level L1. Figure 3: Top of slab near expansion joint, structure A2 Level L1.
great impact on future design and construction practices. Things were (when properly mixed, placed, finished, and cured) can substantially
done in this building that could not have been done without the use eliminate pourstrips; and, with due consideration of temperature effects,
of shrinkage-compensating concrete, and they resulted in outstanding can realistically increase the maximum length between expansion joints
performance and significant cost savings. to approximately 500 feet, with equivalent or superior performance.
The author gratefully acknowledges the staff of CTS Cement
Manufacturing, Inc., whose products include KSC shrinkage-com-
Conclusion pensating cement, and in particular its president, my old friend Ed
RTS (along with tendon corrosion) is one of the two biggest problems Rice, for their assistance with this article.
ever faced by the post-tensioning industry. Looking back over the growth
Kenneth B. Bondy, S.E., FACI, is the current President of the Post-
of post-tensioned concrete for 5 decades, and the early efforts to solve the
Tensioning Institute (PTI) and was, in 2005, inducted into the PTI
shortening problems, it seems that the use of shrinkage-compensating
Hall of Fame, Legends of Post-Tensioning. He serves on numerous ACI
concrete may have made the solution to the RTS problem easier.
committees. Mr. Bondy can be reached at www.kenbondy.com.
Observations of the four buildings included in this survey (including
the two discussed in the April 2010 issue) indicate that, on most post- The online version of this article contains references.
tensioned concrete buildings, the use of shrinkage-compensating concrete Please visit www.STRUCTUREmag.org.
in the South
design for durability of the reconstructed masonry.
Tower of the
A
fter the completion of the inves-
tigation outlined in Part 1 of
this three-part series, the City of
Milwaukee Milwaukee elected to proceed
with design for the repairs of the South Tower
City Hall of Milwaukee City Hall (Figure 1). National
engineering firm Simpson Gumpertz & Heger
Inc. (SGH) teamed with architect Engberg
Part 2 Anderson and engineer Bloom Companies,
By LLC for the repair design. The City of
Mark D. Webster, Milwaukee quickly established a goal for the
LEED AP, P.E., repairs to last 100 years, with regular mainte-
Gunjeet Juneja, P.E. nance for wear and tear of the materials. The
and Donald O. City awarded the construction contract to J.P.
Dusenberry, P.E. Cullen & Sons, Inc. of Janesville, Wisconsin.
Figure 5: View of the ring beam, corner turrets, and clock gable precast backup during construction.
Construction Sequence
The construction sequence for the tower reconstruction presented The contractor elected to modify the proposed sequence, for schedul-
special challenges. The top story of masonry had to be completely ing reasons, by constructing the ring beams at the 13th floor before
rebuilt, while the sloping roof structure above remained supported constructing the 12th-story piers. Since the piers support the ring
and capable of resisting live, snow, and wind loads. In the construc- beams, SGH was especially concerned about establishing tight joints
tion documents, a specific demolition and construction sequence between the tops of the piers and undersides of the beams. Following
was recommended that would maintain the structural integrity of constructive dialog with the contractor, a sequence was settled upon
the tower during construction, as follows. in which the contractor constructed each composite masonry pier to
1) Remove the clock gable and corner turret masonry down to the bottom of the terra cotta capital, cast in place the concrete backup
the 13th floor. for the capital, leaving a 2-inch gap below the ring beam, and then
2) Remove the steel elements that were embedded in the clock finally filled the gap beneath the ring beam with dry-pack.
gables and the steel framing between the gable faces and
sloped roof framing.
3) Repair or replace remaining corroded steel members
Conclusion
as required. The South Tower of the Milwaukee City Hall had serious structural
4) Install Cintec anchors at the 11th floor. damage that related to its original design, but had been aggravated
5) Reconstruct the floor system at the 12th story. The replace- by decades of exposure to a very aggressive environment. Using
ment floor framing was designed to carry shoring loads a combination of tailored construction materials and techniques,
needed to complete the following steps. structural repairs and reconstruction procedures were developed that
On one side of the tower at a time, complete Steps 6 through 10, were designed to revitalize and extend the useful life of the South
allowing at least one week of curing time at a given side before pro- Tower of the magnificent Milwaukee City Hall, while preserving its
ceeding to the next side: important historical features.▪
6) Shore the central core truss and the 13th floor down to the
new 12th floor.
Mark D. Webster, LEED AP, P.E., is a Senior Staff II –
7) Remove all the masonry at the 13th-story and 12th-story piers,
Structures and project manager at national engineering firm
including one contiguous corner turret.
Simpson Gumpertz & Heger Inc. He can be reached at
8) Reconstruct the 12th-story piers and corner turret up to the
mdwebster@sgh.com.
bottom of the ring beam.
9) Cast the new concrete ring beam and remaining portion of Gunjeet Juneja, P.E. is a Senior Staff II – Structures at Simpson
the associated corner turret. Gumpertz & Heger Inc.. She can be reached at gjuneja@sgh.com.
10) Resupport all roof framing and floor framing on the newly
Donald O. Dusenberry, P.E., is a senior principal at Simpson Gumpertz
constructed ring beam as required.
& Heger Inc. He can be reached at dodusenberry@sgh.com.
11) Reconstruct clock gables.
T
hat’s the word from foundation companies. Although projects beginning to move off the bottom with slow growth over the next
are not coming along as fast or as plentifully as they did before few years.”
the recession, company officials are seeing a slow but steady The company has recently been building its ground improvement
improvement in the pace of inquiries, bids and projects. business. “It’s more diversification for us. Our approach has always
“Clearly, there’s been a reduction in the amount of work because been to be diversified across different but related techniques and
of the economy,” says Jim Hussin, Director at Hayward Baker, Inc. applications.” The company, which has been in business for 60 years,
(www.haywardbaker.com), headquartered in Odenton, Maryland. is geographically diverse, too, covering the 12 Western states including
“But we’ve turned the corner. There’s not a rapid rise, but we’ve seen Alaska and Hawaii. It also maintains regional offices in California.
some improvement… we’ve definitely seen a pick-up in the past year.”
T
Hayward Baker offers a full range of pre- and post-construction ony Jacobsen, Senior Engineer at Grip-Tite (www.griptite.com)
services for foundation rehabilitation, settlement control, liquefaction of Winterset, Iowa, which has been manufacturing earth
mitigation, soil stabilization, groundwater control, slope stability, exca- anchoring products for almost 90 years, is seeing a rise in
vation support, and underpinning. The company has 20 offices across demand, too. “We’re starting to see a pick-up in industrial work.
the United States, as well as locations in Central and South America, We’re also seeing some increase in residential retrofit, usually two
and Canada. “Soil mixing is growing rapidly, and the techniques of stories or less.”
handling soft soils has evolved over past years,” Hussin notes. “We’re continued on next page
now finding more applications in areas
that were thought to be too expensive,
but are now economically viable.” He
adds: “We have a full range of techniques
that are available to clients, and we can
get creative and offer innovative solutions
to their problems.”
In the near term, Hussin forecasts that
more of their work will be in horizontal
markets such as infrastructure, roads and
B
ob Carnevale, Business De-
velopment Manager at Seattle-
based DBM Contractors, Inc.
(www.dbmcm.com), agrees that business Design/Build
is improving. “The construction industry
is suffering compared to two or three years Earth Retention
ago, but we have been diversified across Foundation Support
public and private work. Traditionally,
when one is up, the other is down. Prior to Slope Stabilization
the most current downturn, though, they Ground Improvement
were both up. Since then the private sector
has dwindled, so like most other construc- Dewatering
tion companies, we’ve been making our
living from public sector projects.” He
adds: “We think we’re bouncing along
the bottom and our indicators during the 800-562-8460 www.dbmcontractors.com
last six months seem to show that we’re
A
lso touting the benefits of helical piles is Stephen Petres of gives engineers confidence that they’re not going to have bolts that
MacLean Dixie (www.macleandixie.com), located in Franklin shear. We’re offering strength to structural engineers.”
Park, Illinois. “The market has shrunk, but we’ve doubled our Second, the company submitted its helical piers for testing by an
accredited laboratory. “We spent money to submit some of our
products to an ICC AC-358 evaluation
program, about a year and a half ago. We
expect certification this year [2011].” He
says that the company has already been
assigned preliminary certification num-
bers for their 1½-inch, 1¾-inch, 2⅞-inch
and 3½-inch products. “After certifica-
tion, structural engineers will have the
confidence to use our products because
they have been tested by an accredited
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M
onotube Pile Corporation
(www.davidsonpipe.com),
part of the Davidson Group
of Companies, is dedicated to manufac-
turing steel piles for exclusive use in the
deep foundations industry. The Canton,
Ohio company mainly serves the United
States market, says General Manager Sam
Kosa. “It appears that highway work is
increasing slightly. We’re seeing more bid-
ding action.” He adds: “We’re starting to
see more activity in government projects,
continued on page 38
STRUCTURE magazine 36 January 2011
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complex. “That’s pretty significant for
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tie-down technology.”
Steel Cast Coupling System
I
n the area of ground improve-
ment, Lyle Simonton, Director
Increased Torque Capacity of Business Development for St.
Louis-based Subsurface Constructors
Bolt Holes Align for Faster Assembly (www.subsurfaceconstructors.com),
says the company has done well in the
Bolts Do Not Shear During past year. “We had an extremely busy
Installation year. There is still a lot of work: DOTs,
wastewater, schools, medical, etc.” The
Lighter Weight Leads and Extensions 100-year old company is working on some
high profile projects, like deep founda-
Hot Dip Galvanized to ASTM A-153 tions for the new Mississippi River Bridge
Missouri approach and ground improve-
ment work for the Indiana Department of
www.MacLeanDixie.com Transportation. He further notes that some
C o p y r i g h t © 2 0 11 M a c L e a n D i x i e H F S
continued on page 40
A
lso touting the green benefits of soil improvement is Geopier less. Many project teams are opting for the schedule and cost benefits
Foundation Company, Inc. (www.geopier.com), based in offered by a RAP system, as opposed to costly over-excavation and
Mooresville, North Carolina. “Our biggest role has been as replacement, or deep foundations.”
a developer of technologies suited for any site. We have a variety of
“T
systems to treat virtually any soil condition. Impact systems allow us hings are looking up on the testing side of the founda-
to treat to deeper depth, up to 45 feet in a cost-effective way,” says tions business,” according to Gina Beim, P.E., senior
Brendan FitzPatrick, P.E., Director of Engineering and Development, consulting engineer-marketing at GRL Engineers
North America. The company highlights its Rammed Aggregate Pier (www.pile.com) in Cleveland, Ohio. “We see an increase in remote
(RAP) system, which FitzPatrick says lowers a project’s carbon foot- testing. Business seems to be picking up.” She credits the increase
print because they’re not using steel and concrete for driven piles to several factors, including the cost savings involved with remote
or caissons, both of which have larger carbon footprints. “Massive testing as opposed to on-site testing. “We have been seeing some
results of campaigns to help DOT understand remote testing. Lots
of structures are transmitting data now. This is a trend. We’re feeling
Pile Driving Analyzer ® Model PAX the pull for this.” She notes that AASHTO’s LRFD bridge design
standards will lead to more testing, and that the cost effectiveness of
Tests on remote testing will become of greater interest. “We hope that testing
Location or in a more economical way will give the market a method to keep
Remotely with standards high while offering cost-saving methods.” Aside from the
savings of not needing someone on site to check readings, another
cost benefit is not having to ship wires and cables to the project site.
Beim adds that the company is introducing a product aimed at the
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structures
of a “Preservation Engineer”; yet
many members of the structural engineering
community regularly inspect, evaluate, and
recommend repairs, interventions, and modi-
fications for the thousands of buildings on
significant structures of the past national and local historic registers and the
many others that qualify for such status (Figure
1). Because of the predominance of vernacular Figure 1: Inspection of Masonry Façade. Courtesy
structures and small religious buildings that of Dr. Debra F. Laefer.
constitute this specific building stock and the
they tend to develop small cracks. In traditional
proportionally modest resources generally
masonry, the weak lime-based mortars tend
available for their maintenance and upgrading,
to crack, instead of the substantially stronger
small local firms are often engaged on their
brick. This is intentional. In part this is because
behalf. The nature of these firms, and in fact
the mortar has the ability to heal itself to some
that of most structural engineering firms, is
extent (referred to as self-annealing), because
that few have engineers on staff with specialized
of the carbonation based curing process which
training in assessing historic buildings.
relies on air (as opposed to the hydration based
curing for concrete, which is dependent upon
“Old” Buildings free water). A soft mortar can also be periodi-
Although it is true cally removed from between the facing side of
Critical Skills for Structural that Newton’s pre-
cepts do not differ
the bricks in the process of repointing. With
Portland cement based mortars, the mortar is
Engineers Encountering based on a building’s nearly as strong, if not stronger, than the brick.
age or architec- Thus the brick is as likely to develop cracks,as
Historic Structures tural significance, the mortar, and periodic maintenance cycle of
there needs to be an repointing is nearly impossible without risking
By Dr. Debra F. Laefer acknowledgment that material production, damage to the bricks as the mortar is removed
material selection, structural systems, and join- from the joints. As seen in this example, failure
ing options are all constantly evolving topics. to understand material properties and their
This is problematic, as what is taught in most roles in distinction to those of modern ones,
civil engineering programs focuses exclusively jeopardize the long-term viability of preserv-
on new construction with only the rarest of ing buildings.
curriculum providing any instruction in tradi- Not only is this problematic with respect
tional or “archaic” technologies. This fact leaves to preserving architectural heritage but, as
the majority of today’s engineers ill-equipped America tries to come to terms with sustain-
to address the problems of older structures, ability, life-cycle, and embodied energy issues,
Dr. Debra F. Laefer is an American who is because these buildings include materials and two things need to be acknowledged. The
a tenured lecturer in Civil Engineering at structural systems that behave in ways that fun- first is that an existing structure represents an
the University College Dublin in Ireland damentally differ from modern construction. enormous previous investment from an envi-
and past Interim Director of Conservation A common example of the criticality of this is ronmental perspective. Thus, its replacement
Research for their Master’s in Urban and in understanding the traditional role of lime- represents a complete loss of that investment
Building Conservation. She is also Chair based mortars and their expected strength and requires the major environmental expen-
of the Heritage and Existing Structures capacity. Portland cement’s general displace- diture of manufacturing new materials and
Committee for the Earthquake Engineering ment of lime as the main binder in late 20th energy investment in their assembly, as well
Research Institute. Dr. Laefer may be century mortars was a failure to recognize a as the further energy needed for demolition,
reached at debra.laefer@ucd.ie. major role of mortar as the sacrificial element removal, and disposal of the existing structure.
in the building fabric. As buildings move Another example relates to the plaster ren-
due to a wide range of external factors, from derings over adobe walls. When removed, the
temperature-based expansion to differential structures fair much worse from a durability
settlement because of non-uniform loading, perspective. They also become more vulner-
able to damage and subsequent collapse when
To stack Waste heat to drier
Preheated air for burners exposed to seismic loading. Similarly, if the ren-
dering is repaired with a cement-based product,
the subsequent performance tends to be vastly
inferior to the application of traditional, local
materials. So not only are non-local materials
Preheat
Movement of cars
Fire Cool
Movement of gases
inferior to those originally used, they often
require higher levels of embodied energy as
Figure 2: Tunnel Kiln. Courtesy of they must be shipped greater distances.
Dr. Debra F. Laefer.
42 January 2011
are on the final deformation at the time of
Acquiring the failure. Current practice dictates determin-
Knowledge and Skills ing the Young’s modulus early in the loading
The situation is complicated. In some cases, curve and through a series of discrete measure-
gaining the specialty skills and background ments. Accurate properties are essential for
needed to sensitively and cost-effectively the analysis of an historic structure.
work with historic buildings can be rela- The issue is further complicated by the higher
tively straight forward as is the case with variability of traditional materials compared
documentation, where surveying skills and to their modern counterparts. An easy to
conservation theory are areas where the field understand example of this is in brick making. Figure 3: Traditional Scove Kiln.
is well established and literature is readily Modern brick production employs a tunnel
available. Even legislation and standards from kiln to dry and fire the units. The equipment industry has gone to greater transparency, in
around the world are now readily available is highly controlled with respect to the tem- part as a function of the expiration of patents
through the power of the Internet. perature levels and exposure time of the bricks and also in recognition that government agen-
Other areas, such as masonry evaluation and to the heat. Furthermore, the conveyor belt- cies often control the means and methods used
timber intervention, are arguably less accessible like arrangement of the tunnel kiln promotes a on a project. Thus, the permitted technologies
through self-study. In fact, at a recent workshop uniform heat exposure (Figure 2). In traditional must cooperate in facilitating verification of
for the development of curricula in Preservation kilns there was little heat flow so that bricks products and procedures. Increasingly, the
Engineering held at the University of Vermont located closer to the heat were more thoroughly teaching of these techniques is occurring at
in collaboration with the National Center for fired than those further away, resulting in mate- the master’s level. Additionally, many faculty
Preservation Technology and Training, there was rial variabilities with coefficients of variation member use examples in the classroom involv-
a fairly strong consensus amongst academics in excess of 20%, even after hand culling of ing major historic monuments to illustrate the
and practitioners alike that to best understand the material (Figure 3). Finally, just to further criticality of understanding fundamental soil
masonry and timber not only did specialty con- complicate the matter, the modern engineer mechanics. A common example is teaching
tent need to be developed, but that the ideal must evaluate what decades (if not centuries) of primary and secondary clay consolidation
situation would include firstly the introduc- exposure has done to material capacity. calculation using the Tower of Pisa as a mini-
tion of formal courses on modern masonry and Another problem is that many of the subjects case history. Such an approach enlivens the
timber. This approach might on the surface seem that the modern structural engineer needs to classroom and introduces, in an indirect way,
counter-intuitive. However, because current study in preservation engineering fall into the the fundamental role of engineers and engi-
practices are based on much more homogenous category of either developing technologies or neering in historic preservation.
materials, where the variability of performance is emerging fields. Some examples of the former Unfortunately, there are topics that cannot
highly controlled through modern production include non-destructive analysis, sensors, sta- be addressed effectively through any of these
and material inspection methods. Thus, first bilization, repair, and treatment strategies. means. Teaching forensics is a good example, as
studying the contemporary design methodolo- Base-isolation is a good example of something even the most fundamental skills such as con-
gies is actually much easier. that was nearly completely unknown 30 years ducting a load take down and understanding
The vast majority of older brick and timber ago but is now becoming a more mainstream a building with respect to code development
structures in America are vernacular and were (although still quite expensive) option for requires more than “chalk and talk” instruction.
designed and built without the benefit of the seismic protection of historic buildings. Teaching preservation ethics in a meaningful
an engineer, even when the engagement of In the latter category is the field of disaster way is another good example. In both instances
engineers for larger structures was already management, where training and expertise are fieldwork, case histories, and mentoring by
common practice. Consequently, the configu- rapidly evolving along with changing com- experienced engineers are inherent components
ration of a large percentage of these structures munity expectations. to the process. Such experiential learning can
was based on common practices. Although Perhaps the geotechnical community can only be obtained through mentored profes-
some of these are documented in a few early provide a partial model on how structural sional practice or through the creation of highly
20th century handbooks, the texts are hard engineers can move forward to incorporate specialized graduate level courses.
to access, arguably incomplete, and do not fundamental training for engineering students
approach the subject in a way that would be that would be appropriate for interacting
familiar to a modern engineer. For example, with historic buildings. Geotechnics is an
Conclusion
modern practice is based upon a certain area where specialty products have long been In summary, America’s structural engineers
probability that the materials are within a developed for heritage buildings, because have much to learn about historic buildings, if
particular performance range. That perfor- of the potential liability during subsurface we want them safely preserved for the sake of
mance level is in part an outgrowth of testing construction when it occurs adjacent to one both architectural heritage and environmental
methods that the structural engineering com- of these facilities. From a financial impera- protection. Some of this information is readily
munity has developed and adopted through tive, several sub-specialties have developed available for self study and some from spe-
consensus documents, such as those published including compensation grouting, jet grout- cialty courses, but eventually the community
by ASTM. Since most of these standards did ing, micropiles, and screw piles, just to name will have to embrace and financially support
not exist until recently, the limited testing data a few. From 1970 through the early 1990s, the dual concepts of preservation engineer-
from the period of original construction is these technologies faced great difficulties in ing as a formal master’s level endeavor and of
hard to evaluate in a modern context. A per- gaining wide spread acceptance and adoption, preservation research as a scholarly pursuit
fect example is stiffness. In the few available especially on public projects because of an worthy of tenure at top academic institutions
documents where deformation of masonry absence of widely available testing data and and funding at a national level. Such is already
piers was documented, the reported results clearly defined specifications. Since then, the the case in parts of Europe.▪
C
harles Schneider was born in Bridge at Ainsworth, Washington. His men-
Apolda, Germany and received tors, Macdonald, Chanute and Morison were
his engineering education at the some of the most renowned bridge engineers
Royal School of Technology at of the time.
Chemintz, Germany. After graduating in In 1883, he set himself up in business as a
1864, he worked as a mechanical engineer “civil engineer in New York making a specialty
before immigrating to the United States in of designing and superintending bridges and
1867. He went to work for the Paterson structural work for buildings.” One of his
Locomotive Works for four years before going first large clients was the Canadian Pacific
on to the Michigan Bridge and Construction Railway which was racing westward in com-
Company in Detroit. This was his first profes- petition with Jim Hill’s Great Northern.
sional involvement with bridges which would One of Schneider’s first jobs was to design
C. C. Schneider
occupy most of his career. In 1873, he went wooden Howe Trusses, his most famous
to work for the Erie Railroad in New York being the Stoney Creek Viaduct in the Selkirk completed a design of the 525-foot span,
City. Here he worked for Octave Chanute, located 125 feet above the river, in the spring
who designed the Kansas City Bridge, the first of 1882. Due to slowness of the iron delivery,
bridge over the Missouri River in 1867-68. In even though it was the first cantilever designed
addition, George Morison, who had worked by Schneider, it would not be completed
with Chanute on the Kansas City Bridge, until 1887. It lasted until 1910, when it was
was there as his Principal Assistant Engineer. replaced by a new steel bridge.
While with the Erie, “one of his duties was to On October 13, 1882, the Michigan
check the strain sheets and plans submitted Central Railroad asked Schneider to submit
by bridge companies... Bridge work up to this a proposal for a bridge across the Niagara
time had usually been let on a competitive Gorge near Roebling’s suspension bridge.
lump-sum basis. Mr. Schneider soon found Schneider’s Second Stoney Creek Viaduct.
They wanted “an estimate for a double-track
that this method was unsatisfactory, and the railroad bridge of 900 feet clear span, for the
Railroad Company’s officials decided to make Mountains. The only iron in the bridge was purpose of ascertaining the probable cost
their own plans; and it was Mr. Schneider’s the wrought-iron verticals and miscellaneous of bridging the Niagara below the Falls...
duty to prepare them...” bolts and plates. Even though built of wood intimating that a braced arch reaching from
In 1875, he went with Chanute who was and considered to be a temporary bridge, it cliff to cliff might be the proper design for
selected as one of the Board of Engineers to survived until 1893 and was replaced by a the proposed structure.” He submitted his
review proposals for a bridge at Blackwell’s steel arch bridge designed by Schneider. completed design to the Central Bridge
Island across the East River in New York He was asked to design an iron bridge, Works of Buffalo, New York who in turn
City. While reviewing them, he met Charles just west of his Stoney Creek Viaduct, over submitted a tender to the Niagara Bridge
Macdonald who eventually won the com- the Fraser River. This river was a fast flow- Company. The tender was accepted by the
petition. After leaving this position, he ing stream which precluded placement of Board of Directors on April 11, 1883.
went to work for a year with the Delaware falseworks in the river bed. Schneider, based The erection technique worked out by
Bridge Company and Macdonald. During upon his previous exposure to the Blackwell’s Central Bridge Company and Schneider
this period the Delaware Bridge Company Island Bridge competition, decided to build became the pattern which was followed on
had an agreement with the Edgemoor Iron this bridge using cantilever techniques. He many cantilevers in the future. They started
Company to fabricate all of their bridges. by building their towers and anchor spans
Schneider was stationed at the Edgemoor from falsework resting on rock banks. They
Company, where he designed and supervised designed and built two travelers to erect the
construction of several bridges including the rest of the bridge. The travelers worked out-
Pennsylvania Railroad Rockville Bridge, 23 ward on each cantilever until they reached
spans of 160 feet with two tracks, over the the end of the cantilever span. The suspended
Susquehanna River and the Cohoes Bridge span was 120 feet long and the maximum
over the Mohawk River on the Delaware and reach of each traveler was 40 feet. Schneider
Hudson Railroad. did not want the traveler to go beyond the
From 1879-1883, he was associated with end of the cantilever span, as he did not want
George Morison on the Plattsmouth, to overload the cantilever span or anchor-
Bismarck and Blair Bridges across the age. This left 40 feet of suspended span that
Missouri River as well as the Snake River Fraser River Bridge. could not be erected by the travelers. He
I
n the 1970s, geodesic domes were the
vision of efficient, futuristic build-
ings. It seems that every community
had a least one of these Buckminster
Fuller-inspired creations – whether a home,
restaurant, office, church or motel.
Today, green buildings typically look no
different than conventional buildings. The
unseen systems and materials are often more
important than the outward appearance. A
case in point is structural insulated panels
(SIPs). SIPs contribute to a range of envi-
ronmentally responsible design goals, while
meeting the structural and aesthetic needs of a
host of building types and architectural styles.
SIPs provide a strong and stiff base for a living roof at the Bend, Oregon, Metro Parks and Recreation
Structural Attributes District headquarters.
Structural insulated panels are high-per- structural diaphragms to resist high winds and a tight, high-performance building envelope.
formance, engineered wall, roof, and floor earthquakes. They have been proven for use in The rigid foam core offers continuous insulation
components for use in single- and multi- seismic design categories D, E and F. across the panels’ width and length, reduc-
family homes, as well as schools, worship In roof applications, SIPs perform well under ing the thermal bridging created by lumber.
facilities, offices, retail, and other light com- gravity and snow loads. Designers can specify Additionally, the large-size panels have signifi-
mercial buildings. The panels are made of SIPs to create vaulted, open interior spaces. cantly fewer joints that require sealing.
two outer sheathing layers (typically oriented Since they have long clear span capability – The U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE)
strand board – OSB) laminated to a rigid typically up to 20 feet – SIPs can reduce the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)
insulating foam core (such as expanded poly- need for intermediate structural supports. evaluated the energy performance of SIPs
styrene – EPS). The skins and foam core work They can also be employed in roof struc- versus stick-built framing. Their analysis of
together to achieve high strength in a manner tures without an engineered truss system. complete wall assemblies found that SIPs had
comparable to other engineered structural The results are large, soaring rooflines, open an approximately 47 percent higher whole-
components, such as I-joists. and vaulted ceilings, and overall extra indoor wall R-value than a comparably sized stud
In wall applications, SIPs provide exceptional space for applications otherwise very difficult wall (i.e., 3.5-inch-thick core SIP versus 2
strength in racking and diaphragm shear capac- to achieve with stick-built construction. by 4 studs at 16 inches on center).
ities, making them suitable as shear walls and Most SIP manufacturers work with design- Because of SIPs’ capabilities, more design
ers and specifiers to ensure their panels are professionals are using them in net zero-
accepted by local building code officials and energy buildings. The panels can help reduce
are in compliance with the building codes, annual heating and cooling demands by 50
including the International Building Code (IBC) to 60 percent compared to stick framing,
and International Residential Code (IRC). This going a long way toward reducing overall
process includes providing alternative material energy needs. This is particularly important
evaluation or listing reports for SIPs showing in states such as California, where energy
evidence of compliance with code requirements efficiency is mandated. California’s Title 24
as an alternate method of construction. Energy Efficiency Standards for Residential
and Nonresidential Buildings require net-
zero energy construction by 2020 for homes
Green Building Advantages and 2030 for commercial buildings. All
In addition to their ability to meet a range of across the country, the American Institute
structural needs, SIPs support green building of Architects (AIA) has put forth its AIA 2030
goals, including improved energy efficiency Commitment, calling for all new buildings to
and indoor air quality. be carbon neutral by 2030.
The key environmental advantage of designing The tightness of the SIPs’ envelope also
For walls, SIPs provide exceptional strength in
and building with SIPs is their ability to create makes buildings less prone to infiltration by
racking capacities.
Design Flexibility
Design teams are using SIPs in a range
of architectural styles, from traditional to
ultra-modern. SIP buildings look no dif-
ferent than other construction materials,
and can also enable innovative designs.
Conclusion
SIP technology is not new, having been
around for several decades. What has
C
onstruction projects are built
through the application of ideas,
decisions and judgments made by
different individuals and stake-
holders in the project. Misunderstandings and
differences of opinion are daily occurrences,
even on successful projects. It is common
for some issues that arise during the course
of a project to become a dispute. There are
as many ways to resolve disputes as there
are ways for disputes to arise. Disputes are
resolved through techniques ranging from
court judgments to negotiations between
business partners. In response to the restric- or jury. Through the process of litigation (ADR) methods have been developed. The
tiveness and uncertainty in taking disputes to the parties identify the issues in dispute, most common forms of ADR are Arbitration
trial, alternative methods of resolving disputes exchange information and documents, gather or Mediation. ADR also covers informal
have become commonplace. testimony from people with knowledge, and negotiation or other methods of resolving
The occurrence of a dispute is often antici- retain expert witnesses to render opinions. a dispute other than through a judgment
pated by parties, and dispute resolution Ultimately, after what might be several years, entered by a court. All ADR methods are
procedures are agreed to and defined in the parties will present their factual and legal voluntary and must be agreed to by the par-
contracts. Other times, a dispute resolution arguments to a judge or jury which will render ties. Contracts often set forth the method(s) of
process is developed in response to the cir- a decision, thereby resolving the dispute. In dispute resolution that the parties do or may
cumstances surrounding the dispute and the its simplest form, a litigation case will involve agree to should a dispute arise. Contractual
needs of the parties. This article will describe one Plaintiff and one Defendant; however, it dispute resolution processes can be straight
some of the more typical dispute resolution is common, especially in construction related forward or can set forth numerous steps the
techniques, and the benefits and limitations cases, for cases to involve multiple parties, parties must take before the final resolution
to each option. The parties to a dispute should cross-claims, counter-claims, and multiple method (typically litigation or arbitration)
look at the issues and circumstances involved claims for damages. can be commenced.
in their dispute when choosing a dispute reso- Litigation is very expensive, and requires a
Arbitration
lution technique. lot of time from both attorneys and from the
project personnel and representative princi- Arbitration involves the resolution of a dispute
Traditional Dispute Resolution pals of the firm. The costs associated with the through the issuance of an award by a single
exchanging of information, especially in the arbitrator or an arbitration panel. Arbitration
Litigation
era of emails and electronic documents, and is similar to litigation in that all parties will
Litigation is the traditional way of formally preparing for trial can be daunting, especially present their factual and legal arguments to
resolving a dispute that parties are unable to when there are multiple parties. Once a law- a decision maker, who will issue an award,
resolve on their own. Litigation is the pro- suit is filed, it does not mean that the parties which is intended to be a final resolution
cess of resolving a dispute through the court must give up trying to resolve the dispute on of the dispute. There are however some sig-
system, which commences when one party, their own. The parties are permitted, and are nificant, and important, differences between
the Plaintiff, files a Complaint against another usually strongly encouraged by the Court, to litigation and arbitration proceedings.
party, the Defendant. The parties to the litiga- try to resolve the dispute on their own using The most significant shortcoming of arbitra-
tion are represented by attorneys. Ultimately Alternative Dispute Resolution techniques, any tion is that, with the exception of a few very
the court, through either a jury verdict or a time before a judgment is entered by the Court. limited circumstances, there is no right to
judge’s decision, will enter a judgment in Once a judgment has been entered, either party appeal an award once issued. This removes
favor of one party. The litigation process has the option of appealing the decision to a an important check and balance which is
is defined and governed by Rules of Civil higher court. It often takes years for a case to inherent in the litigation process, the right
Procedure, which can be rigid and inflexible be resolved once litigation is initiated. to appeal a bad decision. Any party should
when compared to alternative methods of consider the lack of appeal before agreeing
dispute resolution. to arbitrate a dispute. Other differences
Litigation is typically the final step in the
Alternative Dispute Resolution are that the parties must pay for the time
process, initiated only after the parties have In response to the expense, formality and of the arbitrator(s), and discovery is typi-
been unable to resolve the dispute and need risk of an adverse finding inherent in litiga- cally not allowed, or limited by agreement.
the assistance of a decision maker, the judge tion cases, Alternative Dispute Resolution Resolution of the dispute is often efficient
Smislova, Kehnemui and Associates, P.A. received an Outstanding Project Award for the 300 New
Jersey Avenue project in the 2010 NCSEA Annual Excellence in Structural Engineering awards
program (Category – New Buildings $10M to $30M)
V
eiled in the shadow of the U.S. hundred feet from cantilevered beams at the
Capitol, the atrium at 300 New top floor of the building. Steel cables extend
Jersey Avenue displays one of the from the top level of the structure to support
most contemporary integrations the hanging wall against vertical and lateral
of architectural vision and engineering cre- forces. Lateral movement is also restricted
ativity in Washington, DC. The expansive, by horizontal kipper trusses at each level,
full-height atrium was designed and con- and springs at the bottom of the wall and
structed as part of a new, 10-story concrete at the attachment to the existing building
office building and six-story below grade park- prevent loads from being transferred to the
ing garage. It is the first commercial office glazing system below the curtain wall and to
building to be designed and built in the the existing building.
United States by the world renowned archi- The boomerang truss, seemingly hovering
tectural firm, Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners over the length of the atrium, is offset from
(formerly the Richard Rogers Partnership), the supporting tree structure with tie-back
who collaborated with Smislova, Kehnemui rods that help support it at mid-span. The
and Associates, P.A. (SK&A), the structural truss has a tapered triangular section with
engineer of record and HKS Architects, the circular chord and web members. The depth sheave beams supported on a dedicated steel
project architect and architect of record, to of the truss tapers from eight feet to zero at cage system, which itself is supported on
create one of the most unique structures in the the ends. A noteworthy feature of the support atrium tree beams and the main truss at the
Washington, DC metropolitan area. Hakan system for the truss is the tension rods that top. The guide rails are laterally supported by
Onel, P.E., S.E., an associate at SK&A, led support it and its stair platforms. These tie slender steel forks attached to the tree beam
the structural design of the atrium and Tolga rods are pre-tensioned so that they remain members. The stair treads are Z-shaped bent
Cubukcu, now retired, was responsible for tensioned during all phases of construction plate sections that were specifically designed
the office building portion of the project. and provide initial camber to the steel truss. to provide lateral stiffness to the stair frame.
Azer Kehnemui, D.Sc., P.E., principal and The two steel lattice columns supporting the Steel bridges extend from the main atrium
co-founder of SK&A, served as the principal truss at each end are constructed of steel HSS tree structure, spanning each level between the
in charge of the entire project, leading both pipe sections in compression and pre-ten- two historic buildings and the new contem-
design teams and coordinating efforts between sioned cables with roller pins at each outrigger porary structure. The bridges are framed with
the engineers, architects, and owner. to allow for zero loss in pre-tensioning fric- stiff kink post truss structures with slender
The LEED GOLD certified 270,000 SF tion. Structural redundancy in the columns members and walking platforms composed
office building is constructed adjacent to an has been provided using double cables at each of multilayer laminated glass panels.
existing historic 1935 office building and of the three lines of cables around the main Residents and tourists alike are now witness
its 1953 addition. The atrium is the proj- pipe section. to a timeless vision of engineering and archi-
ect’s most notable feature and serves as the The skylight covering the atrium is com- tectural ingenuity that punctuates a sleepy
common convergence space between the posed of ladder frames that were assembled morning commute or casual stroll through
three buildings–blending past and present off-site and transported to the project site. The Capitol Hill. This part futuristic, part whim-
in a three-dimensional cascade of glass and frames are constructed of steel channels and sical atrium structure is a welcome contrast
steel. Linked by the canopy of a skylight and HSS tube steel sections that were field bolted to the stern, conservative personality of the
a full-height hanging glass facade in front, the together on-site to create the framework that traditional DC skyline, introducing a truly
buildings come together in a series of glass supports the glass panels of the skylight. spectacular integration of art and ability.▪
walkways and platforms that extend out from The atrium tree is the primary structural
the main “tree” structure in the center of the steel moment frame tower that supports the Azer Kehnemui, D. Sc., P.E., Consulting
space. Supporting the skylight is a complex, skylight, the boomerang truss, and the eleva- Structural Engineer, is Founding
bright yellow boomerang truss that extends tor shaft and platforms. The 18-inch diameter Principal of Smislova, Kehnemui &
the length of the atrium and is punctuated steel HSS round columns that make up the Associates, PA (SK&A).
at each end with two lattice columns that, at tree structure’s vertical members had to be
Hakan Onel P.E., S.E. is an Associate
first glance, appear to be sculptures placed for filled with concrete and designed as composite
of SK&A.
aesthetic appeal. columns in order to carry the high axial loads.
The luminous glass curtain wall at the The elevator support cage and transparent Rupa M. Patel is a project engineer at SK&A.
entrance of the atrium falls about one elevator shaft are constructed with elevator
Deferred Submittals:
News form the National Council of Structural Engineers Associations
Lunch Presentation
Sponsored by Fyfe Company
How do you avoid deferred submittal problems when specifying
fiber reinforced polymer for the structural upgrade of concrete?
Scott Arnold, P.E.
January 25, 2011: Heavy Timber Connections: Mistakes and Lessons Learned – Ben Brungraber
February 10, 2011: Detailing of Unbonded Post-Tensioned Structures to Minimize the Effects
of Restraint to Shortening – Bryan Allred
March 1, 2011: Building Information Modeling in Structural Engineering Practice Today –
Upcoming David J. Odeh
NCSEA March 10, 2011: Post-Tensioned Slabs on Ground Design – Bryan Allred
Webinars: April 19, 2011: Code Issues in Existing Buildings: Archaic and Obsolete Structures –
Donald Friedman
May 17, 2011: AISC T.R. Higgins Lecture–The AISC Seismic Design Provisions:
Past, Present and Future – James O. Malley
1st Lecture: David Scott, Arup, America’s Building Practice Leader, Past Chairman, CTBUH, New York, NY
“Extreme Engineering” – Friday, February 18, 2011 – 4:10 pm
2nd Lecture: Masayoshi Nakashima, Kyoto University, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto, and
E-Defense, National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention, Kyoto, Japan
“Safeguarding Quality of Life: the Role of Large-Scale Testing” – Friday, March 25, 2011 – 4:10 pm
3rd Lecture: Chris D. Poland, Chairman & CEO, Degenkolb Engineers, San Francisco, CA
“Building Disaster Resilient Communities” – Friday, April 8, 2011 – 4:10 pm
For more information about the lecture series, see the Lehigh University website at www.lehigh.edu/frkseries.
Programs & Communications, and Toolkit Committees to CASE committees and CASE in general, visit their website at
continue work on their respective assignments. www.acec.org/CASE.
Programs and Communications Committee – Responsible Contracts Committee – Responsible for developing and
for the planning and organizing all CASE education sessions maintaining all CASE contracts to assist practicing engineers
at the SEI Structures Congress, ACEC Fall Conference, plus with risk management.
CASE planning meeting locations. This committee also keeps Guidelines Committee – Responsible for developing and main-
the editorial calendar of CASE articles for both STRUCTURE taining national guidelines of practice for structural engineers.
magazine and Structural Design magazine. Toolkit Committee – Responsible for developing and main-
taining all risk management tools.
S
tructural engineers consistently rank have responsibility for planning, designing The combination made for a tremendously
high in levels of job satisfaction and and constructing the Metrorail system. My invigorating, exciting work place! I also met
public respect. Through the experi- dad saw this as an opportunity of a lifetime and married the travel agent that handled
ences and testimonies of practicing and moved our family from Chicago to DC the firm’s business… but that is a story for
engineers, both past and present, this series of halfway through my kindergarten year. another time.
articles celebrates the joys and satisfactions of Growing up, I enjoyed learning – not just math Although the professional road has been
our profession. From this collection of personal and the sciences, but in all areas. After complet- winding, and at times rocky, 31 years later my
accounts, sources of career satisfaction are identi- ing high school, I enrolled at the University of firm remains the same kind of place. When
fied and examined. Obstacles are also identified Virginia as a student of Civil Engineering. In an opportunity came for my family to serve as
which can impede our level of job satisfaction. retrospect, I am sure that my choice of major missionaries in Russia, my supervisors granted
These observations are used to formulate keys for stemmed first and foremost from my admiration me a year’s leave of absence with their bless-
improving, advancing and uplifting the struc- for my dad and his colleagues. ing. Several years later, when an unexpected
tural engineering profession and its personal Upon graduation, I half-heartedly inter- victory landed me in the state legislature, my
rewards. Whether an idealistic young profes- viewed with one or two engineering firms firm once again allowed me a series of leaves of
sional, or an experienced engineer in need of but decided that school was still too much absence to serve my term. Although the politi-
a career re-charge, reclaim the pleasures that fun! So I enrolled to study law at The George cal experience was interesting, I chose not to
make structural engineering a great profession! Washington University. One month before seek reelection, primarily because I missed the
classes were to start, while browsing the uni- structural engineering environment.
versity bookstore, I abruptly changed my Having served as a part-time adjunct pro-
Part One – My Story plans and decided to pursue a master’s degree fessor for a number of years, I have recently
My father was a structural engineer. My in structural engineering instead. These were transitioned to a full-time teaching position at
grandfather was a public works engineer. two wonderfully interesting, satisfying and the University of Kansas. Once again, I enjoy
In several small towns of Iowa you can find fun years. the company of numerous distinguished, pro-
plaques on bridges that bear Granddad’s With a master’s, I was much better prepared fessional colleagues, and I continue to work
name, Harold Lyon. Engineering is a Lyon for a practicing bridge engineering position. part-time with the firm where I started my
family tradition. It is in my blood. Once again my dad came into the picture, career. I do not know what the future holds
As a child, I loved visiting my dad’s office. advising that I interview with a consulting for me professionally. I only hope that it will
What impacted me the most was not necessarily firm that he held in high esteem. He arranged be possible for me to continue doing exactly
my fascination with the projects. More than for an interview with the office leader and, what I am doing, because this is a great pro-
that, I relished the work environment and the although the Washington office was not fession and I love it.
camaraderie of professionals. hiring, he suggested that a young fellow want- The point of this autobiography is to suggest
My dad served alongside my granddad in ing to learn the bridge business should go and that nothing is terribly unique about my pro-
World War II with a Seabees unit in the South interview at the home office in Kansas City. fessional experience. Every structural engineer
Pacific. The Seabee motto shows them to be I was not excited. Although I did not object has a story to tell, and such accounts can serve
the consummate engineers: “The difficult we strongly to the idea, I had not envisioned as a basis for identifying and fostering the
do immediately; the impossible takes a little moving halfway across the country for a job. tremendous sources of career satisfaction that
longer”. When he returned to civilian life, Dad However, this was a friend of my dad’s, and are ours as structural engineers. In my case, it
enrolled at Iowa State University and received I felt an obligation to consider it. I agreed begins with being in a profession with men
his bachelor’s degree in Civil Engineering. He to interview. and women that I respect, admire and enjoy.
then worked two years designing bridges for I lugged my heavy suitcase through Kansas In my next article, I will explore the lives of
the Iowa Highway Department. One day, he City that morning, wondering why I was other, more notable structural engineers, and
and a colleague took time off work and went there. But when I arrived in the firm’s bridge discover what sources of joy undergirded their
up to Chicago to “pound the pavement” in department, it was a “déjà vu” moment. I professional careers.▪
hopes of landing a consulting job. tingled with childhood memories of my
Dad joined the firm DeLeuw Cather and dad’s office. The competence, professional-
Robert H. Lyon, P.E. (blyon@ku.edu), is
spent his first ten years there designing and ism, collegiality and warmth in that office
a lecturer in the Civil, Environmental and
managing various bridge and highway proj- convinced me that this was where I wanted
Architectural Engineering Department at the
ects. While working on a major highway to spend my career. It had a wonderful mix
University of Kansas and a structural engineer
project in the Washington, D.C. area, the of thirty-year design professionals, along with
at HNTB in Kansas City, Missouri.
organization was being formed that would a large group of talented, recent graduates.
Structural Forum is intended to stimulate thoughtful dialogue and debate among structural engineers and other participants in the design and
construction process. Any opinions expressed in Structural Forum are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of NCSEA,
®
CASE, SEI, C 3 Ink, or the STRUCTURE magazine Editorial Board.