PLSQL For Beginners 4

An
Training Guide
PL/SQL
for
Beginners
Workbook
Training Guide www.appltop.com
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PL/SQL for Beginners - Workbook
Workbook
This workbook should be worked through with the
associated Training Guide, PL/SQL for Beginners.
Each section of the workbook corresponds to a

section in the Training Guide. There are a number of
questions and exercises to perform in each section.
All the answers are at the back of this workbook,

feel free to take a look whilst working through,
sometimes a quick look at the answer is just enough
to jog your memory.
Good Luck!
Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 2

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Exercise Hints
When you write any PL/SQL from within SQL*Plus,
remember to use the following SQL*Plus
commands:-
ed Invoke editor
save Save contents of SQL buffer to a file
get Load file into SQL buffer
start Load and execute file
@ Execute file
/ Execute contents of SQL buffer
Using the above commands will save you time and

allow you to keep a copy of your work.
Ampersand substitution variables can be used in a

PL/SQL block just like they can in a SQL program,
for example:-
DECLARE
l_number NUMBER := &1;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(l_number);
END;
The above code will prompt you to enter a value,

this value is put into l_number.

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Section One
Introduction to PL/SQL

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Quiz
1. What does PL/SQL stand for?
2. What is PL/SQL?
3. What types of PL/SQL are there?
4. Name 4 features of PL/SQL

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Section Two
PL/SQL Fundamentals

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Quiz
1. How is a statement terminated?
2. What keywords are used to determine a PL/SQL block?
3. Names 3 Block Types.
4. What does the following code display?

DECLARE
l_var NUMBER := 10;
BEGIN
DECLARE
l_var NUMBER := 20;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(l_var);
END;
END;
5. What are the two types of comment that can be used in

PL/SQL?
6. Name 3 scalar variable datatypes
7. What is a Constant?
8. What is wrong with the following code?

l_status_type CONSTANT NUMBER;
9. What does %TYPE do and where is it used?
l_description VARCHAR2(5) := 'Description';
11. What is the value of l_x?

l_a NUMBER := 10;
l_b NUMBER := 15;
l_x NUMBER := l_a + l_b;

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12. Given the following declarations:-
l_x NUMBER := 50;

l_y NUMBER := 25;
l_z NUMBER;
l_a NUMBER;
What is the value of l_a:-
l_a := l_x + l_y;

l_a := l_x / 2 + l_y;
l_a := l_y + l_z;
l_a := NVL(l_z,100) + l_x;
13. What is the difference between the = and := operators?
14. Given the following declarations:-
l_x NUMBER := 50;

l_y NUMBER := 20;
l_s VARCHAR2(3) := '50';
l_b BOOLEAN;
Is l_b TRUE or FALSE?
l_b := l_x > l_y;

l_b := 100 < l_y + l_x;
l_b := l_s;
l_b := l_s > l_x;
l_b := l_y < l_x AND l_x = l_s;
l_b := 30 BETWEEN l_x AND l_y;
15. How can you view compile (syntax) errors in a PL/SQL block?
16. What has to be done before DBMS_OUTPUT can be used?
17. What does the following code print

DECLARE
l_x NUMBER := 50/10;
l_y NUMBER := 6;
BEGIN
IF l_x < l_y AND l_x BETWEEN l_y-l_y+1 AND l_y+l_x THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('TRUE');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('FALSE');
END IF;
END;
18. What is the difference between a FOR loop and a WHILE
loop?

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DECLARE
l_done BOOLEAN := FALSE;
BEGIN
WHILE NOT l_done
l_total := l_total + 10;
END LOOP;
END;
20. What will the following code print?
<<block1>>
DECLARE
l_x NUMBER := 10;
l_y NUMBER := 20;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(l_x);
<<block2>>
DECLARE
l_x NUMBER := 50;
l_y NUMBER := 60;
l_z NUMBER;
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(l_x);
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(block1.l_y);
l_z := (l_x + block1.l_x) / block1.l_y;
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(block2.l_z);
END;
END;
21. Why should the use of the GOTO statement be avoided?

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Exercises
1. Create a program that accepts two numbers from
substitution variables, display one of the following
messages:-
first is greater than second

first is less than second
first is the same as second
2. Create a program that accepts a single number. Display the

message Hello World X times, where X is the number
entered.
3. Try running the above program and entering a negative

number, what happens? Change the code to print a message
if a number less than 1 is entered that informs the user they
must enter a number greater than or equal to 1.

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Section Three
SQL within PL/SQL

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Quiz
1. What kind of SQL statements cannot be directly run from
within a PL/SQL program?
2. What is the INTO clause for?
3. What could go wrong with the following code?

DECLARE
l_name VARCHAR2(10);
BEGIN
SELECT ename
INTO l_name
FROM emp
WHERE job = 'CLERK';
END;
4. What is an Implicit Cursor?
5. What other DML statements can be used in PL/SQL besides

SELECT?

DECLARE
job emp.job%TYPE := 'CLERK';
BEGIN
UPDATE emp
SET sal = sal * 1.25
WHERE job = job;
END;
7. What is SQL%NOTFOUND?

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Exercises
1. Write a program that gives all employees in department 10 a
15% pay increase. Display a message displaying how many
employees were awarded the increase.
2. Create a PL/SQL block that accepts a new job title and an

old job title. Find all employees in the old job and give them
the new job. Ensure a valid message is given back to the
user even if no employees changed job.

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Section Four
Exceptions

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Quiz
1. What is an Exception?
2. What is an Exception Handler?
3. What keyword defines the start of an Exception Handler?
4. Where in a block should an Exception Handler appear?
5. Look at the following code:-

DECLARE
l_name emp.ename%TYPE;
l_empno emp.empno%TYPE := &1;
BEGIN
SELECT ename
INTO l_name
FROM emp
WHERE empno = l_empno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('Employee name = '||l_name);

END;
What would you have to add to the code to display UNKNOWN

EMPLOYEE if the employee number entered did not exist?
6. What do the functions SQLCODE and SQLERRM do?
7. What is Exception Propagation?
8. What does the EXCEPTION_INIT pragma allow you to do?
9. What does WHEN OTHERS allow you to do?

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Exercises
1. Write the code for question 5 on the quiz
2. Create a program that accepts two numbers. If the first is

larger than the second raise an exception called e_bigger
and display an appropriate message.
3. Create a program that sets the comments column on the

transactions table to THIS IS A COMMENT LINE.
4. Change the above program to handle the error raised.

Display an appropriate message including the value of
SQLERRM and insert the same message into the messages
table.

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Section Five
Explicit Cursors

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Quiz
1. What is an Explicit Cursor?
2. Names 3 keywords used with explicit cursors.
3. What has to be done before rows can be fetched from a

cursor?
4. How many errors can you see in the following code?

DECLARE
CURSOR employee_cur(p_deptno emp.deptno)
IS
SELECT ename
, job
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = l_deptno;
BEGIN
OPEN employee_cur(10);
LOOP
FETCH r_employee INTO employee_cur;
EXIT employee_cur.NOTFOUND;
END LOOP;
CLOSE;
END;
5. What is a Cursor FOR Loop?
6. Name 3 explicit cursor attributes.
7. What does WHERE CURRENT OF allow you to do?

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Exercises
1. Create a program that mimics selecting all columns and rows
from the dept table. There is no need to format the output,
just select all columns and all rows. Use a cursor FOR loop.
2. Create a program that copies all departments to a table

called old_dept. Do not use a cursor FOR loop. Display
how many rows were copied.

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Section Six
Stored Procedures &
Functions

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Quiz
1. What are differences between stored subprograms and
anonymous blocks?
2. What is the difference between a function and a procedure?
3. What is an argument list?
4. What is the difference between Positional and Named

notation?
5. What determines how an argument/parameter can be used,

i.e., whether it can be used to pass values, return
values,…etc.
6. Describe what each parameter mode does
7. What is the difference between Actual and Formal

parameters?
8. How many errors can you find in the following code:-

REPLACE OR CREATE FUNCTION DelEmp(p_empno emp.empno)
BEGIN
DELETE emp
WHERE empno := p_empno;
END;
9. How might you invoke a procedure with the following

declaration?
PROCEDURE EmpIno( p_empno IN emp.empno%TYPE
, p_ename OUT emp.ename%TYPE
, p_sal OUT emp.sal%TYPE);
10. What is a local subprogram?
11. When might you use a local subprogram?
12. What does RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR do?

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Exercises
1. Create a procedure that deletes rows from the old_emp
table. It should accept 1 parameter, job; only delete the
employee's with that job. Display how many employees were
deleted. Write a program to invoke the procedure.
2. Change the above procedure so that it returns the number of

employees removed via an OUT parameter. Write a program
to invoke the procedure and display how many employees
were deleted.
3. Convert the above program to a function. Instead of using

an OUT parameter for the number of employees deleted, use
the functions return value. Write a program to invoke the
function and display how many employees were deleted.

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Section Seven
Packages

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Quiz
1. What is a package?
2. What two parts make up a package?
3. What should appear in a package specification?
4. What is the difference between a package specification and

package header?
5. What should appear in a package body?
6. What does subprogram-overloading mean?
7. When might you use subprogram overloading?
8. What are private package objects and where are they

defined?
9. When invoking a packaged procedure or function, what do

you need to do that is different to a stored procedure or
function?
10. What is the pragma RESTRICT_REFERENCES used for?
11. Can the following function be invoked from a SELECT

statement?
FUNCTION CapName( p_empno IN emp.empno%TYPE
, p_ename OUT emp.ename%TYPE)
RETURN VARCHAR2
IS
l_ename emp.ename%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT ename
INTO l_ename
FROM emp
WHERE empno = p_empno;
RETURN l_ename;
END;

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Exercises
Read the following specification:-
Our developers require some software that will act as an API (Application
Programming Interface) for the items table. We need to protect our
data and want to ensure no developers writes any code that will directly
access this table.
Here is the structure of the items table: -
Column DataType Description

item_id NUMBER Internal ID for item
item_number VARCHAR2(10) User item number
description VARCHAR2(30) Item description
status VARCHAR2(1) [T]est or [L]ive
cost NUMBER Standard cost of item
We need the item_id column to be a sequential number (use

items_item_id_s sequence)
The following business rules must be applied:-

• An item is created as a test item and with a zero cost.
• A procedure or function must be called to promote the item from test
to live. An item cannot be made live with a zero cost.
• Only test items can be removed
We need an API to provide the developer the following facilities:-

• Create new items
• Promote items from test to live
• Remove items
• Change item cost
All API functions and procedures should work with the item_id.
Create a package to implement the above. Remember, try and

work out the requirements for the package first. Determine your
public and private procedures/functions and any data that might
be needed.

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Section Eight
Triggers

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Quiz
1. What is a trigger?
2. When might triggers be used?
3. What are the 12 trigger types?
4. What is the trigger condition and why is it used?
5. How can you reference the column value of a row being

updated, both before and after the update?
6. Assume we have created a trigger that fires on INSERT or

UPDATE of a table. How can I make the trigger act
differently depending on the triggering event?
7. How many errors can you find in the following code?

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER set_stock
BEFORE INSERT ON transactions
FOR EVERY ROW
WHEN (:new.transaction_type IN ('ISS','RCT'))
BEGIN
UPDATE stock
SET quantity = quantity + new.quantity
WHERE item = :new.item_id;
COMMIT;
END;
8. Generally, what kind of things cause triggers to fire?

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Exercises
To compliment the package developed in the last section, the user
has come up with the following addition to the specification.
When items are removed using the new API you provided, we need to
ensure the item is archived in a table called items_archive.
We also want any changes in item cost to be audited, record the details
of each change in the audit_cost table.
Implement the above specification using triggers.
NOTE
The above changes could just as easily be implemented within the
package created in the last section. Remember, you provided an
API to the items table so ALL changes to the data are controlled
through the package, in theory, ALL developers should use the
package. Implementing the changes using triggers is a more
secure method because even if any changes to the data are made
not using the package, the triggers will still do their job.

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Answers

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Section 1 Quiz
1. Procedural Language/Structured Query Language
2. PL/SQL is Oracle's procedural extension to SQL
3. Two Types, Client and Server
4. Any one of:-

Has Variables & Constants
Uses SQL
Flow Control
Many built-in functions
Cursor Management
Block Structure
Exception Handling
Composite Types
Stored Code

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Section 2 Quiz
1. With a semicolon (;).
2. BEGIN and END.
3. Anonymous, Named, Subprograms and Triggers.
4. 20
5. Single line (--) and multiple line ( /* */ ).
6. NUMBER, VARCHAR2, BOOLEAN, DATE.
7. A constant is a variable declared with the CONSTANT

keyword, its value cannot be changed.
8. It is constrained with the CONSTANT keyword but it has not

been initialised.
9. %TYPE is used for anchoring the datatype of a variable to

another object, this could be another variable or a column on
a table. They are used within the declarative section of a
program.
10. l_description is declared as a VARCHAR2 of 5 digits, the

string literal Description is more than 5 digits, this will
cause the following error to occur:-
ORA-06502: PL/SQL: numeric or value error.
11. 25.
13. 75, 50, NULL and 150.
14. = is the equality operator, := is the assignment operator.
15. l_b := l_x > l_y; = TRUE

l_b := 100 < l_y + l_x; = FALSE
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l_b := l_s; = Illegal

l_b := l_s > l_x; = FALSE
l_b := l_y < l_x AND l_x = l_s; = TRUE
l_b := 30 BETWEEN l_x AND l_y; = FALSE
16. Use the SQL*Plus command:-

SHOW ERR[ORS]
17. Use SQL*Plus command:-

SET SERVEROUT[PUT] ON [SIZE x]
18. TRUE
19. A FOR is used when the number of iterations is known in

advance. A WHILE loop is generally used when the number
of iterations is not known in advance.
20. TRUE.
21. 10, 50, 20 and 3.
22. GOTO can make your code unstructured and hard to read/
debug.

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Section 2 Exercises
1. DECLARE
l_number1 NUMBER := &1;
BEGIN
IF l_number1 > l_number2 THEN

DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('first is greater than second');
ELSIF l_number1 < l_number2 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('first is less than second');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('first is same as second');
END IF;
END;
2. DECLARE
l_times NUMBER := &1;
BEGIN
FOR l_loop IN 1..l_times

LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('Hello World');
END LOOP;
END;
3. If a negative number is entered, nothing happens, the loop

never actually starts.
DECLARE
l_times NUMBER := &1;
BEGIN
IF l_times < 1 THEN

DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('Number must be at least 1');
ELSE
FOR l_loop IN 1..l_times
LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('Hello World');
END LOOP;
END IF;
END;

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Section 3 Quiz
1. DDL cannot be used in PL/SQL directly, only DML.
2. The INTO clause is used to tell PL/SQL where to put data

retrieved from a cursor.
3. The variable l_name should be anchored to a database

table, if the name ever increased beyond 10 digits then an
error would occur. The implicit cursor could possibly return
more than one row or no rows.
4. All data is selected using cursors, an implicit cursor is simply

a SELECT statement (or any other DML) that does not make
direct use of any cursor commands such as OPEN,
FETCH,…etc.
5. INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE.
6. The PL/SQL variable job is the same as a column on the

emp table, this has the effect of making the UPDATE
statement update all rows on the emp table because the
statement reads, 'Where job on emp is equal to job on emp',
this is TRUE for all rows.
7. SQL%NOTFOUND is an implicit cursor attribute, it is used to

determine if the last DML statement affected any rows.

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Section 3 Exercises
1. BEGIN
UPDATE emp
SET sal = sal * 1.15
WHERE deptno = 10;
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(TO_CHAR(SQL%ROWCOUNT)||
' employee(s) updated');
END;
2. DECLARE
l_old_job emp.job%TYPE := '&1';
l_new_job emp.job%TYPE := '&2';
BEGIN
UPDATE emp
SET job = l_new_job
WHERE job = l_old_job;
IF SQL%FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(TO_CHAR(SQL%ROWCOUNT)||
' employee(s) changed job');
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('No employee found with job'||
' of '||l_old_job);
END IF;
END;

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Section 4 Quiz
1. An Exception is an identifier within PL/SQL that can be used
to trap for a specific condition. Exceptions are typically
associated with an error. Exceptions are either raised
automatically by PL/SQL or they can be raised explicitly.
2. An Exception Handler is a section of PL/SQL code that is

there purely to deal with any raised exceptions.
3. EXCEPTION
4. The exception section should appear at the end of a block.
5. DECLARE
l_name emp.ename%TYPE;
l_empno emp.empno%TYPE := &1;
BEGIN
SELECT ename
INTO l_name
FROM emp
WHERE empno = l_empno;
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('Employee name = '||l_name);

EXCEPTION
WHEN NO_DATA_FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('UNKNOWN EMPLOYEE');
END;
6. SQLCODE returns the last error number, SQLERRM returns

the last error message and it includes the error code.
7. If an exception is raised within a block of PL/SQL, and this

block does not explicitly handle that exception, then the
exception is passed to the enclosing block, this continues
until either the exception is handled or control is passed to
the calling environment. This is called exception propagation.
8. It allows you to associate an error code with a declared

exception.
9. WHEN OTHERS is used to handle all unhandled exceptions.

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Section 4 Exercises
1. See answer to question 5 in the quiz.
2. DECLARE
e_bigger EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF l_number1 > l_number2 THEN
RAISE e_bigger;
END IF;
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line('first is not bigger than second');
EXCEPTION
WHEN e_bigger THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line
('EXCEPTION : first is bigger than second');
END;
3. BEGIN
UPDATE transactions
SET comments = 'THIS IS A COMMENT LINE';
END;
4. DECLARE
l_error VARCHAR2(100);
e_too_big EXCEPTION;
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(e_too_big,-1401);
BEGIN
UPDATE transactions
SET comments = 'THIS IS A COMMENT LINE';
EXCEPTION
WHEN e_to_big THEN
l_error := 'Error : Could not update '||
'transactions table - '||SQLERRM;
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(l_error);
INSERT INTO messages
(logged_at
, message) VALUES
( SYSDATE
, l_error);
END;

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Section 5 Quiz
1. An Explicit Cursor is a named construct within PL/SQL that is
used to retrieve data from the database.
2. Any one of:- CURSOR, OPEN, FETCH, CLOSE or FOR.
3. The cursor has to be declared and opened, unless you are

using a cursor FOR loop with a SELECT sub-statement.
4. 6 errors.
DECLARE
CURSOR employee_cur(p_deptno emp.deptno)
IS
SELECT ename
, job Missing %TYPE
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = l_deptno;
BEGIN Record used in

FETCH has not
OPEN employee_cur(10); been declared
Cursor name and
LOOP record type are
FETCH r_employee INTO employee_cur;
Missing WHEN the wrong way
keyword EXIT employee_cur.NOTFOUND; round
END LOOP; Missing % before

NOTFOUND
CLOSE; Missing cursor name
END; after CLOSE
5. A cursor FOR loop is a convenient way to work with explicit

cursors. They do the opening, fetching and closing for you.
6. ISOPEN, NOTFOUND, FOUND or ROWCOUNT.
7. WHERE CURRENT OF allows you to reference the last

FETCHed row from a cursor without having to specify any
column names. It is typically used to UPDATE or DELETE
rows and must be used in conjunction with FOR UPDATE in
the cursor declaration.

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Section 5 Exercises
1. DECLARE
CURSOR dept_cur
IS
SELECT deptno
, dname
, loc
FROM dept;
BEGIN
FOR r_dept in dept_cur
LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(r_dept.deptno);
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(r_dept.dname);
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(r_dept.loc);
END LOOP;
END;
2. DECLARE
CURSOR dept_cur
IS
SELECT deptno
, dname
, loc
FROM dept;
r_dept dept_cur%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN dept_cur;
LOOP
FETCH dept_cur INTO r_dept;
EXIT WHEN dept_cur%NOTFOUND;
INSERT INTO old_dept

(deptno,dname,loc) VALUES
(r_dept.deptno,r_dept.dname,r_dept.loc);
END LOOP;
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(TO_CHAR(dept_cur%ROWCOUNT)||
' department(s) copied');
CLOSE dept_cur;
END;

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Section 6 Quiz
1. Stored programs are stored within the database in compiled
form and executed on the database, whereas anonymous
blocks are usually held in a host file and are parsed and
compiled at runtime, they are explicitly executed in a client
tool, typically SQL*Plus.
2. A procedure acts like a PL/SQL statement where as a

function returns a value and is used as part of an expression.
3. The arguments define what parameters a function or

procedure accepts.
4. Parameters are passed to a function/procedure in two ways;

Positional Notation matches Actual parameters with Formal
parameters based wholly on the position in the argument
list, whereas Named notation allows you to specify
parameters in any order, this is achieved by pre-fixing the
Actual parameter with the Formal parameter name.
5. The parameter MODE; IN, OUT or IN OUT
6. IN = Allows parameters to be passed into a subprogram,

they are read only.
OUT = Allows parameters to be passed back to the calling
programs, they are write only.
IN OUT = Allows both read and write.
7. An Actual parameter is the parameter passed within the

calling program. A Formal parameters is the variable used
within the subprogram itself.

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8. 3 errors
Keywords the wrong way round
REPLACE OR CREATE FUNCTION DelEmp(p_empno emp.empno%TYPE)

BEGIN Missing RETURN clause
DELETE emp
Missing mode, this is
WHERE empno := p_empno; NOT an error as IN is
END; the default
Missing RETURN statement
9. DECLARE
l_ename emp.ename%TYPE;
l_sal emp.sal%TYPE;
BEGIN
EmpInfo( 7900
, l_ename
, l_sal);
END;
10. A local subprogram is a function or procedure that is local to

a block. They are defined in the declarative section of a
block after all other declarations.
11. A typical use for local subprograms is to create helper

subprograms, these are subprograms which are only of use
to the block in which they are defined.
12. RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR allows you to pass error

information back to a calling program.

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Exercises
1. CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE DelEmp(p_job IN emp.job%TYPE)
IS
BEGIN
DELETE old_emp
WHERE job = p_job;
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(TO_CHAR(SQL%ROWCOUNT)||' removed');
END;
To invoke the procedure:-

BEGIN
DelEmp('CLERK');
END;
2. CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE DelEmp( p_job IN emp.job%TYPE

, p_count OUT NUMBER)
IS
BEGIN
DELETE old_emp
WHERE job = p_job;
p_count := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
END;
To invoke the procedure:-

DECLARE
l_count NUMBER;
BEGIN
DelEmp('CLERK',l_count);
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(l_count);
END;
3. CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION DelEmp(p_job IN emp.job%TYPE)

RETURN NUMBER
IS
BEGIN
DELETE old_emp
WHERE job = p_job;
RETURN SQL%ROWCOUNT;
END;
To invoke the function:-

DECLARE
l_count NUMBER;
BEGIN
l_count := DelEmp('CLERK');
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(l_count);
END;

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Section 7 Quiz
1. A package is a named PL/SQL block that is stored in
compiled form and executed within the database. Packages
can contain subprograms and data.
2. A package is made up of two parts, a Specification and a

Body.
3. Public object declarations appear in the specification.
4. They are the same thing.
5. Private data and subprograms as well as the definitions for

public subprograms.
6. Subprogram overloading allows you to create more than one

subprogram with the same name but with different
arguments. If allows you to create subprograms that act
differently depending on the data they are supplied, though
to the user, it appears as if a single subprogram is being
used.
7. A common use for subprogram overloading is to provide a

single function that can act on different types of data.
8. A private package object is something that only the package

itself can use. These are declared and defined in the package
body.
9. Qualify the subprogram name with the package name.
10. It is used to inform the compiler of the purity level of a

packaged function.
11. No, because the function has an OUT parameter, these are
not allowed when invoking a function from DML.

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Section 7 Exercises
Here is the finished package, though I have not included any
exception handling and some of the code could probably have
been written in a more generic/complete way, I have tried to keep
it simple as the main concern here is the creation of the actual
package and not what it does.
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE items_api

IS
--
-- Public procedure declarations
--
PROCEDURE add( p_item_number IN items.item_number%TYPE
, p_description IN items.description%TYPE);
PROCEDURE promote(p_item_id IN items.item_id%TYPE);
PROCEDURE remove(p_item_id IN items.item_id%TYPE);
PROCEDURE chg_cost(p_item_id IN items.item_id%TYPE

, p_new_cost IN items.cost%TYPE);
END items_api;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY items_api

IS
--
-- Private data
--
c_test_status CONSTANT VARCHAR2(1) := 'T';
c_live_status CONSTANT VARCHAR2(1) := 'L';
--
-- Private procedures/functions
--
PROCEDURE p(p_text IN VARCHAR2)
IS
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(p_text);
END;
--
-- Public procedure/function definitions
--
-- Procedure to create a new item

PROCEDURE add( p_item_number IN items.item_number%TYPE
, p_description IN items.description%TYPE)
IS
c_new_cost CONSTANT NUMBER := 0; -- Starting cost
BEGIN
INSERT INTO items
( item_id
, item_number

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, description
, status
, cost ) VALUES
( items_item_id_s.NEXTVAL
, p_item_number
, p_description
, c_test_status
, c_new_cost);
p('Item created');
END;
-- Procedure to promote an item

PROCEDURE promote(p_item_id IN items.item_id%TYPE)
IS
CURSOR items_cur(p_item_id items.item_id%TYPE)
IS
SELECT status
, cost
FROM items
WHERE item_id = p_item_id
FOR UPDATE;
r_items items_cur%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN items_cur(p_item_id);
FETCH items_cur INTO r_items;
-- Does item exist?

IF items_cur%NOTFOUND THEN
p('Item not found');
ELSE
-- Ensure item is not already live
IF r_items.status = c_live_status THEN
p('Item already live');
ELSE
-- ensure cost is not zero
IF r_items.cost = 0 THEN
p('Cannot promote'||
'. Item cost is zero');
ELSE
-- Promote item
UPDATE items
SET status = c_live_status
WHERE CURRENT OF items_cur;
p('Item promoted');
END IF;
END IF;
END IF;
CLOSE items_cur;
END;
-- Procedure to remove an item

PROCEDURE remove(p_item_id IN items.item_id%TYPE)
IS
BEGIN

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-- Only remove item if status is test

DELETE items
WHERE item_id = p_item_id
AND status = c_test_status;
-- Give feedback
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
p('Test item not found');
ELSE
p('Item deleted');
END IF;
END;
-- Procedure to change item cost

PROCEDURE chg_cost(p_item_id IN items.item_id%TYPE
, p_new_cost IN items.cost%TYPE)
IS
BEGIN
-- Change cost
UPDATE items
SET cost = p_new_cost
WHERE item_id = p_item_id;
-- Give feedback
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
p('Item not found');
ELSE
p('Cost changed');
END IF;
END;
END items_api;

[email protected]
Section 8 Quiz
1. A trigger is a named PL/SQL block that fires implicitly when a
particular database event occurs.
2. Because triggers are guaranteed to fire, they are perfect for

many tasks, some of the more common tasks might be:-
Auditing, Archiving, Complex Constraints, Maintain Derived
Values,…and many more.
3. ROW and Statement types, BEFORE and AFTER timing types

and INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE event types, that is 2 * 2
* 3 which is a total of 12 types.
4. A trigger condition determines if the trigger should fire or

not. Trigger conditions are specified using the WHEN clause.
5. Use the old and new keywords as a prefix to the column

name.
6. Use the INSERTING and UPDATING functions to determine

what the actual triggering event was, then code accordingly.
7. 4 errors:-
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER set_stock
BEFORE INSERT ON transactions
Used EVERY FOR EVERY ROW
instead of EACH WHEN (:new.transaction_type IN ('ISS','RCT'))
BEGIN
Missing colon (:) before new
No need for UPDATE stock
colon (:) here SET quantity = quantity + new.quantity
WHERE item_id = :new.item_id;
COMMIT; COMMIT not allowed in a trigger
END; (unless AUTONOMOUS_TRANSACTION)
8. DML statements.

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Exercises
1. CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER items_archive_t
BEFORE DELETE ON items
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN
INSERT INTO items_archive
( item_id
, item_number
, description
, status
, cost
, date_archived ) VALUES
( :old.item_id
, :old.item_number
, :old.description
, :old.status
, :old.cost
, SYSDATE);
END;
2. CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER audit_cost_t

BEFORE UPDATE OF cost ON items
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (new.cost <> old.cost)
BEGIN
INSERT INTO audit_cost
( item_id
, old_cost
, new_cost
, date_changed ) VALUES
( :new.item_id
, :old.cost
, :new.cost
, SYSDATE);
END;

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An

Each section of the workbook corresponds to a

All the answers are at the back of this workbook,

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 2

Using the above commands will save you time and

Ampersand substitution variables can be used in a

The above code will prompt you to enter a value,

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 3

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 4

1. What does PL/SQL stand for?

3. What types of PL/SQL are there?

4. Name 4 features of PL/SQL

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 5

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 6

1. How is a statement terminated?

2. What keywords are used to determine a PL/SQL block?

3. Names 3 Block Types.

4. What does the following code display?

5. What are the two types of comment that can be used in

6. Name 3 scalar variable datatypes

8. What is wrong with the following code?

9. What does %TYPE do and where is it used?

10. What is wrong with the following code?

l_description VARCHAR2(5) := 'Description';

11. What is the value of l_x?

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 7

12. Given the following declarations:-

l_x NUMBER := 50;

What is the value of l_a:-

l_a := l_x + l_y;

13. What is the difference between the = and := operators?

14. Given the following declarations:-

l_x NUMBER := 50;

Is l_b TRUE or FALSE?

l_b := l_x > l_y;

16. What has to be done before DBMS_OUTPUT can be used?

17. What does the following code print

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 8

19. What is wrong with the following code?

20. What will the following code print?

l_z := (l_x + block1.l_x) / block1.l_y;

21. Why should the use of the GOTO statement be avoided?

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 9

first is greater than second

2. Create a program that accepts a single number. Display the

3. Try running the above program and entering a negative

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 10

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 11

2. What is the INTO clause for?

3. What could go wrong with the following code?

4. What is an Implicit Cursor?

5. What other DML statements can be used in PL/SQL besides

6. What is wrong with the following code?

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 12

2. Create a PL/SQL block that accepts a new job title and an

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 13

Copyright © 1999 – 2004 ApplTop Solutions Limited 14

2. What is an Exception Handler?

3. What keyword defines the start of an Exception Handler?