n 173

earthing systems worldwide and evolutions

Bernard Lacroix An ESPCI 74 engineering graduate (from the Ecole Suprieure de Physique et Chimie Industrielle de Paris), he then worked 5 years for Jeumont Schneider, where his activities included development of the TGV chopper. After joining Merlin Gerin in 1981, he was then in turn Sales Engineer for UPS and sales manager for protection of persons. Since 1991 he is in charge of prescription for LV Power distribution. Roland Calvas An ENSERG 1964 engineering graduate (from the Ecole Nationale Suprieure d'Electronique et Radiolectricit de Grenoble) and an Institut d'Administration des Entreprises graduate, he joined Merlin Gerin in 1966. During his professional career, he has been sales manager and then marketing manager for protection of persons. He is currently in charge of technical communication for the groupe Schneider.

E/CT 173, first issued September 1995

glossary
Electrocution Electro Shock EMC GFLD In MT/HVA PIM RCD SCPD STD TBM TEM TPM UL Electro Shock resulting in death Application of a voltage between two parts of the body Electro Magnetic Compatibility Ground Fault Location Device Operating threshold of a RCD Medium Voltage: 1 to 35 kV as in CENELEC (circular of the 27.07.92) Class A High Voltage: 1 to 50 kV as in French decree of the 14.11.88 Permanent Insulation Monitor Residual Current Device Short-Circuit Protection Device (circuit breakers or fuses) Short Time Delay protection (protection against short-circuit overcurrents by circuit-breaker with rapid trip release) Technical Building Management Technical Electrical Power Distribution Management Technical Process Management (automation of...) Conventional limit voltage (maximum acceptable contact voltage) known as the safety voltage

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.2

earthing systems worldwide an evolutions

summary
1. Review of standardised earthing systems History p. 4 Emergence of earthing p. 4 systems Earthing systems of IEC 364 p. 7 General p. 9 Influence of MV earthing systems p. 9 LV earthing systems p. 10 Earthing systems of private p. 11 LV networks in some countries Evolution of electrical p. 15 installations Earthing systems and disturbances p. 15 in electronic systems Evolution of earthing systems p. 17 Choosing the earthing system p. 18 p. 21 p. 22 p. 24

2. Earthing systems worldwide

Following an historical review of the origins of Earthing Systems, this Cahier Technique goes on to provide information on the practices in some countries concerning medium voltage, HV/LV substations, in particular in LV public, industrial and tertiary distribution. Electrical installations are evolving, electronics are everywhere, thus leading us to look afresh at earthing systems used in LV and indeed even to predict an evolution which should bring the TN-S and TT systems closer together. The criteria for the selection of earthing systems has changed. We advise those not very familar with earthing systems standardised by IEC 364 to first read Cahier Technique n 172.

3. Evolutions and choices of earthing systems

4. Conclusion Appendix 1: IEC 364 standard Appendix 2: bibliography

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.3

1. review of standardised earthing systems

Electrical power was actually used in 1900. Today electrical installation standards are highly developed and cover all major aspects for a safe installation. In LV, the reference standard is IEC 364 (see appendix no. 1). Standard makers have paid particular attention to the measures to be implemented to guarantee protection of personnel and property (part 4 of the above-mentioned standards). This concern has resulted in the standardisation of three Earthing Systems. Before reminding readers of these three systems, a concise historical review will certainly be of use.

history
Electrical hazard and protection of persons c in the 18th century, the static electricity produced by friction of certain insulating bodies formed a scientific diversion causing experimenters to jump up.... in drawing rooms. A few dangerous experiments showed the electrical nature of lightning. And in 1780: by chance an electrostatic machine made a frogs legs move. Galvani observed the contraction of muscles by electricity. c in 1880: in order to transmit electricity over several kilometres, DC voltage left the 100 V range (required for arc lamp operation) and rose to 1,300 V (1882 exhibition in Munich) (see fig. 1), and then to 3,000 V (Grenoble-Vizille link in 1883). Insulation faults cause leaks and short-circuits. The 100 V DC voltage can allegedly be touched without risk. c in 1886: the first distribution installation in the USA: 12 A/500 V/AC generator and 16 small transformers supply consumers with 100 V AC for the first time;

fig. 1: Mr. Desprez's installation located in Munich Palace during the Munich exposition.

c in 1889: AC and DC current wage war in North America: v Edison defends DC and describes the dangers of AC for personnel. He carries out tests on dogs and horses, v Westinghouse supports AC. Edison challenges Westinghouse to a duel: each will be subjected to identical voltages of 100, 150, 200 V etc. in DC for Edison and in AC for Westinghouse...: prediction: at 200 V AC, death will ensue for Westinghouse! The duel did not come off... a telegraph operator climbing on a pole was electroducted in the very heart of New York. c in 1890: Kremler entered the electric chair and was electrocuted with... AC current! Thus, at the end of the 19th century, it was obvious to the technico-scientific

community that electric current was dangerous for man, and that AC was more dangerous than DC.

emergence of earthing systems

These systems are the result of a lengthy evolution guided by the search for increased personnel protection. Between 1880 and 1920, transmission and distribution of electrical power took place in unearthed neutral. Lines are uninsulated, placed out of reach, supported by insulators; no points of the network are deliberately earthed. In homes, voltage is 100/110 V AC. Throughout this period, fuses blow and persons receive Electric Shocks

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.4

(see fig. 2). However, in view of distribution voltage level, few persons are electrocuted. c in UK, in the last quarter of 19 th century, electric arc lighting was developing rapidly. When it was introduced into houses, insurance companies became concerned about danger of fire due to undersized cables, poor jointing and insulation breakdown. Many insurance companies produced sets of rules to minimise their risks. In May 1882, the Council of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and of Electricians (later to become the Institution of Electrical Engineers), appointed a committee to consider rules for the prevention of fire risks due to electic light. These rules were not popular with the insurance companies who continued to publish their own. The IEE had yet to become a recognised authority on the subject. By the third edition of the IEE rules in 1897, there was still strong opposition from insurance companies and it was not until 1916 that the final opposition crumbled and the IEE rules became universally accepted in the UK. In the first edition of the rules, in 1882, two items were concerned with danger to people: no one should be exposed to more than 60 V and the potential between two points in the same room should not exceed 200 V. The earthing of metalwork of appliances working at domestic voltages was first required in the eighth edition in 1924, althought it was soon recognised that an adequate earth was not always easy to obtain. In 1930, the requirement for an earth leakage trip operating at 30 mA or less was introduced (since deleted). c in France in 1923 a standard for electrical installations makes earthing of frames a requirement: v casings of fixed and moving motors, which may be touched in a noninsulated area, in installations with a voltage greater than 150 V, v fixed and portable electrical household appliances with a power greater than 4 kW, v electrical bath heater enclosures installed in bathrooms, v metal parts placed in premises steeped in conductive liquids and which, due to insulation faults, might become live.

1st fault nothing happens

double fault the fuse blows if full fault

Earthing of load frames (1923) to prevent Electric Shock by indirect contacts

fig. 2: the emergence of the unearthed neutral.

The standard provides absolutely no information on earthing conditions or on the value of earth connection resistance, and stipulates no protection device. Although it contains a few rules for fuses these are only for installation conditions. In order to prevent fuses blowing on a double insulation fault, it quickly become obvious that indication of the presence of the first fault was a good idea. For this reason, the first failsafe insulation monitor was installed in industrial installations (see fig. 3).

A lamp going out indicates an insulation fault on the corresponding phase.

fig. 3: lamp insulation monitor in industry.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.5

If a lamp goes out, there is a fault between the corresponding phase and the earth. Thus the first earthing system came into existence: the unearthed neutral. The Permanent Insulation Monitor (PIM), with three lamps (in three-phase) was used up to 1955. In 1951, the first tube PIMs, injecting DC, were installed in mines: insulation of phases and neutral was monitored. In 1962 the first transistor PIMs (Vigilohm TA) were produced, and in 1972 the first PIMs injecting low frequency AC. In 1927 a decree stipulated the earthing of the transformer neutral in public distribution in France (U u 150 V AC). At this time, production of electricity in France was approximately 350 kWh/ inhabitant/year (in 1900 it was 7); a tenth of this production was distributed in LV. Electricity firms supply a number of consumers by transformer. However, in unearthed neutral, two earthing faults occurring at two different consumers, do not always cause fuses to blow and there is a definite risk of fire (the indirect contact risk exists, but is low and not known). Application of the 1927 decree thus stipulates more reliable disconnection of the faulty consumer, thereby ensuring a sound network is maintained. In 1935, the decree on protection of workers and standard C 310, taken up by standard C 11 of 1946, began to mention the risk inherent in insulation faults. It is at this moment that the combination of earthing of loads and automatic breaking devices first appeared. The latter may be fuses, RCDs or voltmeter relays of frame/ earth voltage (see fig. 4). Note that protection devices with a threshold of under 30 A are supposed to guarantee safety! The first residual current connection circuit-breakers were manufactured in 1954. In addition to protection of

persons and disconnection of consumers, they made it possible to combat illegal connections (current stealing between phase and earth when 127 A single-phase moves to 220 V two-phase) (a single current measuring winding in the meter). This is how the earthed neutral came into existence in France. However, it was not until the decree of the 14.11.62 on protection of workers and standard C 15-100 (blue) of the 28.11.62 that fault loop impedance and thus earth connections were defined accurately, according to fuse rating or RCD threshold then set by standard C 62-410 at 450 200 mA. Standard C 15-100 of 1962 thus gave official status to the unearthed neutral and the earthed neutral (measurement B1), as well as to the TN system (measurement B3). It made a clear distinction between direct and indirect contact and lists the primary protection measurements (A)

and how to protect by automatic disconnecting devices (B), without however giving information on operating times. Alongside the standard, the decree of the 14.11.62 legalised the unearthed and the earthed neutrals. In 1973 a decision of the Board of Employment authorised the TN system in France. Between 1962 and 1973 each earthing system had its ardent supporters in France and elsewhere. The TN system has the advantage of a simple principle: the SCPDs de-energise loads (or LV consumers) having an insulation fault. The TN system (exposed-conductive parts connected to neutral) is used in some countries in public distribution (not in France): (see fig. 5). As personnel protection against indirect contact is involved, use of this system requires complete mastery of loop

Ph SCPD or RCD SCPD or RCD

a
N

fig. 4: earthing in public distribution.

Ph

SCPD

SCPD

a
N

fig. 5: TN-C system in public distribution.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.6

impedances (irrespective of where the fault occurs) to ensure operation of the SCPD which will disconnect the faulty part within the specified time. Definition of these times by IEC experts in the nineteen seventies, according to impedance of the human body and pathophysiological effects, has made its use possible. It should be noted that transformation of an insulation fault into a short-circuit increases risk of damage to equipment and of fire. With this in mind, let us remember that protection is based on the rapid evolution of an insulation fault to a full fault between phase and neutral.

TN-C system

PEN

fault

earthing systems of IEC 364

The three earthing systems internationally standardised are currently taken over in many national standards. These three systems have been studied in detail in Cahier Technique n 172 and, for each of them, the hazards and associated protection switchgear have been presented. We shall however briefly review their protection principle. The TN system (see fig. 6) c the transformer neutral is earthed; c the frames of the electrical loads are connected to the neutral. The insulation fault turns into a short-circuit and the faulty part is disconnected by Short-Circuit Protection Devices (SCPD). The fault voltage (deep earth/frame), known as indirect contact is Uo/2 if the impedance of the outgoing circuit is equal to that of the return one. When it exceeds the conventional limit voltage (UL), which is normally 50 V, it requires disconnection, which must be especially quick when Ud is larger than UL. The TT system (see fig. 7) c the transformer neutral is earthed; c the frames of the electrical loads are also connected to an earth connection.

TN-S system

N PE

fault

fig. 6: TN-C and TN-S systems.

N PE

fault

RB

RA

fig. 7: TT-system.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.7

The insulation fault current is limited by the impedance of the earth connections and the faulty part is disconnected by a Residual Current Device (RCD). The fault voltage is:
Uc = Uo RA greater than RB + RA UL . RA

c the frames of the electrical loads are connected to the earth. If an insulation fault occurs, a small current is developed due to the networks stray capacities (see first diagram, fig. 8). The voltage developed in the earth connection of the frames (a few volts at the most) does not present a risk. If a second fault occurs (see second diagram, fig. 8) and the first one has not yet been eliminated, a short-circuit appears and the SCPDs must provide the necessary protection. The frames of the relevant loads are brought to the potential developed by the fault current in their protective conductor (PE).

voltage UL, the RCD comes into action as soon as Id u

The IT system c the transformer neutral is not earthed. It is theoretically unearthed, but in fact is connected to the earth by the stray capacities of the network and/or by a high impedance 1,500 (impedanceearthed neutral).

1st fault

RA

double insulation fault

PE

fig. 8: IT system.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.8

2. earthing systems worldwide

general
In all industrialised countries, LV networks and loads are earthed for safety reasons to guarantee protection against electric current for persons. The objectives are always the same: c fixing the potential of live conductors with respect to the earth in normal operation; c limiting voltage between the frames of electrical equipment and the earth should an insulation fault occur; c implementing protection devices which remove the risk of Electric Shocks or electrocution of personne; c limiting rises in potential due to MV faults.

c increased continuity of service (availability of electrical power) by authorising automatic reconnection on a transient fault, c connection or not of the frames of the MV/LV substation and those of the LV neutral to avoid risk for LV users and equipment. IEC 364-4-442 states that the earthing system in a MV/LV substation must be such that the LV installation is not subjected to an earthing voltage of: c Uo + 250 V: more than 5 s; c Uo + 1,200 V: less than 5 s (Uo 3 in IT). This means that the various devices connected to the LV network must be able to withstand this constraint (see fig. 9a).

The same standard states that if Rp > 1 , the voltage Rp IhMT must be eliminated, for example: c in under 500 ms for 100 V; c in under 100 ms for 500 V. If this is not so, Rp and RN must be separate whatever the LV earthing system. This rule, not always complied with in certain countries, often leads to the separation of the two earth connections (for MV networks with a high zero sequence fault current). If all the earth connections (substationneutral-applications) have been grouped into a single one, a rise in potential of LV frames may be observed which can be dangerous (see fig. 9b).
MV LV

influence of MV earthing systems

While the first three objectives listed above fall into the range of LV earthing systems, the fourth has considerable repercussions on safety of personnel and property in LV. Thus, at MV/LV substation level, a MV phase/ frame fault or a fault between MV and LV windings may present a risk for equipment and users of the LV network. In public and industrial MV, except in certain special cases, the neutral is not distributed and there is no protective conductor (PE) between substations or between the MV load and substation. A phase/earth fault thus results in a single-phase short-circuit current limited by earth connection resistance and the presence of limitation impedances, if any (zero sequence generator). The current tendency, in various countries, is to limit the zero sequence fault currents of MV networks, thus allowing:

HV

MV

IhMT

RP

RB

fig. 9a: if Rp and RB are connected, the fault current causes the potential of the LV network to rise with respect to the earth.

MV

LV

IhMT

RT (RPBA)
fig. 9b: the LV load frames are raised to the potential IhMT RT.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.9

The table in figure 10 gives a few examples for public distribution worldwide. It shows that, in many countries, the earth connections of the substation and neutral must be separate if their resulting value is not less than 1 . Note that the impedance-earthed IT earthing system is the most commonly used in MV industrial networks. The zero sequence generator supplies a resistive current around twice the capacitive current of the network (see Cahier Technique n 62), thus allowing use of a RCD to ensure protection by disconnection of the faulty feeder.

LV earthing systems
The MV/LV transformers used are generally Dy 11 (delta/star). However the use of midpoint single-phase distribution for public distribution in the USA and Japan should be pointed out (see fig. 11). Most countries apply or derive inspiration from standard IEC 364 which defines the TN, IT and TT earthing systems and the protection conditions, both for public and private distribution. In public distribution The most common systems are TT and TN; a few countries, in particular Norway, use the IT system. The table in figure 12 lists some examples for public distribution (LV consumers). This table shows that Anglo-Saxon countries mainly use the TN-C, whereas the TT is used in the rest of the world.

MV earthing system Germany unearthed or compensed 10 and 20 kV Id < 60 A Australia directly earthed 11 and 12 kV Id= a few kA Belgium limitation impedance 6.3 and 11 kV Id < 500 A France limitation 20 kV impedance overhead Id i 300 A underground Id i 1,000 A Great Britain direct or limitation 11 kV impedance Id < 1,000 A Italy unearthed 10-15 and 20 kV Id i 60 A (more in reality) Ireland unearthed on 10 kV 10 and 38 kV compensated on 38 kV Id < 10 A Japan unearthed 6.6 kV Id < 20 A Portugal limitation 10 to 30 kV impedance overhead Id i 300 A underground Id i 1,000 A USA directly earthed 4 to 25 kV or by low impedance Id = a few kA

country

frame connection connected if Id x RT < 250 V separated except if RT < 1 separated d u 15 m separated except if RT <3 <1 separated except if RT < 1 separated

observations Rp < 2 or 5 Rp < 10 Rp < 5

Rp < 30 Rp < 1 Rp < 25 Rp < 20

separated except if RT < 10 connected RT < 65 separated except if RT < 1 connected

stipulations on how to produce Rp Rp < 20

the earths of the source of the MV/LV substation and of the LV neutral are connected

fig. 10: public distribution examples - MV earthing systems.

country Germany 230/400 V Belgium 230/400 V Spain 230/400 V France 230/400 V Great Britain 240/415 V

a) star three-phase

b) midpoint single-phase Italy 230/400 V Japan 100/200 V Norway 230/400 V

Portugal USA 120/240

LV earthing observations system TT and TN-C the TN is the most commonly used; RT must be < 2 ; earth connection at the consumer's, even in TN TT Ru < 100 30 mA RCD for sockets TT Ru < 800 with 30 mA RCD at supply end of the installation TT Ru < 50 , (100 shortly) 30 mA RCD for sockets TT and TN-C - town areas: TN-S and TN-C (New Est installations: 15 %), the earth connection (< 10 ) of the neutral is provided by the distributor - rural areas: TT TT RCD with In as a function of Ru (In < 50/Ru). For consumers without earth connection 30 mA RCD TT Ru < 100 , frequent use of 30 mA RCD, no search for equipotentiality IT premises in insulating materials and poor earth connections account for this choice. homes with signalling 30 mA RCD. tripping of connection circuit breaker if 2 faults. TT Ru < 50 (100 as from 1995). TN-C earthing of neutral at LV consumers (all earth connections are connected to the source substation).

fig. 11: coupling of the secondary windings of MV/LV transformers.

fig. 12: public distribution examples worldwide (LV consumers) - LV earthing systems.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.10

The TN-C requires costly equipotentiality research: c for the distributor: v in the USA, installation of an additional conductor throughout MV and LV distribution with earthing every 400 m, v in Great Britain, numerous earth connections are installed on the town public LV network neutral, if TN-C used, thus meaning consumers may not need their own earth connections, v in Germany, an earth connection is made for the neutral just upstream from the consumers connection point, c for the consumer: as a rule, connection to the protection conductor of the metal structures of the building and all the metal ducts. In industrial and tertiary LV distribution The 3 earthing systems are used to various degrees in all countries: c the TN-C system is particularly used in Anglo-Saxon countries for carefully designed and produced installations (SCPD/loop impedance matching) corresponding to modern blocks of flats where all metal parts are connected to the protective conductor and where explosion and fire risks are extremely low. It is not currently recommended in premises equipped with communicating electronic systems (computer TBM, TPM and CTM -Centralised Technical Management- networks) as currents in the neutral and thus in the PE cause potential references to vary. Do not forget that the TN-C can no longer be used when cross-section of live conductors is < 10 mm2 Cu. c the TN-C system is also used in Anglo-Saxon countries and requires an additional conductor and careful design and production. However its use is more flexible and RCDs are used for personnel protection (for very long cables), for fire protection and for extensions without loop impedance calculation. Nonetheless, the insulation fault currents which are short-circuit currents, may, if the PE is connected, in distribution, to metal structures, generate electromagnetic disturbances preventing electronic equipment from working properly (sum of currents in cable not zero and stray currents).

Finally, as the neutral is not protected in some countries (measure authorised by standard IEC 364), it may be damaged by overcurrents, in particular when loads generating rank 3 harmonic currents and multiples are supplied by the network. In some cases this results in neutral cross-section being doubled (seen in the USA).... In the long term, international standards should specify systematic protection of the neutral and indeed protection (without breaking) of the PEN in TN-C. c the IT system requires as much care as the TN-S one. Permanent insulation monitoring allows fault prediction, currently simplifed by digital systems which monitor insulation evolution for each feeder. This system calls for fault tracking and elimination; thus electrical engineers should preferably be present on site. In many countries, the unearthed neutral is used whenever continuity of service is essential or when human life is at stake (e.g. hospitals), however, in UK, TN-S is used in hospitals. c the TT system is the easiest one to implement; insulation fault currents are 1,000 times smaller than in TN or IT (2nd fault), thus accounting for its value as regards risk of fire, explosion, material damage and electromagnetic disturbances. Its weak point is the risk of disruptive breakdown by return on an insulation fault in the substation on the MV side if the zero sequence fault current is high and if the substation and neutral frames are connected. There are no statistics on use of earthing systems worldwide, but the

TT system is by far the most commonly used. Moreover, its simplicity makes it without doubt the system best suited to developing countries. Following these brief considerations on the three official earthing systems, we shall now see how they are implemented in some countries.

earthing systems of private LV networks in some countries

In the USA All the various earthing systems are used: the TN-S (see fig. 13) is the most common, but the IT and impedanceearthed IT are used in process factories. c implementation of the TN-S has two major special features: v the neutral is not protected and not switched, which may present risks for persons and property: - potential of the neutral compared with the earth may be high on a fault originating at MV level; this presents a risk - rank 3 harmonic currents and multiples of 3 add up in the neutral and may cause unacceptable temperature rise v the protective conductor is often made up by the cable path and the metal tubes conveying the live conductors: - the impedance of this PE is hard to control. Thus NEC paragraph 230-95 (National Electrical Code) considers that SCPDs do not always guarantee safety in the event of an insulation fault,

load

fig. 13: TN-S earthing system in the USA.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.11

- as the PE is not mechanically connected to the faulty live conductor (cables on cable path acting as a PE), the electrodynamic forces due to the high fault current separate the cable from its support (American LV networks have very high prospective fault currents). This causes a transient fault with, as a result, a risk of non-operation of the SCPDs and an increase in fire risk. Note that when the PE is a distributed conductor, earthing of the transformer neutral is sometimes performed through a low impedance, in order to limit the I2t at the fault point (Id i than 1,000 A). c protection devices used in TN-S In addition to the use of SCPDs, remember that to the American way of thinking the main purpose of the earth protection devices used is protection of property and limitation of the fire risk. In this field, the NEC imposes minimum requirements, i.e. use of residual current protection devices on LV installations when the following 3 conditions are met: - neutral directly earthed, - phase-to-neutral voltage greater than 150 V and less than 600 V, - nominal current strength of the device at the supply end greater than 1,000 V, v implementing the RCDs This protection can be performed in three ways: - Residual Sensing (detection of residual current by vectorial addition of currents in live conductors), (see fig.14). This assembly, known as Nicholsons, requires the installation of a current transformer on the neutral; in the USA the neutral is neither switched nor protected. - Source Ground Return (residual current device placed in the neutralearth link) and usable only at the supply end of the installation. It allows parallelconnection of sources (see fig. 15), - Zero sequence (classical RCD). For low current detection, it can be used at various levels of the installation to form discriminating protection (see fig. 16),

earth leakage circuit-breaker N

fig. 14: residual sensing.

fig. 15: source ground return.

fig. 16: zero sequence.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.12

v incoming device settings: - max threshold: 1,200 A, - tripping time: must not exceed 1 s for a fault current of 3,000 A. Note The NEC does not specify a tripping time at 1,200 A, but it is common practice to install protection devices with lower thresholds and as instantaneous as possible. c discrimination of residual current devices. The NEC 230 paragraph 95 only stipulates earth protection for the incoming device. Naturally, this protection must also be installed downstream to prevent the entire installation being put out of operation in the event of one earth fault. Discrimination has then also to be achieved between the various protection devices. This problem can be solved in two ways: v between the earth protection devices with discrimination of the: - time type by a time delay of 0 s to 1 s, - logic type or Zone Selective Interlocking; recommended in the USA, it prevents long time delays (reduction of the passing I2t) and easily achieves discrimination on 3 levels or more, v between the earth and thermalmagnetic protection Discrimination will be determined by comparing the setting threshold of the upstream earth protection with the curve I = f(t) of the thermal-magnetic setting of the downstream protection device (see fig. 17). Use of fewer earth protection devices in subdistribution switchboards leads to higher settings of protection devices, resulting in increased risk of damage. In the Republic of South Africa In the RSA, industrial and tertiary electrical installations comply with IEC standards. All three earthing systems are used, with a preference for the TN-S. A country with a long mining tradition, the RSA uses in its gold mines, for

a)
insulation fault protection R 3 D1 M25 + GFP

R 3

D2 M10 + GFP

short-circuit protection

D3 C161

b)
ts D3 D2 STR38 D1 STR58

T1200 A - 0.2 s T1000 A - 0.1 s

5 0.2 0.1

875 1,000 1,200 2,500

IpA

fig. 17: discrimination between downstream short-circuit protection (D3) and upstream earth protection (GFP) (orange).

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.13

example, an earthing system which is half TN-S and half TT (see fig. 18). It uses RCDs for protection. Characteristics of this earthing system: c the protective conductor is distributed; c the load frames are connected to the PE which is earthed at MV/LV substation level; c a resistor placed between the transformer neutral and the earth connection limits the insulation fault current to less than 20 A. This system has both advantages and drawbacks: c advantages: v a low contact voltage despite use of a network voltage of 525/900 V,
Uo RPE RPE + RPh + 27

c additional measure Limitation resistance is monitored by an ohmic relay: v if resistance is broken: the earthing system becomes an IT: operation can continue, but the RCD will open a feeder on a double fault, v if resistance is short-circuited, the earthing system becomes TN-S and the first insulation fault causes the BT circuit-breaker to open, unless, of course, the electrical maintenance service has acted in time. Compared with the classical TT and TN-S systems, this earthing system is to be preferred when Uo voltage is greater than 400 V (as is the case in mines), since it limits contact voltage. The desire to limit insulation fault currents is fairly widespread for a variety of reasons: c high short-circuit power: USA; c uncertain loop impedance: mines, worksites; c limitation of damage and/or fire hazard: process - mines petrochemistry (note that British

Petroleum (BP) produces all its installations worldwide using the impedance-earthed TN-S (see fig. 18) with a resistance of 3 in LV and of 30 in 3.2 kV). In China China is waking up! However, it has long been under the technical influence of the USSR, which is a member of the IEC (Russian is one of the IECs official languages together with English and French). Consequently, all three earthing systems are known and are used to varying degrees. c IT is used when continuity of service is vital and there is a real risk for persons (hospitals); c TT used in public distribution, is also used in industry and the tertiary sector, but increasingly less so, perhaps due to the rare use of time discrimination; c TN-C, which originated in the USSR, has completely gone out of use; c TN-S is increasingly chosen by Design Institutes for large projects.

v a low fault current, thus considerably reducing risk of fire and damage to faulty loads, v discriminating protection by RCD with use of time discrimination. Note that use of RCD is particularly advantageous since the LV network topology is constantly evolving (loop impedance!). c drawbacks: In the event of HV/LV disruptive breakdown in the transformer, there is a risk of rise in potential of the live LV network conductors compared with the earth and frames (IhMT R): this risk can be reduced by use of a surge limiter. Moreover, a residual current device placed on the neutral/earth circuit causes the MV circuit-breaker to open immediately if it detects a fault current greater than 20 A.

525/900 V N

R = 27

fig. 18: earthing system used in RSA (mines).

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.14

3. evolutions and choices of earthing systems

evolution of electrical installations
In 1960 the tertiary sector had barely started to develop: plants, normally large in size, were often installed next to source substations. The main concern of companies was operation of processes; boasting a competent electrical service, some of them would be won over by the unearthed neutral. Little by little, the safety guaranteed by this system led it to be stipulated in tertiary installations where dependability was of prime importance: e.g. hospitals. In the 1990s, electrical power is the universal driving force in homes, tertiary and industry. Although public distribution has made enormous headway in terms of availability of electrical power, this availability is still not always sufficient, and generator sets and uninterruptible power supplies are thus used. c the housing sector no longer accepts power cuts; c tertiary is a major computer consumer; c industry has set up in rural areas, is a major automation system consumer and is increasingly using static converters; for example, motors are controlled by a speed controller and functionally linked to a PLC. In all buildings, intelligent devices are increasingly being controlled by technical management systems (process - electrical distribution building utilities). These digital systems, including distributed computing, nowadays require the problem-free joint existence of high and low currents; in other words, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is vital. A clash of technical cultures is inevitable: c electrical engineers have problems with the harmonics generated by static converters. These harmonics cause temperature rises in transformers, destruction of capacitors and abnormal currents in the neutral; c electronic engineers place filters upstream of their products, which do not always withstand overvoltages and lower network insulation; c lamp manufacturers are unaware of the problems caused by energising inrush currents, harmonics and high frequencies generated by certain electronic ballasts; c computer engineers (same applies to designers of distributed intelligence systems) are concerned with equipotentiality of frames and conducted and radiated interference. These specialists sometimes have problems understanding one another and do not necessarily all have the same approach. Also, very few of them are familiar with earthing systems and their advantages and drawbacks faced with the evolution in the techniques described above. Readers wishing to improve their knowledge in this area should study the following Cahiers Techniques: c n 149 - EMC: Electromagnetic compatibility; c n 141 - Les perturbations lectriques en BT; c n 177 - Perturbations des systmes lectroniques et schmas des liaisons la terre. This section will only review the most important aspects, without describing earthing system behaviour faced with MV (50 Hz) faults. Faced with harmonics The TN-C should be avoided since rank 3 harmonics and multiples of 3 flow in the PEN (added to neutral current) and prevent the latter from being used as a potential reference for communicating electronic systems (distributed intelligence systems). Moreover, if the PEN is connected to metal structures, both these and the electric cables become sources of electromagnetic disturbance. Note The TNC-S (TN-S downstream from a TN-C should also be avoided even though risks are smaller). Faced with fault currents c short-circuits: avoid separating the live conductors; otherwise the Icc creates an electromagnetic pulse in the resulting loop; c electrical earthing fault: the PE must follow the live conductors as closely as possible, or, better still, be in the same multi-conductor cable. Otherwise, as above, the transmitting loop effect appears. The higher the fault current, the greater this effect. The TT earthing system will thus be preferred, as the TN and IT (2nd fault) can develop currents a 1,000 times greater.

earthing systems and disturbances in electronic systems

Electromagnetic disturbances assume many different forms, namely: c continuous or occasional; c high or low frequency; c conducted or radiated; c common or differential mode; c internal or external to the LV network. Choice of earthing system is not a neutral one as regards: c sensitivity to disturbances; c generation of disturbances; c effects on low current systems.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.15

In TN and IT, do not connect the PE to the metal frames of the building as the return currents may take a variety of paths and turn into transmitting antennae. The same also applies to the power cable, incorporating the PE, in which the sum of currents is no longer zero. With respect to equipotentiality of frames, the TN and IT (on the 2nd fault) are equivalent since frame potential at the fault point suddenly rises to Uo/2 whereas it remains at 0 V at the origin of the installation. This leads to certain specialists specifying in TN and IT the creation of a low current frame circuit separated from the earth circuit (PE), both being connected to the earth connection at the origin of the LV installation. The TT with distributed PE throughout the installation is the best system in this respect (small Id and same potential reference for all the communicating devices), (see fig. 19). Faced with lightning and operating overvoltages These overvoltages, of common or differential mode and with a frequency of 1 kHz to 1 MHz can damage certain electronic devices if they are not fitted with an isolating transformer with a small primary/secondary capacitive coupling. As regards differential mode overvoltages, all the earthing systems are equivalent. The solution consists in: c implementing surge reducing at disturbance source level (e.g. RC on contactor coil); c protecting sensitive equipment by installing a surge limiter (varistor, ZnO lightning arrester) directly at their terminals. As regards common mode overvoltages (lightning), ZnO lightning arresters should be installed at the origin of the LV installation with the shortest possible earth connections. In this case, although the TN and TT earthing systems may seem more suitable than IT but overvoltages are

transmitted on LV phases. In actual fact, at the frequencies considered, the phase/neutral impedance of the LV windings is very high (the phases are as though they were unearthed even if the neutral is earthed). Faced with HF disturbances: All the earthing systems are equivalent. Advice for minimising the effects of HF disturbances: c use the Faraday cage effect for buildings (metal structures and meshed floors), or for certain rooms in the building reserved for sensitive equipment, c separate the frame network (structural and functional frames) from the earth network (PE),

c avoid loops which may be formed by the high and low current circuits of communicating devices or place low current links (frame surfaces - ducts/metal screens accompanying frames) under a reduction effect, c avoid running them too close to power cables and make them cross at 90; c use twisted cables, or, even better, shielded twisted cables. There are still not many standards in this area and they are often prepared (EMC standards) by electronic engineers. Installation standard IEC 364, sections 444 and 548, should provide increasingly more recommendations.

a)

V
PE

digital link

In TN: on an insulation fault, the voltage drop in the PE causes the reference potential of the communicating devices to vary. Uo where as the devices close to the The frames of devices 2, 3..., are at the potential 2 source are at the earth potential. b)

PE

digital link

With a single load frame earth connection: In TT: all the frames are at the same potential, even during a fault; no disturbance of communictions by bus.

fig. 19: equipotentiality of the PE on an insulation fault.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.16

evolution of earthing systems

Evolution of the TN The original aim of this earthing system was simplicity, efficiency and minimum installation cost (see the American TN where the neutral is not even protected); Safety of personnel is guaranteed, but that of property (fire, damage to electrical equipment) is less so. Proliferation of low current power electronics is increasing and will continue to increase complexity of its implementation. Derived from the TT of the nineteen twenties, the TN was a solution for controlling fault current value and ensuring that all insulation faults could be eliminated by a SCPD. It grew up in Ango-Saxon countries where rigour of installation designers and users is excellent. The logical evolution is TN-C TN-C-S TN-S TN-S with fault current limitation to limit fire hazards, damage to loads and malfunctionings due to widespread use of distributed electronics (see fig. 20). A survey carried out in Germany in 1990 showed that 28 % of electrical (electronic) problems were due to EMC. In terms of protection, the TN system often uses fuses; already hindered by an overlong breaking time when limit safety voltage UL is 25 V, they will be further hindered in the long term if LV networks with voltages greater than 230/400 V are developed. The use of RCDs (impedance-earthed TN-S) solves this problem. Evolution of the IT The earliest electrical installations (1920) were produced in IT. However, double faults quickly gave this system a bad name (failure to master loop impedances). Standards gave it official status in the sixties in order to meet continuity of service requirements of process industries and safety requirements in mines.

a) TN-C earthing system

3 MV LV Ph PEN

b) TN-C-S earthing system

3 MV LV Ph N PE (2) (1)

(1) new earth connection preferable if the transformer is at a distance (public distribution); improves local equipotentiality compared with the eath. This solution is used in Germany and is being experimented in France (in DP). (2) in France, the C 15-100 stipulates changing to TN-S when cross-section of conductors is i 10 mm2 Cu. c) TN-S earthing system
3 MV LV Ph N PE

Avoids equipotentiality disturbances due to flow of neutral current and 3K harmonics in the PEN. d) impedance-earthed TN-S
RCD 3 MV LV Ph N PE

Solution used in the USA (Id of the order of 500 A), in RSA (I 20 A); limits fire risks, damage and potential reference problems for distributed electronics. This earthing system is similar to the TT one.

fig. 20: evolution of the TN.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.17

Today, the IT system closely resembles the TN-S as regards installation (an additional surge limiter and insulation monitor). It is the champion of continuity of service and safety on the first fault, if this fault is promptly tracked and eliminated. Following widespread use of the distributed PE throughout the installation (as in TN), this system, in which the second fault current cannot be limited, will not really evolve, except for the rapid fault tracking techniques. As the likelihood of a double fault increases with the number of feeders and size of the installation, its use should be reserved for parts of the network and for control and monitoring circuits with, naturally, use of isolating transformers (see fig. 21). On these small circuits, use of the impedance-earthed IT allows signalling RCDs for fault tracking. Evolution of the TT To begin with, electrical distribution in France was in single-phase 110 V, followed by two-phase 220 V. Earthing of frames, combined with use of RCDs, aimed at de-energising consumers with insulation faults and cheaters. The development of electric household appliances led to protect people against indirect contacts. Protection against indirect contacts by RCD with standardised operating times was made official in the nineteen sixties. Today, the tendency is (as in TN and IT) to distribute the PE throughout the installation and thus to use only one application earth connection (see fig. 22). This tendency should continue with the use of the LV neutral earth connection only (as in TN and IT), but maintaining the advantage (damage, fire, EMC) of a small insulation fault current.

a) at the outset

3 M MV LV Ph N

b) in 1960

MV

LV

Ph N PE CPI

limiter

Limitation of number of earth connections and interconnection of frames or use of RCD to master the double fault. c) in 1990

MV

LV

Ph N PE CPI

limiter

Becoming more similar to the TN-S (PE distributed, calculation of loop impedances). d) 2000

MV

LV

choosing the earthing system

Choice may be determined by normal practice in the country. Choice of earthing system should be influenced by electrical power users and network operators (electrical service). Experience shows however that the choice is mainly made by the engineering firms designing the installation.

TN-S or TT

IT

IT is used mainly on small networks or parts of networks downstream from TN and TT systems.

fig. 21: evolution of the IT.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.18

For users and operators These both demand absolute DEPENDABILITY; electrical power should thus always be available and be completely risk-free, i.e. out of sight, out of mind. The elements making up installation dependability: c safety; c availability; c reliability; c maintenability, must therefore be optimised. In addition, a new requirement, electricity must not disturb the numerous low current devices. These are the criteria used to make the best choice according to: c type of building; c the activity it houses; c whether or not an electrical service is available. In safety terms, the TT is the best, In availability terms, the IT is the most suitable, In maintenability terms, fault tracking is fast in TN (thanks to the SCPD) but repair time is often long. Conversely, in IT, tracking of the first fault may be more difficult, but repairs are quicker and less costly. The TT is a good compromise. In reliability terms, the protection devices used are reliable, but reliability of the installation and loads may be affected: c in TN-C by the fact that the PEN, not protected, may be damaged by harmonic currents; c in TN-C and TN-S; v by insufficient rigour for extensions, v by use of replacement sources with low short-circuit power, v by the effects of electrodynamic forces; c in IT, on a double fault, the risks inherent in TN described above also exist. However if tracking and elimination of the 1st fault are rapid, installation reliability is excellent. c in TT, by disruptive breakdown by return of the loads due to a fault in the HV/LV transformers. However the likelihood of this fault occurring is small and preventive solutions are available, e.g. use of surge arresters between one of the live conductors and the load earth connection. In disturbance terms, the TT is to be preferred to the TN-S whose high fault currents may be the source of disturbance.

a) at the outset
RCD 3 HV LV Ph N

b) in 1960

RCD LV

HV

Ph N PE RCD RCD

Multiple RCDs with time discrimination, local equipotentialites and minimum number of earth connections. c) in 1990

HV

LV

Ph N PE

Same use of RCDs. PE distributed as in TN-S and IT. In some installations, the two earth connections are connected... it is TN-S without impedance calculation as RCDs are used. d) 2000
CDR RCD HV LV

To retain the advantage of the small fault current (damage and EMC), an impedance-earthed TT (r 12 /Id = 20 A) emerges with a single earth connection. This system requires the use of a surge limiter if the MV zero sequence current exceeds 80 A - DDRs are used in the same way (time discrimination)

fig. 22: evolution of the TT.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.19

The table in figure 23 reviews the strong and weak points of each earthing system: For installation designers Designing is simpler in TT, the same for extensions (no calculations). Designing complexity is equivalent in TN-S and IT. As regards costs: c the TN-S is the least costly to install, for example if the neutral is neither protected nor switched. But be warned: the cost of curative maintenance can be high; c the IT is slightly more costly to install (insulation monitoring and insulation fault tracking devices). Search for maximum availability of electrical power requires the presence of an electrical engineer, whose action will minimise curative maintenance; c the TT, if enough discriminating RCDs are installed, is slightly more costly to install than the IT, but fault tracking is simple and curative maintenance less costly than in TN. In terms of complete cost over 10 to 20 years, all three earthing systems are equivalent. The right choice In a certain number of countries, for some buildings or parts of a building, the choice is laid down by legislations or standards, e.g. for hospitals, schools, navy, worksites, mines, etc. In other cases, certain earthing systems are strictly prohibited, for example the TN-C in premises with explosion risks. Apart from these compulsory choices, the DEPENDABILITY objectives (safety, availability, reliability, maintenability and proper operation of low current communicating systems) are those which should determine which earthing system is chosen for a specific building type. The degree of development of the country should also be taken into consideration, as should be national practices, climate.... If we plot an axis from North to South, as regards public distribution, we find the IT earthing system in Norway, TN-C in Germany, TT in France and in most African countries. In temperate, industrialised countries, all three earthing systems are used in private installations. Finally, it should be noted that it is possible and even advisable to mix the earthing systems (see fig. 24).
safety c of persons c fire c explosions availability(further to 1 fault) maintenability reliability of the installation disturbances c radiation transmission EM c equipotentiality of PE (1) : 1st insulation fault. (2) : 2nd fault.

TN-C TN-S + --+ + +

TT + + + +

IT(1) ++ ++ ++ ++

IT(2) +

Observations Uc # 0 on 1st fault (IT) TN-C not recommended TN-C strictly prohibited depends on discrimination of the SCPDs or RCDs (easier to implement) the IT authorises preventive and even predictive maintenance advantage for small Ids (damage- electrodynamic forces) advantage for small Id pay attention to harmonics in TN-C

+ ++

++ ++

--

+ ++

++ +

fig. 23: comparing the earthing system.

a) "series" association of earthing systems

3 HV LV PEN N PE TN-S TT IT

TN-C

b) "parallel" association of earthing systems TN-S - lighting - heating - computing centre

3 HV LV N PE TN-S

TT PE

- machines - communicating systems . automation . office . TBM - premises with fire hazards - safety systems - medical facilities - industrial process

IT

fig. 24: several earthing system included in the same LV installation.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.20

4. conclusion

The three earthing systems (TN - IT - TT) and their implementation are clearly defined in installation standards (IEC 364). Their respective use varies from country to country: c mainly TN in Anglo-Saxon countries; c TT often used in the other countries; c IT used when safety of persons and property, and continuity of service are essential. All three systems are considered to guarantee personnel protection. Two major changes have had a considerable effect on choice of earthing systems: c search for optimum continuity of service;

c proliferation of high current (disturbers) and low current (disturbed) electronic devices, which are increasingly set up in communicating systems. Thus the general tendency for earthing systems, in both MV and LV, is to limit insulation fault currents. At present, the fault currents of traditional LV earthing systems have the following standard values: c IT (1st fault): Id < 1 A; c TT: Id 20 A; c TN: Id 20 kA; c IT (2nd fault): Id 20 kA. Limiting fault currents: c simplifies maintenability of the electrical installation, thus increasing availability;

c minimises the fire hazard; c can reduce contact voltage; c and, for sensitive systems, minimises disturbance due to electromagnetic radiation and common impedance. Moreover, in view of the proliferation of communicating digital systems (computers, video, automation, TBM etc., it is vital that earthing systems provide a potential reference which is not disturbed by high fault currents and harmonics. Consequently, future evolution should favour earthing systems generating fault currents which do not exceed a few dozen amps. TT earthing systems should therefore be increasingly used.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.21

appendix 1: IEC 364 standard

c 364-1 - Electrical installations of buildings (NF C 15-100). c 364-1 - 1992 Part 1: Scope, object and fundamental principles c 364-2-21 - 1993 Part 2: Definitions - Chaper 21 - Guide to general terms c 364-3 - 1993 Part 3: Assessment of general characteristics c 364-4 Part 4: Protection for safety v 364-4-41 - 1992 Chapter 41 : Protection against Electric Shock v 364-4-42- 1980 Chapter 42: Protection against thermal effects v 364-4-43 - 1977 Chapter 43: Protection against overcurrent v 364-4-45 - 1984 Chapter 45: Protection against undervoltage v 364-4-46 - 1981 Chapter 46: Isolation and switching v 364-4-47 - 1981 Chapter 47: Application of protective measures for safety - Section 470: General - Section 471: Measures of protection against Electric Shock v 364-4-442 - 1993 Chapter 44: Protection against overvoltages - Section 442: Protection of low-voltage installations against faults between high-voltage systems and earth v 364-4-443 - 1993 Chapter 44: Protection against overvoltages - Section 443: Protection against overvoltages of atmospheric origin or due to switching

v 364-4-473 - 1977 Chapter 47: Application of protective measures for safety - Section 473: Measures of protection against overcurrent v 364-4-481 - 1993 Chapter 48: Choice of protective measures as a function of external influences - Section 481: Selection of measures for protection against Electric Shock in relation to external influences v 364-4-482 - 1982 Chapter 48: Choice of protective measures as a function of external influences - Section 482: Protection against fire c 364-5 Part 5: Selection and erection of electrical equipment. v 364-5-51 - 1979 Chapter 51: Common rules v 364-5-51 - 1 - 1982 Amendment No. 1 364-5-51 - 1979. v 364-5-51 - 2 - 1993 Amendment No. 2 364-5-51 - 1979. v 364-5-53 - 1986 Chapter 53: Switchgear and controlgear v 364-5-53 - 2 - 1992 Amendment No. 1 364-5-53 - 1986. v 364-5-54 - 1980 Chapter 54: Earthing arrangements and protective conductors v 364-5-54 - 1 - 1982 Amendment No. 1 364-5-54 - 1980. v 364-5-56 - 1980 Chapter 56: Safety services v 364-5-523 - 1983 Chapter 52: Wiring systems - Section 523: Current-carrying capacities

v 364-5-537 - 1981 Chapter 53: Switchgear and controlgear - Section 537: Devices for isolation and switching v 364-5-537 - 1 - 1989 Amendment No. 1 364-5-537 - 1981. c 364-6 Part 6: Verification v 364-6-61 - 1986 Chapter 61: Initial verification v 364-6-61 - 1993 Amendment No. 1 364-6-61 - 1986. c 364-7 Part 7: Requirements for special installations or locations v 364-7-701 - 1984 Section 701: Locations containing a bath tub or shower basin v 364-7-702 - 1983 Section 702: Swimming pools v 364-7-703 - 1984 Section 703: Locations containing sauna heaters v 364-7-704 - 1989 Section 704: Construction and demolition site installations v 364-7-705 - 1984 Section 705: Electrical installations of agricultural and horticultural premises v 364-7-706 - 1983 Section 706: Restrictive conducting locations v 364-7-707 - 1984 Section 707: Earthing requirements for the installation of data processing equipment v 364-7-708 - 1988 Section 708: Electrical installations in caravan parks and caravans

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.22

appendix 2: bibliography

Standards c IEC 241: Fuses for domestic and similar purposes. c IEC 269: Low voltage fuses. c IEC 364: Electrical installations of buildings. c IEC 479: Effects of currents flowing through the human body. c IEC 755: General requirements for residual current operated protective devices. c IEC 947-2: Low voltage switchgear and controlgear. c NF C 15-100 : Installations lectriques basse tension. c NF C 63-080 : Dispositifs de contrle permanent d'isolement et dispositifs de localisation de dfauts associs. c NF C 63-150 : Limiteurs de surtension : rgles. French decree of the 14.11.88

Merlin Gerin's Cahiers Techniques c Earthing of the neutral conductor in High-Voltage networks, Cahier Technique n 62 F. SAUTRIAU c Residual current devices, Cahier Technique n 114 R. CALVAS c Protections des personnes et alimentations statiques sans coupure, Cahier Technique n 129 J.-N. FIORINA c Les perturbations lectriques en BT, Cahier Technique n 141 R. CALVAS c Introduction to dependability design, Cahier Technique n 144 P. BONNEFOI c Lightning and HV electrical installations, Cahier Technique n 168 B. DE METZ NOBLAT c Earthing systems in LV, Cahier Technique n 172 B. LACROIX and R. CALVAS c Perturbations des systmes lectroniques et schmas des liaisons la terre, Cahier Technique n 177 R. CALVAS c Connaissance et emploi du SLT neutre isol, Cahier Technique n 178 E. TISON et I. HERITIER

Other publications c Guide de linstallation lectrique (partie G). Ed. FRANCE IMPRESSION CONSEIL 1991. c Guide de lingnierie lectrique. Ed. ELECTRA 1986. c Electrical Review. Nov. 1991 - Oct. 1992. c La protection diffrentielle. Cahier Technique J3E - 02/90.

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.23

Cahier Technique Merlin Gerin n 173 / p.24

Real. : Illustration Technique - Lyon Edition: DTE - Grenoble 09-95 - 2,500 - Printing: Clerc Printed in France