Electrical Forumals
Electrical Forumals
Electrical Forumals
Electrical Formulas
Options:
- Motor Formulas - Transformer Formulas E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP = Horsepower
AC/DC Formulas
To Find Amps when Horsepower is Known Amps when Kilowatts is known Amps when kVA is known Kilowatts Kilovolt-Amps Horsepower (output) Direct Current AC / 1phase 115v or 120v AC / 1phase 208,230, or 240v AC 3 phase All Voltages
HP x 746 E x Eff X PF kW x 1000 E x PF kVA x 1000 E I x E x PF 1000 IxE 1000 I x E x Eff x PF 746
HP x 746 E x Eff x PF kW x 1000 E x PF kVA x 1000 E I x E x PF 1000 IxE 1000 I x E x Eff x PF 746
HP x 746 1.73 x E x Eff x PF kW x 1000 1.73 x E x PF kVA x 1000 1.73 x E I x E x 1.73 PF 1000 I x E x 1.73 1000 I x E x Eff x 1.73 x PF 746
IxE 1000
I x E x Eff 746
Power - DC Circuits
Watts = E xI Amps = W / E
Motor Formulas
Calculating Motor Speed: A squirrel cage induction motor is a constant speed device. It cannot operate for any length of time at speeds below those shown on the nameplate without danger of burning out. To calculate the speed of a induction motor, apply this formula: S rpm = 120 x F P S rpm = synchronous revolutions per minute. 120 = constant F = supply frequency (in cycles/sec) P = number of motor winding poles Example: What is the synchronous of a motor having 4 poles connected to a 60 Hz power supply? S rpm = 120 x F P S rpm = 120 x 60 4 S rpm = 7200 4 S rpm = 1800 rpm Calculating Braking Torque: Full-load motor torque is calculated to determine the required braking torque of a motor.
To Determine braking torque of a motor, apply this formula: T = 5252 x HP rpm T = full-load motor torque (in lb-ft) 5252 = constant (33,000 divided by 3.14 x 2 = 5252) HP = motor horsepower rpm = speed of motor shaft
Example: What is the braking torque of a 60 HP, 240V motor rotating at 1725 rpm? T = 5252 x HP rpm T = 5252 x 60 1725 T = 315,120 1725 T = 182.7 lb-ft
Calculating Work: Work is applying a force over a distance. Force is any cause that changes the position, motion, direction, or shape of an object. Work is done when a force overcomes a resistance. Resistance is any force that tends to hinder the movement of an object. If an applied force does not cause motion the no work is produced. To calculate the amount of work produced, apply this formula: W=FxD W = work (in lb-ft) F = force (in lb) D = distance (in ft) Example: How much work is required to carry a 25 lb bag of groceries vertically from street level to the 4th floor of a building 30' above street level? W=FxD W = 25 x 30 W = 750 -lb
Calculating Torque: Torque is the force that produces rotation. It causes an object to rotate. Torque consists of force acting on distance. Torque, like work, is measured is pound-feet (lb-ft). However, torque, unlike work, may exist even though no movement occurs. To calculate torque, apply this formula: T=FxD
T = torque (in lb-ft) F = force (in lb) D = distance (in ft) Example: What is the torque produced by a 60 lb force pushing on a 3' lever arm? T=FxD T = 60 x 3 T = 180 lb ft
Calculating Full-load Torque: Full-load torque is the torque to produce the rated power at full speed of the motor. The amount of torque a motor produces at rated power and full speed can be found by using a horsepower-to-torque conversion chart. When using the conversion chart, place a straight edge along the two known quantities and read the unknown quantity on the third line. To calculate motor full-load torque, apply this formula: T = HP x 5252 rpm T = torque (in lb-ft) HP = horsepower 5252 = constant rpm = revolutions per minute Example: What is the FLT (Full-load torque) of a 30HP motor operating at 1725 rpm? T = HP x 5252 rpm T = 30 x 5252 1725 T = 157,560 1725 T = 91.34 lb-ft
Calculating Horsepower: Electrical power is rated in horsepower or watts. A horsepower is a unit of power equal to 746 watts or 33, 0000 lb-ft per minute (550 lb-ft per second). A watt is a unit of measure equal to the power produced by a current of 1 amp across the 6
potential difference of 1 volt. It is 1/746 of 1 horsepower. The watt is the base unit of electrical power. Motor power is rated in horsepower and watts. Horsepower is used to measure the energy produced by an electric motor while doing work. To calculate the horsepower of a motor when current and efficiency, and voltage are known, apply this formula: HP = V x I x Eff 746 HP = horsepower V = voltage I = current (amps) Eff. = efficiency Example: What is the horsepower of a 230v motor pulling 4 amps and having 82% efficiency? HP = V x I x Eff 746 HP = 230 x 4 x .82 746 HP = 754.4 746 HP = 1 Hp Eff = efficiency / HP = horsepower / V = volts / A = amps / PF = power factor Horsepower Formulas To Find Use Formula Example Given Find Solution HP = 240V x 20A x 85% 746 HP=5.5 I = 10HP x 746 240V x 90% x 88% I = 39 A
HP
HP = I X E X Eff. 240V, 20A, 85% Eff. HP 746 I = HP x 746 E X Eff x PF 10HP, 240V, 90% Eff., 88% PF I
To calculate the horsepower of a motor when the speed and torque are known, apply this formula: HP = rpm x T(torque) 5252(constant) Example: What is the horsepower of a 1725 rpm motor with a FLT 3.1 lb-ft?
Calculating Synchronous Speed: AC motors are considered constant speed motors. This is because the synchronous speed of an induction motor is based on the supply frequency and the number of poles in the motor winding. Motor are designed for 60 Hz use have synchronous speeds of 3600, 1800, 1200, 900, 720, 600, 514, and 450 rpm.
To calculate synchronous speed of an induction motor, apply this formula: Rpm sync = 120 x f Np Rpm sync = synchronous speed (in rpm) f = supply frequency in (cycles/sec) Np = number of motor poles
Example: What is the synchronous speed of a four pole motor operating at 50 Hz? Rpm sync = 120 x f Np Rpm sync = 120 x 50 4 rpm sync = 6000 4 Rpm sync = 1500 rpm
on the other side or a division may be removed from one side of an equation by making it a multiplier on the other side.
A. Ep =
Es x Is Es x Is B. Ip = Ip Ep
Ep x Ip Ep x Ip C. Is = Es D. Es = Is
2.
A. Ep =
Es x Ip Es x Tp B. Ts = Ts Ep Ep x Ts Ep x Ts D. Es = Es Tp
C. Tp =
A. Ip =
Is x Ts Is x Ts B. Tp = Tp Ip Ip x Tp Ip x Tp D. Is = Is Ts
C. Ts =
Rules Of Thumb"
At 575 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 1 amp per horsepower. At 460 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 1.27 amps per horsepower. At 230 volts, a 3-phase motor draws 2.5 amps per horsepower. At 230 volts, a single-phase motor draws 5 amps per horsepower. At 115 volts, a single phase motor draws 10 amps per horsepower.
* These above are approximations.
746 watts = 1 HP How to figure out what phase is a certain circuit number for 3 phases:
An easy way to figure what phase a circuit number is to divide it by 6. If it divides evenly it is always "C" phase. Lets say you have circuit number 27. Divide it by 6. Six will go into 27 four times with a remainder of 3. Normally panels are labeled with the odds on the left and the evens on the right (see Panel layout example below). So 3 is the second one down from the top on the odd side, so therefore it will be "B" phase. Let's try another one; Say your circuit number is 50. Divide it by 6. Six will go into 50 eight times with a remainder of 2. So the correct phase for circuit 50 will be "A" phase. This is taken in consideration if the the 3 phase system is phased A, B, C left to right, top to bottom. This is the normal phasing of a system.
Example of Panel Layout: A - ckt 1 A - ckt 2 B - ckt 3 B - ckt 4 C - ckt 5 C - ckt 6 A - ckt 7 A - ckt 8 B - ckt 9 B - ckt 10 C - ckt 11 C - ckt 12
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Delta Connections: A delta system is a good short-distance distribution system. It is used for neighborhood and small commercial loads close to the supplying substation. Only one voltage is available between any two wires in a delta system. The delta system can be illustrated by a simple triangle. A wire from each point of the triangle would represent a three-phase, three-wire delta system. The voltage would be the same between any two wires (see figure 1-3).
Figure 1-3:
Wye Connections:
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In a wye system the voltage between any two wires will always give the same amount of voltage on a three phase system. However, the voltage between any one of the phase conductors (X1, X2, and X3) and the neutral (X0) will be less than the power conductors. For example, if the voltage between the power conductors of any two phases of a three wire system is 208v, then the voltage from any phase conductor to ground will be 120v. This is due to the square root of three phase power. In a wye system, the voltage between any two power conductors will always be 1.732 (which is the square root of 3) times the voltage between the neutral and any one of the power phase conductors. The phase-to-ground voltage can be found by dividing the phase-to-phase voltage by 1.732 (see figure 1-4).
Figure 1-4:
Figure 1-5:
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Figure 1-6 shows three single phase transformers labeled A, B, and C. The primary leads of each transformer are labeled H1 and H2 and the secondary leads are labeled X1 and X2. The schematic diagram of figure 1-5 will be used to connect the three single phase transformers into a three phase wye-delta connection as shown in figure 1-7.
Figure 1-6:
Figure 1-7:
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The primary winding will be tied into a wye connection first. The schematic in figure 1-5 shows, that the H2 leads of the three primary windings are connected together, and the H1 lead of each winding is open for connection to the incoming power line. Notice in figure 1-7 that the H2 leads of the primary windings are connected together, and the H1 lead of each winding has been connected to the incoming primary power line. Figure 1-5 shows that the X1 lead of the transformer A is connected to the X2 lead of transformer c. Notice that this same connection has been made in figure 1-7. The X1 lead of transformer B is connected to X1, lead of transformer A, and the X1 lead of transformer B is connected to X2 lead of transformer A, and the X1 lead of transformer C is connected to X2 lead of transformer B. The load is connected to the points of the delta connection.
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Another figure given for this calculation is 58%. This percentage assumes a closed delta bank containing 3 transformers. If three 25 kVA transformers were connected to form a closed delta connection, the total output would be 75 kVA (3 x 25 = 75 kVA). If one of these transformers were removed and the transformer bank operated as an open delta connection, the output power would be reduced to 58% of its original capacity of 75 kVA. The output capacity of the open delta bank is 43.5 kVA (75 kVA x .58% = 43.5 kVA). The voltage and current values of an open delta connection are computed in the same manner as a standard delta-delta connection when three transformers are employed. The voltage and current rules for a delta connection must be used when determining line and phase values of voltage current.
Closing a Delta:
When closing a delta system, connections should be checked for proper polarity before making the final connection and applying power. If the phase winding of one transformer is reversed, an extremely high current will flow when power is applied. Proper phasing can be checked with a voltmeter at delta opening. If power is applied to the transformer bank before the delta connection is closed, the voltmeter should indicate 0 volts. If one phase winding has been reversed, however, the voltmeter will indicate double the amount of voltage. It should be noted that a voltmeter is a high impedance device. It is not unusual for a voltmeter to indicate some amount of voltage before the delta is closed, especially if the primary has been connected as a wye and the secondary as a delta. When this is the case, the voltmeter will generally indicate close to the normal output voltage if the connection is correct and double the output voltage if the connection is incorrect.
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Answer: 15 amp breaker (preferably a 20 amp breaker) Electrical Code Article 450-3(b)(2) states if a transformer 600 v, nominal, or less, having a an over current device on the secondary side rated or set at not more than 125% of the rated secondary current of the transformer shall not be required to have an individual over current device on the primary side if the primary feeder over current device is rated or set at a current value not more than 250% of the rated primary current of the transformer.
What size breaker is needed on the secondary side to protect a 3 phase 480v/208v 112.5 kVA transformer?
To solve : P / I x E
112.5 kVA x 1000 = 112500 VA 112500 divided by 360 (208 x 1.732) = 312.5 amps 312.5 X 1.25 = 390.6 amps Answer: 400 amp breaker
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Single Phase
KVA Rating 1 1.5 2 3 5 7.5 10 15 25 37.5 50 75 100 167 200 120V 8.33 12.5 16.66 25 41 62 83 124 208 312 416 624 830 1390 1660 Amperes 240V 4.16 6.24 8.33 12.5 21 31 42 62 104 156 208 312 415 695 833 480V 2.08 3.12 4.16 6.1 10.4 15.6 21 31 52 78 104 156 207 348 416
Three Phase
KVA Rating 208V 3 8.3 6 16.6 9 25.0 15 41.6 30 83.0 45 125 75 208 112.5 312 150 415 200 554 225 625 300 830 400 1110 500 1380 750 2080 Amperes 240V 480V 7.2 3.6 14.4 7.2 21.6 10.8 36 18 72 36 108 54 180 90 270 135 360 180 480 240 540 270 720 360 960 480 1200 600 1800 900 600V 2.9 5.8 8.7 14.4 28.8 43 72 108 144 192 216 288 384 487 720
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DC Motors
Horse90v 120v 180v 240v 500v 550v power Amperes 1/4 1/3 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 3 5 7-1/2 4.0 5.2 6.8 9.6 -----3.1 4.1 5.4 7.6 13.2 17 25 40 58 2.0 2.6 3.4 4.8 6.1 8.3 10.8 16 27 -1.6 2.0 2.7 3.8 4.7 6.6 8.5 12.2 20 29 -------------------
12.2 9.5
13.6 12.2
Horse90v 120v 180v 240v 500v 550v power Amperes 10 15 20 25 30 40 ------76 -----------38 38 55 89 106 140 18 18 27 43 51 67 16 16 24 38 46 61
Horse90v 120v 180v 240v 500v 550v power Amperes 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 ---------------------173 206 255 341 425 506 675 83 99 123 164 205 246 330 75 90 111 148 185 222 294
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100 57.5
2 Phase (4 wire) AC Induction Type Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor Horse115v 230v 460v 575v 2300v power Amperes 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 3 5 10 4.0 4.8 6.4 9.0 11.8 ---2.0 2.4 3.2 4.5 5.9 8.3 13.2 24 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.3 3.0 4.2 6.6 12 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.8 2.4 3.3 5.3 10 ---------
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15 20 25 30 40
------
36 47 59 69 90
18 23 29 35 45
14 19 24 28 36
------
Horse115v 230v 460v 575v 2300v power Amperes 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 -------113 133 166 218 270 312 416 56 67 83 109 135 156 208 45 53 66 87 108 125 167 -14 18 23 28 32 43
AC 3 Phase Induction Type Squirrel Cage and Wound Rotor Horse115V 200V 208V 230V 460V 575V 2300V power
Amperes 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/2 2 3 5 7-1/2 4.4 6.4 8.4 12.0 13.6 ---2.5 3.7 4.8 6.9 7.8 2.4 3.5 4.6 6.6 7.5 2.2 3.2 4.2 6.0 6.8 9.6 22 1.1 1.6 2.1 3.0 3.4 4.8 7.6 11 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.4 2.7 3.9 6.1 9 ---------
Horse115v 200v 208v 230v 460v 575v 2300v power 10 -32.2 30.8 28 14 11 --
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15 20 25 30 40
------
42 54 68 80 104
21 27 34 40 52
17 22 27 32 41
------
Horse115v 200v 208v 230v 460v 575v 2300v power 50 60 75 100 125 150 200 -------150 177 221 285 359 414 552 143 169 211 273 343 396 528 130 154 192 248 312 360 480 65 77 96 124 156 180 240 52 62 77 99 125 144 192 -16 20 26 31 37 49
Horse115v 200v 208v 230v 460v 575v 2300v power Amperes 250 300 350 400 450 500 ------------------------302 361 414 477 515 590 242 289 336 382 412 472 60 72 83 95 103 118
AC 3 Phase Synchronous Type Unity Power Factor Horse230v 460v 575v 2300v power Amperes 25 30 40 50 53 63 83 104 26 32 41 52 21 26 33 42 -----
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12 15 20 25 30 40
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O.S.H.A. The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) was legislated to assure, so far as possible, every working man and woman in the Nation, safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources. The Act applies to business and industry with any number of employs. The requirements of the Electrical Code, National provide the basis of the safety provisions of the Act. Specific references to electrical installations and electrical wiring systems are made in the Electrical Subpart "S". The Act is "safety oriented", which closely parallels the quality design characteristics and industrial acceptance of product lines we carry. We believe that we have a responsibility to assist our customers to meet the intent of the Act. When and if changes are necessary to ensure the safety of your electrical systems, we will assist you with proper guidance and product application information.
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22. Failure to post job safety and health 53. Respirators not U.S. Bureau of mines approved. poster 54. Faulty cylinder storage 23. Misuse of electrical cords and cables 24. Walking and working surfaces 25. Guarding floor and wall openings and holes 26. Scaffolding, no guard rails 27. Inadequate recordkeeping
Some of these violations are really far fetched, but is is very possible that one your projects may be visited by an OSHA Inspector. If this happens do not get excited or upset, do not volunteer any information, but do answer truthfully any and all the questions asked of you by the inspector.
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"Electrical Standards"
This is a list of a few standards in the trade.
PANELBOARDS
Single Phase - 3 Wire Systems 40A | 100A | 150A | 225A | 400A 70A | 125A | 200A | 300A | 600 A Three Phase - 4 Wire Systems 60A | 150A | 225A | 400A 125A | 200A | 300A | 600A
SWITCHBOARDS OR SWITCHGEARS
Single Phase 200 A 400 A 600 A 800 A 1200 A 1600 A 2000 A 2500 A 3000 A 4000 A Three Phase 400 A 600 A 800 A 1200 A 1600 A 2000 A 2500 A 3000 A 4000 A
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40 A 45 A 50 A 60 A
2500 A 3000 A 4000 A 5000 A 6000 A For fuses only, additional standard sizes are 1, 3, 6, and 10. 125 A 150 A 175 A 200 A 450 A 500 A 600 A 700 A
Disconnects
30A 60A 100a 200A 400A 600A 800A 1200A 1400A 1600A 1800A
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BUSWAY OR BUSDUCT
Single Phase Three Phase 225 A 225 A 400 A 400 A 600 A 600 A 800 A 800 A 1000 A 1000 A 1200 A 1200 A 1350 A 1350 A 1600 A 1600 A 2000 A 2000 A 2500 A 2500 A 3000 A 3000 A 4000 A 4000 A 5000 A 5000 A
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Diagram
Original Desired Power Factor Power Percent Factor Percent 100% 95% 90% 85%
80%
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60% 62% 64% 66% 68% 70% 72% 74% 76% 78% 79% 80% 81% 82% 83% 84% 85% 86% 87% 89% 90% 91% 92% 93% 94% 95% 96% 97% 99%
1.333 1.004 0.849 0.713 0.583 1.266 0.937 0.782 0.646 0.516 1.201 0.872 0.717 0.581 0.451 1.138 0.809 0.654 0.518 0.388 1.078 0.749 0.594 0.458 0.328 1.020 0.691 0.536 0.400 0.270 0.964 0.635 0.480 0.344 0.214 0.909 0.580 0.425 0.289 0.159 0.855 0.526 0.371 0.235 0.105 0.802 0.473 0.318 0.182 0.052 0.776 0.447 0.292 0.156 0.026 0.750 0.421 0.266 0.130 0.724 0.395 0.240 0.104 0.698 0.369 0.214 0.078 0.672 0.343 0.188 0.052 0.646 0.317 0.162 0.206 0.620 0.291 0.136 0.593 0.264 0.109 0.567 0.238 0.083 0.512 0.183 0.028 0.484 0.155 0.456 0.127 0.426 0.097 0.395 0.066 0.363 0.034 0.329 0.292 0.251 0.143
Assume Total plant load is 100 KW at 60% power factor. Capacitor KVAR rating necessary to improve power factor to 80% is found by multiplying KW (100) by the multiplier in table (0.583) which gives KVAR (58.3), nearest standard rating (60 KVAR) should be used.
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Electrical Formulas
I = amperes E = volts KW = Kilowatts KVA = kilovolt/amperes HP = horsepower % Eff. = percent efficiency PF = power factor
To Find AMPERES when KVA is known AMPERES when horsepower is known AMPERES when kilowatts are known KILOWATTS KILOVOLT/ AMPERES HORSEPOWER WATTS Single Phase KVA X 1000 E HP X 746 E X % Eff.X PF Three Phase KVA X 1000 E X 1.73 HP X 746 E X 1.73 X % Eff. X PF Direct Current Not Applicable HP X 746 E X % Eff.
KW X 1000 E X 1.73 X PF I X E X 1.73 X PF 1000 I X E X 1.73 1000 I X E X 1.73 X % Eff. X PF 746 E X I X 1.73 X PF
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Electrical Conductor Areas United States Size (AWG) 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 350 400 500 Cir Mills (area) 1,620 2,580 4,110 6,530 10,380 16,510 26,240 41,740 52,620 66,360 83,690 105,600 133,100 167,800 211,600 250,000 300,000 350,000 400,000 500,000 Sq MM (area) 0.82 1.30 2.08 3.30 5.25 8.36 13.29 21.14 26.65 33.61 42.39 53.49 67.42 85.00 107.19 126.64 151.97 177.3 202.63 253.29
Closest European Sizes Size - Sq MM 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.50 4.00 6.00 10.0 16.0 25.0 ---35.0 50.0 ---70.0 95.0 120.0 150.0 ---185.0 Area - Cir Mils 1,480 1,974 2,961 4,935 7,896 11,844 19,740 31,584 49,350 ---69,090 98,700 ---138,180 187,530 236,880 296,100 ---365,190
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240.0
473,760
IxE IxEx2 I x E x 1.73 IxE 1000 1000 1000 1000 I x E x pf I x E x 2 pf I x E x 1.73 x pf IxE 1000 1000 1000 1000 I x E x %Eff x pf I x E x 2 x %Eff x pf I x E x 1.73 x %Eff x pf I x E x %Eff 746 746 746 746
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The colors brown, red, green, blue, and violet are used as tolerance codes on 5band resistors only. All 5-band resistors use a colored tolerance band. The blank (20%) "band" is only used with the "4-band" code (3 colored bands + a blank "band").
Example #1
Example #2
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Example #3
A resistor colored White-Violet-Black would be 97 with a tolerance of +/- 20%. When you see only three color bands on a resistor, you know that it is actually a 4band code with a blank (20%) tolerance band.
Example #4
Example #5
Example #6
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* = estimated values; normally, wire gages this small are not manufactured with these
insulation types.
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Data
Tables of specific resistance and temperature coefficient of resistance for elemental materials (not alloys) were derived from figures found in the 78th edition of the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Superconductivity data from Collier's Encyclopedia (volume 21, 1968, page 640).
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Motor users and installers get concerned when they detect unbalanced phase currents on a 3phase motor. The question is frequently asked: Is there something wrong with the motor? The other question is: How much current unbalance can be tolerated? This paper will attempt to answer those questions. HISTORY In the Good Old Days about the only sources of unbalanced phase currents was either a problem in the motor, such as an unbalanced number of turns in the windings, an uneven air gap or unbalanced phase voltages. Winding or air gap problems are definitely motor related. On the other hand unbalanced phase voltages are a power system problem. Unbalanced voltages will generally produce unbalanced currents that are many times greater than the percentage of voltage unbalance. The ratio used is close to 8:1. In other words, a voltage unbalance of 1% could create unbalanced phase currents of as much as 8%. A very unscientific way of looking at the problem is as follows: Suppose a motor has a nameplate full load current of 10 amps. At full load the amps on each leg of the 3 phases added together would be 10 + 10 + 10 or 30. However, if the load is the same but the phase currents are unbalanced, the total of the 3 legs added together will always be more than the total of the balanced currents. In this case the currents might be 10.5, 11.3 and 12.1 for a total of 33.9. This is a very unscientific way of looking at it, but it is accurate in describing the effect. What this means is that high current on one leg doesnt mean that the other two legs will be reduced by an equal amount. It can be said that unbalanced currents always result in higher operating temperature, shortened motor life and efficiency reduction. The next question is What creates unbalanced currents? In years past, if the motor was not the problem the source of unbalanced currents was unbalanced phase voltages. When measuring line to line voltages from phase A to B, B to C, and C to A, detectable differences in the voltages would show up. The voltage differences would account for the unbalanced currents. In todays world there are other problems that are frequently not detectable with simple voltage tests. One problem of growing concern, is voltage distortion caused by harmonics in the
HOW MUCH UNBALANCE CAN BE TOLERATED? In general, this depends on the conditions that are found. If the motor is driving the load and the highest amperage of the three legs is below the nameplate Full Load rating, then generally it is safe to operate. If the high leg is above the nameplate rating, but within the normal service factor amps (for a motor with a service factor, normally 1.15) then it is probably still safe to operate the motor. Also, it is not unusual to find currents more unbalanced at no load than they will be under load, so the loaded amps should be used. Finally, in general, if the high leg is not more than 10% above the average of the three legs, determined as shown in the example, it is probably safe to operate the motor. EXAMPLE Motor Nameplate FLA = 10.0 Service Factor 1.15 Phase Loaded Amps A 10.6 B 9.8 C 10.2 Determine the Average (10.6 + 9.8 + 10.2)/3 = 10.2 amps Determine the % Difference (Highest Phase Average)/Average x 100 (10.6 10.2)/10.2 x 100 = (.4/10.2) x 100 = .039 x 100 = 3.9% The following table shows some of the sources of unbalanced voltages and currents along with possible remedies. TABLE 1 SOLUTION Search, find and replace blown fuse. Locate single phase loads and distribute them more evenly on the 3 phase circuit. If the incoming voltages are
PROBLEM Blown fuse on a power factor correction capacitor bank Uneven single phase loading of the 3 phase system Utility unbalanced
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power system currents. This can happen if there are loads in the general area that draw non-linear (harmonic rich) currents from the power system, they can create voltage distortion in the normal voltage sine-wave that, in turn, can cause unbalanced currents in motors even when phase voltage differences are not detectable with a voltmeter. For example, if you were to detect unbalanced motor currents and took measurements with a digital voltmeter on the three phases, they might be very close to one another. The natural tendency under these conditions would be to blame the motor for the problem. When this happens it is necessary to go a step further to identify or dismiss the motor as the source of the problem. The test is to rotate all 3 phases. If the power phases are labeled A, B and C and the motor leads connected to them are labeled 1, 2, and 3, motor lead #1 might be reconnected to power supply lead B; motor lead #2 would be reconnected to power supply lead C, motor lead #3 would be reconnected to power supply lead A. Moving all three legs will keep the motor rotating in the same direction. The currents are recorded on each power line leg before and after the connections are changed. If the high current leg stays with the power line phase (for example, B), then the problem is a power supply problem rather than a motor problem. If, however, it moves with the motor leg, then it is a motor problem. This test will pinpoint the problem to be either power supply or motor.
voltages
Harmonic distortion
substantially unbalanced, especially at lightly loaded or no load periods, contact the utility company and ask them to correct the problem. Locate the sources of the harmonics and use harmonic filters to control or reduce harmonics. Install line reactors on existing and new variable frequency controls.
SUMMARY Unbalanced currents on 3 phase motors are undesirable but a small amount can generally be tolerated. Excessive unbalanced currents can shorten motor life and increase energy consumption.
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STAR DELTA START UP PRINCIPLES Important that the pause between star contactor switch off and Delta contactor switch is on correct. This is because Star contactor must be reliably quenched before Delta contactor is activated. It is also important that the switch over pause is not too long. For 415v Star Connection voltage is effectively reduced to 58% or 240v. The equivalent of 33% that is obtained with Direct Online (DOL) starting.
If Star connection has sufficient torque to run up to 75% or %80 of full load speed, then the motor can be connected in Delta mode. When connected to Delta configuration the phase voltage increases by a ration of V3 or 173%. The phase currents increase by the same ratio. The line current increases three times its value in star connection. During transition period of switchover the motor must be free running with little deceleration. While this is happening "Coasting" it may generate a voltage of its own, and on connection to the supply this voltage can randomly add to or subtract from the applied line voltage. This is known as transient current. Only lasting a few milliseconds it causes voltage surges and spikes. Known as a changeover transient.
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Dual Voltage: (Main Winding Only) Voltage Rotation L1 High Low CCW CW CCW CW 1 1 L2 Join
Dual Voltage: (Main & Auxiliary Winding) Voltage Rotation High CCW CW Low CCW CW L1 L2 Join
1,8 1,5
4,5 4,8
2&3,6&7 2&3,6&7
T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 55
Motor Leads
T1 T2 T3 T7 T8 T9 Motor Leads 1 2 3 7 8 9
Together 4&5&6
12 Leads NEMA & IEC Nomenclature Single Voltage or Low Voltage of Dual-Voltage Motors
L1 L2 1 2
L3 Join 3 4&5&6
Start Run
WYE Delta
3 4&5&6
High Low
WYE Delta
3 4&5&6
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L1 1 1,7
L2 2 2,8
L3 3 3,9
High Low
L1 1
L2 2
L3 3 3,5,9
High Low
1,6,7 2,4,8
L1 L2 1 1,7 2 2,8
L3 3 3,9
High Low
L2 2 2,10 2,8
L3 3 3,11 3,9
Join 4&7, 5&8, 6&9, 10&11&12 4&7, 5&8, 6&9 4&5&6, 10&11&12 -----------
oper- Conn. L1
L2
L3
Join
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Dual Voltage WYE-Delta Connections Volt High Low Conn. L1 WYE U 1 L2 V1 L3 W1 Join U2&V2&W2 --------------
Dual Voltage WYE-Connected Start Delta-Connected Run Volt Conn. L1 High WYE U 1 L2 V1 L3 W1 Join U2&U5,V2&V5, W2&W5,U6&V6&W6 U2&U5,V2&V5, W2&W6 U2&V2&W2, U6&V6&W6
Delta U1,W6 V1,U6 W1,V6 LOW WYE U1,U5 V1,V5 W1,W5 Delta
High 6 Low 1
4 2
2 WYE 1 Delta
Typical Connection
High 6 Low 1
4 2
2 WYE 1 WYE
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Speed L1 L2 L3
Typical Connection
High 6 Low 1
4 2
5 1-2-3 Open
1 Delta
3 4&5&6-Join 2 WYE
L1 L2 L3 2W 2U 2V 1U&1V&1W-JOIN
High Low
2 WYE
Speed
L1 L2 L3 2W 2U 2V 1U&1V&1W-JOIN
Typical Connection
High Low
2 WYE
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Considerations for the Use of AC Induction Motors on Variable Frequency Controllers in High Performance Applications
| Introduction | High Performance Drives | Definite Purpose Motors | Starting Characteristics | | Peak Currents | Motor Heating | Motor Cooling | Disadvantages of Oversizing Motors | | Effect of Fast Power Transistors | Motor Flux Level | Measurements in a PWM Environment | | Noise | Mechanical Flexibility | Conclusions | Reference | Abstract
Until recently the majority of AC variable speed drives have been applied to variable torque, pump and fan applications. Advances in drive technology have led to the use of induction motors in high performance applications that exceed the capability of motors designed for operation on sine wave power. These applications, which have traditionally been served by DC systems, have created the need for definite purpose AC induction motors designed specifically for operation on adjustable frequency controllers. This paper will discuss many of the considerations for a successful application and will highlight the limitations of standard motor designs.
Introduction
The reasons for operating industrial motors over a range of speeds are as varied as the industries served. The need for variable speed prime movers is widespread energy savings on fan drives, constant surface speed cutting on machine tool spindles, wind and unwind operations of a bridle drive, etc. Improved performance of these variable-speed drive systems has always been a key means for achieving increased factory productivity. While various methods have historically been used to achieve these speed ranges, advances in technology are making one of the options more attractive than ever. The low cost and ruggedness of the AC squirrel cage induction motor are benefits which have increased the desire to use it as the electromechanical energy
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conversion means. Today's control schemes are obtaining higher levels of performance from these AC motors as well. However, a common limiting characteristic of AC induction motors' performance (on adjustable frequency controls) has not been a technological limitation. Rather, it has been a limitation imposed by the nature of the standardization of industrial AC motors for generalpurpose, constant-frequency use. Throughout this highly refined standardization process there has been little consideration for operation on variable frequency power. Until recently the majority of high performance industrial applications have been satisfied using DC motors and controls. This technology has well defined standards and has been dominated by a limited number of manufacturers where the control supplier assumes responsibility for the performance of the control/motor system. The rapid development of adjustable frequency AC technology has encouraged a large number of new control manufacturers to enter the market. As would be expected, their primary experience is in electronics and not variable speed system application. Also few of these control manufacturers produce motors. The majority of AC motor manufacturers have limited variable speed experience as their products have traditionally operated at a fixed frequency and speed. Due to the large number of possible control and motor design combinations in the market place, it is impractical to assume all combinations have been tested extensively. In this environment the machine builder and user accept greater responsibility for the total system's performance and greater knowledge of the components design considerations and limits are needed.
When the "drive" (motor and control) performance requirements are minimal, a standard industrial AC induction motor can often be successfully applied to adjustable-frequency power, variable-speed applications. Indeed, some applications can be converted from constant speed to variable speed while utilizing an existing induction motor. However, when the performance level required is more demanding, a definite-purpose motor design is appropriate. This is usually the case when maximum process productivity is the goal. While the definition of a high performance application is not precise, these applications will typically have one or more of the following characteristics:
Continuous constant torque required below 50% of base speed Continuous constant horsepower required above 150% of base speed High starting loads or overloads High dynamic performance
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A process (driven machine) that cannot be started or run without a variable speed control
The vast majority of adjustable frequency AC controls applied to date have been on low performance applications such as pumps, fans and mixers. Only recently have significant numbers been applied to applications such as extruders, winders and coordinated web processes that meet the criteria above. As improvements in control technology make these applications commonplace there is a need for definite purpose motors designed specifically to optimize the performance of the drive.
The first task is to design a basic motor configuration which is matched to the general needs of adjustable frequency power and variable speed operation. Second, the design must be adaptable to match the specific needs of many different drive applications. Third, by relaxing inappropriate constraints associated with fixed frequency, fixed voltage, fixed speed applications the design can be tailored to meet the performance objectives by making typical design tradeoffs as outlined in Table 1. Also, when the controller design is known, more subtle techniques which include the controller can be used. An example is the use of a lower than usual voltage at the low speed end of a region of constant horsepower, so that the flux level (hence, peak load capability) at the highest speeds can be maximized to produce sufficient torque without having to oversize the motor. Of course, this must be weighed against the increased current required of the controller at the low speed.
Table 1 - Changing Motor Parameters to Meet Performance Objectives Objective
Wide Constant-HP Speed Range Higher Peak Torque
Parameter Change
Increase peak torque at base speed Oversize motor Decrease stator and rotor inductances Decrease stator resistance Increase stator resistance Decrease inductances Increase stator coil turns Decrease stator wire/slot size Decrease stator coil turns Increase flux densities Change slot shapes
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Increase volume of core Increase stator coil turns Decrease slot sizes Decrease flux density Alter shape/volume of material Decrease stator resistance Decrease rotor resistance Reduce flux density
Higher Efficiency
As can be seen from Table 1, there are many design compromises that can be made within the motor to provide optimum performance for a given application. The following paragraphs will discuss issues that are commonly raised in discussions of variable frequency applications.
Starting Characteristics
Since adjustable frequency controllers typically accelerate a motor and load by slewing the motor voltage and frequency in such a way as to remain in a region of operation above "breakdown RPM" (as illustrated in Figure 1), the usual constraints of fixed voltage, fixed frequency starting and acceleration do not apply. Starting torque and current are no longer functions of the 1.0 per unit slip characteristics of the motor but are limited by the overload capability of the control. Thus, the controller can be matched to the motor in such a manner as to produce the appropriate starting torque based on a torque/amp ratio equal to that under full load conditions. By evaluating the drive as a motor and control "package", the motor designer can take advantage of this to enhance the level of starting torque as well as overload torque per amp as shown in Figure 2.
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Peak Currents
In addition to the RMS current level, an important rating point for a transistor (typically used in adjustable frequency controllers) is the peak current capability. The high frequency transient current which results from the electronic switching of the control output voltage is inversely proportional to the leakage inductance of the motor. As noted in Table 1 the leakage inductances can be increased by altering the design of the windings and the magnetic cores in the motor. The use of an electromagnetic design specifically for adjustable frequency power can significantly reduce the peak current required for a given level of power output (see Figure 3). This will not only improve the reliability of the drive, but often can prevent costly over sizing of the AC controller and provide the most cost effective solution.
Definite-purpose, adjustable frequency design reduces peak as well as RMS current required from the controller for a given horsepower.
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Motor Heating
One of the more obvious sources of increased stress on an induction motor insulation system is higher operating temperature when run on variable frequency controllers. The higher operating temperatures are the result of increased motor losses and often reduced heat transfer as well. As a result, many standard efficient, fixed frequency design motors will not achieve their nameplate rating when operated on an adjustable frequency control at 60 Hz while remaining within temperature limits. While these elevated temperatures may not lead to an immediate insulation failure they will result in a significantly shorter life. In most modern insulation systems, a 10 degree Celsius increase in operating temperature will result in a 50% reduction in expected life. This is one of the reasons why "High Efficient" designs, which have inherently greater thermal reserves, are often recommended for operation on adjustable frequency controls. When an induction motor is run with voltage and current waveforms as seen in Figures 4a through 4d, the deviation from the ideal sinusoidal wave shapes create additional losses without contributing to steady state torque production. The higher frequency components in the voltage waveform do not increase the fundamental air gap flux rotating at synchronous speed. They do, however, create secondary "hysteresis loops" in the magnetic steel, which along with high frequency eddy currents produce additional core losses and raise the effective saturation level in the lamination material. As another consequence of these higher frequency flux variations there are higher frequency currents induced in the rotor bars which generate additional losses. Appropriate electromagnetic design, including rotor bar shape can minimize these added losses. The higher frequency components of the current waveform also do not contribute to the steady state torque. They do, however, increase the total RMS current resulting in added I R losses in the stator winding. In addition to higher frequency current components there can also be low frequency "instabilities" in the currents seen by the AC motors on variable frequency controllers. These asynchronous components of current again cause added losses without contributing to the steady state torque production. Motor designs which help minimize harmonic currents lead to lower I R losses.
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Motor Cooling As has been well documented in the literature, when AC motors are run across a wide speed range their heat transfer effectiveness will vary a great deal. Cooling fans whose rotation is directly supplied by the motor are subject to high windage losses and noise at high speeds. Modern AC controllers are capable of operating across a very wide frequency range, often up to several hundred hertz. While this provides great flexibility in the control, it places the motor cooling fan well above its fixed frequency design operating point which often leads to inefficient air flow and objectionable noise. In low speed operation the fan's effectiveness falls off with the motor's speed. Figure 5 shows typical cooling curves for a family of totally enclosed fan cooled motors. In variable torque applications this reduction in cooling air often stays in balance with the reduction in motor losses as the load is reduced with speed. However, in constant torque applications the motor's temperature limits will likely be exceeded. An independently powered blower can provide an essentially constant heat transfer rate. Although not a standard fixed frequency motor feature, depending on the load/speed profile required by the application, this can be a very effective choice and is often specified for high performance applications. In addition to fan speed, the operating temperature of the motor is determined by how effectively the heat generated in the motor can be conducted to surfaces which are in contact with the cooling medium (generally air) and the ability to transfer this heat via convection to the cooling medium. In a conventional totally enclosed fan cooled motor the heat must be transferred from the laminated steel stator core to the cast iron frame and finally to the air. Since the fan is located opposite the drive end of the motor, there is generally greater air flow and heat transfer at one end of the motor than the other. Square laminated frame AC motors have been offered by a variety of manufacturers as a method to improve heat transfer. The laminated frame design eliminates the stator-to-frame interface and provides a more direct and effective heat transfer path to the cooling air while integral cooling ducts trap the air in contact with the frame along the motor's length. This laminated frame construction has been common in variable speed DC motors for over twenty years.
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An offshoot of motor cooling is the need to protect the motor should the motor cooling system fail. While thermostats and thermistors are not common in fixed frequency AC motors they should be required for variable speed applications. A standard AC motor operates at a fixed speed on a well-defined power supply which allows the shaft driven fan to provide adequate cooling air in all normal circumstances. By design a variable frequency control will allow the motor to operate at very low speeds where little or no cooling is provided. This might occur during maintenance, jog, or threading operation for example. On the other hand, if a separately powered blower is provided the drive motor must be protected from a potential blower failure. As is the case with DC motors, over temperature protection is recommended.
In applying variable frequency controllers attempts are often made to use either "in place" AC motors, or standard sine wave power designs. To do this, and operate across a speed range the motor is often oversized relative to the rating required by the application. This can sometimes be done successfully, but there are a number of potential pitfalls. These can range from something as basic as a motor insulation system which is fine on sine wave power, but inadequate for the voltage and current wave shapes on the controller, to drive system instability due to a lack of damping. The oversized motor will have correspondingly higher rotor inertia, which could lengthen acceleration and deceleration times and reduce process productivity. Also, since no load current tends to be a fairly constant percentage of full load current within a motor product line, the higher no load current of a derated motor could result in lower power factor and higher current at the load point required by the application. This current may exceed the capability of the variable frequency controller requiring a costly over sizing of the controller as well. A derated motor will have a lower nominal slip at the application load than a matched motor, which can cause problems either with load sharing in the case of multi-motor drives or with IET trips whenever the load changes quickly. While it often appears to be economic to oversize a standard motor to achieve a greater
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speed range, this course of action should be approached cautiously while weighing all factors of the desired performance of the drive.
The Effect of Fast Power Transistors As power transistor technology has evolved, there has been a proliferation of variable frequency controllers operating at an AC input voltage of 460 V, using these transistors as the power-switching device. As the transistor manufacturers have continued to push toward devices with lower losses and the capability of the higher switching rates, a result has been very rapid transition times between the "off" and "on" states. This is the case for both bipolar (BJT) as well as insulated gate (IGBT) transistors. The combination of fast transitions (turn-on time) and the DC bus voltages of 460 VAC (input) controllers results in the high "dV/dt" levels as seen in Figure 6. What is typically referred to as dV/dt is the time derivative of the voltage, or the slope of the voltage versus time curve.
Figure 6
Increasing the dV/dt levels at the variable frequency controller output (and motor input) can have effects which need to be considered in the design of motors for such applications. The significance of these effects can be shown by the following equation: I = C x dV/dt As can be seen from this equation, as dV/dt increases, the capacitively coupled current increases linearly with it. While items such as lead wires and motors are not usually thought of in terms of capacitance, three phases AC motor windings have a capacitance to ground as well as between phases. The leads between the controller and motor also exhibit similar effects. While these capacitance values are normally considered negligible, given enough dV/dt, it does not take much "C" to get quite a bit of "I". A second way of viewing the high dV/dt levels is to use transmission line theory to compute the voltage distribution due to the propagation of the steep wave front.
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This involves careful modeling of the leads and motor windings as well as transition points such as conduit box connections. Reflected as well as incident wave fronts must be computed and combined. This type of analysis will not be described in this paper. Analyses done by this methodology are susceptible to errors due to many things including the choice of appropriate complex impedance models for circuit components. Generally, the results of this type of analysis have indicated that the first length of wire in a motor will see higher voltages than will subsequent parts of the winding. This type of modeling is typically used for the analysis of high voltage surges incident on the terminals of very large machinery. Another result of the very fast transition time of today's transistors is that the voltage at the inverter output and the motor terminals is not the same. The voltage wave shapes in Figures 7 and 8 demonstrate typical differences. Using the transmission line model mentioned above, the two major differences in these wave shapes can be explained as follows. The impedance of the leads results in the voltage wave front being distributed to some extent across those leads, softening the wave front to a lower dV/dt level at the motor terminals. Secondly, the termination of the transmission line (leads) at the motor results in a reflected wave, producing the overshoot and dampened oscillation seen in Figure 8. This waveform could also be modeled as the response of an L, R, C, circuit to an impulse input.
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The end result of these wave shapes being applied to the motor terminals is increased stress on the insulation system. Since these wave shapes do not exist in sine wave applications it is clear that their effect has not been considered in standard AC motor insulation systems. The motor insulation system must be capable of withstanding the increased thermal stress as well as the capacitively coupled currents and voltage stresses. Appropriate selection of individual materials, properly integrated into a motor insulation system is needed to withstand the demands of operation on variable frequency controllers.
The fundamental frequency component of the voltage output of a variable frequency controller can be as high as the AC input to the controller. However, this is often not achieved. In order to maintain PWM modulation for example, the output voltage may be limited to 90-95% of the incoming AC voltage. As long as this situation is recognized, and appropriate design choices made, it does not usually present a problem. When an existing motor design (expecting 460 V at 60 Hz, for example) is applied to a controller which delivers only 420V, there can be problems. While NEMA standards for fixed speed AC motors allow for a 10% voltage variation from nominal, it is important to recognize that at 10% lower than nominal flux, performance including the nominal HP rating will vary. For example, it may require 10% more current than nominal to deliver rated HP. While this additional current is almost always available from the incoming line it may not be available from the variable frequency controller. Users that are familiar with static DC drives and their characteristics in low line conditions may be unpleasantly surprised to find that AC variable frequency controllers often do not provide the same rating capability at low line conditions. Operation of an AC motor at lower than nominal flux levels will result in increased slip and rotor heating which is self compounding and may lead to a thermal runaway condition. High efficiency AC motors designed for sine wave operation are often particularly susceptible to poor performance when the controller output voltage is low, since they usually employ low flux density designs at nominal terminal conditions.
Another effect of the rapid-rise-time pulses which today's variable frequency controllers can apply to motors is to challenge existing measurement tools and techniques. The high dV/dt voltage pulses are themselves not trivial to measure. Typically, an oscilloscope with a single shot bandwidth greater than 10 MHz, plus a high voltage probe with high frequency capability (carefully impedance
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matched) is required. Since voltage isolators typically cannot faithfully reproduce these wave shapes, the scope must be "floated" unless the variable frequency controller is operating on a floating power system. This then requires appropriate care to avoid electrical shock to the operator. Not only is measuring the voltage pulses difficult, all other measurements on the equipment are exposed to this high dV/dt environment. This requires the use of equipment which has high noise immunity and excellent rejection of common mode voltages. Common devices such as thermocouple and tachometer readouts often "misbehave" and provide unreliable readings if they are not capable of faithful operation in these high dV/dt conditions. This effect makes activities such as drive start-up and troubleshooting difficult as specialized equipment is required to take even basic measurements.
Noise
Operation of standard industrial AC induction motors on adjustable frequency power over a speed range often results in unacceptable sound power levels as well as an annoying tonal quality. While the actual sound power level has proven to be unpredictable due to the large number of possible motor and controller designs, the increase in sound level is typically in the range of 7 to 10 db. There has been some success in reducing these sound levels by pushing the variable frequency controller's carrier frequency above the motor structure natural frequency spectral band. However, there are also motor design considerations which will improve sound levels. As discussed earlier, one source of acoustic noise is the air noise caused by running shaft driven fans above their design speed to achieve a wider speed range. A separately powered, unidirectional, constant speed cooling fan will provide a consistent level of air noise independent of motor speed and eliminates annoying sound level changes as the motor accelerates and decelerates. A second source is the magnetic noise from flux harmonics which are driving the magnetic core steel into a saturated condition. A well planned design will use lower than nominal flux levels with particular emphasis on avoiding localized regions of higher flux density or "pinch points". Air gap length and rotor slot bridge thickness, which reduce saturation in localized areas are two contributing areas where additional reductions in sound power level can be achieved. Electro-magnetic-mechanical noise from parasitic forces which are caused by flux and current harmonic interactions produce mechanical vibrations within the motor and contribute to an overall increase in sound power levels. This mechanism will usually become a problem when amplified by mechanical resonances in the motor or driven machine. To offset this source rotor and stator slots can be designed to
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reduce harmonic flux that contributes to parasitic torques. Also, the use of a laminated frame construction eliminates a separate frame and stator structure which simplifies the mechanical system and reduces the richness of possible noise producing natural frequencies and modes of vibration. If a square frame configuration is used it will tend to suppress odd ordered modes of vibration which are present round bodied configurations. This is illustrated in Figure 9.
In summary, there are many factors that combine and ultimately result in noise at the motor. The motor and controller must be considered as a system to insure the desired results.
Mechanical Flexibility
A motor designed for operation on a high performance variable frequency drive must have considerable flexibility inherent in its construction to accomplish the variety of tasks it will be called upon to perform. A comparison of the standardized NEMA enclosures for fixed frequency AC motors to the wide variety of DC motor constructions available demonstrates the difference in the fundamental design approach. Since high performance variable frequency drives will typically be used in "DC like" applications as opposed to converting fixed frequency AC (pumps and fans, etc.) to variable speed, it can be assumed that more DC like construction will be required in definite purpose AC motors. One consideration is to achieve the maximum output from the smallest possible motor. High performance adjustable frequency drives are often incorporated as part of specialized machinery or processes where machine real estate is at a premium. The standardization of NEMA fixed frequency dimensions creates unnecessarily large motors and offers few alternatives. The practice of over sizing the rating in order to achieve a speed range aggravates the problem. The replacement of the inactive frame material of conventional AC induction motors
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with active materials (conductors and magnetic steel) in a laminated frame construction allows a larger air gap diameter and increased power density (Figure 10). Often up to two frame diameters can be reduced by using this technique.
Optimized space utilization of square, laminated configuration allows increased active materials and higher power density Figure 10
Also, to take full advantage of the variable frequency controller the motor must be capable of operating above its fixed frequency design speed at 60 Hz. The standard motor design considers only acceleration up to and operation near its synchronous speed. As a result few of these designs are expected to operate above 3600 RPM. The conventional AC motor rotor support to ground system (via bolted joints to the frame, etc.) can give rise to a low stiffness-to-ground and to second order modes of vibration (two level dynamic systems, as shown in Figure 11), which tend to reduce the value of the lowest critical speed. While all elements of a high speed motor system (bearings, rotor balance and strength, etc.) must be evaluated for suitability, the use of integral feet on the end brackets provides increased stiffness to ground by eliminating one of the joints. This can result in increased values of the lowest critical speed and permit operation at higher speeds.
Figure 11 Standard feet-on-frame design can result in a two level dynamic system with lower operating speed capability.
Finally, the motor design must be capable of accepting a variety of accessory devices that are typically mounted on the motor. This includes not only a motor
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mounting flange but also combinations of brakes, speed feedback devices, and a variety of cooling airflow methods and directions. The design must allow for these devices to be accessed, removed and replaced in service with little difficulty. Providing these features results in a design approach very similar to DC designs and conflicts with much of the standardization in standard AC motors.
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