VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE

INTRODUCTION

Induction motors are the workhorses of the industry and they drive most of the industrial equipment. They are popular with the users due to their low cost, rugged construction and low maintenance cost. Every user is equipped to repair the motors without any help from the manufacturers. Only limitation of these motors is that they operate approximately at constant speed and they are not amendable for speed control by electrical means without sacrificing their basic advantages. Hence industry adopted inefficient methods for system operation (Damper control for fan, valve control for pump etc.) or DC motor speed control. With the advancement in power electronics and microelectronics highly reliable induction motor drive has become possible. Performance of DC drives has been attained and even surpassed by Variable Frequency Drive (VFD). For most of the applications AC drives are replacing DC drives due to their inherent advantages. 2. PRINCIPLES OF VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE The speed of an Induction machine is related to the supply frequency by the following equation, N=120f (1-s)/P --------------------------------------(1) N=Speed in rpm F=Supply frequency S=Motor slip Output torque of the motor is expressed by the following equation,

T=3VIcosmx974/N ----------------------------- (2) T=Motor output Torque (Kg-m) V=Line to Line voltage (kV) I=Line Current (A) Cos=Power factor m=Motor efficiency If motor slip is considered to be negligible and motor efficiency, P.F and No. of poles are considered to be constant. Equation (2) simplifies as given below: T=K VI/f --------------------------------------------- (3) K=Constant

From the equations (1) and (3) it is clear that induction motor speed is directly proportional to frequency. But output torque is inversely proportional to frequency unless volt-ampere is increased proportional to frequency.

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Up to the base frequency, constant torque is available from the motor, as the motor air gap flux can be maintained constant by maintaining V/f ratio. As it is not possible to maintain this ratio above the base frequency, voltage is maintained constant while varying the frequency. As a result of the same torque capability of the motor falls inversely with speed. If volt-ampere product is maintained, output power can be same irrespective of the frequency. Accordingly Speed-Torque characteristic is classified Constant Torque and Constant Power range as given in Fig-1.

Speed Torque characteristics of the motor with V/f characteristics given above are given in Fig-2. It can be observed that torque capability of the motor is reduced at low frequency even when V/f ratio is maintained constant. This is due to the dominance of stator resistance drop, which can be compensated providing voltage boost at low frequencies. The Pullout Torque (POT) of the Induction Motor is proportional to (V/f)2 and hence POT of the motor falls in the constant power range. This factor limits the actual constant power range achievable with induction motor.

Fig-2 Speed-Torque Characteristics of Induction Motor with frequency control 3.CONFIGURATIONS OF VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES 3.1 Six-step voltage source inverter drive

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In this configuration a Three Phase controlled bridge rectifier converts the AC to variable DC, which is impressed at the input of a bridge inverter as shown in Fig-3. The inverter generates a variable frequency power supply to control the speed of the motor. Normally each inverter device conducts for 1800 to generate a square wave voltage at the machine phase with respect to the center point of the DC supply. The line to line voltage and the line current waveforms are shown in Fig-4. The feedback diodes used in the inverter section help the circulation of load reactive power to the filter capacitor and maintain the output voltage wave clamped to the level of DC link voltage. Fig 3 Block Diagram of six stepped VSI Fig-4 Output voltage & current waveforms This type of Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) is popular because of its high efficiency and operational

simplicity. The harmonic component of motor current causes torque pulsation limiting constant torque speed range. Harmonics in the output voltage increase the motor heating considerably. Since a controlled rectifier controls the DC link voltage, at lower output frequencies the input power factor tends to deteriorate. Nowadays this type of AC drives have been superseded by PWM drives. 3.2 Current Source Inverter (CSI) Drive In a current source inverter, a phase-controlled rectifier generates variable DC voltage, which is converted to a current source by connecting a large inductor in series. The inverter devices steer the current source systematically to three phases of the machine to generate a variable frequency, sixstepped current wave. The block diagram and waveforms of CSI are shown in Fig-5 and Fig-6. The CSI drive has some advantages. The power circuit is rugged and reliable and there is no possibility of shoot through fault as in a VSI. The inverter may also sustain from occasional commutational failure. Any fault on the inverter side causes slow rise of current, which can be cleared by rectifier gate suppression. During regeneration, the inverter-firing angle with respect to the machine voltage wave is adjusted such that the input voltage reverses in polarity. This makes the regeneration process simple in the case of CSI. In spite of the advantages mentioned above it have some limitations. The frequency range of inverter is somewhat lower and large size of the DC link inductor makes the inverter bulky and expensive. Even though the motor terminal voltage is apparent sinusoidal, clamping circuits are needed to suppress the voltage spikes induced during the current change over from one switch to another. Due to the large inductor used the overall efficiency is poor. The response of the drive is sluggish and tends to give stability problem at light load high-speed conditions. Because of all these limitations CSI is not used lower power ratings.

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Fig-5 Block Diagram of CSI Fig-6 Output Voltage & Current Waveforms 3.3 PWM Voltage Source Inverter Drive In a PWM inverter drive an uncontrolled rectifier converts the output AC to a constant DC link voltage. In this method the inverter switches are turned on and off many times within a half cycle to obtain a variable voltage output. A voltage reference is compared with a high frequency carrier to generate the switching pulses. The fundamental output voltage can be varied by variation of the modulation index. The block diagram is shown in Fig-7. Since the output voltage waveform has low harmonic content motor current is very near to sinusoidal waveform as shown in Fig-8.

Fig-7 Block Diagram of PWM VSI

Fig-8

Output

Voltage

&

Current

Waveforms

As diode bridge rectifier is used at the input, the power factor will be constant and nearly unity irrespective of the output frequency. The response of the drive will be faster and the overall efficiency is higher compared to other configurations. As torque pulsation is avoided the motor can be operated smoothly at very low speeds. The motor heating will be reduced because of the lower harmonic losses. Even though the control is complex the implementation is simplified by the advent of dedicated microcomputers and Digital Signal Processors (DSP). These drives are very popular up to 1000kW range.

DEVICES FOR INVERTER CONTROL

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The power devices used in inverter drives are Thyristor, Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO), Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT), Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) and Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT). Their symbols are given Fig-9.

The important aspects considered while selecting the device are Voltage and Current ratings, Control Requirements, Power loss in the device, Maximum operating frequency and Cost. 4.1 Thyristor Thyristor is a current controlled device. Once triggered it will continue to conduct until the current goes to zero. Separate commutating circuits are required to turn OFF Thyristor used in inverter configuration. As the switching time is more it cannot be used above switching frequencies above 2kHz. Overall dimension and cost of VFD will be increased due to the additional components required for the commutation. Efficiency of VFD will also be reduced apart from increased audible noise. 4.2 Gate Turn-off Thyristor GTO is a device that can be turned ON like a Thyristor with a single pulse of gate current, but in addition it has the capability of being turned OFF by injecting a negative gate current pulse. This avoids the necessity for separate commutation components in power circuit. GTOs are available with large power handling capabilities and used in large capacity VFDs. Other characteristics are similar to that of a Thyristor. 4.3 Bipolar Junction Transistor BJT is also a current controlled device with high current gain. It does not require any separate commutating scheme and can be turned OFF by removing base current. It can be operated at higher frequencies up to 5kHz. They are suitable for lower and medium range VFDs. BJT requires base current approximately 1-2% of the collector current which increases the control power requirements. BJTs are replaced by IGBTs in new generation VFDs due to their superior performance. 4.4 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor MOSFET is a voltage controlled fast switching device. Switching losses are less whereas the conduction losses are more. MOSFETs are not available with higher current and voltage ratings. Hence in low power and low voltage rating VFDs MOSFETs can be used. 4.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor IGBTs are widely used as inverter switching devices. Fast switching capability, lower losses and availability in higher power ratings have made it popular in VFDs. IGBT is a voltage-controlled device, which combines the attributes of MOSFET and BJT. They can be switched at frequencies up to 20kHz.

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IGBT characteristics are more suitable for paralleling of multiple devices and hence extensively used in medium and high power VFDs. The latest trend in this field is the introduction of Intelligent Power Modules (IPM), which integrates the IGBTs with the necessary gate drive and protection circuits. For lower rating IPMs are available with inbuilt input rectifier also. This reduces the wiring and space requirements and makes the drive more reliable. Research is going on to develop new devices like MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT), Static Induction Transistor (SIT) and Static Induction Thyristor (SITH) for high power handling capacity having higher operating frequency and lower conduction losses which is expected to help the development of large power, compact and highly efficient VFDs. 5. CONTROL PHILOSOPHIES USED IN VFDS Different methodologies are adopted for controlling the speed and torque of an induction motor. Popular among them are VVVF Control, Field Oriented Control (FOC) and Sensorless Vector Control. The control scheme is implemented with a microcomputer, which makes the system more simple and reliable. The computations, decision-making processes and the microcomputer software can easily achieve diagnostic tools. 5.1 VVVF Control This is a simple control strategy wherein voltage and frequency are controlled as per the pre-set pattern. The motor speed is slip dependent and hence speed regulation is poor at low frequencies. Speed regulation is improved to +1% of max. Speed by slip compensation. At low frequencies providing more voltage at the motor terminals compared to a value required to maintain V/f ratio can compensate the stator resistance effect. A tacho or encoder feedback will improve the speed regulation. As the control is independent of motor parameters it is suitable for Multimotor drive. High frequency operation is possible to meet the special requirements like internal grinding machines. The major drawback of this control method is its poor dynamic response. Block diagram of a typical VVVF drive is given in Fig-10.

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5.2 Field Oriented Control

The transient response of an induction motor drive is somewhat sluggish with the conventional VVVF control method because both torque and flux are functions of stator voltage and frequency. By using the vector or field oriented control (FOC) method the performance of the induction motor can be made almost identical to that of a separately excited DC motor. The FOC consists of controlling the stator currents represented by a vector. This control is based on projections, which transform a three-phase time and speed dependent system in a two co-ordinate (d and q axis) time invariant system. These projections lead to a structure similar to that of a DC machine control. FOC drives need two components as reference i.e. torque component (q-axis) and flux component (d-axis). FOC is simply based on a control structure handling instantaneous electrical quantities. This makes the control accurate both at transient and steady state operation. Phasor representation of various motor vectors is as shown in Fig-11. =Rotor flux angle iqs=Torque component of stator current ids=Flux component of stator current Vs=Stator voltage vector a,b,c=Stator current axis ,=Equivalent two orthogonal axis d,q=Orthogonal axis with ref. To rotor flux is=Stator current vector R=Rotor flux Fig-12 shows a block diagram of a field oriented control scheme using a Current Regulated PWM inverter. The speed error is fed to the speed controller to generate the torque command TR, which is compared with the calculated torque T for precise torque control. The torque error generates the quadrature axis reference current i qsR. The direct axis reference current idsR is produced by a magnetizing current control loop in which the reference current imR is compared with the actual value imR. Below base speed imrR is held constant but field weakening is implemented above base speed by making imrR speed dependent using a function generator. The two-axis reference currents iqsR and idsR undergo a co-ordinate transformation in two-phase stator based quantities (- axis) followed by a two phase to three-phase transformation, which generates the stator reference currents iasR ibsR icsR. These reference currents are reproduced in the stator phases by Current Regulated PWM inverter.

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The vector rotation Is based on the rotor flux angle p and hence a precise information on rotor flux position is vital. The block diagram explained incorporates a flux model for acquisition of the flux vector. Induction motor losses its characteristic non-linear features and the dynamic interactions of the drive are simplified. There is no pullout effect and if the motor is overloaded or if the speed reference is changed too rapidly the speed error signal saturates and the torque will be limited by the prescribed maximum value. 5.3 Sensorless vector control

FOC needs speed feedback by encoder/tachometer for accurate measurement of rotor flux position. This calls for modifying the standard induction motor with facility to mount the speed sensor on the motor shaft. This renders the motor special which is not desirable in most of the applications. In Sensorless vector control using accurate motor model actual torque, speed and rotor flux are computed. This calls for accurate knowledge of motor parameters, which are measured by the drive at the time of commissioning. Control signals are derived from the error between the reference and computed values. Sensorless vector controlled drives give good dynamic response and speed regulation (better than + 0.5% of max. speed). Torque can be controlled independently and hence suitable for torque control and torque limit applications, which cannot be supported by VVVF, drives. Only limitation of these drives is that these drives are not amenable for group drive applications. Current trend in VFDs is to incorporate Sensorless control and VVVF control together to overcome this limitation.

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6. CONCLUSION VFDs adopt digital technology, which is flexible and user friendly. Power Devices used in VFDs have made them more reliable and highly efficient (Efficiency > 98%). VFDs with Bus compatibility are also amenable for centralized control from plant controllers. Combination of higher reliability, higher efficiency with communication capability is making VFDs popular in all sectors of industry. With these features VFDs are expected to be the natural choice for Variable Speed requirements in the next millennium.

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