c



9

 
AC motors can be divided into two major categories-asynchronous and synchronous. The
induction motor is probably the most common type of asynchronous motor (meaning speed is
dependent on slip). When reviewing induction motors, there are two rating designations-NEMA
and IEC.

Another type of asynchronous motor is the wound rotor motor. This type of motor has
controllable speed and torque because of the addition of a secondary resistance in the rotor
circuit. A third type of popular asynchronous motor is the single-phase motor. The single-phase
AC motor will not be covered because of their limited use in industrial applications when
connected with variable-frequency drives.

The synchronous motor is inherently a constant-speed motor, when operated directly across the
line. This type of motor operates in synchronism with the line frequency. Two types of
synchronous motors are non-excited and DC-excited.

The basic principles of AC induction motors have been previously covered. In this section,
attention will be given to motor designations, ratings, and designs.


9 
  
 
9
NEMA frame motors are in widespread use throughout U.S. industry. This motor design was
developed before the 1950s and has well served many types of fixed-speed applications. In 1952
and 1964, NEMA evaluated standard frame sizes and re-rated the frame standards. The result
was smaller diameter motor frames (e.g., original 326 frame prior to 1952, to a 284U frame in
1952, to a 256T frame in 1964). As the re-rating took place, the frame sizes (numbers) were
reduced, as was the amount of iron in the stator. With less iron in the stator, less overload
capability is realized compared with the "U" frame or the original frame size.

However, with smaller-diameter frames comes more efficiency and faster response to changes in
magnetic flux. Figure 3-36 indicates the construction of a standard AC induction motor. All the
major motor components are identified.

It should be noted that all standard motors include a small rectangular slot, cut lengthwise in the
shaft, called a º

or º
 . This slot includes a tapered-cut rectangular piece of steel, call a
º
. The key is inserted into the keyway and pressure-fit snugly to mechanically connect the
shaft and coupler or connection device, such as a pulley or gear.

As seen in Figure 3-36, the induction motor is a fairly simple device. However, precision
engineering is required to create small tolerances and air gaps that will allow maximum
efficiency and torque generation.
The AC induction motor (polyphase induction motor) can be divided into five classifications,
according to NEMA. The speed/torque characteristics for each classification have been presented
in an earlier section. A brief description of each classification will be presented here, followed by
a comparison to IEC frame motors.

? 3 c

 
c This type of motor has a high breakdown torque characteristic,
compared with NEMA design B motors. These motors are normally designed for specific
use, with a slip characteristic usually less than 5%.

? 3 c

 

This type of motor is designed for general-purpose use and accounts
for the largest share of induction motors sold. The typical slip for a design B motor is 3-
5% or less.

? 3 c

 
r This type of motor has a high starting torque, with a relatively normal
starting current and low slip. The type of load applied to a design C is one where
breakaway loads are high upon start. The loads, however, would be normally run at the
rated point, with very little demand for overload.

? 3 c

 
 This type of motor has a high starting torque, high slip, but also low
full load speed. Because of its high slip (5- 13%), the speed can easily fluctuate because
of changes in load.

? 3 c

 
r This type of motor is known for high efficiency and is used mainly
where the starting torque requirements are low. Fans and centrifugal pumps make up the
bulk of applications using this type of motor.
Figure 3-37 indicates the NEMA designs and compares design with rated starting current and
speed.

As shown in Figure 3-37, though design E may have the highest efficiency, it also has the
highest starting current about 800%. This fact must be reviewed when sizing the proper overload
heater elements. Most standard induction motors have closer to a 600% starting current rating.

Though NEMA motors are rated in horsepower, there are times when a motor is specified on the
basis of its frame size. NEMA supplies standard frame designations, up to the 445T frame.
Above that rating, motor manufacturers can supply their own standards and designate the motor
rating as exceeding the NEMA ratings.

There are standard frame sizes of motors and are based on a given horsepower or base speed.
NEMA designates a À   
 dimension as an indication of the frame size. There is also
a designator for frame diameter. Figure 3-38 indicates an AC induction motor, with an indication
of frame size.
Using a 324 T frame motor as an example, the motor designer designates the shaft centerline
distance to the foot at 8 inches. To figure any shaft centerline distance to foot, divide the first two
digits of the frame number by 4 (32 ÷ 4 = 8 inches). With this information, an application
engineer can design a machine with the motor dimensions in mind. This also assists in
comparing one motor with one from another manufacturer. All motor dimensions are standard.

Since motor dimensions are standard, so too are motor nameplate ratings. As with DC motors,
AC motor nameplates contain all the necessary information to effectively apply the motor.
Figure 3-39 is an example of a typical AC motor nameplate.

? ÿ  Indicating the frame rating per specific horsepower, given the rated voltage and
frequency (exampler 256T frame).

? è  Available horsepower at the designated voltage and frequency ratings.

 ? ë 



  
Designations for the rated voltage, phase, and frequency
in hertz. Many industrial motors contain a g 

 rating. This means that they can
be connected to two different voltage lines. The operating voltage is designated by either
jumper strips or wire configurations that are completed in the conduit box. Typically,
NEMA frame motors are rated for 60-Hz operation.

? ÿ

c

Current rating of the motor, listed in amperes. Some nameplates indicate
current rating as FLA (full load amps). This would indicate that the motor would draw
the stated amps under rated voltage, frequency, and load. If the motor is a dual-voltage
motor, two values of amps would be listed. The first value would coincide with the first
value of voltage stated. The second value would coincide with the second voltage value
listed. (Exampler A 230/460V motor may indicate nameplate amps of 68/34 amps. The
motor would draw twice the amps on the 230-V connection, compared with the 460-V
connection.)

? 
This is the motor speed in rpm at base speed. Base speed is indicated as rated
voltage, frequency, and load. Due to less slip, an unloaded motor speed would rise from
this speed to close to synchronous speed.

? 
 






The design class would indicate the NEMA designation for

A, B, C, D, or E. Typically, the insulation class would indicate the temperature capability
of the stator winding insulation. For example, a common designation of Class B
insulation would allow for a maximum temperature rise of 130°C (266°F). A Class H
insulation would allow for a maximum temperature rise of 180°C (356°F).   
 means the amount of temperature increase, above the normal ambient rating of 40°C
(104°F).

An additional classification is now being included with motors that of the electrical strength of
the stator winding insulation (referred to a g
  ). AC motors applied to variable-
frequency drives run the risk of possible insulation damage from the power conversion
technology in the drive. Voltage stress beyond the rating can cause microscopic pin holes in the
insulation, which could result in an open phase and eventual motor failure. Motors designated as
  g 
have the electrical insulation strength to avoid failure due to drive technology
issues.

NEMA MG-1, Part 31 standards indicate that motors operated on 600 V or less drives should be
capable of withstanding peak voltage of 1600 V. Motor cable length and drive carrier (switch)
frequency also play a part in the possible damage to a motor's insulation strength. Motors with a
1200-V or 1000-V insulation strength should not be applied to AC drives unless additional
precautions are taken. Special drive output filters will reduce the effects of high-peak voltages
and lower the risk of insulation failure.

The motor manufacturer should always be consulted when questions arise regarding the
insulation strength of the windings. The manufacturer can make recommendations as to
additional safeguards that may be needed to increase motor life when connected to a drive.

? 

ÿ
 
ÿ
Most standard AC motors list duty as "continuous" or

"intermittent." The service factor of the motor is the multiplier or additional safe power
loading above the rating. Small fractional horsepower motors may carry a service factor
of 1.4, while larger integral horsepower motors may list only 1.15 service factor. For
example, a 1.15 S.F. would indicate a motor's capability of 15% additional horsepower
output, above the rating. A 1.4 S.F. would indicate 40% additional horsepower output.

?  

c   Many motors may list a designation of   efficiency. In

addition, an actual number may be referenced, such as 89.5. The efficiency is closely tied
with the NEMA classification, such as design A, B, C, etc. The motor manufacturer will
acquire the rating from an independent testing agency. The ambient temperature is the
maximum normal operating temperature, below the amount indicated in the temperature
insulation class.

Not all AC motors contain every piece of data listed above. But all motor nameplates would
indicate the most important information, such as voltage, frequency, amps, and rpm. This
information is required by an AC drive, in order for the drive to match internal diagnostics with
the motor data.

Some motor nameplates indicate a wiring diagram for the dual voltage windings; others have a
sticker or label inside the conduit box, stating the wiring connections. Some of the new motors
manufactured today indicate the dielectric strength of the insulation or mounting design.

à 
  


Placing the motor into overload conditions is one cause of over-temperature. High ambient
temperatures and dirty or clogged air filters on the machine or motor blowers also contribute to
over-temperature failures. High temperature inside the motor cause expansion stress in the wire
insulation, resulting in cracks, which in turn can cause contamination and eventual wire failure.
The shrinking and hardening of the wire lacquer insulation is a cause for loss of insulation
strength.





Typical recommendations are for the motor ambient conditions not to exceed 40oC (104oF). Most
motors are designed for continuous operation at this ambient temperature. However, motors that
will continuously be used in higher temperatures will typically be designed with a lower
temperature rise class of insulation.
DC motor insulation must have mechanical and dielectric strength. It must withstand the normal
handling necessary in the assembly of the motor, as well as operation thereafter. The major
insulation classes are A, B, F, and H, and a brief description is as followsr

? Class A is the lowest grade, suitable for typical household appliances, but not normally
industrial applications.

? Class B is general purpose, used in many industrial applications. More demanding duty
requires Class F or Class H.

? Class H is the heavy-duty insulation, capable of withstanding high ambient and internal
motor temperatures.

Normal life expectancy of an insulation system is 10,000 to 15,000 hours of operation,

depending on temperature. Reducing the motor's winding temperature by 10°C will double the
insulation life. Conversely, increasing the temperature by 10°C will cut the life expectancy in
half.

If you need more information, contact a local motor distributor, NEMA (National Electrical
Manufacturers Association) or a local representative of EASA (Electrical Apparatus Service
Association).

If the ambient temperature is above 50°C, special consideration must also be made for the
bearing and shaft lubricants. The motor manufacturer must always be consulted when continuous
temperatures rise above this value.

ë


Vibration causes problems such as shaft stress and eventual shorting of conductors between
winding turns or between layers of windings. Severe vibration can cause cracks in the lacquer
insulation, which exposes the conductors to contamination. Commutation problems may also
develop from the "bouncing" of brushes on the commutator. Continuous vibrations tend to cause
metal fatigue, which may a cause for premature casting (frame) or bearing failure.




Standard motor ratings are based on operation at altitudes of up to 3300 feet (1000 m) ASL
(above sea level). Many manufacturers recommend the user to lower the motor rating by 1% for
every 330 feet above 3300 feet ASL. The reason is that the air is less dense at higher altitudes
(less air molecules to take the heat away from the motor frame). To reduce the need for lowering
the rating a motor-mounted blower normally will be sufficient to cool the motor and prevent
overheating.
M


Most motor manufacturers encourage the purchase and use of a motor thermostat. This device is
typically a bi-metallic disk or strip that is sensitive to temperature rise. When the temperature
reaches a predetermined level, the thermostat acts as a switch and opens a control circuit, which
in turn shuts down the motor. (When a drive is connected to a motor, this thermostat is connected
to an auxiliary circuit that shuts down the drive when over-temperature conditions arise.)

The thermostat is mounted on a commutating coil inside the motor, which means the device
needs to be installed at the time of manufacture. Standard configuration is a normally closed
contact. However, normally open configurations are also available.

This type of device usually retails for about $150 and is very reasonable insurance against motor
overheating. Once a motor overheats, insulation damage can occur, causing thousands of dollars
in repair costs and additional costs in down time.



 
Typical DC motors have ratings that are found on the nameplate. Figure 3- 16 indicates a typical
DC motor nameplate.

? ÿ  indicating the frame rating per specific horsepower and torque capability.

? è  available horsepower at the designated armature and field voltage and current
ratings.

? c
! 

 designations for armature and field winding amps, respectively. These
ratings are needed when programming the protection features in a drive controller.
 ? 
!"

  indicates the rated speed in rpm, when operating at rated armature and
field amps, as well as rated load. The max speed indication is the maximum safe
operating rpm possible, while remaining within the limitations of the motor.

Additional ratings include enclosure type, thermostat type, ambient temperature rating, catalog
and serial number, and tachometer type and rating. These ratings have been previously discussed.
Refer to Chapter 5 "Drive Control and Feedback Devices," for more information on tachometers.

Most DC motors also carry one of three duty ratingsr

? 

 rating given to motors that will continuously dissipate all the heat
generated by internal losses without exceeding the rated temperature rise.

? 9  

 
  rating given to a motor that carries a rated load for a
specified time without exceeding the rated temperature rise.

? 9  

 
  rating given to a motor that is usually associated

with some RMS load of a duty-cycle operation.

? #
  the peak torque that a DC motors can deliver is limited by the load point at
which damaging commutation begins. Brush and commutator damage depends on the
sparking severity and duration. Peak torque is limited by the maximum current that the
power supply can deliver.

? 
 r An easy means of calculating the available torque from a DC motor
is to use the following formular

wherer
Torque = torque available from the motor in lb-ft
HP = nameplate horsepower at base speed
Speed = rpm

As an example, assume a 10-HP DC motor has a 240-V armature, 39.2 amp with a speed of
1775/2750. We will insert the needed numbers into the formula and determine the base speed
(1775) torquer

The above formula will work for determining torque at any speed up to base speed. (Again,
remember that base speed in ratedr armature voltage, field current, and load.)

To determine the torque per amp ratio, simply divide 29.5 by 39.2, which equals 0.75 lb-ft of
torque per amp. Determining the torque per amp ratio above base speed is also possible by
calculating the torque, using the above formula for the speed over base, then using the ratio of
the calculated torque and the amp meter reading at that speed. As expected, the amount of torque
developed is less, above base speed, compared with below base speed.

 

$


M


The typical method of starting a three-phase induction motor is by connecting the motor directly
across the power line. w  a motor is done with a three-phase contactor. To adequately
protect the motor from prolonged overload conditions, motor overloads are installed, typically in
the same enclosure as the three-phase contactor. These overloads (OLs) operate as heater
elements-heating to the point of opening the circuit, and mechanically disconnecting the circuit
(Figure 3-31).

Overloads can be purchased with a specific time designed into the element. Classes 10, 20, and
30 are the usual ratings for industrial use. A class 10 overload indicates that the overload will
allow 600% inrush current for 10 s before opening the circuit. Class 20 overloads would allow
600% inrush current for 20 s, and a class 30 would allow 30 s of operation. The current draw
from a typical induction motor, as well as the torque produced can be seen in Figure 3-32.

Line starting an induction motor, as shown in Figure 3-32, would allow the motor to develop
rated torque, as soon as the motor starter button is pressed. This is because across the line, the
motor has the benefit of full voltage, current, and frequency (Hz). As long as the input power is
of rated value, the motor would develop the torque as seen in Figure 3-32, from zero to base
speed.

If the ratio of voltage to hertz is maintained, then the motor will develop the rated torque that it
was designed to produce. This relationship can be seen in Figure 3-33 and is designated the

   ratio (V/Hz).

As seen in Figure 3-33, the V/Hz ratio is calculated by simply dividing the input voltage by the
hertz. This characteristic is an important ingredient of AC drive design, which will be covered in
the next chapter.
There may be applications where full torque is not desirable when the motor is startedr a
conveyor application in a bottling line, for example. If the feed conveyor has uncapped full
bottles on the conveyor, full torque when the conveyor is started would be a not-so-good
situation. (The bottles would spill all of their contents.) In cases like that, a reduced torque type
of start would be required. There are also cases where full voltage and hertz, which causes 600%
inrush current, would cause a serious power dip on the utility system. High-horsepower motors
connected to compressors would be an example. In these cases, a g  g
 start would be
required. If the voltage is less than rated value, the motor would not develop rated torque
(according to the V/Hz ratio listed in Figure 3-32). Reducing the V/Hz ratio also reduces the
starting current, which means there is less of a power dip.

Reducing the starting current may be accomplished in any one of the following ways.

M





The primary resistor or reactance method uses series reactance or resistance to reduce the current
during the first seconds. After a preset time interval, the motor is connected directly across the
line. This method can be used with any standard induction motor.




The auto transformer method uses an auto transformer to directly reduce voltage and the current
for the first few seconds. After a preset time interval, the motor is connected directly across the
line. This method can also be used with any standard induction motor.




The wye-delta method applies the voltage across the Y connection to reduce the current during
the first few seconds. After a preset time interval, the motor is connected in delta mode
permitting full current. This type of induction motor must be constructed with wye-delta winding
connections.

M

  
The part-winding method uses a motor design that has two separate winding circuits. Upon
starting, only one winding circuit is engaged and current is reduced. After a preset time interval,
the full winding of the motor is connected directly across the line. This type of motor must have
two separate winding circuits. To avoid winding overheating and damage, the time between first
and second winding connections is limited to 4 seconds maximum.




 
When reviewing ratings, it is also necessary to review several design features of the induction
motor. Induction motor design classifications, characteristics, and ratings will now be reviewed
in detail.

Because of the variety of torque requirements, NEMA has established different "designs" to
cover almost every application. These designs take into consideration starting current and slip, as
well as torque. These motor design classes should not be confused with the various classes of
wire insulation, which are also designated by letter.
Table 3-3 indicates the various NEMA design classifications and suitable applications.

Figure 3-34 indicates the relative differences in torque, given a specific motor NEMA design
class. The motors indicated are all line started.

As seen in Figure 3-34, the major differences are in the starting torque and peak or breakdown
torque capabilities.

 
The efficiency of a motor is simply the ratio of the power "out" to the power "in," expressed in
percentage.

Figure 3-35 illustrates the general relationship between current, slip, efficiency, and power
factor.
Generally, motor efficiency is relatively flat from rated load to 50% of rated load. Some motors
exhibit peak efficiency near 75% of rated load.

M !


Power Factor (P.F.) is the ratio of real power to apparent power, or kW/ kVA. Kilowatts (kW)
are measured with a wattmeter, and kilovoltamperes (kVA) are measured with a voltmeter and
ammeter. A power factor of one (1.0) or 
is ideal. Power factor is highest near rated load, as
seen in Figure 3-35. Power factor at 50% load is considerably less and continues to dramatically
decrease until zero speed.




Current draw in amperes is proportional to the actual load on the motor in the area of rated load.
At other loads, current draw tends to be more nonlinear (Figure 3-35).

"#
#ë$%M
Another rating specified on motor nameplates is
º g  º     . (Some
manufacturers use the designation
º g  .) A letter appears on the nameplate
corresponding to various kVA/HP ratings. Refer to Table 3-4 for letter designations.
The nameplate codes are a good indicator of the starting current in amperes. A lower code letter
indicates a low starting current and a high code letter indicates a high starting current for a
specific motor horsepower rating. Calculating the starting current can be accomplished using the
following formular

Exampler What is the approximate starting current of a 10-HP, 208-V motor with a nameplate
code letter of "K"?

Solutionr From Table 3-4, the kVA/HP for a code letter of "K" is 8.0 to 8.9. Taking a number
approximately halfway in-between and substituting in the formula, we getr

Therefore, the starting current is approximately 236 amperes. The starting current is important
because the purchaser of the motor must know what kind of protection (overload) to provide.
The installation must also include power lines of sufficient size to carry the required currents and
properly sized fuses.
9 

  

An insulation system is a group of insulating materials in association with conductors and the
supporting structure of a motor. Insulation systems are divided into classes according to the
thermal rating of the system. Four classes of insulation systems are used in motorsr class A, B, F,
and H. Do not confuse these insulation classes with motor designs previously discussed. Those
design classes are also designated by letter.

Another confusion factor is the voltage insulation system classes of the stator windings. Those
classes are also designated by class B, F, and H, for example. NEMA, standard MG1, part 31
indicates the voltage insulation classes, relative to use on AC drives. More review of motor
voltage insulation characteristics will be done in Chapter 4.

At this point, we will review the temperature insulation classes, common in standard industrial
induction motors operated across the line.



c. Class A insulation is one in which tests have shown suitable thermal endurance exists
when operated at a temperature of 105°C. Typical materials used include cotton, paper, cellulous
acetate films, enamelcoated wire, and similar organic materials impregnated with suitable
substances.



 Class B insulation is one in which tests have shown suitable thermal endurance exists
when operated at a temperature of 130°C. Typical materials include mica, glass fiber, asbestos,
and other materials, not necessarily inorganic, with compatible bonding substances having
suitable thermal stability.



ÿ Class F insulation is one in which tests have shown suitable thermal endurance exists
when operated at a temperature of 155°C. Typical materials include mica, glass fiber, asbestos,
and other materials, not necessarily inorganic, with compatible bonding substances having
suitable thermal stability.



è. Class H insulation is one in which tests have shown suitable thermal endurance exists
when operated at a temperature of 180°C. Typical materials used include mica, glass fiber,
asbestos, silicone elastomer, and other materials, not necessarily inorganic, with compatible
bonding substances, such as silicone resins, having suitable thermal stability.

½
 & 
 
When operated within the limits of the NEMA-specified "usual service conditions," standard
motors will perform in accordance with their ratings.

For service conditions other than usual, the precautions listed below must be considered.

c  


  

 
%&'  If the ambient temperature is over 40°C

(104°F), the motor service factor must be reduced or a higher horsepower motor used. The larger
motor will be loaded below full capacity so the temperature rise will be less and overheating
reduced. (Noter ¦  À refers to rated motor power and indicates permissible power
loading that may carried by the motor. For example, a 1.15 service factor would allow 15%
overload power to be drawn by the motor.)

c



" 
((&&
 
)&&&
  
 Motors having class A or B insulation
systems and temperature rises according to NEMA can operate satisfactorily at altitudes above
3300 feet. However, in locations above 3300 feet, a decrease in ambient temperature must
compensate for the increase in temperature rise, as seen in Table 3-5.

Motors having a service factor of 1.15 or higher will operate satisfactorily at unity service factor
and an ambient temperature of 40°C at altitudes above 3300 feet up to 9000 feet.

ë
ë

A voltage variation of not more than 10% of nameplate voltager Operation
outside these limits or unbalanced voltage conditions can result in overheating or loss of torque
and may require using a larger-horsepower motor.

ÿ  
ë
 A frequency variation of not more than 5% of nameplate frequencyr
Operation outside of these limits results in substantial speed variation and causes overheating
and reduced torque. A combination of 10% variation in voltage and frequency provided the
frequency variation does not exceed 5%.





 The mounting surface must be rigid and in accordance with
NEMA specifications. Location of supplementary enclosures must not seriously interfere with
the ventilation of the motor.