Tur Wonlo Is A GHETTO

Race and DemocracY Since

World War

II

HOWARD WINANT

A Mcmltr ofthc l)cflrco$ ll(x,ks Or{)trt)

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TI]INKERS, DOERS, DREAMERS.

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Coptright O 200r by HoMrd Winant Published by Baric Books, A Menbr of the Perseus Book Crcup

Al nghts reserved.
in the

PriDted in rhe United Stats ofAmerica. No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner whatsoever wirhout Miuen pemission except

case of brief quotations embodied in cnfcal articles and rfliews. For information, addresr Baric Books, 10 East 53rd Srreet, New york. NY 10022-5299.

Dcsigned by Bookcomp, Inc.

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THE BIRTH OF A NEW PARADIGM, EXPANDING DEMOCRACY BY RENDERING VISIBLE

NEW IDENTITIES WHICH DEMAND CONSIDERATION OF IHEIR ASPIRATIONS, CONCERN OF RADICAL SOCIAL MOVEMENTS.

I5 THE

. , . ID]EMOCRACY I5 NOI

A SPHERE TO

(:0

tenrs

BE MANAGED OR ENLARGED, IT IS A CONTINENT TO BE DISCOVERED. FROM ONE

CENTURY TO THE NEXT.

-Alnin

L;?ieP

(J

994)

Preface

Introduction
lrr\ R

FRoM ITiE AByss: RACE ND MoD}jRN HIsroRY

The Historical Sociology of Race
19

tln,t

Learning to Catch Hetl: Race and Modernity The Empire Strikes Back: Rcsis6nce to Racial Rule

37
51

Nineteenth4entury Nightmares, Twenticth-Century

Drcams l'^R
8.1

l lI

THx CoNTEMPoRARy SocIol-ocl- oF RAcx

Notcs on the Postwar Break

United States: The End ofthe Innocencc l':it/t/

South Africa: When the System Has Fallen

147 177

uittcn uith Cq

S?idman

Brazili Back to the Futurc

Europe: Thc Phanton Menace

2t9
249 289

Curclusion: Millennium Arrives?

Notcs

317
371

Ilibliograplry
lrrrlcx

l'reface

BooK rs AN tFroRrtoexplaiDlyhlraceissucha important rccial fact. I wt,rteit bccause Iwanted tosituate ra.e atthe trrn of thc tllenly-filr;t century. Iestem, Chlistian-inflected calndars, arl)avay) ofa ncw r l,, slart (a.cording to \

llrs

rrillcnnium. I wanted to understand our racial history our collective' rvortd\v!lc racial history: how did wc get to this racirl presnt? Ihis huge agerda came. of course, from my persoDal as wcll as my inteL l(! ru.rl trajectory For many years, when asked abortt my background and my iIk]rcsts,I lvould replythatlike so manyothers I was a child of"the movement." I\vxsan adolescenti the early 1960s, and a university student in thc lateryearc , ,I r hrt decade. I was politically active in youth grouPs and especially in college; I \us drawn into antiracist activities whcn I was still quite youngr and I have rr.mained so ever since. So my respo'rse to such ques&rns wottld run But actually the sources of ly political and intellectuat cornmitments, and rlros of this book. go deeper than that. They ini'olv fascis and the Pdmor(lirl racism it rcpresentedi andsemitism Myparentsrvcre refugees,Jewish refugees liom Nazism My late father Karl \\t ininger (1918-91) grew up in Vienna, and exPerienced the ,{h-crlrrr of Nhrch 1938 (he was h{enry years old that same month). Soon after knowing r lrrt.lcwish men aDd boys ltere bing rolrnded up and sent ofl to forced labor ,)r worsc. he went to thc train station arld took the first train he could out oI r(,\\,n. Hc Nas determined to escape, but cscapewas notso easy lhe trah took l,iD to BerlinlAnd there, in dre Nazi caPital, he encountercd iar less .ln1i-scmirisn) than hc had in MeDna. Berlin, then as rrow, was a relati\ly 'progrcssive" , iry. Hewent to the museus, and swam in rhe Wannsee (of .ou$e prohit'i1cd ro lcss). H was in Berlin on thc night orJune 22, 1938. whiJl loc Lortis trocked oltt Max Schrnc]iDg in Ncw York 0naDy Bcrline$, hc saicl, wclcomed schmeling's defeat). As (he news of the "brown bomber'J tritnnph came rbr ough-itwas alrcady the mo.Dingofthe 23,d-mydad determincd ro make ir ro thc Unilcd Slarcs. Through .r {r'nPlex series of manerNers hc filally srlc, belbre wa. bcgan in LllIoPc. ,'rrivcd rhoc, si( k Irn(l btoke but lo(rng ^nd So I larcw ut) ir rhc shark^t,'l thc lli)lo(trrrsl. I wrs boru iD 1046. My par { llts wcre r()l l! crrx rxk)rrsly tnlili,Irl, lnrl tl( } haterl lirscisn artd (nctv racisttt Nl( ll rll, y siu! il. (l\4t rrr I l)(: lliurli, \vi's rr r( lirAtt lir), li0rrr lln N.lhct'rs llrrr,,ln )Wlr,\voItl! li'srisls lrrrr<lsrslrr'h:rIlr:rIrrrr|rrsi.r lirrr(

in America? In their viewr.loe Mccarlhy,.l. Edgar Hooler: rhe young Richard Nixon. lames Uastland. Slrom'Ihurmond. I remember my dad watching the Army-Mccarthy hearings on oar rrew aNl dren-rathrrjnira.ulous TV in 1953. ''Wal(h this, Hoftard," he told "This iswhat liscisn kDks like." I was seven
'ne. My nrtellcctual work florvs from thesc two placcs, then: from "the move nrcnt, and fron a.hildhoo.l fra'ned by the llolocaust, shapedby reirgee parcnts an.l bya sccular Jcwish, Ncrv%rk Dlilieu.I harc bee'r working on t?ce for a tong limc- MI iDitial interest-s&ere vetf morme'rt{rnn, vry North American. I still retain that set ofconerns, but as my kDowldge and experience has broaclened. so too has my arvareness of the globali(y ofrace.

In more ways ihan I can enumerate, the PcoPle listed li l(trv hclped me keep,ny Pcrspective on dre material covered or the arguI lrs olltred here.

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tea with me.

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'lhis book is an extended essay, nol x !vo.k ol pftn,try research. k is an a(empr to clarify the world-historical dnnensions ol r,rcc, but its primary focus is lrained on the conternporary eu, thc pern)d dlat extcnds from World War Il to the prcscnt day. k is alrc an cffort k) smnd a p<rlili.al aU amund thc ^latmt lto tl the nonmtun ofth. sttuggk agninst racisn is sla1"',a1./ The su.cesses of anti ra.ist and anti coloni^l rnovement! in recent decades are being tmnsformed into new patterDs ofra(ial iDeqrnlity and injr$tice. The new world racial syst(]ln," in sharp conrrast ro the old srruc(ures ofexplicit colonialism and sratespoDsored segregarior, r) or! presenLs il-selt as "beyond ra.e," "color+hrd." multiculnnal, and posuacial. 11 seeks 10 render racism invisible: it attempts to dismiss rrce as a holdovcr' lio a bcnightcd past, $mething now rvell on the way to bcnrg u"rtscended. It prcscnts racc as a "problem" that is finauy being ''solvcd. Ironically enough, these claims are asserted at a moDeDhvheD tbe disparitics bctwccrl thc world's North (more white dran noo and irs South (morcdark than Dot) are i'rtensifying, andwhen northem teaN of 'swamping" bv immig'dnL' drc ven n,u' l, pre.enr nrr e rgnin. Tha( race is slill largely perceived as a problcm, rnthe. than as a flcr<ible dnnension of human vaiety thar is laluable and permancnt, is ilscil au indication of the continunrg dangcr tlht thc "ncw w()rld rrcial systcrf cmbodics. I havc addresscd dtis thcnrc h an earlicr work, lln.ial (:onniti."1r (1994), hL]n itl rhis l)ook I scck k) cxpan.l an.l .l(!rp$ onr rwa&rn ss ol i(. Ollr cll;r must r'(n Itr l()'tlo away wilh ru(c, r() "gct b.yoDd n.ci this is rlo Dr(rr possiblc llrr',ir i\r()'tkta$ay with orhcr lirrrsol huDrnnrirric$ llalhcrrlc rn ( rcnc$' i)|r itI(ar r(' r{hkt rr.iirl i'r.qullilr, rr(ill hn f.rr.h}, rn(inl srl)illtjlti,)n. lhis i\r!'t th( lir!r'\!, kl rr( ;ll slst|,rr" wc bl!( r'!('(.\lx,i(r,(c(liitNillr!)tlx thc

'r Ir,tri(l i\nttrony, Peter Baeh! Robin Blackburn, Frcd Block' Dalid Brundage' Nl,rt rin BulmcrAuroB Camacho de Sch'nidt, Randatl Collins'Jim Cliffod, Doo[l's l)ow.l, Ptlil Elanson, Adrian Favell, Joc [eagnr, Gcorge Frcdrickson. Pnul i ih1,y, Eddie Glaude, Lnrda Gordon, Peter (;1?n, Michael Hanchard. Chcster I L,rrnrur, Dienke Hondius, SydJeficrs, Dai'id Kairys, Robin D. G Kelley, Martin l!l\,,n. Nonnan Koelner, Michile l,amont. Magali Sarthtti In$on, Douglas N,NsctJames O'Connor, Mi.hael Omi, Lucn$ outla$! Rob Perelman,.lan Rath, t ,,r'(1 Saroy, Jim Shoch, Nikhil Pat Singh, Thoma! Skidmore' Chris S'najc' \r( Small, B:Lshar 'far abich, Ed$"ard l'elles, Daniel lomPkirrs. France Wind'

I ( xD harclly name everyone who hclPcd rnei many did so in ways thevcould hn'w and I canDot acknowlcdge. But drose wtro must be menliond ntclude;

,l,U(

c lwine, Vro'r Warc.-Jonatltan Warrcn, S. Craig\\ratkins, RobertVitalis, and li'kulu Zubcri. Of course none of thos. lisred bean any responsibilit' fb' lhe l[xlwork, bul each dcsens thanks for dialogue, dcbate, aDd discussion' lhis book was begun as a collaboraft't with Gay Seidman Aldrougtr the many ways to be a Product I'roiccr did not remain ajoint eftbrt, it coDtirues in Cay took part in extensive preparations and planning for lhat association. ',1 I togethcr gave severat talLr hased on rhis work at coDferrl(. book. She ^nd r.rns and unirersity forrnN. I visitcd th University ofWisco)rsin se\ral times
cnjoying both the opPortuDity to present preliminary materthis pmject, an(t the hosPitality of her trome and thmilyr IIeinr' Ben, r,'l Irom .rr(i Matth.w. She wrote an initial draft ofChaPter Eighl that chaPter is truly rIc product ofboth our hands, although the final respoDsibility for ilscontent !(r!'ainswith e. Gay continues 1() be 'ny good friend and admired collcague' I have had two editors at llasic Books Tnn Barttett adl'ocatcd lbr the book ,,rl-r3rd St. and provided importart cilicism andsupPort in thc crrlystagcs ol' fls prcparation. Vanessa Mobley 2bty took o\tr when Tim lrx)ved to nnolllcr gili ro tx,siridl. l he ovcrsight aDd suPPort of a skiltcd editor is an enonrxnrs lx'(h lvritcr and rcader. I n gmteful to both. I also grcatly aPJ'recittk' the \ltill(d.opycdiling ard bookProducti{)n efforts ()l Mada and Davi'l dcu ltoer'
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th bcncfit ofsaterial and logistic.rl supPort fioDr sclcral instilcnrl)lc tJnivc'sity grrnre(l mt:r)car's lealc fiom ny lcachingrespon' llrlnr)s. tlhi(l na(lc a lor ol r.adnrg and wri tin g possible l found a grcat deal 'il)ilirics, (,1 srt)lx)r1 Irr rhc tlrri\crsiry ol l'(r rsyllrnir, whcrc Doug Massc} chair of thc l)( lnx Il 1rl S{! i,)l()gr rror r lv lr ovirkrl rn| rilh ar) ol]icc and a risitrt's
I havc had

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INTRODUCTION

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r,:r rr^s Rr,),rN lirndamcnhl iI global polirics and culrurc Ibr half I rniltcn||,!r. lt continues to signify and stru.nrre social lile nor oDly cxpcrie lirlly
l{

,rrl k,calll, bltt nationally and globally. Race is p.esenr cvcryavhc'( r it is e!i(tcnr !, rLc .lis. ibution of rcsourccs md power a di thcdesi'csandlirlsoti'rdi
i,i'als from /lberta to Zimbabwe. Race has shrpcd the Dodcrn c( orrnny rn.t r,,li{Dilate. It has permeated all avajlablc so.ial idcDriries, cultrual l{r Drs, rtrd ,\sr(rns of signilication. Infinitely incarnarcd in institu(ion rnd posoDrtiry, ,.r( hcd on the human body, racial phenoncna affecr the thought, cxpcrid(i, .,r(l accomplishmcnts ofhuman individuatsand collectiviries in rnny laDriliur \!,rrs. and in a host ofunconscious partcrns as well.r Only a 1e$' dccadcs ago-ler us say bctbre World War ll-thc "so.ial ln(l" , ,I Hcial incquality and thoroughlaoing racial differ ence was takcn lor granled.
\

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Th. book\ ritlc

samplcs Rrian Cnller,s s.

,\lrhoulah there r,ras always borh srnall- and large,scale resistancc, rhis$,aswidcly rrrt as cxceptional, anomalous, oratleast conlainablc.In rhe ruling circlesI lrc metropoles, the world's capitals both imperial and pcriphcul irwaslaken l,)r grantcd as natural, ineluctablc, an 'objecrive" reality, rhafiobe$,hire (howcvcr that is defined) confcred a d$.med ad\amaga on those so idenritic(t, \Lhile a dark skin y'rral) signified inferioriry. Thc name for this ser ofhcln,l\, rhis mcial idcology, is whitc supremacy. Within the past twogenerations, holvever, the rvorld has$'irncsscd rr r(t ct .rrted challengc to the continuity of world\ride whire suprenrcy. lr hls s..I rhe Holocaust and the massive popularion shifts accompanlnrg rrr I s (.(.d irlq World 14'ar II. There hare bccn powerful movemenrs lbr dcr r)l( ilIlrion, .ivil rights, and the nd ofomcial aparrheid. ADd $'e harc liv(ll rhro[gh lhc .lwilight struggte' that neo-coloniatism and rhe Cold \\hr l)trnrght lo rhe junglcs and deserts oflhe world's South. In the aftermalh ofthcsc. as well as counlless orhcr Dnrili,na(ions of rhe lvorldwide rupture oflhe racial stanN quo, the ironic vicw has dlcrged rhal $c rre noir in a posGracial, cohr'btnrd world. Ar prcscnt, y ri(nr! argumenb arc bcin8made dratthe racc-concept is outmoded, ata\nsd., a reli( ol earlierrimcs. 'Ihe very idea oll"ce has come in for deprc.atnD. And what remains ofraciat discourse has a ncw tonc, as evidenccd in claims abour "color,blindness and

(onk!nporary ulldo.srandiD8 rn(l drbakjs over rnce. Thjs post rddal ric\{ is al od.lj wirh the ccnr|xl (:laioN oI this book: rhar ra.ial hicrarchy lirs orri thal ir coueiaks \rl, $,eI with ,! or l.l,!idc and naln,rat sys(ems ofslrarifi.ation aDd inequality! thar it .orrcspon(ls 10 gtariDg disparitics in labor condiiions and refl.rcts .liflerenlial a((css ro dcmo;m1i. ;nd;om, rnunicative insrnrmenraliries and litc chan(cs. Myvicwis that rhc mce_concepr is anydrnrg bur obsolore and thal its significancc is nor dcclinnrg. \4,e e n;r
w}rat is obsolete, howe\cr are rradjtional or pdochial rvays ofanalyrng rhe maltcr of race. Ar the beginDing of rhe t fenry_first centrrry at the da}ri ot a new millenniu$, there is a pressing need for a newgloralapproach 10 race rha( lakes into-accounr rhe nc$,, ..ctcaned-up.' m.ial ideokrgie.s or post-raciat pcr spectives I have rneDforrcd. Adequarcly to undershnd rfrc i,npo,r,nce "r ra.c*hisbrical md conre'nporary,-rcquirrs us ro reconsider mmv ()1. our i,l, a\ and d'\' ,,prro,F Jho' In,,.tFrniD. d.\, topn,, nr.lab,,, .temi,.rd, r. i.len_ rir\.,rll'I'..' .liI'1.'.1.ur".1,n(.pr,ot \.ridldrri,,rdI,t,rgcnty. tdkcnrsa whok:. thcse rrc rhc coordinates of all social lheorn \\'c need a rrerv, racialtv r,'fi .rl,q . i. rl,,"{trr:rt i,'npJs it \r.hJnr r,, nd\ir.i,rc pr,,perty i,, rlre t'rcrty-lirsccrnlrL y wodd. My rhcsis is thrt rhc upsuryc ofanti-racist activiry since World War II .{rn, .rruri\., l ItJ ri ,.rldIl hFr,{i,dt\tritr.dgt,,hal Iuprrrreor .t Fr(,.rnrhc con iDr rity ol workh{i.le whir e suprcmacy. Throughout rhis book I usc rhe tenn ,?./i k) rciir ro rhc mid{cn(urychalle ge ro thc conrin ui(y of world racial rule tt|ct tht h,tg t d !,ol thc modern cpoch. The od{ains ancl conrirrs of that shili are al lhc c(!rtcr ol rhis work.
I

''rrrki( rlt rirlii . l{,r( tllt l,!tr} 1,.(.Its itn.l irs (tixtil.rriiUr, I(sl!!ltlllot 'i Ilrrr,rl(lilli r( r(r,, 1[{t, rtx^1. r' , l) Irxr(.. t.hc xppcimr(a.:ll(i1t)Dsrnta, rn)I ol su(h lr,st,rr(iirl 5cnrilr(Dts is ll rr(cDt pl(rrorncnoo; il has rcshapc(l

rr,\,!h,rr(lirrtxrle,lly,1,,lhclrrl( tllr.,", Ur,nrl)r,l rlr(nrrslalcs rvirs aln) \l! | 'xrill ,ol li'sr xt)t!a'c(l irt st,trl(lhirrg apP'r'xitlrrting Drxlcru lbtm I lr,,|'tlr l'ir r I ()l lhc b(x)[ I lt r( e {,r( lhis ltisl()rn:al so(tulogT {)f race' culmi r1,,r irl.l rlirh h( .rtr irl r opur al nn)nrert ol World SIar Il. (:lrirt)rcr 'lifo spccilicllly liames dre outlilres ol a historical th(.,ry o1 ft.e'
r

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t.accslheworll thrr rr.c lnrill, Iiom thc appearance of Cc,lumbus.s saik on rhe Atlanric hor;, /o'r r(, l1r(. tr)sr-$brld \4lir II break. 1h(sc linrr cllnpkas oUrtinr rlrc racial dimensn)ns of rhe risc ot.lhc mod_ ctn worl(l sy\rcDr. Ihc ttftecnth ccDlury, wheD th. planct,!:is fi$r cilrumDa\,iakxl.liFl lni cd k)gclhcriDloa sjDgle and 0nitc elrlir),, firsr strbjecrcd, albeil

rcrs livo through Five I consi.ler the $ays tharrace hasbccn a kcy forcc clrivnig s(,rl(1.(l( trlopme t, one of rhe ccntral piltars ofrhe cd;r;cc oI moclerniry Tht: lxx)t kx arcs the timndrtio)s ofn.e horh .on(eplual1l, anct sociat srruclurally. :rl tlx rlrtrvl Irl lhcmodcm epoch arouDdthe,,ear 1500. tt thcD

'lhc lirstsection of the bookeu,nnrcs rhc hisroricat socblogy of race. ID Chap

rs a kcy faclor in the creatior of the modetn Nrrl(1. Ildc I arg[c thal thc foundation or m-.l.r n,rion-srzres the con',rrr( (i(rl ol an it)lcrnaiionxl econorn)', and thc artic|lalioD ot a unifid world , l rlrrrc Nerc all deeply racialized processes. Thc chapter do.uments the wavs rlr,rr rlrvcbpmcnt occutrcd comPkrx nneraction with a serics of differeDt Ir, !k s ofmcial dornination, racially bascd resistaDces, and mcjat significatioDs' lr shows how rhc problematic ol race camc to Permcate most of thc lbnnalivc ( r rgliles of the modern age, shrpiug clebates al)d coDflicls over labol regimes, ,l,.rno.rac},, nalional nrdependcrlce atrd idcntit), and citizcnshiPlhis chapter also iitroduces *re argumeDt that I havc hrked to Mlrdal\ rll!ry ofcircular and cumrtlativc causatioD (MyI dal 1963): the racialization of rlrr rvorld is both thc cause and (tlsequenco of modemitv ll is importattt to lr'rr in m d, as one lentures decPer into this te!t. lhe ..nll.iltl) I claim l,' race. both historically and in thc Present da): Race must bc grasPed as a lrrrdamenral coldirion oI nrdividual and (ollecti\c idcntitt! a pennane'lt, ,rlrbough tremerldously flexible, dhnension olthe modem global social strtrcrIc. The epochal phenomeDon of race has been the basis for thc rostcomtr.hcnsive systeDrs ofopPressior and injusti.c everorganized, aDCl siniultan ,,,rsly thc fbundation fi)reverydrcan ofliberation. at leastsilrce the inception (,1 rhe modern world. The theory Presented h ChaPler Two is that ra.e "accu ,,)rlated" ir all the lissures and laultlines olmodern society Chapter Three, "Lcar ing (o Catch Hell.' follows rh risc and consolida(i(rr ofthe rlorld mcial system fronr thc late lifteenth to dre early nineteentlt ( drluries. Ilcre I highlight the rehft)nship ofconquest and slavclf to thc ori moderniry cxPkning thc Hins of modernity.I first considcr precurKns to racial , rcalbn of Eutopc as a racial Proiect. Thc toundartun and consoli(llri(nr ol ,ri{ion-states aloDg the EuroPcar Adantic raised cmciat qucslions allnrt (l)e ()l (lotrrilration r( r)snD between peoplehood (lhc lraiional ) atrd the slNctLUc partiallli csolv(d bI inra- and ( statism"), ques(ions thaiwere ncvcrmore than cxrra-Iluropcan impeial nriliatives. Nextl addrcss the t'vo prircipal rcgionsinlvhnll liuoPc lin'rrd its Nodcrn ''()thel]s": Alrica and lhe Amcrjcas ? Boft ihese v.Lst rcgidrs rrn{lcrwent extensivc muotions as lheir fatcs $'ere linkcd to tbe gl()bal s)'sltDr ot exploitation rnd stratification. These social .elalionships were coDrlncheDsivclv racialized' 't .r rc ity that {lew back to Europe as well as ltierarchiTnrg rhe periPltertr hus rhe lorvcr srranat home were ircrcasingly nrlcd by techDiques perlctcd h the colonics, and i)rdecd lound their cultural traits (including their resistance to
$1,i, h s.cs rhc pbcnolncnon
r

,,,.t iN rno,l.[' , h,'. -hi.\,,m, tFr i, t.r im irJ, io {. t,, ir\ tu n! i.,m.Ir., ,iDot.,, irv ir nenl(, r\ rtr t,iRt,t\ di\,.,p.n, p.,re,,,{ nt hi{o,t,"t,,,",",,;",,,,;1,.;";, peoptes and nrdeed conrinents.In other ilrjlings r r,^"..iri.;*r lip;-."._ cepts
,

\t,1, .,,,,t .,Ir.!,L|||\III L1t,,.,r,a t r,, rt,ta,.,,t ,,,t,, ,,t \ tr(tr\ ,{,",,"., '.',r,', .'rrlsr,rl, , t',,,/, ,,,tr,rl,r.,.,,,rit,rl,\t,r,,,,,.i,f,.,,,,qrf,,.,r,,,,,,,,,,r,,t,,r,:,r. , l' \ r,, iht'.r.,1 . rt,, L( ,(.Fhq r,.rFi,,,\ r{,,rrrhr .,t!{ t^ . \ , . i , , t rt! "rt, ) |l"1,.r, I i,t r.\,.t.,r r,,r\ Irr ,t, IIr ,,rril, r {r. Fr,,rnrl,' \rJI.ltur,ri.t ri,,iatrhcurv.rtri..,rrq,,i/. i, ,(rntt,,),{t,Drtr\i. i-, hdpr, r\. JId mor' s.rh.r., \ il' td,r I ol rtri\ h,,ut_rt., ,r i.r,,,1_
,
t . ,

rl,(./,4\^,nrlr(
'l
r, sisr.rr( r' 1,,
(

s,rl,irg,rrt!1.

ll,!, 1(rrrsirk, rlr.(lvrrrtrrri(srtril.(,nsc(lrr(r!r's

"" tlxr nxdern atlempts to cxplain the hisrorical interscclion bdwecn wo d,l j'\ c\l,to\i!c dc\eti,pn..nr i\. i idllnrion lnd Jt rtFr. rdri{, rId ,e, utdr_ 'ai plJ'rcr. In rnr .i.e. rtrcr.. $(.re i, rrnilt\ InJn\ -otlx.ri.: nor $hiri., nol ',,ing black, Do1 Nalive Ameri.an (how inadequate thesc ctassificrrior$ secm in world-hisbricat pcrspectivet). Indced rher. werc mDy truropean iclenrjries
as r1'ell as

of race.:r Although I do not reduce ra.e i)r rhis book 10 a mrtt;r otblack and $'hire, rhere are ccrrainly points a1rlhich I vc, ge a ,i,nit_ e,,"r;" ,";

.!rslrvc')! rrl, ld)lLirrg at crcr'ydar hirth arrcc rtrd ,r,il(.slr\cr.l!lli,rrirr(l ,rr)!,rr$ rrrl lilrlly arivilrg rt lboliti('ri n. rcvc hrri,!r, !rrlrrri(r,lollialisrr- Re\isrrrr(:( atld oPpositio'r,like racinl rulc itself' rr,rrerscrl srx(ssivc hisl{ni(rl srrgcs, in gcnctal movnrg fiom whal Gratnsci r l1,r- l, 229-235) (rllc(l wrr of maneuvcr" to 'war of position." Ib chaPtcr l s with l h ( car ly strsc! ol racial t csi!(aDcc, when cnsla\ed subjec$ lackcd '.,rir \r rrrrlly rll ishts and *tre ellirctircly dePrivcd ol personhood (not tri mcnrhr .irizcrship): in such circumstmces resistancc logicalll focused on su}} \, , \nD, cscape, and, whcrc possiblc, on relolt. As racial l.tlle evotvcd in world-

tn!l(r'sl

,rrr(l

ortr crs. 'r'rprn\rrqror rl'hp[rp,a(,rt,\pndr-.enr rHn,ri,t.16.{rnroledrop,ule 'v\r,1r',,l r.ur.,l ,.'r.x,,ril. n{r ' )rtr, r\ r.tic,t ,,n J r4 j.t ,onrinu nri,i,,,."r ll'.,r ,1,llllilr, ,l llr, {, llll, Lrxrtr.,r,. p, ^i'ur, { arv ,r, , ,,,",, ,.,,;,; "ri;;r,;; vrricry (l orhcr hybfttiznl i.lcDtirics). predomilaDce of rtre tb.*_ has bccn link.d ro hnish- (aDd proresranG) ";;. based T,srcms ofensiavcDrerr and (ok)ni/ariou, parri(utrrty (tur no( cxclN;ily) i,, ,rr. e-*i."r, *frtr. ,ir. r"u r, I \.,rii,r'r\ l,.tri.tna.r trIt,..l ,.rqiin. ,.pc,;ath ir rh,. lunc i i,r/ wirh | ltil

svsterns Inrhr \n*.ir\\\\rcm.,,trJ.idt,td*iti,.,rion\a,,.,1 ,,h.",,,;ti,;,.,t;;; ro. s'rni ,^uql r,,,ln,irq,ri\tr ,,,.,1:ol, Ih n{ po$,bt, tcr\eel rac.iai

rhe myriad

of.brhe$." There were many localizcd

l,i\r,n icat (an(l tlarional political) 1erms, the torms ofrcsistan.e and oppositiorl nrilrcd ns wcll. Slolvly and unelenly, Polilical and cultural conflict became r r,,rc possiblc. Opponents ot racial Nlc fin'nd themsclves gradually o. inter lri(ctrtly a(quirnrg leveragc rtrd allies Thc] Nerc no'! able to Prcss some , Irirns on the slatc, and even t() operate in thc transnati<tral political systcm. ll( chrpter @ncludes lry examitring (he first global social N)ve'ncnt, rboliri,,ris, comparhg its North Amcican, British, and BraTilia marrilcstatbns

whiri\:r,r,t

:t:ti;,ll:,,iirl,:';ll';;l::,i,':;:1:t;i,il,JJi:,"n:,:li:i:;;:,
"two variaDB

\ll rlr.t'peoptt\..,1t rt,i.,i, r,ipr. ho,rl.t utrirndr. h Lr ernptollti rt,e ,,{',pri \ prujc,' i,r tni'r jIq r,,ll..r1,(r rt,(,nudcnr so, td: d $our; rn,*, jprht\ -$i{rd'o'i' \ 'n N',\,i,,, il.n,r', ourrrr.r-rlurerr l;:.,:::l::l'lllll'^ i,t h tr,pte , i,r,n., rio,,, .,,,t r,,t,1,,,," i t .n. .'lr..xl\r'x-Dl'urrdrn\d,1r.i,,rroto, .i|lrencrrtu rlrrArti,nri,,nr,rptc\.N rrr'', rL,l lix ,^ ot rnod..rni/arior: Lk t,r,klc,tqc rnr r,.tJrr,, ,,.g1,.,, .r.i., .,,r1.\i.,,'tna,t,t,* rndor ,tri, p,,,,i,,,ta,,,,,dc^o,,,$It, "r morrc,;,ir\.Bu|t,i\ r\tI\trlr'r'rArr.llinr,,t rt! mdnv!^i,.iqtrr\tjrJr,.,,,n L,r,.t,rrmv1 r*rrn prcn Dl,rl( wr'.kl ot rodny as pos",ssiDg a racinl 1ir.,,g", .,r.;,,ti..a

sec also Davis 1991). Most rcllin!a: rhxmalx)u1 rhc Americas rnd iDaeea across the tner.giDg \,rld rdi iJl$i,1'r. Lx i.rl Ln.r.r,, tr) fr.\Jilcd.

in rr.. rcta(ioDi, ntenrilted b) Hoethk (t97t:

[,]t:;*

''

(lhrptcr Fi\.'Ninctcen(h-CeDtull Nigh0nares, Tnentieth{cntlrry Dreass," ,.\pl(rcs the aftermath of slavery and the emergcnce of contcmPoftry anti,.( isn aud anti col(mialism. Wilh thc general obsoles.encc ol slavcrt and rl,{ su(ccss/incorporatiolr of abolitiorist demands, rhe $orld racial sysiem , rrrcred a ncq rrdligbt phase ofracial subjugation. The dest'uctnn ofslavetf , i ( upied the cntire ninetecnth cen(lnt', although its.ru.ial banle was dle U.S. ( nil War With (ha(el-based firms ol(oerccd mass labor on dre runc, colorirl:rnd planlation-based tabor demand gave rise to srstenrs ofpeonagc based i,! p rnary goods-cxporting trrnomies and racial Policnrs ol segreglftn (ala ,l{rna(ation ol 'Dative re$enes"). This sitrntbn combined unelenlv with mas\^. rlo{ wales ol migration (both .r)crced and "Iicc"). exPaDding nrdr$trialr/irrir)n and urbaDization of labor (both Nhite attd non whitc) and militarf ,,r,1)ilizrtnm, particularll th.tl occasbncd by $/orld War l. As a significa"r l!'l) ,,lrrion of cx-sl)tes and fo rcr.olonials (orthei' Pro'iclry) Dr.le rL(ir Bl,! ro ilrc cilier, ihc) lbr red political aud cultrual mo\ menls that wor rl(l l)r r cly h avc llor .onceirable a cenlu'a carlier: anli olorialism. .ivil righrs. I'uFAIri(.r'l

a gc'r'lk),.1"y (n

e",1"ti",,, lrr(i^l IoD tion ID ()rrprcr IitrDt .,The E'npirc Shikcs tlack,.,the histori.al fb.rN shitis ro

i\Dr. lhcy iought to express and encomPass, nr le,d or ar l{ r\r ro airl rhc hosts l{)00rs lhc millions r.nunlnrg 'do{n hotne," whom Du Bois characle ^diD ,,1 bla.k iren (sic) h Alrica, and tltc Islands of ttrc Sca, Drn r() sPcrk ol the ln (^{D and yelhN myria(ts everywhcrc" (Du&)is 1995 [l1X]01.63!)) Olienlirkrrg rhcirfbr(uDes $'ith Nlarist aDd sociaiist (uucn1s (as wcll rs with such othet' .,ll.Dlatilcs as exislcd: lvitsonian sclfdeterDriDalidr. ncgrilrdc etc.), lhcsc rrn\'(rnorts pavcd the way lbr the nassirc uPsurges of$brld $hr lI and alier llrG chapt.ir dclails tbesc dcrelopnenrs a d shows how rhe) laid thc ground-

\,)r'k lbr thc break.

TIIF

WdFI

D IS A GH'

TO

ving at thc .orltcnporary pe )d, thc rnidtwentieth century This brings the analysis to thc threshold of Part II of this book. Ihre the optic shifts, so to speak, from thediachronic to the syrchronic, from the genealogy of the world racial sl'stem to the (omparison ofsome of that system's main present{ay instances. Butfirsta final word on the historical sociology of rac. Myp'sentation of that subject in Part I is more than an eflort to set the stage for contemporary studies of race, although it is that as well. h is an etrort to ftinin E untralitJ oI both historicallyand in th. prcscnt day. This argument hlks to the prese 'ul. political agcnda ofthe present ng, uhich once morc I take to be a ncial ing mattc. To say that racc endurcs is to rccognize that both dre nnge of"social probiems" associated with racial stratification-incquality, cxclusion, bigotry indeed disdain and ignoEnce endure. But it is also to rccognizc somcthing more, something racial thai is not a "problem" but is thc oppositc ofa ProL lemr .he dram of liberatioD eDdures, the goal of dcmocra.y endures. The epochal phenomenon of race ha! been both the basis for the most compre hensiv system ofoppression and injustice everorgani^d, and simultaneously the lbundation fbr e\cry drcrm ofliberation. at least since the inception ofthe modern world. Why is the .oncept of race subjecl 1() such continual conflict and rcintcrprctation? Notbc.auscitis asocialproblem, but because itis a fundamcntal social fi.tl To sny that racc cndures is to say ttnt thc modern world

I'art

I rhus.on.ludcs bI ar

,rrlidral corr(cxls. Scparatt (haPtcr'!

oD thc

tiDir"'l

Sran

Sonth

Alrica Bmzil

played iself rDd the t'luropcan Union scek to shed ligltt oD ho$' the break has ,rt in lhe world s Norlh aud South, iD its 'devcloped" and "less developed" r ('untries, in irl post-colonial northern menopoles and ils newly

'manciPated

Conirovcrsv over the mcanins and significancc ofrac ilas greatly height' |ne<t afte| World War Il. Thc war iLseu had significant racial dimensions' and lcli a legacy of revulsion at racism{ and geno'i'le The social movements and the war and brought the colonial era to r cvohrt;nary upsurges thatsucceeded iur eDd also rai;ed the question of race to a new level ol moral and Pohicat

rhe tlnitcd Statcs and the antiItrominence. The cMl righb movemcnl in it ripartheid struggle in South Africa are but the most prominent c)mPlcs' As wortd quicklvbecanc embroiled in A:,lnedits indefendence, the post-colonial ii. comp.titio" "rthe cold Wat a situation lhat Placed notonlv the legacyof imperiairule but also the racial Policies of the superPowers (esPcciallv those ,,t it'e Unlt a Stat.") uDdcr additional s.rutiny- Another consequence of the iG mclro\var was enormorN migratory {lows liom thc t{orld's rural South &) back" pluraliz-"the emPire si'xck tx)litan Northi in thesc demograPhic shifts i,'g tr'. fot-"t -"Ot.t'countries" (Centrc for ContemPomry Cultrtral Studi"*-1982). Arl these develoPmenl! nised significatlt questions about the
The five chapters of Part II fbcus on the rcntemPomry sociology of race' (rking the break a! their point ofdeparturc. After an initial discussbn ot m,i to the"e stual"s, which fnmes andexplains the political-sociological 'q,proacr' nr;thod, these chaPlers concntrate on selected arioDal cases The nation nntc is a Dccessary unit of ana\'sis tbr any comParative Political sociologv Yet those ,rr rhe same time coutltiy sPccilic studies of Slobal racial dynamicFeven ,( rcernecl mosrcenxallywith the Political dimensions ofrace-have clearlim irrtions. In thc contemporary period' the )ars si'rc' th Postwar break' rrcial on rlrcmes, which have bce elobal in scope ercr since their fist apPcaran(c rl(l world-historical stage. have become in many wals even rore Planctatv'

PAR'l

ll, lir!]

(loNrr,iMpoRARy Socror,ocy

ol

RAc!l

'lhe post-worl(l wnr ll break was at best a partial shift away from formatly avowed whitc suprcmrcy. Ihr deNtilion of the racial sobiugation that created
the modcm worl.l is lir lion .ornplctc. Rathcr we c in a racial interregnum: we are on a voyagc bctwccn thc disircditcd but undcad racial past and the much anticipatcd bu1 far liom rcalizccl racial fulurc. The World War II ruphRr rcsrlr(l nr a worldwidc stalcmate, an unstable cqnilibrium btween the old aDd lhc ncw world racial orders. Since that timc, lwo openly contradictory world-hislo'.ical racial //d.lr have coexiited: deeply rooted and dearly held altachmenLs to white supremacy on the on-e haDd. and 0erce and implacable and partially inslitutioDalized legal and social cot'mit ments to racialjuslice, universalism, phnalism, and dcmocracy on tbe other 'Ihe sccond section of the book is x .ompnriuivc sociological srudy thar tracks th. proccss ofthis tra'rsiri,,r ir l,trr'(lisrill{ I s.rrirgs. It lr'rccs rhc vicis situdesofthcracc-con(t'rrrxl,)l rlr.yi"i{n'sr tirrrrrl rrrrlgl<,bal expclicncr:s ofra.e (or ra.i^li,(rl s{! irlrr r( ll'l (a), rlrir\.lr( irlatitrg hrv tll lrrerrk-rr rrras
sivc shili nwtry

,1'

sociology ol race con'crns rht non\rlrisl dimcnsi;ns of racial Politics: the sPhere of ivil socicty. and ill(k{]d that of (Omi and lrsonal politics, or the '\nicr(}lerel " As I hale detailed in othcr work | wi,,nn{ Ii94;Wnlant 199h), raci politi.s can hardlvbe srasP(al lrtctlv as matnrsdttL r( rs ol statc maDagcmen( or of contention $'i(hir established Political cxlcDt and dynam ri(trrs (turrs, legislatNe!, etc ). One must also consider lhc (s,'lrhc plblir sphcrc" (Ilabcnnas 1989; Ualhom, ed 1992)' rhe emergcnce ,r,rrl polirital ploicss ol srial nrcvcrncDts (McAdam et al, eds 1996)' and l0{11"); Bevcrlcy 1996i l}habha rlrc rv;rolc rrxrr(r ol lulrunl

" A further problem nI fte Political

mure rrdn:rdriondl.:

Polilics'(Axli'(l

liorr ,/y'.r//r!lrir(, !|t,r'r[, y r,t!,r,rr,rlirrlilli,!,r'rgl,)l)rlxr(l

l!)1)l:l.r^tcrrnlIl(,v(1,e(ls llX)?)

,\rrlt rDi(tr!k\(l rr(cis"sigrrillilgtrdi(n)"

'I

rrr w()rL D rs a GHFr10

('l rhc Arrrcri.as, Ior cxarrPlc. lhc tAlt?.ria rrcial donocracy. and , ()lor continnnm thnl iD the pas vcre invokcd to clistinguish Brazil' Mexico, ,, (irbr liom thcit Inus(ul northcrn neighbor's policies ofsegrcgation and , ,norlinc, are now bcing(etcbrated ancw. Yt for all their cchoes ofclrlier ide,'loliies of racial exccptionalisrn-the theory of luso'tropi'alisno (Fteyre 1986

a kirrd ol politics bcsr theoizcd through thc pragmalisl ladirir)n ol Mead (193U; sce also.loa! 1993, 1996), rhrough Rlurner's sy rbolic interactionism (1958; 1969). and rhrough Du Bois's rhoughr (Wcsr 1989, 138-150). ul,aDrrya|jrm
So, as the world lurches forward into rhe nexr millenniu'n, widesprcad contusn)n and anxiety remain about race: abour irs polirical significancc and even its meaning. Around thc world, a kiDd ofsplir or dualisric mentaliry has devetoped on the subiect. On the one hand, there is coDrinuirg conccrn ro oppose racism and undo the weighty legacy ofracial ineq ality letiby cenruries ofcole nialism, slavery and white supremacy. On the odrer band, therc is a prominent,

(l'c

lgtllt,

lr

nx)sr

inded growing, tendency to con6ider rhis task as largely accomplished: ro operale. in oihcr words, as if mcial oppression had ar"adr been largely overcome. as if the erront ofwhitc supremacy had l'Irlzdl bccn correcred. To sorr out and arla\ze ttre rariadons ofrhis new racial dualis is rhc aim of rhis part

so

Tl\e rerm rdciil dualilm ectloes the double conscnnN'ress and veil concepLs .cntral in W E. B. Du Bois' a'ralysis of racc. A full cenrury afier he intrc

duccd thcm thcse ideas rnay still be applied, nor only to U.S. racial conctitions but to the world racial siruarion. Orso I argue herc:ihe race{oncepr is ar once

'r('1. s(udiursly ignorcd or c('nsignd to the dcad past while ar an effecrive means of alh ating rcsoruccs, shaping polver relatbns, and contiguring idenrity ir ronains as t$scntial as cvcr: Ra('ial dualism takcs on very dificrcnr forms in dislinct rrtional seftings at (hc lum ol thc llldrr).fil-st cenl ry In the Unired Slares, rhc incrasingly pop ula. \'icw is rhrr wirh lhc enactmenr of civil righrs tesistation and (hc formal ol st^i('spoDsored m.ial discriminarion, thc counrrf has ar lasr 'pudia& racc." moved "beyond l he ralismm olthe current 'cok'r,blind 'discoune about race in the Unircd Shrcs has bcen rhe resurgence offaith nr dochines ofindividualism and merilocrlcy. Thns there ha5 been a heightened efiorr ro repeal afllrmatirc actioD policies, tbrcxample, on rhe gr)unds rhat they are no Ionger ncccssaryand rnay evcl constitute a new kind ofdiscriminarion in rcverse.c Elsq{here in the world too, orjust about every^here, parallel instances of ra(ial dualism can bc cited. Debares simmcr-and occasionally rage abour whcrhcr or not racial iniustice perseveres, and nbour how ir can bcst be confi'olt{rl. Sbould racial mauers be publicly addressed rbrough rtrc conrinuarion or cvclr cxpansion of reform legisl,rrion m.l open public dcbarc? Or rhould they be ignorcd as atr!'isms, rcli.s ol rl( brd old days" thar r{ill disappcar of their ow) wcight ovo timc Ilori with lhc lrrssi,rg,)l ,)l(krt morc m(irlly (tamaged." gcncrrrnnrsz Arorrrl lhc lv,'rkl, rrn ilsr ir) rl( t rirc(lSrrrcs, sll( h (lnca

dr

ni..l .,n,lalli

\.i',i,1'h\.rlrmpcdirnirr ri,tlemo,rd,\and,q,'aliDiris

in Brazil, thc alrerDative image ol MPs,/,A,?m.a O{arti 1977) in Cuba, .,,,.1 rhe idca of lli ,azd.rrnna (Vasconcelos 1966 [1924]) in Mexico would be lnnc goo.t cxamplesT-new gcnerations of racial activists have arisen to rl,rrcunce these melioristvisions as embodying racial hierarchies oftlleir own' In southern Alrica the successors to the apattheid system and Portuguese (ANC'S) r olonial rule arc laborirtg to futfill the African National Congress's South Africa is stitl haunted bv demons left l1)l-)5 pledge of non-racialism Yet rrrf from those "ignoble and unhaPpy regimes " Nor has the rcsr ot Africa ,rt.rped continueti racialization, notably in the genocidal conflicls hAngota/ hlanda/Burundi,/Ugan{talcongo and so on'3 in the civil wars ar'l continuirg slarry of the Sudan and Maurerrnia (Cottorl 1998; Bales 1999)' and elsei!hcre. Throughout Aliica, but especially in South Africa under the lcadershiP ,n rhe ANC. these dcbates continue to rage.! In a Europe pturalized by years of immigraft)n, contemporary exPeriences ,'l racialized heterogcneiry call previous concePLs ofnational identity and dre !'lc ofthe state into question, as well as meshingwith otherfonns ofeconomic ir(l social crisis. Efforls to guarantee human and Political rights to Post1lar
I l1):l3l )

irrtrrigrantsand theirchitdrelr inEuroPean countricshavc Produced some fa-s fully to , itrating potitical and theoretical debates. Many in Europe are u able yet ar dre same .rlrpt their relatively ncw condition of ra.ial heterogeneiry; rirne mcmories ofworldWar II remain stroDg, and Presencday echoes-in the l,n1n of "eth'ric .lcansing, a ti-immigrant demagogy' and necfascism-arc l(trl(l indeed. Simultaneously Europe is also exPerieDcing the discipline ofthc iuremational market and th inexorable pro.css of European iDtegration, unworkablc (Soysal tnclsrlres thar rendcr raciat exclusionism incrcasingly l1r1)1: Bourdieu 1998; Hollifietd rS94). Iven in A!ia, in rcgions long thought to be largely liee ofraciirl (onllict (in lnnh Sout6 Asia and East Asia, for examPle), dre sit ation kDks quitc di$er (.rr today as divisions on the Indian subcontinent undergo ra'ial articulation (tli'bcr 1999) a rt as Yamato aDd Han suprcnncy in.laPan :ud (lhioa come r1r(lcr review from morc racially tuned-in anrtyst! (Dikotter 11)97)' l'art ll. "The ComParative Sociology of Ra.c"' examin's this Slobalsituation' ,tr irl lcat some ol its highlighls. This secdon ofthe book beginswith a discus\(rr in (lhaprcr Six ('Notes on (he Postwar Brcak") that seeks to lmme the case stt(ly apProach to uce in the tr n{ trrirliric\ rtnd pitlills of a comPautive (hiPrd I iir\r \ir'r'ft: thc b'cak iD its historithsr-W('l(l wlrr ll txrtio(l I'r tl)is ,,rl.,,rl.xl. I!rir[.rl( (xs( l hirl n ]!(t klwi(l( rrtl)rrrr c ]!il h l}c long{strhlidrd

lfir

W(,!r
(,r.r( (nr! , ('r irl l( lsl tr) rrgc rn,n c ( ll(( livcly, ils hiF r, tr r lll rt!nr n ,ir.isl rrnl rtrli-(k'lrr,x rltic syslirn ol r ulc. 'rli,rr.c ( lutrrcr I rrr(c lhc .o rsr ('l poslwar ra.inl Politics in rbe Unitcd Ir rhis srrrc\, bcgirnrirg wirh rhc brckgrotuxl conditions and "rehearsals," so to 'tn xk, thar bad r! dr rcd in tbc perbd bclbre lhe break. I .onsider the emer ,f !r(c ol thc civil righrsvision, the partial victories won by it-s movcmentadhr. ,rr$, and the b.icl glimpses they wcre permittcd of radical alternatives to lhe ,,x1c grining of "rights. The enduring significance of race in the ambiguous .rrr<l rrnrcsolvcd racial stalcmatc ofthe post-civil rights era, I suggest, Points to rlr. lolg-tenn inefTectirness of state racial policy relbrms achieved in the l!rli0s. Thesc mcasures lurned out to be rather morc symbolic than serious , ll,'ls to nrcvc U.S. sociery h the direction of racial j(stice Yet state-bdcd ,,|,,r'n policics tlut seek lo incorporate opposifi)n-the essene of uhat r;,[nsci called "hcgcmony"-can a.co rplish nothing if tlte state does not ,,lli r real concessi(Ds to lhose insurgcnts whom it seeks to control and ci}oPt I h ortcome of thc movement/statc dialecdc of the Postwar years was thus irllf contradictory or dualistic in the United Stales White racial opposition \xs ccrtainly muted by concessions and reforms, the undrtying tcnsions ofa ,l,a ply racialized social stru.ture were not nddrcssed.
I

lr(liti{'rs, (rrr\, oln),rs. iUxl $! ;rl slr ( r ri s i,l \rl'iri. sIl,rcIIr( y (li(l irrlc.(l ,!(ur rlr.rrh(rvirr lll l'rcirl (iUr llllr\ lx sc.r','sl\!0rLlw!k i)nt! iy' nrlt//
(ihrpt.rSixllsoprcsorrsrhc(nscsru(lyat)1)r{)i'chusc(lillI'arIIt.Ihispiur
o, thc boot licoscs oD lbur Dati(n)allregi(rral {.ls( s: rhc LIDircd Srarcs (Chaplcr Seven ) , South Aliicr (Cbrplrr Eilah 0 , Br.rzil (Chrptc' Ni nO , a nd the Erni> pczrn tJnion (Chrplo ]i:n). In (ihaptcr Six I cxplain wlrr rhcsc priierlar cases $re selecled:erch ol thcse four counrns/regions hrs pxrtn:ular characreristics that qualiry it Ib. inrensivc rcflc.rion here. Thc posrwar racial brcak occufled h r unique and excmplary way in each sctting. Each of rhcsc four national/rcgioDal cases arirccl at the point of posrwar ncial.risis-rhe ra.ial "breaking-point," one could say-by rquite dinerenr roui(. Some wcrc or had been dominani world polvers; othelr had been pciphenl. Some had nnportant ra.ial counter-lraditions and social movcmcnts sceking.jusricc and libera,

rril(l

srrri s !trrNl,l

1,,

tior- OtheN had morc ctlec(ively incoporatcd and defiMd racially based opposition- Ea(h lvas hrkcd in a different way ro the chatlcngc to l!,hire suprcmacy (hal was dcvclopnrq as a globat phcnl)menon in rhc pos$aryears.
Four corttal dime sn)ns ofthftchallengcwcre, ho&ever! prescnt in all rhe case study settirgs: .Ariogr.{, u .ht lt ge, nolrenpnt nobilizdtion, refon tndnl loti 'f 'tate tics, i|k uti,1 ltilh globxl ,a. etuuk\. fhese rhemes prolnd a broad

^i(I (oDrprl.lti\c lia'rcwork tur rhe chaptc$ rhar follo![ Ycr fbr a number of reavDs I sc( out ir) (lhaptcr Sjx. rhe compararive anallsis proposed here caDnot (illiclivcly bc (arrn'd out lvirhii rtrc pammerers of coDventional sociological nrc(h(xls. An imF)rranr rask ol this chaprer is tltrrs ro.larify and.justii, the uniqr( mcrl(xlol'g) I ulilirc h rhis parr olrhe book.
'I /t!

(:l,rpter Eight, 'South Africa: Whcn the System IIas Fallen," considers rvhat rrril rccently was the world's most unabashedly ra.ial state The country ,r.cpred the nrelntability of thc brcak very late, and only after exhausting ,,( rdy rb entirc toolkir ofreactionary racial intraDsigence. White intractabiL
ir) the face of the dctennination of a substanlial Alrican majority to achieve llrll dcmocracy and iDclusion led South Africa to the britrk of imPasse, or per[irl)s to the doon(ep ofrevolution, belbrc the irrationality ofwhite srpremacy \,'s rccognized at last- The rery lateness of the coming of the brcak, of the
r

(rtik//,\t t6

United Starcs: the llnd ofthc Inrocence") I norc that rhe t}c postwar era as thc lc2ding supepowcr and cultru, alll hcgcmon ic socicry. Bul ir also carl'ied itsracial baggage and conrradicrionsl it was a seftler society, a so(iety creared by African slavery and yd the pioneeriDli aDri coloniai and ddDrx]aric, indccd rcvolutionary socicty as well. The

In Chaptcr Scnrr

Uniled Statcs cnt(1r{

tJril.d

Stares was

thc oDly tlevelopcd"/cor/nerropolitan corntry lvhose

l[J]inning ol the passage touard a democratic and inclusive locnrry, nkes \,,uth Aliica a crucial case study. But be)'ond this question ol timilrg, thc , \rrcmity of thc racjal incquatity fostered by apartheid, and rlxr lc8^cy oI the .,1,lsDral ncial difierentiation and stmdllcarioD left fbaling in ils wakc, also
1,,,pcl intellectual interest aDd practical concern.

DarirD.l identity had been irlelx?Zl dcfined bI rhese elc enral racial erpericDC.s. So rhc United Stares could nol unproblemati.ally don rhe mantlc of 11r(lcr oi what ir .al1e.l rhe "firc worl.l" while systernaticrlly deDying political and hrnnan r'ishLr t() a subsrandal proportion ofirs citizcns. k coutd nol revcrr to irs eirrlicr Policies of seg.egation and disenfianchiscmenr of i1s raci ly defilrcd mnrfiri's. I hose grcups aDd (heir alli mobilizcd aDd polilically orsngcd, $ould nor permjr thisr bur ncirhcr would rhe rcst of tbe inrernadonal commruity, which w.{ched with unflaggiDg inreresr as (be

Opposition to raciat hierarchl in South Alrica was to signili(ant extent an ^ rrcrnational movemcnt, a virtually global artti-racisl coDsensls And fie deme , , rric goi'ernment tlnt succeeded the white supremacist rcgimc ilr 1994 had for afision of 'non-racialism" deep iD i(s adhcrents' hearts rr,trrydecadei 'rurturcd ll(tr!would thatgovernmcnl, and dre movemcnt/Political Party that led i1 (lhe \l .m N^tional Congress) come ro lerms &1th thc contimrnlg satience ofrace rr rlrc post-apartheid era? With all this taken into consideration. the country
,,

rrir w,,kr
{ill be
rs

rcrdblc mcial bur.lc'$, attholgh il

has

(,rlrc,.dt.r

p!

Iiculr t'.ltttsiriolr liom aparrheid r() Drrllli,r(ialism.

(nnisi g lnrt dit:

Aftica only ackDowlcdged thc nrevitability ofthe brcak ar thc tatest pos, rhc 1930s on, Br.:rzil har at least professed atlegiance ro a modcl of ra.ial democracy, on(e again mrrkedl) distinguishing irselt from rhe South Alii.an r)xdel. By proclid;ins h, lfa iJl denr,. rd, \. rlrh^rrrh ha'dt\ i'r{il' inA rhr Ir.!ur -,.rdt r, toIn. 'd that $,ould have been rcquired ro realize this iD prrcticc, Brazit was able to detuse mrch ofihe mcial mobilizarion rhar orher so.ieties cncouDrcre.l dorjng the postwar vears. Indeed in rhe carll postwar yeus the UDire.l Narions Edrtcatn)nal, Scienrific, and Culrural Organizarion (UNftSCO) sponsoreci an
Sourh sible Dromcnt. while Bra zit anrir:ipatptt ttlc brcak. From

Chaptcr Nine, 'Bmzil:Backto rhe !'unrrc.,. cxanines recenr racial dynamicsin Brd/il. In mdr\ sa\\ rl,e, oun|l] hJ\ hecn rtrI opto.ir,., d\c tr.,nr S, rh .Ur i.r.

rcs|h rrosr ol hrurlxr, cspcciallv litmr irDPcrial powers like thc United l(illgdom, rhc Ndhcrla ds, !'raD(c, a'rd Sp t, br.rt also Germany, Itaty, the s[udinlian cornhics. and to some extent even tlre East, are now far more r( ially hclereogeneous phccs than they l,rere beforc the war' Ihe influx of \('bsrantinl nu bel\ ofnoD-rvhitcs during the post colonial pe.iod has deeply .,lr.rcd a dynamic in which thc racial order and the impcrial order had ben ,'rc, and in which the racializcd "other" was largely-if not totally-kePt ouc \nk the walls ot the motheHountries. ,As a stroll aroud London, Fnnkfurt.
,r

othcr.ounrries nright ernutarc. 'I hc ltllrh ol dcnro.tacy still eDdures, alrlxmgh ir has bccn a(nckecl 'l(ial as lil(]c nrda lh.tn I figleal .over.ing ead racial inequah, injusdcc, and '\,idcspr prtj(dicc. Ir is nu.( propcrty chancrerizeci as a racial irteolonv that still car_ rics oul impo(aD1 c\pllDrtory tasks. Evcn lhough irs ;Dregr,ti\c capaciry is slo$ll dirninishilg, rhc RI;VitiaD racial system, wirh ils .otor conrinuurn (as opln)scd k,lhe nxrc larniliar cok)rli c ofNorth Ameri.^), still rends ro dilrii. drnxx raric &rnrtrds M.rny othcr ticrors also conrribnte 10 B!arit.s seeming ftial cxc( pri(rrlllisnr: rh t tadi,r:\oi t f nrdiatitade (cordiatiry), rhc widespcae acc.:/tn(.'\rl ti\tig?nun , 1lx. absen.e ofa rrarmatic rraositjon trom strv.N r,,ern.,r,ip.,ri.,r'.rl,, r., qtrtv,\c', .i,.moqrJttrr, t.,tan,.h,.n,r Ltn,ti,nd non,black popul: n)ns ktcp.ndnrg upon how orrc defincs .black.,), and the exisrnce ot a lo|!a (1004-81, milirary di.rarorship tiral rnade allsocial rnove_ nrentac.ivity very pcrilu6 and difncdr b susraii.
rnodel

iuportanrserics ofsocial scicDiinc srudies ou Bt?zilian raci.rl rhemes, inl.orrncd by (he perception (which rtrcse srudn:s largcly disproved ) rhai ltrazil ofi.rcd a

l'x.is, or Madrid quickly reveals, those days are now gone forever Yer the rcsponse to the new situation olten takcs rePressive and anti,lrmocratic forms, fbct$ing attention on the "immigrant Probtcm (or the 'lslamic p'oblem"), seeking not only to shut the gales to Maghrebincs or sub sihatan Africans. Tnrks or Slavs (including Balkan refugees), but often io ,l( lhc those o$ els" who arc rlready present as threats to the nalional culture, rs i imical to the "ordinary German" (or English, or French. elc.) way oflifeI his is thc so-.alled new racism (Taguieff 2001 [19s8]i wieviorka 1995: Ralibar l1)91: Barkcr t98l) that may be Europe's most pro)ninent contribution to the

ofraci h:r rxrly

lio{leiiaclc .a.ial stalemate.

Why have I presented the Europcan Union, as distinctfro l, say, Franc or rmanl as a crse study? Although European national identities and differ,irccs are notabout to be transcended, th.'y are eroding under thc Pressure of (;(

irrcgration. Many ofthe most crucial dimensions ofmcial politics and Policl
,rrc in(reasnrgly handlcd at ihe regio'ral levcl: nnmigration policy is bcingcoor,li,r.rted, and citizcnship policies regularized (under the principle of,6 sofi),

pick the two most p()minent examPles. For thcsc and many other reasons xswctl, to fbcusattention on thc EU is to address very ccntrally the question of rlrc global;zation of race. But beyond that it is to considcr the afrermath of
r,r

(inpirc, the posccolonial question, notin the pripheryor dre Sourh (which I ,lt, clsewhcrc), but in the core, the mctropolitan heartland of the old imPerial r,r( ial slstem, the headq uarte of trurocentrism. If rae Persislshere, if il takes 'x ,rr nerv meanings and appears newly problcmatic here and now. aftct thc last \{ sliges of empirc have been liquidated, that will be particularly rcvcrhrg, I s(Ugcst, of the ncw dynamics of th twenty-first-century world ra(ial syslem
1:haptcr Eteven, 'Millennium Affives?" is a concluding essny thar iDterPrcts !(l applies thc aDalysis dcvcloped in the hislorical and corrrPal)rivc sections ,'l rhc book. I argue that thc brcak that began rvith movcnent activity during .,rxl aficr ubrld war ll, and was contdned fiom the late ls60s on by political i l,nrDs, has nor l)ccn co)npleted. It is properly characteriTed as a stalemare,

'tlt

liuo2nr (Iniat

lxrs of cx{r)lollir1

(il)rpro Ten. "Eumpc: Thc Phanton Me'race.,,consi.tcrs rhc m(ial pllrralizari(D ol rlxr liuopean Union (EU). Wesrern trurope is no long.r a congcies oI conrpctirivc rln)ther-coun0.ics, impcriat mcrropolcs drivcn by globat ..ol] ornic cornpetili(D 2nd fio(ely rniti(adrcd ivrlry As rhc rcgnnr crrcr(rl rtrc posriorperirl crn over rhc Gr\r .l( (a(tcs rlicr Wort.l \ hr tr. r\ ir r.buitr rD(l t)cgrn tocontcDrplatc Ic(lcmtioD. it ll() wckrrrrtt (,r rr t('lst rc(ci\1ri !,rsr I m_

.,r'rrrrsr.,hl' '.lrrililrirrrrr

l)ic{ r\, .rs rLctt :rs

'i.t

g,\.\, ti1trr,

ir

xr

(, ll(l rt!. \(,rkl.

As

,(s,lvc issr(s, so too docs thc prcscDl cPoch. At the t'eginning ot lhe 'rury rworry'li*r (.rlrrry, th. w(,rl(l rrs a whok, i'rd lltc n:rlional,/rcgir)nal (rs(s

I',{a...,rli'r.riq,."l rr'.lcrnraridlhi*r"nlailedro

lrr w()lrr) tr,

rxaDrincd hcrc,arc

^ c!r rro
nr

lartirn olcrc(,njngltrc

apa(hent, segregatio , aDd racial nrjls(icc. I,trrl

rcr)r( i(n,s k.gl.n.s

as
,Ls

{,1

(ol(

iat [,1c,

bcen.nrcial to thc global rcpro(tu.rn,r ot (apilrt h. tivc hundr.d v(.[si ir r.r'tJi'r\ \,, I,xl.,! V II lr.rs lx1.I !.r ,1t i,,r,, ilr\ri,,,. irxi,art ,tis,,,1ti,i1l .,!(t

j|r'i\on rl,, r',n,eprot ra,r..bur insrc!droiun,eror..rnr\wirh jr.Fit, mol Ilt \ilt,.hu'thn variFru. Wtrnr di(\ rhi\ m.ar in n*t.r I ru ra,,\21R,! i$n l,:r\

more conrradictory and .omplcx. .Ihc otd wortd rjcial svstem. rhe ..bad ot.l .la\\. hatc nor ,lisapn.rrc.t. bur rhc wh,re {uprcn,rry rhd, shdtx..t rhem and th,rt rnr virruatty rmqucsrioncd has been idendficd and ch;Icnged. The lega.y ofdcDrocraric, racialy o.ienred movemenrs such as the U.S. ;it ngh$ move'nent, and-apanhcid slruggles, SOS-R.tdme in Fratce. the Motinpnto Ncgto lhtilnada in Rrazit, and anr!cobnialist inidarives throughour rhc worldk Sou(b, is rhus r fbrcc k) be rcckonedwith. Mvaim in ihjsworkis ro explore the rcsrlts of tbis siluation. Il is nnpossibk to rdcl ess worldwide dilemmas of race and racisn by ignor ing or r,1uls(cndins thcsc themes, for exampte, by adopring so{a ;;obr, blind Pl)licnrs orseckinu (in thc muldcuhuralisr approachsomuch in fashion) ri' .(l' l .rr, ,liv, nr I,r(-(r\c.ntrur.rl diflerenns .tn rhc pr\r rhc cen':irv traliry ofracc.lccply clcrcrmilled the econonic, politicat, anrt cuitural config_ uration ofdrc nnrdo-n wortd; althoush recenrdecades havcseen a tremcnrlou's emorescence of movcrncnl-! Ibr raciat equalit, andjusricc, rhe lcgacies ofcen_ lurics ofracial opprcssion have nor bccn overcome. Nor is a visio; ol racialjrsticc fully worked oul. Qa.lailly rhe idea thai su.h jusrice has largely been rchn,ved already-a! scen in the color+lind pararrigm nr rhe Unired itaies. the r)i)n racialisr rhetoric of rtre South Af.ican Frcedon Chartcr rhe Brazilian rlxrtori. oJ radal democracy, or rhc emelging raci2l diUarenrialism ofthc FturG pcaD Uuion-rcmains proble'natic. Whrt would a more credible vision entail? The pressing rask todayis nor (o

has finalty becn re:rolrcd, confusion, anxiety, and conflicl over lace are sri experienc{rd a around rhe world. The legacies ofrhc epochal struggles tbr raciallreedom anrt ctemocracy, and for human rights in geneial, penisr as wcll. I evahrare the aansition to a new rrorld racial order in compa,?rivc and hisroricat pe.specrirc, keeping in vierv the conrinuing mcial conflicts that havc shapca oir cntire cpoch.^ Despite the enormous vicissirudcs rhatdemar.are and distuguish narional conditiorrs, historical dcvetopnenrs, rotes in the internatnrnal cionomy, polit_ ical tendcncies, and culrural norms, Ecial differences oI.tcn operate as tirey did in cenruries pdr: as a $,ay of restricting rhe polirical innuence, nor just of racially subordinared groups, bur ofall those ar rhe botrom cnd of rhe svsre,n ol soi ial srrdrihcarion. rlri\ is rrue horl,et,,bi ! ln.l tuiJt\ But in the conrempo.:rry era, racial belieh and practices have becomc far

cs and inrellectrnls conrend rhar the l?.c problem

liorated -some ofthe worxl abuses 01-rhe past, and

rrti)rn poli(ics tnvc amc

main(rerm politn:al lcact-

r() rirc, l)y rhc llssive so(ixl rrrcvcnrents thal hnvc rakeD pke irl '.orti \arrt dc(adcs. l hcsc rn()vcmen rs rfere interD al ional in scope and influcncc. I llry .lcclny intcr wovcn witlr democratizing and egalitaian trends, such '!crc ,,\ hbor poliln:s aDd {cminisrn. Thcy lrere able to mobilize around the jnjus rl( cl and exclusion cxperienced by racially subordinared groups, and simultar,.r$ly to srlstain alliances across racial hles. This is back$ound; such experirnces canDor simply re.ux Yet thc mnssive mobilizations that created the liobal break ofworld War II and its aftermath havc ccrtanrly reshaped the conr( r h'orld. were.hese movementsfated to be thc Iast popular upsurges, 'rponry rhc last egalitarian challenges to while supremac)', to m.ial hicrarchy? Surely r!,r. In all dre national/regional case studies presented hcre, and in transrrrrional ties among these countries. the inflrence ofthese earticr prcccdcnts

l,r ( cd
r
(

ln,rsists today, sparking new auempts to challenge racism. 'l hc W n Is a Gtutto gftstions the racial status quo. The comparalive and hisk)rical analysis presented here also strongly suggests drat coDtempomry

,i(ial politics rcmain unshblc and conflictnl, both globally and locally. Per
l,rps presumpxrolrsly, I attempt in "Millennium Arrives?" the book's conclud rlrg chapter to identify some ofthe main racial issues that confronr us at dre nrrr ol rhe d{nty-first ccntury As wilt already be clear, these issues are not 'rDerely" racial. but also fundamental to the emerging planetary social order. To think about race at the gtobal level is to adopt a planetary penpective. lr is to reject the division ofthe world btween'the Wcst and thc rcsf' (Hall l1x)6ai Holt l9g5: Huntington 1993)- That dilision, imposed by Europe on the world's "others." evolved with the race concept. This\crydivision has beensigrilicantly eroded, but not yet orrtumed. after the post-\ brld \ Iar II racial lrcak. As the split between the West and the rest" rms called into qucstionlrniti.ally, economically, culturally-the race-concept was also problematized. l,or cxample, rhc \ Iest has prided ilselfon its democmtic commitmenls. on irs r.spect for thc rutc of las! and on its extension of social ritizeDship through rhc Nelfare state. Yet thc implcmentation of these commitments across mcirl lin$ has ah{ays ben limitcd and problematic.r0 't he problem goes fardccpcr tlnn thatrfor theWest allained its pmspet-ily .,rd invented its democracy at the expcnse of those whom it exploitcd .nd , \cluded. lheWest therefore owes a substantial dcbt to the workl's orheN." lhis "e{ernal debt" parallels on a global tevel the dcbt owcd by thc United srrlcs to thedescendan.s oflfrican slales. The failure to providc emaucipated \hvrs with 'tbrty a(rcs and a mule" after the Civil lvar's erd, thc rcsistance to

,lcnrandslbrreparationsforthe.beftoflifeandlaborthatwassl'ery

(Robinqtr, 2000), (an rcadily be seen as operating on a planetary levct. What il drc prescrrt tnovement tor "Jubilee" were to succeed? What if the ,l(rDard tlut rhc h)tern.ridul Monetary l'und (IMl),lhcWorld Bmk, and tl'e !k v.l()lr!1" rutn s lir givc lhc cxrcr'nnl dchl ol thc poor Dalir)ns ol thc workl

lrr

wf irt) lr.

(illr rto

(('r l(s\(l(a1,1,'t!1lr,, [lli(.s lr.l)(]sl)_llln wlri(tr li iI rIc r.rrc,{(n), rn.ttxl 'l)rl)crs to bc rn(1)rr 't tris w(,llkl tx.x vrlrr:rtrte tirsr sttlr irr rt:r, ai'(,ctioi -N(r( ()l rcstiruriur tar lhc hisrori(al clcbl rhrt (hc Wcsr, it n,.y fr"..gu..f, ,".lly;"; to thcsc'pcrplcs-r! tLr<,anrlysis oftcrcd hcrc suggesrs that the gknral issuc of "Lrndcrdevclopmcnl" is in ficr r nciat issue. In a socia y jusr arrrt historicalv cun..ior6 $o' ld rhc t en qoutd Dor ,,nh t.rgive rhc .lebr ot rhi. wor t.t.. .nrhcr\ :'r \ould \ri l rh|ir to,gi!cnes<:ir\o,rt.iscet ,omltegnodun,lr.irloses, to nake them whote in the teg,at sense. Such an evenr-_difficult even ro inag. ine today, bur a pressing wodd-hisbrical requiremcnt_wouta go a rong w; toward desrroins the rac;al hierarchy buirt inro rn. _Ir,.-p"*i gut d!.riiAr the ruhural tevel as welt, rhc tropologicat chracrcr ofrace needs ro be undonc. Uurcpean rulc and whire supremacy proceedcd in largc paft from

PART ONE
FROM THE ABYSS: RACE AND MODERN HISTORY

nssumptions of culrural supcrioriry .hat were alreaay evtctent tn thi key texts oI the Enlighrenmcnt (Eze 1992; Count 1950). .t.hcse assumprions were embed" ded in virlually alhysrems of social sigDification ana

treinendolls debt.

rep.ea"tatio": in Itteraf in-mhie. rnd in pain,ins (5a,d ree3r. s.,h...;p;._ nen$ve mtratr/dlron nt iJtuti^ in rhc m.dern so,tri \ds al,o huift upon a

llll.: '.'*:",1*

d,1n:.nr.-.t.ttt.Et,np,pohdiltaa.phpndupiltmrj$.rhar,on,llruredrh,,rut_ rL'l rrmen\x r.i,l on rh.tuunddrio ut rd,ial h;crdr.h). B),etF 'nudctnin garing_rnosr oJ
thc world's population ro the derogarory s.atus of t;sser

The "borrowing" from rhe non_European world of culrural forms of a lypcs-mr$ical, Iirerary imagisric, and so on_althoush exrensive, was nor rhe i errr.rl dinx n\ion i,t rhi, dcbr. Rarher. ir ua" rhe u.e rrracte or rh. -orho.- Lo

indccd'bthcr" bcnrgs, by rlsing rhem to represenr id.ntirics antirherical to drosc of llxr "(iviti^d" Wesr, Enlightenment cuiture and its scquelae per_ fbnnc.l sp(lacutar acrs of sy,nbolic violen.e. These practices extended
cul.urai plare. IDCIc(l thcn. ,bst crucial applications ".t.ig;; *_" ,;t found at rhe.le(l of thc quoridia)r. of eveqday lre, orpopurar ".grrbry cutturc,l Making this sirurrion whole is also almosr unimaginabte. B,r we may take heart fiom irs continldng conrmdicrions and irr.sotrtto,r, tio* tlr. a.t.._;r.a cftorts on the parr ofrtre.t)theE,, ro reconceive rhemselvesand theirworld. The cukures ofresntance rhat have arisen ovcr the cenruries, rhar srch theordical api,]oaclr:s as subalrem studies (amons rnany schools of thousht) have explo.cd in depth, havc laid thc groundwork, ifnor for rhe etiminati;n ofhierarchies oI ncinl significarion, ar leasrfortheir discrcdiringand delegirimaiion.
beyond. rhc Dcrc arricrdalbn andjusrificarion

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