IN THE NAME OF GOD

COURSE: WELL TESTING PRINCIPLES

Ebrahim Piramoon

Ahwaz 1387

PRINCIPLES OF WELL TESTING

The aim of well testing is to get information about a well and a reservoir. During a well test a transient pressure response is created by a temporary change in production rate. The well response is usually monitored during a relatively short period of time compared to the life of the reservoir. For well evaluation, tests are frequently achieved in less than two days. But in the case of reservoir limit testing, several months of pressure data may be needed.

 In most cases, the flow rate is measured at surface while the pressure is recorded down-hole. During flow time, the drawdown pressure response P is expressed: P =Pi-P(t) During shut-in time, the build-up pressure change P is estimated from the last flowing pressure P(t=0): P =P(t)-P(t=0)

drawdown

Build-up

Pi

p(t=0)

The pressure response is analyzed vs. the elapsed time t, from the start of the period (time of opening or shut-in)

Well test objectives:

Associated to the geology and geophysics, well test results are used for prediction of the field behavior and fluid recovery to different operating scenarios. 1)Exploration well: on initial wells, well testing is used to confirm the exploration assumptions and to establish a first production forecast: nature and rate of produced fluids, initial pressure (RFT, MDT), reservoir properties. 2)Appraisal well: the previous well and reservoir description can be refined (well productivity, bottom hole sampling, drainage mechanism, heterogeneities, reservoir boundaries, etc.) 3)Development well: on producing wells periodic tests are made to adjust the reservoir description and to evaluate the need of a well treatment such as work over, perforation strategy etc.. Communication between wells, monitoring of the average pressure are some usual objectives of development well testing.

Objectives of Well Testing

Investigate the Response of a Reservoir subjected to Production/Injection in a Well Objectives fall under four categories Reservoir Evaluation Reservoir Management Reservoir Description Rate Prediction The type of test selected and its duration often depend upon the objectives.

Information obtained from well test:

Test provide a description of a reservoir in dynamic condition, as opposed to geological and log data. Reservoir description: -permeability (Kv and Kh) -reservoir heterogeneities (natural fracture, layering, change of characteristics) -boundaries (distance and shape) -pressure (initial Pi and average P) Well description: -production potential (PI, Skin) -well geometry

Types of tests
Drawdown test: the flowing bottom hole pressure is used for analysis. The well should be producing at constant rate. Build-up test: the increase of bottom hole pressure after shut-in is used for analysis. Before the build-up test, the well must have been flowing long enough to reach stabilize rate. Injection test / fall-off test: when fluid is injected into the reservoir, the bottom hole pressure increases and after shut-in it drops during the fall-off period. Interference test and pulse test: The bottom hole pressure is monitored in shut-in observation well some distance away from the producer. Interference tests are designed to evaluate communication between wells. With pulse tests, the active well is produced with a series of short flow/shut-in periods, the resulting pressure oscillations in the observation well are analyzed.

 Gas well test: specific testing methods are used to evaluate the deliverability of gas wells (Absolute open flow potential, AOFP) and possibility of non-darcy flow condition. The usual procedures are back-pressure test (flow after flow), Isochronal and modified isochronal test. Production test: such as PLT,RFT,MDT, GOR test Drill stem test (DST): the well is completed temporarily with a down-hole shut-in valve. Frequently the well is cased but DST can be made also in open hole.

Darcys law

Darcys law: k k/ : mobility of the fluid, s: sample q = S p cross-sectional q Darcys law valid within a time V = S interval when the flow rate and other parameters are constant. Darcys law assumptions: 1)Laminar flow 2) steady state flow 3)incompressible fluid 4) homogenous formation Filtration rate : u=V/so

 Darcys law in radial flow:

2rhk p q= ( ) r

2 kh p w p e q= rw Ln re
Compressibility: All the information from a well test is obtained because the rock and the fluids are compressible.

1 v c = ( )T v p

or

1 ce = ( )T p

By expansion of; Oil: vo=-cosovp p Water: vw=-cwswvp p During decompression (expansion), the fluid pressure decreases while the overburden pressure remains constant. The pore volume decreases: vp=-cpvp p Overall compressibility of a pore volume unit: ct=coso+cwsw+cp ; ct=compressible capacity
Equivalent compressibility:

ce =

cos o + c w s w + c p so

Diffusivity Equation:
The diffusivity equation governs the variation in pressure in the reservoir vs. time. It is based on two laws and one EOS: 1)Fluid flow equation: It is assumed that Darcys law governs fluid flow. 2)Material balance or continuity equation: The variation in the mass of fluid contained in the reservoir volume unit is equal to the difference between the amount of fluid input and output during the time interval: r ( so )

div ( v ) +

( v x ) + ( v y ) + ( vz ) = (so ) x y z t

=0

3)EOS:

ce =

)T p

 With consider three above equation we will get the following pressure equation: r 2 ct p p + ce (p) =0 k t Providing two assumptions: 1) fluid is low and constant compressible (liquid) 2) pressure gradients are low (flow is low) r 2 1 p ce (p ) is small, therefore: p = 0 K t

(k / ) K= (ct )
for radial flow:

k K= = hydraulic diffusivit y ct

p 1 p 1 p + =0 2 r r r K t
2

 Solving the diffusivity equation:

Boundary condition: 1)the pressure at beginning of the test 2)the reservoir boundaries 3)the well condition in infinite homogeneous reservoir solution suppose that the reservoir is: 1)homogenous and isotropic 2)constant thickness and limited by impermeable 3)the well penetrates the total reservoir thickness 4)the fluid compressible and viscosity are constant and uniform B.C.: -uniform initial pressure; Pi -infinite reservoir -constant flow rate in the well with very small radius Variation in pressure vs. time and distance:

r2 qB ) pi p ( r , t ) = Ei ( 4 kh 4 Kt

eu E ( x) = du u x

rD 1 ) PD = Ei ( 2 4tD
0.000264 kt tD = ct rw 2

kh PD = p 141.2qB

rD =

r rw

Compressible zone: the flow at a distance r from the well at time t: r2 q=wellhead flow rate q ( r , t ) = qBe 4 Kt qB=bottomhole flow rate

 Between t and t the pressure drop between an infinite distance and the well is therefore mainly due to what is occurring between r1 and r2. In this area the reservoir compressibility allows the flow to go from 0 to qB. This area is called the compressibility zone. The pressure drop in the well mainly reflects the reservoir properties in the compressible zone At the beginning of the test pressure drop reflects the reservoir properties in the vicinity of the well. Later on the test reaches areas that are farther away.

Radius of investigation:
The pressure variations at the well give an indication of the properties of the part of the reservoir involved in the compressible zone. It is important to locate the compressible zone and this is what is involved in the concept of radius of investigation. There is a large number of different definitions of radius of investigation in literature. 1) Joness definition: the radius of investigation is the point in the reservoir where the pressure variations represent 1% of the variations observed at the well: kt SI ri = 4 ct 2)Poettmanns definition: The radius of investigation is the point in the reservoir where the flow is equal to 1% of the flow rate: SI kt ri = 4.29 ct

3) J. Lee and Muskats definition: The radius of investigation is the point where the pressure variations are the fastest. The variation is at a maximum for;

qB r2 ) Ei ( pi p(r, t) = 4kh 4Kt

dp qB exp( r 2 ) = dt 4 kh 4 Kt

r dp =0,i.e for =1 : 2 4Kt dt

kt ri = 2 ct

ri = 0.032

kt ct

Flow regimes:
Transient flow (unsteady state): until the compressible zone reaches the boundaries of the reservoir or comes under the influence of another well, the reservoir behaves as if it was infinite for p = f (i, t ) testing purposes. t Pseudosteady-state flow: when the compressible zone reaches a series of no-flow boundaries. This is p the type of flow in a producing reservoir with no ( )i = cons tan t flow boundaries. t Steady state flow: when the compressible zone is affected by some constant pressure outer boundaries. This is the type of flow in a reservoir p producing under gas cap or Strong water drive ( )i = 0 conditions. t A well test is almost always performed in a transient flow regime even though some boundaries are reached.

Principle of superposition: How can the pressure be described the reservoir when several flow rate variations occur? The pressure variations due to several flow rates are equal to the sum of the pressure drops due to each of the different flow rates. Two flow rates:

pi p(t ) =

q1B (q q )B pD (t ) + 2 1 pD (t t1 ) 2kh 2kh

Multirate testing: With q=0 and t=0.

B n pi p(t) = (qi qi1) pD(t ti1) 2kh i=1

Pressure build-up test; When q2 is zero. This is case for the great majority of tests. qB pi p(t ) = [ pD (t p + t ) pD ( t )] 2kh

Wellbore storage
When a well is opened, the production at surface is first due to the expansion of the fluid in the wellbore, and the reservoir contribution is negligible. After any change of surface rate, there is a time lag between the surface production and sand face rate.

 The period when the bottomhole flow varies is called the wellbore storage effect period. Wellbore storage coefficient:
V C= = c Vw p

C: Bbl/psi V : volume variation of fluid in the well under well condition; p : variation in pressure applied to the well. c : liquid compressibility dpD Vw: wellbore volume 24C dp ) q f = q(1 CD qf = q +
B dt

dtD

 A dimensionless factor related to wellbore storage: in field unit:

CD CD

C = 2 2 c t hrw 0 . 89 C = c t hrw 2

When there is a liquid level in well (pumping well), with ; p=h g /gc , V=Vuh : liquid density , Vu: wellbore volume per length

Vu C = 144 ( g / gc )

In a naturally eruptive well, the variation in fluid volume depends on , the compressibility of the fluid in the well; V= -cVwp C=cVw The compressibility of the fluid in the wellbore is very often much greater than that of oil in reservoir conditions because the oil releases gas. Wellbore storage of pumping wells is considerably greater than wellbore storage of eruptive wells.

Pressure variations:
just after the well has been opened or shut-in , the bottomhole pressure is mainly affected by the wellbore storage effect. Plot of the p vs. t on a linear scale. At the early time, the response follows a straight line of slope, intersecting the origin. qB p = t 24 C t qB p = C C = 24 m wbs
D D D

tD pD = CD

 End of wellbore storage effect:

1)Rameys criterion: tD=(60+3.5 S) CD t=[(200000 + 12000 S) C ]/(kh/) F. U. 2)Chen and Brighhams criterion: tD=50 CD exp(0.14 S) t=[170000 C exp(0.14 S) ]/(kh/) 3) Rule of thumb: A straight line with Slope of 1

F. U.

Skin
The vicinity of the wellbore has characteristics that are different from those in the reservoir as a result of drilling and well treatment operations. The skin effect reflects the difference in pressure drop that exists in the vicinity of the well between the reservoir as it is. The skin is a dimensionless parameter. For a damaged well S>0, and for a stimulated well S<0. Damaged well (S>0): poor contact between the well and the reservoir (mud cake, insufficient perforation density, partial penetration) or invaded zone. Stimulated well (S<0): surface of contact between the well and the reservoir increased (fracture, horizontal well) or acid stimulated zone. The difference in pressure drop in the vicinity of the wellbore can be interpreted in several ways: 1)By using infinitesimal skin 2)Skin of a finite thickness 3)Effective radius method

 Infinitesimal skin (rwrs): pactual=pideal+ps The additional pressure drop due to the skin effect is defined by:

p S =

qB
kh

=1/2 (in SI) , =141.2 (in field)

 Finite thickness skin:

The pressure drop is located in an area with a radius rS and permeability kS around the well.

When the compressible zone leaves this area, the flow can be considered psedosteady-state and is governed by Darcys law:

The difference in pressure drop between the real reservoir and a reservoir uniform right up to the wellbore is expressed as follows by Darcys law:
p S ( p w, S p w, S =0 ) = r r qB qB Ln S Ln S 2k S h rw 2kh rw
rS k S = ( 1) Ln kS rw

Damaged (kS<k) corresponds to a positive skin and improved permeability (kS>k) corresponds to a negative skin.

 Effective radius: The effective radius method consists in replacing the real well with a radius rw and skin S by a fictitious well with a equivalent radius rw and zero skin.

 Radius rw is determined to have a pressure drop between rS and rw in the fictitious well equal to the pressure drop between rS and rw in the real well: P(rw , S=0) = P(rw , S) Expressing the pressure drop by Darys law:

rS rS qB qB Ln ' = ( Ln + S ) 2kh 2kh rw r

w

r = rw e
' w

The effective well radius expresses the effect of well treatments.

Interpretation methods

Interpretation methods
Two main group are used for analyzed a well test: 1)conventional methods 2)methods using type curves Inside each of the two groups the methods depend on the type of well, reservoir, and reservoir boundaries.

Conventional interpretation methods

During a well test on an infinite homogenous reservoir two flows can be seen if the test long enough: 1) flow that related to wellbore storage. 2) radial flow over the whole reservoir thickness Analysis methods will be presented for this configuration, then developed with more complex reservoir-well configuration. Three flow rate conditions are examined: - the drawdown test. - the build-up test, with pressure build-up preceded by one constant flow rate. - The test following any number and type of previous flow rates

Drawdown test
The equation that describes pressure variations vs. time and distance from the well after opening the well at a constant flow rate; qB r2 ) pi p( r, t ) = Ei ( 4kh 4 Kt K=k/ct , when the pressure is measured in the well where the flow rate disturbance is located, r=rw ; As soon as rw2/4Kt < 0.01 , which usually occurs before the wellbore storage effect is over , the Ei function can be replaced by its logarithmic approx.;
*For small x, Ei(x)=ln( x) : the Exponential Integral can be approximated by a log (with = 1.78, Euler's constant).

qB Kt pi pwf (t ) = ( Ln 2 + 0.81) rw 4kh

 Taking pressure drops in the skin into account, this qB expression becomes;

p S =

It can also be written in other equivalent form (F.U.);

k 162.6qB pi pwf = (log t + log 3.23 + 0.87 S ) 2 kh ct rw As a dimensionless eq.;

Kt qB ( Ln 2 + 0.81 + 2 S ) pi pwf (t ) = 4kh rw

kh

1 pD = ( LntD + 0.81 + 2 S ) 2

Above equations show that bottomhole pressure varies logarithmically vs. time.

 If the pressure measured at the bottomhole is plotted on a graph vs. the logarithm of time, a straight line with a slope of m can be observed once the wellbore storage effect has ended:

The skin value is usually computed using the pressure measured at 1 hr on the semi-log straight line; for this point logt=0.
pi p1hr k log + 3.23) S = 1.15( 2 m ct rw

162.6qB m= kh

162.6qB kh = m

 Care must be taken to read the pressure at 1 hr on the semi-log straight line and not by interpolating among the measurement points. After one hour the data may still be affected by the wellbore storage effect. In this case, they do not verify the semi-log straight line equation.

Pressure build-up test

Horners method: Most of the information from a well test comes from interpreting the pressure build-ups. Interpreting a drawdown test is limited by the flow rate fluctuations inherent to production. The fluctuation cause pressure variations that are greater near the end of the test than the pressure variation due to the initial change in flow rate. The zero flow rate (build-up test) does not cause this type of problem.

Pwf(t) is the flowing pressure; time is counted from when the well is opened. Pws(t) is the pressure during the buildup phase; time is counted from when the well is shutin, tp: Pws( t=0) = Pwf(tp) pressure build-up is analyzed using superposition principle: pi p ws (t ) = [ pi p wf (t p + t )] [ pi p wf (t )]

 By replacing the below Eq.; Kt qB pi pwf (t ) = ( Ln 2 + 0.81 + 2 S ) 4kh rw in two right hand terms in previous Eq. , the semi-log expression of radial flow gives;

t p + t qB Ln pi p ws (t ) = 4kh t t p + t 162.6qB log pi p ws (t ) = kh t

This equation and analysis method were presented by Horner in 1951. the equation shows the bottomhole pressure varies linearly vs. log[(tp+t)/ t]

162.6qB m= kh
162.6qB kh = m

When the wellbore storage effect has ended, a straight line with a slope of m can be observed.

 The skin value is computed from the difference between pressure after 1 hr of build-up on the semi-log straight line; 162.6qB
pi p(1hr ) = kh

log(t p + 1)

And the pressure at shut-in time;

162.6qB k pi p wf (t p ) = (log t p + log 3.23 + 0.87 S ) 2 kh ct rw

By subtracting the two above expressions term by term; p1hr p wf (t p ) t p +1 k

S = 1.15 m + log tp log + 3.23 c r
2 t w

The term log[(tp+1)/tp] is usually negligible compared to the other term.

 The initial pressure can be read on the pressure build-up for; t= , (tp+ t)/ t =1 It is equal to the initial reservoir pressure in most initial tests. It is used to compute the average pressure when production is not negligible compared to the oil in place. The pskin can be obtained from;

p skin = 0.87 S (m)

Pressure build-up: MDH method

In previous section showed that in build-up the pressure varies linearly vs. log((tp+ t)/ t )). If tp is large compared to t: tp+ t # tp Before equation becomes:

pi pwf

162.6qB (log t log t p ) = kh

The bottomhole pressure varies linearly vs. pressure build-up time. This means that during build-up the pressure drop due to previous production is disregarded. The next fig. illustrates this interpretation method develop by Miller Dyes and Hutchinson (MDH)

 The MDH method: -the real pressure build-up is p -the pressure build-up dealt with by the MDH is pMDH The difference between p and pMDH is negligible when t is small compared to tp i.e; - at the beginning of build-up - after a long period at constant flow rate.

 Interpretation : - the pressure varies linearly vs. the logarithm of time. By plotting pMDH vs. t, a semi-log straight line with a slope of m can be seen once the wellbore storage effect has ended. - The m, kh and S is computed same way as in Horner method.
The advantage of this method is that it is very simple, the major disadvantages are; 1) it can not be used to find the extrapolated pressure (p*). 2)it can be used only for values of t that are small compared to tp.

 When production time is short or close to t (initial tests on a well), the last build-up points are located under the theoretical semi-log straight line in the MDH representation.

 After varying flow rates:

A test after varying flow rates is interpreted using the flow rate superposition principle discussed before;
B n pi pwf (t ) = (qi qi1 ) pD (t ti1 ) 2kh i =1

Once the wellbore storage effect has ended, the pressure variations becomes;
K (t ti 1 ) B n pi pwf (t ) = (qi qi1 ) Ln r 2 + 0.81 + 2S 4kh i =1 w

 The user is interested in the pressure variations since the last change in flow rate, tn-1. The pressure at the time when the change took place is:
K (tn 1 ti ) B n 1 pi pwf (tn 1 ) = ( qi qi1 ) Ln r 2 + 0.81 + 2S 4kh i =1 w

The pressure build-up since the time when the well was shut in is expressed by:
B n 1 t t Kt ( qi qi 1 ) Ln n 1 i 1 ( qn qn 1 )( Ln 2 + 0.81 + 2 S ) pws ( t ) pwf (tn 1 ) = tn 1 ti 1 + t 4kh i =1 rw

t is the elapsed time since the last change in flow rate. It can be written as follows:
162.6 B n 1 t t k ( qi qi 1 ) log n 1 i 1 ( qn qn 1 )(log t + log pws ( t ) pwf (tn 1 ) = 3.23 + 0.87 S ) 2 ct rw kh i =1 tn 1 ti 1 + t

 Interpretation: The pressure varies linearly vs. the right-hand member (between parentheses). The member is function of flow rates and the time and is called superposition function. If the value of the pressure in the bottom-hole is plotted vs. the superposition function, a straight line with a slope of m can be seen once the effect of wellbore storage has ended. 162.6 B
m= kh

*The slope is independent of flow rate. The results obtained with different flow rates can be compared on the same graph.

 Skin:
The skin is determined based on the pressure value read on the line 1 hr after a last flow rate variation:
p1h pwf (tn 1 ) k S = 1.15 ( q q )m log c r 2 + 3.23 t w n 1 n

Extrapolated Pressure (p*):

If the last flow rate variation is a shut-in, the pressure reading for infinite time, for a value of the superposition function equal zero, is used to determine the extrapolated reservoir pressure.

 Simplification of the flow rate history

The superposition function takes the flow rate history into account. It is difficult when would try manual calculation even with more then two or three flow rates. What equivalent function could be used in this case? Equivalent time: To analyze the final build-up, the simplest method consist in reducing the flow rate history to one single rate and using Horners method for actual interpreting. 1)Flow rate = the last rate n 1 2)Equivalent production time; qi (ti ti1 ) t pe = i =1 qn The production time is designed to provide a total production value identical to the production that was actually recorded. Equivalent flow rate should not be used.

 Validity of the method:

As a rule of thumb, simplifying the flow rate history can be considered to introduce negligible error when the build-up duration is less than twice the duration of the last flow rate before shut-in.

If substantial rate variations occurred shortly before shut-in, the simplification will introduce error. The wider the variations and the closer they occurred before shut-in, the greater the error introduced.

Below figures indicates the direction of the error takes on Horner plot.

Simplification before (tp-tr) usually introduces only a slight degree of error.

 Build-up radius of investigation It is depends only on duration of the pressure build-up. (Field unit) k t ri = 0.032 ct It is theoretically independent of the duration of the drawdown period.

 Ideal pressure build-up test: In an ideal situation, we assume that the test is conducted in an infinite acting reservoir in which no boundary effects are felt during the entire flow and later shut-in period. The reservoir is homogeneous and containing in a slightly compressible, single-phase fluid with uniform properties so that Ei function and its logarithmic approximation apply. Horners approx. is applicable. Flow into the wellbore ceases immediately at shut-in. Actual build-up tests: Instead the single straight line for all time, we obtain a curve with a complicated shape, which indicates the effect of afterflow. We can logically divide a build-up curve into three regions: 1)Early-Time region (ETR): in this region , a pressure transient is moving through the formation nearest the wellbore. 2)Middle-time region (MTR):in this region, the pressure transient has moved away from the wellbore into the bulk formation. 3)Late-time region (LTR): in this region, the pressure transient has reached the drainage boundaries well.

MTR is a straight line. This is the portion of the build-up test curve that we must identify and analyze. Analysis of this portion only will provide reliable reservoir properties of the tested well. The reasons for the distortion of the straight line in the ETR and LTR are as follows: In the ETR the curve affected by; 1)altered permeability near wellbore. 2)wellbore storage effect In the LTR, the pressure behavior is influenced by boundary configuration, interferences from nearby wells, reservoir heterogeneities, and fluids contacts.

 Plots pws=(pws- pwf(t=0)) vs. t on log-log graph to identify wellbore effects, identify ETR and beginning of MTR which can be found using type curves. The MTR ends when the radius of investigation begins to detect the drainage boundaries of the tested well. At this time the buildup curve starts to deviate from straight line.

Productivity index
The productvity index of a well;

q PI = p pwf

Two cases can be distinguished, depending on whether the pressure is measured in the transient or in the psedosteady-state flow. Transient corresponds to initial well test and psedo to measurements made during production. PI during the infinite acting period: The average pressure in drainage area of the well close to the pi.

p pwf # pi pwf

pi-pwf is calculated based previous eq.; (PI will be decreased with time during transient flow);
PI = kh k 162.6 B (log t + log 3.23 + 0.87 S ) 2 ct rw

PI during the psedosteady-state flow: The variation at the well in the psedosteady-state regime:
pi pwf 0.234qB 162.6qB 2.2458 A log 2 + log = + 0.87 S t+ ct hA rw CA kh

p pwf = ( pi pwf ) ( pi p )

Therefore:

0.234qB t pi p = ct hA
PI = kh 162.6 B (log A 2.2458 + log + 0.87 S ) 2 rw CA

The PI is constant during the psedosteady-state flow. A: reservoir size CA: reservoir-well geometry

 Real and theoretical PI: The theoretical PI is the one the well would have if its skin were zero. It is used to estimate the gain in PI by well stimulation,

PI ideal =

( p p wf ) p s

141.2 qB S p s = kh

Flow efficiency: the flow efficiency is also known as productivity ratio, condition ratio, and/or completion factor. PI actual p pwf ps FE = FE = p pwf PI Ideal The FE shows that the well is producing at FE% of rate it would have been producing if the well was not damaged.

 Damage Ratio: When FE subtracted from unity it gives the damage factor which is also a relative indicator of wellbore condition. Damage ratio is the inverse of FE:

1 DR = FE
The DR shows the production rate would have been how many times of present rate if the well was not damaged.