RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE AND PREDICTION

Professor T. Kumar
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology (ISM) Dhanbad

I. DEPLETION DRIVE RESERVOIRS

Two problems are faced by the reservoir engineers:

(1) the amount of oil and gas which will ultimately be recovered, and

(2) the rate at which this oil and gas will be recovered.

Both of these factors are directly related to the forces in the reservoir which will
contribute to the expulsion of the oil from the reservoir. Depletion drive reservoir
mechanism may also be referred to as solution gas drive or internal gas drive. This recovery
mechanism is a result of gas liberation from solution in the reservoir oil, with subsequent
expansion and expulsion of the oil. These reservoirs have no initial free gas cap and no
active water drive. Stratigraphic trap reservoirs are often depletion drive reservoirs, due to
the nature of the trap, which precludes the presence of a large aquifer underlying the oil
zone.

Characteristics of a depletion drive reservoir :

1. Rapid pressure decline due to absence of external supply of energy.

2. Water free oil production due to absence of active water drive.

3. Rapidly increasing gas oil ratio from all walls.

4. Low ultimate oil recovery: Oil production by depletion drive is usually the least
efficient recovery method. This is a direct result of the formation ofgas saturation
throughout the reservoir. Very early in the life of a reservoir a high relative
permeability to gas is developed, and before oil recovery has reached very large
proportions, the reservoir is flowing essentially gas only. Thus, the economic
 limit is reached relatively early. This problem could be alleviate
somewhat if the gas could be made to form a bank to displace oil ahead of it. This
is often impossible, but where the vertical permeability is such that gravity force
can be brought to play, one solution to this problem is to shut-in the reservoir for
a short time (2 or 3 months) to allow the gas to migrate up structure and the oil to
migrate down structure. This will reduce the gas saturation in the lower
portion of the reservoir, with a consequent reduction in gas-oil ratio.

Ultimate recovery from depletion drive reservoirs may vary from less than 5 per cent
to 25 percent. The relative permeability (Kg/Ko) relationship determines to a large extent the
ultimate recovery from depletion drive reservoirs.

In turn, individual factors which govern the relative permeability relationships can
be examined to determine their effects on ultimate oil recovery. Reservoir oil viscosity is
also an important factor in determining ultimate recovery. As reservoir oil viscosity
increases, ultimate oil recovery decreases. The amount of gravitational segregation of the
oil and gas will also be a function of the oil and gas viscosities.

Performance Prediction of a Depletion Drive Reservoir :

Tarner provides a convenient method of predicting future reservoir performance.

This method utilizes the Schilthuis material balance equation, the instantaneous gas-oil ratio
equation; and an equation for determining the oil saturation existing at any time. The method
is applied in two steps : above saturation and below saturation pressure. The value of oil in
place N and cumulative oil produced Np will be different for both the steps.

The generalized MBE is given below :

Bg We - WpBw
(Bt - Bti) + mBti( ---- - 1) + ( -------------------- )
Np Bgi N
--- = ---------------------------------------------------------------------- ……….(1)
N Bo + (Rp - Rs) Bg

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For a depletion drive reservoir m, We and Wp are all equal to zero and since no free gas is
flowing above the saturation pressure, Rp must be exactly equal to Rs. Therefore, MBE for
a depletion drive reservoir above the saturation pressure reduces to :

Nps Bt -Bti
------------------ = ----------------- ............... (2)
Ns Bo

However, above saturation pressure Bt = Bo, therefore, we can write as

Nps Bo - Boi
---- = ---------- ………….(3)
Ns Bo

whereNps = cumulative oil produced, STB

Ns= oil in place originally, STB

The fractional oil recovery above the saturation pressure is simply a function of the change
in formation volume factors.

Below saturation pressure

Np Bt - Bti
--- = -------------------- .............................(4)
N Bo + (Rp- Rs) Bg

The instantaneous gas-oil ratio equation is written as :

Kg o Bo
R = ---- --- --- + Rs ..........…..........(5)
Ko g Bg

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Oil saturation equation is defined as :

Remaining oil volume

So = --------------------------- ...............................(6)
Total pore volume

(N-Np) Bo
= ------------- .................…..........(7)
NBos / (1-Swi)

Np Bo
or So = ( 1 - ------ ) x --- ( 1 - Swi) ..................….........(8)
N Bos

Mechanics of the Reservoir Performance Prediction Procedure :

When making a reservoir study of a depletion drive reservoir the principal objectives
are to determine:

1) the ultimate recovery by primary recovery methods,

2) the rate at which the oil and gas will be recovered, and

3) the variation of reservoir pressure with oil production.

All these objectives can be answered by the Tarner method of predicting reservoir
performance. A step by step procedure for performing a reservoir study is given below :

Procedure :

I. Assemble production data and all necessary information concerning the reservoir
fluids with the following category of information :-
A. Reservoir fluid data : Bo, Rs, Z, o, g can be calculated if eitherlaboratory
measurement, or gas composition or gas specific gravity is known. Prepare graphs of
all the above factors versus pressure.

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 B Past production data of oil, gas water and water influx : prepare
graphs of the above data versus pressure

C. Fluid flow data :

1. Lab. relative permeability data

(Kg/Ko vs So)

(A typical permeability data has been shown in the figure given).

2. Field relative permeability data calculated from production data and

instantaneous gas-oil ratio equation and the oil saturation equation.

D. Geological data : N, m, Swi, and  .

The use of both the lab and the field relative permeability data provides a reliable
index of the past flow characteristics of the reservoir which is a critical factor in the
behaviour of a depletion drive reservoir. However, since the behaviour of the reservoir in
the future is one of the principal objectives of the study, it will be necessary to extrapolate
the field relative permeability curves to lower oil saturations. This is best accomplished by
using laboratory permeability data, adjusting the curve obtained in the lab. until it fits the
field curve over the past history of the reservoir. This will usually provide a reliable index
of future behaviour.

II. Arrange the MBE in the following form :

N (Bt - Bts) -Np (Bt - RssBg)

NpRp = ------------------------------------ = G1............(13)
Bg
where NpRp = cumulative gas produced, SCF.

III. Using the past production history of the reservoir, and the best available data,
predict reservoir behaviour as if the actual reservoir behaviour were unknown, and
compare this predicted performance with the actual reservoir performance. This technique

5
is a necessary preliminary step in any reservoir study. Make any necessary adjustments in
basic data as dictated by this matching process.

IV. First Prediction Step

A. Select a future reservoir pressure and assume a value of Np (in terms of fraction of
N) and solve the cum. gas equation for NpRp given in the step II.

B. Using the assumed value of Np , solve the oil saturation equation for So. Using the
calculated value of So, determine the available Kg/Kofrom the relative permeability curve.
Then calculate R, the instantaneous gas-oil ratio, from the instantaneous flowing gas-oil
ratio (GOR) eqn.

C. Calculate the total gas produced during the first period by :

Ri + Ri+1
(-----------------) Np1 ......................................(14)
2
where, Ri = initial instantaneous flowing GOR, SCF/STB
Ri+1 = Inst. GOR at the end of the period
Np1 = cum. oil produced to the end of the first period, STB

For the first period, the value

Ri + Ri+1 Rss + Ri+1
( -------------) Np1 = ( --------------- ) Np1 ……................(15)
2 2

It should be noted that the total gas produced calculated this way will be correct only
if the variation between Ri and Ri+1 is linear. Since a plot of R vsNp is not linear in nature,
it is necessary to assume small pressure drops in order to have successive values of R which
are close together. In actual practice, pressure decrements in the order of 50 psi are normally
used.

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D. The total gas produced during the period, as calculated by the material balance
equation, is compared to the total gas produced during the period, as calculated by the
GOR equation. These two equations represent independent methods of arriving at the same
answer. Therefore, if the total gas produced, as calculated by the two different
methods, is the same, then the correct value of Np has been assumed. However, if the two
values are not in agreement, then this process must be repeated until a value of Np is found
which will yield the same answer from both equations.

E. In order to simplify this estimating process, three values of Np can be assumed,

which will yield three different solutions of gas produced for each of the equations. If these
values are then plotted on a graph of NpRp vs Np, the plot of the two lines will intersect.
This intersection is the only point where one value of Np will satisfy both equations.

F. The stepwise procedure is continued until the economic limit has been reached.

G. The final results of this series of calculations are usually shown as graphs between
R vs Np/N and P vs Np/N.

Gas-Oil Ratio history in a depletion drive reservoir :

The producing gas-oil ratio history of a depletion drive reservoir can provide
reservoir engineer valuable information when this is analyzed in the light of the events
which must occur in the reservoir. In the typical GOR vs. Npplot (refer to figure), during the
period from point 1 to 3 the GOR curve follows exactly the solution GOR curve. From point
1 to 2, the reservoir produces above saturation pressure, therefore, prod. GOR remains
constant and equal to initial solution GOR at point 2, the reservoir saturation pressure is
reached, and gas is evolved from solution. However, this free gas cannot flow until a free
gas saturation equivalent to the equilibrium gas saturation (minimum gas saturation
necessary to permit gas flow) has been built up. Therefore, the surface gas oil ratio will
begin to decrease as the solution gas-oil ratio decreases.
At point 3, the equilibrium gas saturation is reached and free gas now begins to flow.
The gas-oil ratio increases from point 3 to point 4. The rapidity of the gas-oil ratio increase
will depend upon the rate of pressure decline. The gas-oil ratio increases because gas is

7
being evolved from all of the oil in the reservoir, while only a small part of this oil is being
produced.

At point 4, the maximum gas-oil ratio is reached for the simple reason that the supply
of gas has reached a maximum and the ‘blow-down’ cycle is beginning. From Point 4 to
Point 5, the free gas saturation is being depleted rapidly due to the small amount of gas
coming out of solution compared to the gas produced.

At point 5 all of the producible free gas has been produced and the producing gas-
oil ratio now is equal to the solution gas-oil ratio which now is small due to the low reservoir
pressure.

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 The line from Point 5 to Point 6 seldom is seen in an actual case because the
economic limit usually falls somewhere between Point 4 and Point 5.

9
 II. GAS CAP DRIVE RESERVOIRS
Gas cap drive reservoirs can be identified by the presence of a relatively large gas
cap with little or no water drive. Due to the ability of the gas cap to expand readily, these
reservoirs are characterized by less rapid pressure decline than the same size depletion drive
reservoir. Other characteristics of gas cap drive reservoirs are their lack of water production
and rapidly increasing gas-oil ratio in structurally high wells as the gas cap expands into the
oil zone.

Oil recovery by gas cap expansion is actually a frontal drive displacing mechanism.
Recovery efficiency is therefore, normally considerably larger than in depletion drive
reservoirs, since a gas saturation is not being formed throughout the reservoir at the same
time. Figure 1 shows the relative positions of the gas and oil at different times in the
producing life of the reservoirs.

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 As the size of the gas cap increases, the ultimate oil recovery will also be increased.
This is illustrated graphically in Figure 2. Vertical permeability and reservoir oil viscosity
are also important factors in determining the recovery efficiency. Good vertical permeability
will permit the oil to move downward with less bypassing of gas. As oil viscosity increases
the amount of gas bypassing will also increase.

In order to conserve gas, and thereby increase ultimate oil recovery, it is necessary
to shut in wells, which produce excessive gas. In areas where production is subject to
proration or where inequities with royalty owners may occur, it is usually desirable to
transfer the allowables of wells producing with high gas-oil ratios to wells producing with
low gas-oil ratios. This has the desirable effect of reducing the gas withdrawal rate without
reducing the oil-producing rate.

Gas, as a displacing fluid is limited in its efficiency primarily because of two factors:
(1) the unfavourable viscosity ratios promote fingering of gas with consequent early
breakthrough and (2) gas is normally the nonwetting phase and will preferentially pass
through the larger pore spaces, leaving oil trapped in the smaller pore spaces. Once this oil
has been bypassed, much of it will never be recovered.

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 Figure 3 shows a comparison of displacement in individual pores of a reservoir rock
by water and by gas. Water will usually maintain a more uniform front than the gas, the
capillary forces causing the water to invade the smaller pore spaces while the viscous
pressure forces the water into the larger pores. The result is more complete oil displacement
at water breakthrough.

Ultimate oil recovery from gas cap drive reservoirs is greater than comparable
recovery from depletion drive reservoirs. Recovery will vary, depending on the size of the
original gas cap, the vertical permeability, reservoir oil viscosity, and the degree of
conservation of the gas, but as a rule of thumb ultimate recovery will vary from 20 percent
to 40 percent of the original oil in place.

Where the size of the original gas cap is not large, and reservoir pressure decreases
rapidly as oil and gas withdrawals continue, gas saturation throughout the oil zone is formed
by release of gas from solution from the oil. With the creation of this uniform gas saturation
throughout the oil zone, it becomes increasingly difficult to maintain a gas “front” to
displace the oil. Gas begins to flow very rapidly at even small saturations, therefore, its
prohibitive gas-oil ratios are to be prevented, and reservoir pressure should be maintained

12
as near the saturation pressure possible. Recovery efficiency is dependent to a large extent
on the ability to maintain the reservoir pressure near the saturation pressure.

As a gas cap can expend only as a result of pressure reduction in the reservoir, it
follows that some gas will also be evolved. By successive pressure reductions two important
events will occur: (1) the effective permeability to oil will be decreased as a result of the
increased gas saturation, and (2) the effective permeability to gas will be increased thereby
increasing the flow of gas. This may result in a producing mechanism, which is actually a
solution gas drive mechanism.

The formation of the free gas saturation in the oil zone cannot be prevented without
resorting to pressure maintenance operations. Therefore, in order to achieve maximum
benefit from a gas cap drive producing mechanism, gas saturation in the oil zone must be
kept to an absolute minimum. This can be accomplished by taking advantage of
gravitational segregation of the fluid. In fact, an efficiently operated gas cap drive reservoir
must also have an efficient gravity segregation drive. As the gas saturation is formed in the
oil zone it must be allowed to migrate up structure to the gas cap. Thus, a gas cap drive
reservoir is in reality a combination drive reservoir, although it is not usually considered as
such.

Lower producing rates will permit the maximum amount of free gas in the oil zone
to migrate to the gas cap. Therefore gas cap drive reservoirs are rate sensitive, as lower
producing rates will usually result in increased recovery.

In a large number of cases it will be desirable to install gas return facilities in order
to maintain reservoir pressure. This is especially true where, due to some structural features
of the reservoir, it is impossible to control gas-oil ratios. The installation of gas return
facilities is largely an economic measure, it being necessary to first determine whether the
cost of the pressure maintenance facilities will be more than rapid by the increased oil
recovery.

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Effect of Producing Rate on Ultimate Recovery:

The effectiveness of oil displacement from the reservoir is dependent largely on the
maintenance of a uniform gas front. Slow withdrawal rates will promote the uniformity of
this front by causing less fingering of the advancing gas and also allowing maximum
gravitational segregation. Therefore, low production rates will increase ultimate recovery.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to calculate the effect on ultimate recovery of varying
withdrawal rates. All of the equations normally used in predicting reservoir behaviour are
not rate sensitive, and therefore the rate effect cannot be studied. Past experience with the
reservoir or similar reservoirs can usually be relied upon to show the effect of producing
rate.
Predicting Reservoir Performance:

The material balance equation, the instantaneous gas-oil ratio equation, and the oil
saturation equation are used to determine the future behaviour of the reservoir. The Tarner
method usually provides a reliable solution to the problem.

The principal objectives in a study of a gas drive reservoir are:

1. Determination of past changes in gas-oil contact.

2. Determine maximum efficient producing rate for the reservoir.

3. Determine future changes in the gas-oil contact at various times. This will be
invaluable in determining the need for additional wells, remedial work, and
shutting in of high gas-oil ratio wells.

The objective in operating any reservoir is to take advantage of the most efficient
displacing mechanism available. In the case of a reservoir with a large gas cap and no water
drive, the expansion of the gas cap will normally provide the most efficient displacing
energy. It is particularly important in any reservoir with an original free gas cap to prevent
shrinkage of the gas cap. If the gas cap is permitted to shrink, then oil saturation will be
established in a portion of the reservoir, which hitherto had no oil saturation. There is always
some minimum oil saturation below which it is impossible to reduce the oil saturation.

14
 Therefore, the residual oil saturation remaining in the gas zone is lost oil, which would have
been recoverable if the gas cap had not been permitted to shrink.

Equations Used:

. The Tarner method is generally used in predicting performance of gas cap drive
reservoirs. The material balance equation and the instantaneous gas oil ratio equation are
solved simultaneously for the amount of gas produced during the period selected. It may be
necessary to also revise the equation for calculating oil saturation, as some of the gas may
move up structure to the gas cap. The material balance equation is rearranged as follows:

N [ (Bt- Bt1) + mBti(Bg/Bgi - 1) ] - Np (Bt - RsiBg)

Np Rp = ------------------------------------------------------------------- ……. (1)
Bg

Prediction of reservoir performance is then made following the earlier procedure.

15
 III. WATER DRIVE RESERVOIRS
 Oil production by water-displacing process.
 It is most efficient drive.
 It also leaves a considerable percentage of residual oil.
Characteristics:

1. Pressure decline is very gradual

2. Early excess water production
3. Normally little change in GOR
4. Initial reservoir pressure is normal for the area.
Considerations:

Initial free gas cap: Gas production should be minimized to take advantage of more
efficient water displacing process. However, gas cap volume shrinkage should be avoided
at any cost, as oil saturation in the original gas cap due to upward movement of oil will be
developed, part of which can never be produced.

Efficiency of the water displacement process:

In general, as the reservoir heterogeneity increases, the recovery will decrease, due
to uneven advance of the displacing water. The rate of water advance will be faster in the
highly permeable zone. This results in earlier high water-oil ratios and consequent earlier
economic limits. In homogeneous reservoir, comparatively the advancing water would,
have contacted a greater portion of the reservoir, until economic limit.

Degree of activity of Water drive:

In a very active water drive, where degree of pressure maintenance is good, the role
of solution gas in the recovery process is reduced to almost zero, with maximum advantage
being taken of the water as a displacing force.

Effect of free gas saturation on Recovery:

It is generally agreed and proved by the laboratory results that oil recovery is
increased in the presence of free gas saturation. Although, the actual mechanism is not

16
completely understood this phenomenon can be taken advantage of in water drive
reservoirs.

Where original pressure is above the saturation pressure of the reservoir oil it may
be desirable to reduce reservoir pressure below the saturation pressure as rapidly as possible
in order to create free gas saturation in the oil zone. After the free gas saturation has been
established it is then desirable to maintain reservoir pressure (by water injection) as much
as possible in order to prevent excessive gas saturation from developing in the reservoir. It
is possible to substantially increase oil recovery from a reservoir by this technique and it
should be taken advantage of at every opportunity.

Predicting Reservoir Performance:

Schilthuis developed an equation for calculating water influx under steady state
condition as:

We = K  (Pi - P) dt

where

We = gross water influx, bbl

Pi= initial boundary pressure, psi

P = boundary pressure at some later time, psi

t = time, days

K = water influx constant, bbl/day/psi

The compression of the void spaces in the reservoir rock due to pressure drop has
got effect on performance similar to that of water influx. It is difficult to separately note the
effect of the two in the reservoir; hence a combined term for the two effects called effective
water compressibility is used.

It has been seen that the process of water influx is in reality an unsteady state
phenomenon. In the combination drive reservoirs, however, the use of Schilthuis steady

17
state equations is possible with reliable results because the water influx rate is small
compared to the other driving forces. The water influx constant K could be found from past
production data, and then this same value of K could be used for performance prediction.

Unsteady state water influx equation was developed by Hurst; and van Everdingen
and Hurst. This equation has been developed from the constant terminal pressure solution
of the diffusivity equation describing the reservoir behaviour.

Van Everdingen and Hurst equation can be written as:

We = 1.119  c R2 h p Q(t)

Or: We = B.  p. Q(t)

where

B = 1.119  C r2e h, constant, bbl/psi

and , c, R, h, p = pressure drop (psi), compressibility (psi-1), pay thickness (ft), psi
respectively

Q(t) = dimensionless water influx at dimensionless time tD

This phenomenon of water influx being unsteady state, it should be realized that for
longer time duration; the effect of pressure drop can be accounted for only by using the
principle of superposition. If a long interval is chosen for which p is the pressure drop,
then while the influx is taking place from the aquifer to the reservoir during the first part of
the chosen time interval, the influx due to the second (or the subsequent) part of the time
also takes place, hence the cumulative water influx is the result of superposition of a series
of water influx superimposed during the given time interval. This can be expressed as :

We = B p x Q(t)

The value of B is modified, if the water encroaches through a fraction, f of the

reservoir periphery only. Accordingly, modified B can be written as:

B = 1.119  C r2e h f, constant, bbl/psi,

18
Where, f = fraction of the reservoir periphery (estimated as θ/2 or θ/360o) into which water
is encroaching (Refer to Fig.6 and 7) and θ is the angle subtended by the portion of the
aquifer to the reservoir.

It has been reported that instead of using the entire pressure drop for the first period
a better approximation is to consider that one-half of the pressure drop, ½ (Pi - P1), is
effective during the entire first period. For the second period the effective pressure drop
then is one-half of the pressure drop during the first period, ½ (Pi - P1), plus one-half of the
presence drop during the second period, ½ (P1- P2) which simplifies to:

½ (Pi - P1) + ½ (P1 - P2) = ½ (Pi - P2)

Similarly, the effective pressure drop for use in the calculation for the third period
would be one-half of the pressure prop during the second period, ½ (P1-P2), plus one-half
of the pressure drop during the third period, ½ (P2-P3), which simplifies to ½ (P1-P3).
Similarly, the effective pressure drop for use in the calculation for the fourth period would
be equal to ½ (P2 – P4).

Example calculation 1

In typical water drive reservoir, the water influx at the end of

(I) Six month (Pi = 2500 psi, P1 = 2490 psi) is calculated as :

B = 1.119  Cr2e h f

= 1.119 x 0.20 x (1.0 x 10-6 ) x (2000)2 x 25 x 1.0

= 22.38 bbl/psi

6.323 x 10-3 kt 6.323 x 10-3 x 100 (t)

tD = ------------------------- = -------------------------------------------
C r2 0.80 x 0.20 x 1.0. x 10-6 x (2000)2

= 0.99 (t)

tD = 0.99 x 182.5 = 180.6

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 Q(t) from table of Q(t) vstD

= 69.46

Therefore We = B x P x Q(t)

= 22.38 x 1/2. (2500 - 2490) x 69.46= 7773 bbl.

(ii) Water influx at the end of one year (P2 = 2472 psi) is calculated as :

p = 1/2 . (Pi - P2 )= 1/2. (2500 - 2472) = 14 psi.

The first pressure drop, pi - p1 has been effective for one year, but the second pressure
drop, p1 - p2 , has been effective only for 6 months. Separate calculations must be made for
the two pressure drops because of this time difference and the results added in order to
determine the total water influx.

tD (1 year) = 0.99 x 365 = 361, Q(t) = 123.5

tD (6 months) = 0.99 x 182.5 = 180.6, Q(t) = 69.46

Therefore, We = B  p x Q(t)

= 22.38 (5 x 123.5 + 14 x 69.46)

= 22.38 (618 + 972 ) = 22.38 x 1590

= 35,584 barrels.

Similarly, the values of water influx at the end of 18 months and 2 years are calculated as
93,906 barrels and 192,580 barrels.

Use of the unsteady state equation in predicting Reservoir Performance:

The principal utility of the unsteady state water influx equation is in the prediction
of reservoir performance, although this equation alone cannot be used because there are two
unknown, water influx and pressure. Commonly Material Balance equation is used along
with water influx equation for performance prediction.

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Procedure for performance analysis :

1. Collect all necessary reservoir and PVT data

2. Calculate the value of B, the water influx constant from the best available data,

B = 1.119 C h r2

3. Check the validity of B, water influx, We is found at different time intervals and B is
calculated as :

We (mb)
B = ---------------------
 p x Q(t)

The apparent value of B is plotted against the corresponding value of Np and the most likely
value of B is chosen from the best horizontal line. This value of B is normally used for all
future calculations after verification from its value computed as in step 2.

4. Water influx over the past history of the reservoir is next calculated using both
unsteady state equation and the material Balance equation. These two should
agree if the average value of B has been used in the unsteady state equation.

5. On the basis of the past production history of the reservoir the following curves
are usually drawn:

A. Gross water influx vs. Time (and cum oil).

B. Net water influx vs. Time (and cum. oil).

C. Net change in gas cap vs. Time (and cum. oil).

These calculated values are then compared to actual performance data to determine whether
the calculated values are indicative of actual behaviour.

6. Prediction of Future Reservoir Behaviour.

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 A. Selection of a combination of oil, gas and water production rates, which will
hold throughout the prediction period.

B. The first step is the estimation of the reservoir pressure at the end of the first trial
period (say six months). Gross water influx is calculated by both the equations. If
the results agree then the first estimated pressure is correct; if not,then another
pressure must be selected and the procedure repeated until agreement is reached.

C. Additional calculations are repeated for additional equal time intervals until the
desired range of reservoir history has been studied.

7. Several different combinations of oil, gas and water producing rates should be used,
and a complete prediction made for each set of values. The advantage of having these
different combinations of withdrawal rates is that if for any reason the withdrawal rates are
changed in the future from these expected, a set of performance curves will already be
available for the altered production condition, and an entirely new study will not be
required.

22
23
24
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 IV. COMBINATION DRIVE RESERVOIRS
When a reservoir is being produced by the combination of two or more drive
mechanisms, it is known as combination drive reservoir. Two combinations of driving
forces are commonly found, namely, (a) depletion and a week water drive, and (b)
depletion drive with a gas cap and a week water drive. Gravity segregation can play an
important role in any of the other drives. The effects of gravity drainage are often difficult
to evaluate and predict in most reservoir engineering studies, because, the main important
equation for such studies, MB Equation can not be readily utilized to study gravity drainage
effects. However, where this effect is to be accounted, its effects are incorporated in
performance data like relative permeability curve. A field relative permeability curve can
be used which accounts for this effect.

Characteristics:

1. Relatively rapid pressure decline. Water encroachment and/or external gas cap
expansion are insufficient to maintain reservoir pressures.
2. Water encroaching slowly into the lower part of the reservoir. Structurally low
producing wells will exhibit slowly increasing water producing rates.
3. If a small gas cap is present the structurally high wells will exhibit continually increasing
gas-oil ratios, provided the gas cap is expanding. It is possible that the gas cap will
shrink due to production of excess free gas, in which case, the structurally high wells
will exhibit a decreasing gas-oil ratio. This condition should be avoided whenever
possible, as large volumes of oil can be lost as a result of a shrinking gas cap.
4. As a substantial percentage of the total oil recovery may be due to the depletion drive
mechanism, the gas-oil ratio of structurally low wells will also continue to increase due
to evolution of gas from solution from oil throughout the reservoir as pressure is
reduced.
Figure below shows production history of a typical combination drive reservoir with
a weak water drive and no initial free gas cap. Note that the producing gas-oil ratio remains
relatively constant for a period of time. This indicates that the reservoir pressure is above

26
the saturation pressure. When the gas oil ratio begins to increase it is probably due to the
fact that the reservoir pressure has been reduced below the saturation pressure and the
increasing gas-oil ratio is the result of evolution of dissolved gas from the oil.

Ultimate recovery form combination drive reservoirs is usually greater than that
from depletion drive reservoirs but less than that from water drive or gas cap drive
reservoirs. Actual recovery will depend upon the degree to which it is possible to reduce
the magnitude of recovery by depletion drive. In most combination drive reservoirs it will
be economically feasible to institute some type of pressure maintenance operation, either
gas injection, water injection, or both gas and water injection, depending upon the
availability of the fluids.

27
Indexes of Drives:

The efficiency of operation by various drive mechanisms in the combination

drive is possible to be evaluated by rearranging the Material Balance equation.

The generalized MBE is written as:

Np [ Bo + ( Rp - Rs) Bg ]

= N [mBoi (Bg/Bgi - 1) + (Bo - Boi ) + (Rsi - Rs) Bg ] + (We -Wp ) (1)

or NpBo = N (Bt - Bti) + m N Boi ( Bg/Bgi - 1)

+ (We - Wp ) - Np (Rp - Rs) Bg (2)

Bt = Bo + (Rsi - Rs ) Bg (3)

and

N(Bt - Bti ) = N[ (Rsi - Rs) Bg + (Bo - Boi ) ] (4)

LHS is the expansion of the original reservoir oil volume with all of its original
dissolved gas. After reservoir pressure declines below saturation pressure, some of the
original dissolved gas will be evolved from solution and will occupy space as free gas in the
reservoir. Some of the free gas so evolved from the reservoir oil may be produced.

The term Np (Rp - Rs) Bg is the free gas produced which can be divided into two parts
gas cap gas production and free dissolved gas production.

Let ‘f’ be defined as the fraction of produced free gas which comes from the gas
cap, then the free gas production can be separated as follows:

Gas cap gas production = f Np (Rp - Rs) Bg (5)

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Free Dissolved Gas production

= (1 - f) Np (Rp - Rs) Bg (6)

The term m N Boi (Bg/Bgi - 1) is the expansion of the original free gas cap. Some of
the gas cap may be produced, given in the equation (5) will have to be subtracted to get
gas cap expansion. Similarly N (Bt - Bti ) represents the expansion of the original reservoir
oil with its dissolved gas, so free dissolved gas production given in the equation (6) will
have to be subtracted from N (Bt - Bti ) to get the net expansion of the original reservoir oil
with all of its original reservoir dissolved gas.

We - Wp is the next water influx term.

Rearranging the equation (2) as previously discussed yields:

Np Bo = [ N(Bt - Bti ) - (1 - f) Np (Rp - Rs) Bg ]

+ [mNBoi (Bg/Bgi - 1) - f Np (Rp - Rs) Bg ] + (We - Wp ) (7)

The first bracket term in the equation (7) is the net expansion of the reservoir oil
with its dissolved gas and the second bracketed term is the net gas cap expansion. Thus
equation (7) shows that the reservoir oil produced is a result of the combined effect of (1)
net expansion of the reservoir oil with its original dissolved gas, plus (2) the net gas cap
expansion and, plus (3) net water encroachment. Dividing equation (7) by N pBo :

[ N (Bt - Bti ) - (1 -f) Np (Rp - Rs ) Bg ]

1 = -----------------------------------------------
Np Bo

[ mNBoi (Bg/Bgi - 1 ) - f Np (Rp - Rs) Bg]

+ -------------------------------------------------------
Np Bo

(We - Wp )
+ ------------------ (8)
Np Bo

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The three terms on RHS are the Depletion Drive, Gas cap Drive, and the Water Drive Index
respectively.

Determining the fraction of the produced gas which comes from the gas cap may
be difficult at times, although usually enough production and reservoir engineering data
will be available to satisfactorily determine this number. The usual method of determining
f is to determine the change in gas-oil contact from producing wells, after which, with a
knowledge of the reservoir size the amount of gas cap gas production can be calculated.

The sum of the drive indexes will be equal to 1. Thus to increase one of them, the
other(s) would have to be decreased. The approach should be to utilize the most efficient
drive i.e. water drive and minimize depletion drive index. Where water drive is weak, then
energy provided by gas cap expansion should be used. While utilizing the gas cap
expansion energy, the conservation of gas cap must be considered for its effective
utilization. This can be done by avoiding gas production from gas cap.

Water drive index can be increased by shutting in wells producing very large
quantity of water. Reducing the oil production rate could result in an increased water drive
index and correspondingly decreased depletion drive index containing a weak water drive.

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 The recovery by gas cap drive in general is not rate sensitive, as the gas is readily
expansible. However, where the vertical permeability is low, the expansion of gas cap
could be limited; hence, gas cap drive index could be rate sensitive.

Ideally, for more efficient reservoir operation, if the depletion drive index can be
reduced to zero, relatively good recovery can be expected from the reservoir. This is
difficult, because, it requires complete maintenance of reservoir pressure. The drive
indexes should be evaluated at regular intervals in order to understand the type of drives
operative in the reservoir at various time intervals and also to take decisions to change
them to get advantage of the drive mechanism which will have maximum efficiency.

Predicting Reservoir Performance:

The method of predicting the future reservoir performance of the combination

drive reservoir is same as of depletion drive reservoir given by Tarner. However, the MB
equation and oil saturation equation have to be rewritten for combination drive reservoir.

1. MBE which includes both an original free gas cap and water encroachment is:

NpRp = 1/Bg[ N(Bt - Bti ) + mNBoi ( Bg/Bgi - 1) + (We - Wp)

+ NpRsBg - NpBo ] (9)

2. MBE which includes a weak water drive without an original free gas cap.

A. Equation for pressures above the saturation pressure:

Np/N = (Bo - Boi)/Bo + (We - Wp)/NBo (10)

B. Equation for pressures below the saturation pressure:

N(Bt-Bti ) + (We - Wp) + NpRsBg - NpBo

NpRp = ------------------------------------------------------------- (11)
Bg

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3. Oil Saturation Equation:

Let A1 = Average cross-sectional area of the gas-invaded position of the reservoir,

acres.

A2= Average cross-sectional area of the water-invaded portion of the

reservoir acres.

h1 = Thickness of the gas-invaded zone in the reservoir, ft.

h2 = Thickness of the water-invaded zone in the reservoir, ft.

= Porosity of the reservoir, fraction

Sorg = Residual oil saturation in the gas-invaded portion of the reservoir,

fraction.

Sorw = Residual oil saturation in the water-invaded portion of the reservoir,

fraction.

So (at any time)

Remaining oil in the Remaining oil zone

= ----------------------------------------------------- (12)
Remaining oil zone size

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It is very important to select the proper oil saturation equation, as the relative permeability
relationships are critical functions of oil saturation. Therefore, determination of correct oil
saturation equation is an important step in a reliable predication of reservoir performance.

4. Instantaneous Gas-Oil Ratio equation which is used for prediction is given as:

R = Kg/Ko . o/g . Bo/Bg+ Rs (24)

As given earlier, the prediction will involve the calculation of gas produced by MBE
and GOR eqn. independently for an assumed value of Np. If the values of gas produced by
both the equations are same, then the assumption of Np is taken as the correct value,
otherwise the calculation repeated with new assumed Np value till the correct value is
obtained. This process is continued till the Np value is reached corresponding to the
abandonment pressure. Finally, Pressure vs Np and GOR vs. Np are plotted as the
performance curves.

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