Plato and the Definition of the Primitive

Stanley Diamond
Stanley Diamond, In Search of the Primitive: A Critique of Civilization (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1974), pp. 176202.

[NOTE: Throughout this chapter, I have used the term God metaphorically, since Platos notion of the deity is, historically and technically, somewhat different from ours. But Platos meaning is nonetheless conveyed, and the implications of my argument are in no way affected. Similarly, the definition of the essence as an idea in the mind of God is neo-Platonic, most notably developed by Malebranche.]

The origin and nature of the state is a subject peculiarly appropriate to cultural anthropology, for states first arise through the transformation and obliteration of typically primitive institutions. Thinkers of the most diverse backgrounds and intentions have throughout history grasped this cardinal fact of state formation. Lao-tzu, Rousseau, Marx and Engels, Maine, Morgan, Maitland, Tonnies and many contemporary students of society have understood that there is a qualitative distinction between the structure of primitive life and civilization. Moreover, they have, more or less explicitly, sensed the contradictions inherent in the transition from kinship or primitive society, to civilized or political society. This momentous transition, this great transformation in the life of man, this social and cultural trauma, has led to a passionate and ancient debate about the merits of primitive existence as opposed to civilization. The debate has frequently been waged in Utopian terms. Some Utopias face backward to a sometines fantastic image of the primitive, others face forward to the complete triumph of the rational state. Although I have no intention of engaging in this debate, it seems to me that it is the opposition to the primitive which lies at the root of Platos Utopia,1 and that is the theme I intend to pursue here. In opposing the primitive, Plato helps us define both it and the state. THE OPPOSITION TO THE PRIMITIVE The Republic can be considered a projection of the idealized, total city-state, conjured out of the ruins of fourth-century Athens and influenced by the Spartan oligarchy. But in its perfection, it transcends these local boundaries and becomes a classic model of the state to which Western scholars have turned for centuries in debating the good life and its relation to political society. This tension between the local and the universal is evident in all Utopian constructs, whether merely literary, or socially realized; it is preeminently true of the Republic. Plato maintains certain landmarks of the city-state, but he takes us on a journey of a thousand years. This span of time is reckoned, perhaps, too modestly, for all subsequent political societies commanded by a

2 permanent, self-proclaimed, benevolent elite, and all elitist social theory, are adumbrated in the Republic. The Republic, of course, is more than a political tract. It is also a psychology, an esthetics and a philosophy, but it is all these things within a political context. There is hardly any facet of Platos vision, however abstruse, nor any action he believed imperative which is not colored or dictated by political considerations. The Republic is, in short, a work of enormous scope, but it is saturated with politics, with ideology. This point deserves emphasis because Plato has traditionally been considered the very image of the pure philosopher, and the Republic has been extolled as the masterwork, in which most of his major ideas appear, impressively interwoven. As Emerson put it, Plato is philosophy and philosophy Plato.... The New England Platonist goes further, ceding to Plato Omars fanatical compliment to the Koran: Burn the libraries, for their value is in this book.2 The phrase sticks it is an appropriately Platonic sentiment, and it is a political remark. What then are the political assumptions underlying the Republic? To begin with, Platos personal political bias is clear. He was an aristocrat who experienced the decay of the Athenian democracy. He was a philosopher in a society that put Socrates to death. He avoided the rough-and-tumble of politics and shrank from any actual political role in his own society for which his birth and training may have qualified him. Yet he seems to have been obsessed with the idea of politics; the political problem for Plato seems to have consisted in how to abolish politics. It is possible, therefore, to view the Republic as the idealization and rationalization of Platos personal motives. His ideal state is, after all, a Utopian aristocracy, ruled by philosophers who have become kings, and the political problem has ceased to exist. But this is too close an exercise in the sociology of knowledge. Platos personal motives are unquestionably important; they help fix the precise form of the republic, but they do not determine its broader cultural-historical meaning. In Cornfords words: The city-state was a frame within which any type of constitution could subsist; a despotism, an oligarchy, or a democracy. Any Greek citizen of Platos day, rich or poor, would have been completely puzzled, if he had been told that he had no interest in maintaining the structure of the city-state. The democrat, in particular, would have replied: Do you really think that an oriental despotism, where all men but one are slaves, is a higher and happier type of society? Or would you reduce us to the level of those savages with all their queer customs described by Herodotus?3 Platos oligarchic inclinations, then, cannot be considered contradictory to the basic structure of the city-state; the exact form of his republic is less significant than its overall statism. The political assumptions underlying the Republic are simply the assumptions of political society, of the state, writ large and idealized. We must remember that classical Greece could look back to its own archaic and primitive past; moreover, it lived on the fringe of a barbarian Europe. Thus, the forms and usages of primitive society, even when these were being transformed into organs of the state or abolished in favor of state institutions, were by no means strange to the Greeks, as Fustel de Coulanges, Engels, Morgan, Bury and others have emphasized. Bury, for example, in tracing the early history of Greece, speaks of the authority of the state growing and asserting itself against the comparative independence of the family, and he remarks further that in the heroic age the state had not emerged fully from the society. No laws were enacted and maintained by the state.4

3 It seems likely then that Plato had ample opportunity to react against concrete primitive elements in Greek society and cultural tradition while envisioning his Utopian state. Only the classical scholars, with the aid of a more fully developed classical anthropology, can establish the degree to which this was possible, but it is not essential to my argument. Plato could have been acting out of sheer political instinct, logically constructing the perfect political society and rejecting those institutions and modes of behavior which could not be coordinated with it, that is, the primitive modes. In any case, the fact of opposition to the primitive is clear in the Republic, as is Platos sure sense of the strategy of political society. And this, I believe, is the larger culturalhistorical meaning of his work, conceived, as it was in the morning of European civilization. Indeed the Heavenly City may be viewed as that essence of which all realized polities are inadequate reflections. DENYING THE FAMILY Although the themes that will concern us in the Republic are very subtly interwoven and sometimes lack precise definition, I shall consider them separately without trying to reconstruct Platos full argument. There is, first of all, the suggestion that Socrates makes about the initiation of the republic: They will begin by sending out into the country all the inhabitants of the city who are more than ten years old, and will take possession of their children, who will be unaffected by the habits of their parents; these they will train in their own habits and laws, I mean in the laws which we have given them: and in this way the State and constitution of which we were speaking will soonest and most easily attain happiness, and the nation which has such a. constitution will gain most.5 The republic is to begin, then, by severing the bonds between the generations and by obliterating the primary kinship ties. This is, of course, an extreme statement of the general process through which states arise, which is by releasing the individual from kinship controls and obligations and thus making him subject to the emerging civil laws. There is, however, a remarkably exact parallel to Socrates suggestion in native Dahomean usage as reported by Norris, one of the early chroniclers of the Slave Coast. In the Dahomean proto-state, children are taken from their mothers at an early age, and distributed to places remote from their village of nativity, where they remain with little chance of being ever seen, or at least recognized, by their parents afterwards. The motive for this is that there may be no family connections or combinations, no associations that might prove injurious to the Kings unlimited power.6 But we must never forget that Plato has no intention of outlining the process of state formation per se; he is, in our view, idealizing that process, hence the purpose of setting up the republic in the manner described is seen as beneficent. I might add, parenthetically, that the attempt to weaken or sever the ties between the generations is also a typical Utopian and quasi-revolutionary aim. The most recent instance is the Israeli kibbutz, where the collective rearing of children is motivated by the desire to produce a generation quite different in character from the parental image of the Shtetl Jew.7 As a matter of fact, wherever a massive shift in political power and structure is contemplated or wherever a radical rearrangement of public loyalties is demanded, the family, the psychic transmission belt between the generations, tends to be attacked not merely in terms of any particular form but as a primary social unit. This

4 is evident in rather different ways in the work of many reformists, among a number of so-called Marxists, and in Nazi theory and practice. Platos modest proposal for initiating the republic, then, can be seen in both a revolutionary and a cultural-historical perspective. The Republic begins, appropriately enough, in opposition to the antecedent kin and generational ties. And we shall see that this imperative is extended to the rearing of the guardians within the republic. That is, state and family, echoing the old antagonism between political and primitive organization, are seen to be antithetical, even after the establishment of the ideal polity. THE DIVISION OF LABOR AND CLASS Primitive societies that are not in transition to one or another archaic form of the state (that is, that are not proto-states) may function through rank and status systems and always function through kin or transfigured kin units, the latter being associations whose members are not necessarily reckoned as kin but which pattern themselves on kin forms. They are, however, devoid of class or caste. Further, primitive societies do not manifest the highly specialized division of labor which is one of the major aspects of the rise of class and caste systems. In these related respects, Platos republic represents the reverse of primitive usage and is the state brought to its highest power. To clarify, let us begin with his vision of an absolute division of labor. In the republic, no man is to engage in more than a single task. Indeed, the ultimate definition of justice, which Socrates pursues as perhaps the major aim of the entire dialogue, consists in each person doing the work for which he was by nature fitted within the class to which he constitutionally belongs. And at that [occupation] he is to continue working all his life long and at no other.8 Later on, Socrates elaborates this point as follows: in our State, and in our State only, we shall find a shoemaker to be a shoemaker, and not a pilot also, and a soldier a soldier, and not a trader also, and the same throughout. He emphasizes: in our State .. . human nature is not twofold or manifold, for one man plays one part only.9 In other words, it is imagined that the identity of the individual is exhausted by the single occupation in which he engages. The occupational status, so to speak, becomes the man, just as his class position is, in a wider sense, said to be determined by his nature. In this way, the existence of the state is guaranteed, but the life of the person is constricted and diminished. The division of labor is, of course, an expression of the socially available technology. The point is that Plato not only sensed the congruence of the elaborate division of labor with state organization, but carried it to its furthest reach and then gave at the name of justice. The contrast with primitive usage could hardly be more striking. Primitives learn a variety of skills; a single family unit, as among the Nama, Anaguta or Eskimo, may make its own clothing, tools and weapons, build its own houses, and so on. Even in a transitional society such as the Dahomean proto-state it is expected that every man, whatever his occupation, know three things well: how to cut a field, how to build a wall and how to roof a house.10 Moreover, the average primitive participates directly in a wide range of cultural activities relative to the total available in his society, and he may move, in his lifetime, through a whole series of culturally prescribed statuses. He plays, in short, many parts, and his nature is viewed as manifold. The relevance of this to Platos conception of the drama will be considered below, but it is first necessary to examine the class structure of his republic and its implications.

5 The republic is to be divided into three classes: the guardians, or ruling elite; the auxiliaries, including the soldiers; and the lowest class, consisting of all those engaged in economic production, particularly the artisans and farmers. We see at once that the manual laborers are at the base of the social hierarchy, being considered constitutionally unfit to rule themselves. This is of course a quite typical attitude, however rationalized, and we find it associated with the rise of civilization almost everywhere. In early states, the intellectual gradually emerges from the class of scribes or priests; his connections with the ruling groups are primary. The artisans and farmers grow out of the submerged primitive community, which is transformed into a reservoir of workers for the state through direct conscription of labor, taxation, slavery, or related means. But whatever the details of the process, and they vary in different areas, the subordination of primitive artisan and cultivator is a function of state formation. An Egyptian document dating from the New Kingdom is pertinent, in that it reflects this state of affairs, long consolidated: Put writing in your heart that you may protect yourself from hard labor of any kind and be a magistrate of high repute. The scribe is released from manual tasks; it is he who commands... Do you not hold the scribes palette? That is what makes the difference between you and the man who handles an oar. I have seen the metal worker at his task at the mouth of his furnace with fingers like a crocodiles. He stank worse than fish spawn. Every workman who holds a chisel suffers more than the men who hack the ground; wood is his field and the chisel his mattock. At night when he is free, he toils more than his arms can do; even at night he lights [his lamp to work by]... The stonecutter seeks work in every hard stone; when he has done the great part of his labor his arms are exhausted, he is tired out... The weaver in a workshop is worse off than a woman; [he squats] with his knees to his belly and does not taste [fresh] air. He must give loaves to the porters to see the light.11 This process and the attendant attitudes are, I believe, ideally reflected in the Republic. They develop in Platos cave, in the turmoil of history, but they are presented to us in a purified, philosophic and ultimate form. Now the classes in the ideal state are relatively fixed; they tend to be castes, rationalized on a eugenic basis. But Plato provides for both a modicum of social mobility and the predominant freezing of the entire structure through the medium of a royal lie, that is, through propaganda, a term that Cornford considers more appropriate,12 and a condition which we shall take up in connection with the exile of the dramatist. Socrates states: Citizens... God has framed you differently. Some of you have the power of command, and in the composition of these he has mingled gold, wherefore also they have the greatest honor; others he has made of silver, to be auxiliaries; others again to be husbandmen and craftsmen he has composed of brass and iron; and the species will generally be preserved in the children. But... a golden parent will sometimes have a silver son, or a silver parent a golden son. And God proclaims as a first principle to the rulers, and above all else, that there is nothing which they should so anxiously guard... as the purity of the race... if the son of a golden or silver parent has an admixture of brass and iron, then nature orders a transportation of ranks and the eye of the ruler must not be pitiful towards the child because he has to descend in the scale and become a husbandman or artisan, just as there may be sons of artisans who having an admixture of gold or silver in them are raised to honor, and become guardians or auxiliaries. For

6 an oracle says that when a man of brass or iron guards the state, it will be destroyed. Such is the tale; is there any possibility of making our citizens believe in it?13 The class structure of the republic then, is based on a theory of human nature, assimilated to Platos doctrine of essences.14 Here we confront a perfect example of the convergence of characteristic Platonic concepts to an immediate political issue, a technique that weaves throughout the dialogue and accounts in part for its great dialectic density. The final nature of the individual is viewed as unambiguous, since human nature is a matter of distinct and single higher and lower essences, subdivided further into occupational essences. That is to say, the division of labor and class in the Republic is reflected in the division into essences or vice versa, if you will. The important point is that the whole structure is guaranteed by human nature, watched over by the guardians, justified by philosophy and sanctified by God, as the allegory states. At the peak of the pyramid stand the guardians. They are said to have a pure intuition of the good; they live in the place of light above the cave and are, in a sense, divine; or at least they have intimations of divinity. Shall we call them divine kings? It matters little, for all kings have been considered holy since the primary differentiation of the king from the local primitive chief. The holiness of the king is the sanctification of civil power, as opposed to the common traditions which are symbolized in the person of the local chief and may thus render him sacred. The ultimate other-worldliness of the guardians or philosopher kings is, I believe, a reflection of the process through which civil power was first sanctified as the primitive community was transformed into political society. We should recall that Plato was impressed by the Egyptian theocracy and may have visited Egypt, where the concept of divine rule was as old as the state itself. In any event, the elite tradition of the guardians is the opposite of the communal tradition of primitive peoples. Yet neither the divinity of the kings, who shape the end of the republic, nor the sterling quality of their auxiliaries is sufficient to ensure their devotion to the state. This can be achieved most readily through a completely collective life and training. Socrates says: the wives of our guardians are to be common, and their children are to be common, and no parent is to know his own child, nor any child his parent.1 s The children are to be reared collectively by special nurses who dwell in a separate quarter. The mothers will nurse them but the greatest possible care will be taken that no mother recognizes her own child nor will suckling be protracted too long. The mother will have no getting up at night or other trouble, but will hand over all this sort of thing to the nurses and attendants.16 Further, the guardians and their helpers, under a regime of spartan simplicity, are to live in common houses, dine in common and hold no property; and they are not to engage in economically productive work. The obvious aim is to disengage them from all connections and motives which might diminish their dedication to the state. Plato clearly sensed the antagonism between state and family, and in order to guarantee total loyalty to the former, he simply abolished the latter. Moreover, his distrust of kin ties in the ideal state leads him to invoke the aid of a royal lie, possibly the first half of the propaganda-myth quoted above. Socrates, simulating embarrassment, says: I really know not how to look you in the face, or in what words to utter the audacious fiction, which I propose to communicate gradually, first to the rulers, then to the soldiers, and lastly to the people. They are to be told that their youth was a dream, and the education and training they received from us, an appearance only; in reality during all that time they were being formed and fed in the womb of the earth, where they

7 themselves and their arms and appurtenances were manufactured; when they were completed, the earth, their mother, sent them up; and so their country being their mother and also their nurse, they are bound to advise for her good, and to defend her against attacks, and her citizens they are to regard as children of the earth and their brothers.17 This is, of course, a direct statement of the conflict between kin and political principles. The territorial state is to receive the loyalty previously accorded the kin group, and this can only be done by personifying the state, an essentially impersonal structure. Plato remarks that the fiction is an old Phoenician tale of what has often occurred before now in other places.18 Certainly, the myth is precisely of the type we would expect in societies in transition from kin to civil structure, that is, in societies engaged in a primary kin-civil conflict. There is a peculiar parallel with Dahomean usage here, not in the form of myth but in actual social convention. In Dahomey, every important official in the emerging state structure had a female counterpart within the kings compound. This woman, termed his mother, had precedence at court, acting as a sort of buffer between the official and the king and personalizing the purely material relationship involved.19 The bureaucrats were mustered from the local villages, the conquered and subordinate areas; they had no kin ties with the royal clan or dynastic lineage. The system of civil mothers thus symbolized the new connections that had begun to develop in distinction to the old kin loyalties. The idea of the motherland, or fatherland, although expressed in kin terms, seems coincident with the rise of the state, at the point where the problem of political loyalty begins. This, I believe, is the meaning of Platos fiction, concretely revealed in Dahomean usage. It should be noted that Plato confines the fiction of the earth-born heroes to the guardians and auxiliaries. The ordinary people, composed of brass and iron, are to live under ordinary family circumstances. No extraordinary behavior of any kind is expected of them, certainly no unusual loyalty to the state. Their worldly concerns, their emotional ties and their inferior natures are conceived as making such behavior impossible. The soldiers guard the city, the guardians rule it; acquiescence and temperance, a living up to their own limited possibilities, are the demands made on the mass of people. That, and the labor which supports the upper classes. The economic producers are, of course, deprived of political means; in the ideal state this was visualized as the solution to the political problem. Yet Plato seems uncertain. He speaks of the soldiers selecting a spot whence they can best suppress insurrection, if any prove refractory within,20 and also of their maintaining peace among our citizens at home ... [that they may not] have the power to harm us.21 One further point is worth consideration. The selectively bred but family-less upper classes are to refer to all peers as brothers and sisters and to the members of the older generation as father and mother, seemingly congruent with extended family or clan usage. However, the upper classes represent what can be technically termed a collective, not a community; the relational forms are retained, but the substance is lacking.22 What we confront here is a rather interesting politicization of kin terminology, as in the case of the Dahomean civil mothers, in direct opposition to primitive behavior. The latter is always based on concrete and complex family relationships which may then be extended outward to include remote relatives, strangers or even natural phenomena. But as we have seen, the mothers of the upper classes are not to know their own children.23 They are to be relieved of all domestic and maternal

8 responsibility and thus converted into ideal instruments of the state, fully equal, in this respect, to the men. The above is a rough outline of class structure and function in the Republic. In general, it is the antithesis of what Kroeber, for one, has called primitive democracy.24 CENSORSHIP OF THE DRAMATIST There is, I believe, a keystone in the soaring arch of Platos argument, an imperative on which it must inevitably rest. In this imperative, the statism of the republic culminates, as does its opposition to the primitive. The dramatists, the makers of tragedy and comedy, the imitative poets, as Plato calls them, are to be exiled and their works abolished or heavily censored. Socrates says: When any one of these pantomimic gentlemen, who are so clever that they can imitate anything, comes to us, and makes a proposal to exhibit himself and his poetry, we will fall down and worship him as a sweet and holy and wonderful being; but we must also inform him that in our State such as he are not permitted to exist; the law will not allow them.25 Plato has already given us a reason for this, quoted above in connection with the division of labor: [in] our State human nature is not twofold or manifold, for one man plays one part only. The pantomimic gentlemen, Homer or Aeschylus, for example, have no place in the class and occupational structure of the republic, assimilated, as it is, to the doctrine of essences or ultimate forms. Socrates makes this clear to Adeimantos: human nature appears to have been coined into yet smaller pieces, and to be as incapable of imitating many things well, as of performing well the actions of which the imitations are copies.26 But before pursuing Platos theory of art, which emerges so logically out of the dialogue, let us examine some of the simpler reasons for establishing a censorship of the writers of fiction27 and the implications thereof. The poets are perceived as impious and corrupters of youth. They misrepresent the nature of God, which is absolutely good, by spinning tales of rage and ribaldry in heaven. If at all possible, children in the ideal state should be told that conflict is unholy and has never existed among the gods or between citizens. The wicked must always be represented as miserable, because they require to be punished, and are benefitted by receiving punishment from God, but God must never, in verse or prose, be considered the author of evil, for such a fiction would be suicidal in any well-ordered commonwealth. The poets, such as Euripides, must not be permitted to say that suffering is the work of God, or if it is of God, they must devise some explanation ... such as we are seeking. The task of the poet, then, is to justify the ways of God to man, to buttress morality in the republic. And the ultimate impiety is to speak, with Homer, of Zeus, who is the dispenser of good and evil to us.28 Moreover, the poets are inappropriately emotional. They portray death and the underworld in lurid terms; they lament the fallen warrior and rail against fortune, whereas, in the republic, the good man ... will not sorrow for his departed friend [or son, or brother], as though he had suffered anything terrible, [since he] is sufficient for himself... and therefore is least in need of other men.29 What is worse, the poets portray famous men, heroes, even the gods themselves, in undignified postures of grief or frenzy. Nor can Homeric laughter, whether indulged in by men or gods, be tolerated; in

9 men it leads to violent reaction [s], and it is a falsification of the nature of God. Hence, such verses from the Iliad as inextinguishable laughter arose among the blessed gods, when they saw Hephaestus bustling about the mansion, must be excised.30 Finally, the heresy of the poets is expressed in the conception of God as a magician, and of a nature to appear insidiously now in one shape, and now in another sometimes himself changing and passing into many forms, sometimes deceiving us with the semblance of such transformations. 31 For, the gods are not magicians who transform themselves, neither do they deceive mankind in any way.32 Thus far, then, there are three related reasons for Platos antagonism to the poets. First, they ascribe a dual nature to the gods the gods are the authors of good and evil. Second, they portray the gods as extravagantly emotional, sometimes obscenely so, as in the case of Zeus, who, at the sight of Hera, forgot... all [his plans] in a moment through his lust.33 Third, they present the gods in a variety of shapes and deceptive appearances. I submit that Platos objections betray a direct antagonism against the transformer, or trickster, image of the gods; that this image is one of the oldest expressions of mankind, has been conclusively shown by Paul Radin.34 The Trickster is an authentically primitive figure, appearing in his sharpest form among primitive peoples a bestial, human and divine being, knowing neither good nor evil, yet... responsible for both. Trickster is at the mercy of his passions and appetites, is devoid of values, yet through his actions all values come into being. At the same time, all figures associated with Trickster, for example the various supernatural beings and man, possess his traits. Thus, Plato says the poets must not be permitted to persuade our youth that the Gods are the authors of evil, and that heroes are no better than men; for everybody will begin to excuse his own vice when he is convinced that similar wickednesses are always being perpetrated by the kindred of the Gods, the relatives of Zeus. He gives as an example the tale of Theseus, son of Poseidon, or of Peirithous, son of Zeus, [who went forth] to perpetrate a horrid rape.35 In his never ending search for himself, Trickster changes shape and experiments with a thousand identities. He has enormous power, is enormously stupid, is creator and destroyer, giver and negator. Trickster is the personification of human ambiguity. He is the archetype of the comic spirit, the burlesque of the problem of identity, the ancestor of the clown, the fool of the ages, the incarnation of existential absurdity. This existential absurdity is the converse of what can be termed political absurdity. The latter is the result of the effort to train men to respond on command, in terms of signals rather than symbols. So, for example, hazing at a military academy or in any other bureaucracy systematically conditions a recruit not to inquire into the meaning of the absurd act which he is compelled to perform. He obeys without question, and it is assumed he will do so in the future when appropriately stimulated. The absurdities which define conventional bureaucratic behavior do not, of course, originate in existential reflection on the absurdity of life which is a source of creative energy but in the reduction of men to reflexes in a system, which is the death of the creative instinct. The image of the wooden soldier fits precisely here. Political structures which manipulate persons hardly generate loyalty, skill or initiative. That first and most basic bureaucracy, the regular army, dominated by career officers, predictably fails when confronted with the spontaneity and inventiveness of the guerrilla band, functioning on

10 a higher symbolic level, stimulated by the immediacy of their associations and the consistencies of their goals. Plato was correct in assuming that the guardians would need rigorously trained auxiliaries to suppress insurrection in the ideal state; he was wrong in assuming they could succeed. Inevitably, Trickster must be banished from the republic, wherein identity is a matter of pure, ideal, unambiguous forms and where men are to be totally and strategically socialized. The poets who have created or inherited Tricksters image of the world are, it follows, to be silenced. Once again, Platos opposition to the primitive is clear, if not necessarily conscious. It would be possible to claim that Platos negative image of the poets themselves is that of the Trickster, for has he not called them pantomimic gentlemen and imitators? And may we not add that Plato sensed and distrusted the old connection between art and magic? This is a sensible, if superficial, interpretation; to deepen it we must explore Platos theory of art and its implications. Plato regarded the art of the tragic and comic dramatists, along with that of the painters, as essentially imitative, as dealing with appearances only. The painter, for example, paints a bed, but this image is thrice removed from the truth. The ideal form or essence of the bed is created by God; this is the eternal bed which the philosopher kings can intuit; it is the bed in truth and goodness, of one nature, essentially inimitable and complete. At a second remove from the truth is the tangible bed created by the artisan, the particular bed, which is a semblance of existence, but not existence entire as manifested in Gods bed.36 But the bed of the painter is sheer imitation, being neither useful nor ideal. In no sense can it be considered a creation. Further, all artists, save those who echo the needs of the state by composing hymns to the Gods and praises of famous men,37 are deceivers who, in effect, presume to create but cannot.38 The painter, for example, does not know how to make a bed nor does he know anything of the work of the cobbler or carpenter whom he may represent. Socrates states: the imitator has no knowledge worth mentioning of what he imitates. Imitation is only a kind of play or sport, and the tragic poets, whether they write in Iambic or Heroic verse, are imitators in the highest degree.39 Nor can the artist-imitator have any knowledge of good or evil and may be expected, therefore, to imitate only what appears good to the ignorant multitude.40 Plato seems to mean here that the intuition into pure existence aided by the study of mathematics, a basic subject for the guardians, is also the apprehension of the good, or at least a prerequisite to it. The artist reproduces appearances only, and these vary; pure essence cannot be reproduced, only intuited. Since the artist has no knowledge of the good, he can have no knowledge of evil, nor does he possess any understanding of the useful, for he is once removed from the particulars that he copies and hence thrice removed from the truth. A perfectly antithetical view of the artist is Goyas statement in the catalogue to Los Caprichos: Painting, like poetry, selects from the universe the material she can best use for her own ends. She unites and concentrates in one fantastic figure circumstances and characters which nature has distributed among a number of individuals. Thanks to the wise and ingenious combination, the artist deserves the name of inventor and ceases to be a mere subordinate copyist (italics added). The absolute, reciprocal antagonism of the true artist and Platonism could not be more pertinently expressed. But this antagonism, it must be said, is not necessarily directed against a belief in God or religious passion as such, only against the removal of God from the concretely human, that is, against the turning of God into an abstraction. All

11 religious art of any stature and all religious artists worthy of the name, from the Byzantines and Giotto through Michelangelo to Blake and Rouault (confining the example to a fragment of the Western tradition), inscribe their vision in the flesh and see God either as an aspect of mans nature or as a perception to which every man is capable of attaining, usually out of his agony. Hence, God may be apprehended by the artist as objectively real, yet always in the most ordinary, unexpected, various but human guises. The institutionalized and abstract God of the church and the philosophers is never the God of the artist, though called by the same name. The human distance between Platos God and Blakes is infinite. But whether or not we accept the terms in which it is couched, Platos argument has extraordinary power and beauty. The philosopher expressed completely what many who have subsequently shared his attitudes have only dimly perceived; the artist is dangerous, as life is dangerous; he sees too much, because that is all he desires to do, and he presumes to create, to erect man into the role of the creator. But his vision is incomplete, he cannot penetrate to the objective order of the universe, the handiwork of God. And to men of Platos temperament that objective order, the pure anatomy of reason, is as essential as breathing. Yet if the artist would accept the eternal order and thus learn humility, if he could convert his art into a public strategy in behalf of an abstract idea of the good, the state would find a place for him. Let the protagonists of Homer and of poetry in general prove their worth, and they will be returned from exile. Moreover, there is a passionate tie between the artist and the ignorant multitude. The artist does not believe in abstract systems; he deals with felt and ordered emotional ideas and believes that order is attained through the contradictions, the tense unities of everyday experience. Thus, the artist himself may be unstable, a changeling, and this is a threat to any establishment. Plato is entirely consistent. He was, it seems, a man of a certain type, incapable of tolerating ambiguity, positive in his conviction of an objective, superhuman good. He believed in God with the cool passion of a mathematician, and he believed at least abstractly that the perfectly just city could be established through perfectly rational and perfectly autocratic means. He began as a poet, and so he must have understood in his own being the old argument between poetry and philosophy to which he occasionally refers. In evicting the dramatist, Plato reveals himself, the nature of the republic and the functions of art; his motives, of course, are above suspicion. The poets, then, are to be exiled from the ideal state. There is simply no room for them; they are the first superfluous men. The philospher kings intuit the universal, ultimate forms, God creates them, and the multitude lives among and constructs their particular manifestations. Hence, the class structure of the republic reflects the doctrine of forms or essences. It descends from the superior, from the abstract, created by God and grasped by the guardians, to the inferior, to the particular, grasped by the craftsmen and ordinary citizens, who live in a world of ordinary, useful, sensuous things. Here we encounter Platonism enthroned, a political hierarchy perfectly mated to a conceptual one. The fleshy Homer, who also presumes to create, is a threat to this structure, and cannot be tolerated. The class division between the universal and particular, between the institutionalized intellectuals and the economic men reflects a condition that develops with ancient civilization as opposed to primitive culture. This is not to say that temperamental distinctions do not exist among primitives, for they do, as Radin has brilliantly shown in his analysis of the thinker and man of action.41 The point is that among primitives such distinctions complement each other, the concrete and the abstract interpenetrate,

12 thinker and man of action are tied together; sometimes, as Radin points out, they meet in the same individual, and in any case, such differences are not politicized. Just as soon as the latter occurs, in early states or as idealized in the Republic, there is both an impoverishment and a denial of the sources of human creativity. Further, in early states in the real world, the differential worth often ascribed to people in the various occupations within the broader classes is a political rationalization, generated from the top down. For not only did accidents of birth and training determine social fate, but the point of view from which evaluations were made was that of the scribes, the priests, the nobility. In the Republic, in the ideal world, Platos division of labor and conceptual capacity is said to be genetically determined. The social accident is nullified, yet the division remains artificial because it isolates the abstract from the concrete, the intellectual from the emotional, and considers the craftsman and the farmer useful but inferior beings, not from the perspective of the priest or noble, but from that of Platos philosophy. I submit, further, that the Platonic definition of the abstract has become so entrenched in Western thought that the frequently encountered attitude toward primitives, that they are incapable of or deficient in this capacity, is a manifestation of it. Conversely, the attempt to prove that primitives are capable of abstracting too often centers on the types of abstraction emerging out of the history of Western culture, which would seem quite irrelevant. While it is true that no primitive group is made up of Platonists in the technical sense of that term (for primitives tend to live, as Radin has put it, in a blaze of reality) and the various politico-conceptual divisions generic to the state have not yet been established, this does not mean that they do not think abstractly. In the basic sense, every linguistic system is a system of abstractions; each sorting out of experience and conclusion from it is an abstract endeavor; every tool is a symbol of abstract thinking. Indeed, all cultural convention, all custom, is testimony to the generic human capacity for abstracting. But such abstractions are indissolubly wedded to the concrete. They are nourished by the concrete, and they are, I believe, ultimately induced, not deduced. They are not, in short, specifically Platonic abstractions, and they do not have the politicized psychological connotations of the latter. For Plato there is an order in the universe that escapes the human eye. That order is, as we have seen, composed of forms or essences which must ultimately be conceptualized; they cannot be perceived by the senses. There is a radical split between perceptions and conceptions in Platonic discourse, a split that has been elaborated endlessly in Western science to the point of morbidity and at the expense of the senses. Reality has become increasingly reified and, at the same time, thrown into question; the conceived object has been detached not only from the perceiving subject, but from itself. When a Platonist looks at an object, the reflection in his eye represents an inferior order of reality; he has no faith in either the perception or the object realized in the world. The object exists only as the shadow of a conceptual meta-reality, as an instance of a class, an analytic construction. The majority of civilized men, it is assumed, see only superficially (they are not seers), and they look at the object in a utilitarian, unthinking way. Being incapable of probing more deeply into, analyzing, the nature of their experience, they see but do not see. Therefore, they are compelled by their limited conceptual capacity to follow those who can see. The expectation of a superior interpretation of what we apprehend is built into the use of our everyday language. That anticipation is an imperative of neither vocabulary or syntax, but of the cultural arrangement of meaning generic to the civilizational process, as Plato understood so well.

13 Tylor is equally acute although his evolutionary enthnocentrism is insupportable: It may be said in concluding the subject of Images and Names, that the effect of an inability to separate, so clearly as we do the external object from the mere thought or idea of it in the mind, shows itself very fully and clearly in the superstitious beliefs and practices of the untaught man... between our clearness of separation of what is in the mind from what is out of it, and the mental confusion of the lowest savages of our own day, there is a vast interval...42 Most broadly defined, then, the language of theoretical science is also the language of political society. The ordinary man, it is imagined, bears witness only to the ordinary object. The priest or scientist or being more rigorously Platonic, the priest trained as a scientist conceives a metaphysical or theoretical construct, and that construct constitutes the specifically Platonic definition of the abstract. When we talk about the object in our usual Platonic mode, then, we are talking either metaphysics or theoretical science (not technics); and we are also talking politics, the latter because of the presumed inaccessibility of ultimate reality to the mass of civilized men, except through the conceptual mediation of their perceptions by statesmen, priests and scientists. For the Platonic abstraction is, above all, the basis of the deductive, theoretical proposition which serves as the ground of what we call science. The notion of systematic forms (or, alternatively put, of underlying formal systems governing perceived reality, that is, the notion of logically deducible, conceptual meta-realities) dominates our definition of science, of knowing. In the Platonic view, these conceptions are eternal. They do not enter directly into the perceived world; they are the unmoved scources of all process, dialectic or otherwise; and they have no history. They are the ultimate structures, regularities, laws governing the universe; and they find their analogue in the laws governing the Republic. But there is another way of relating to the object. Looking, for example, can be an intensely perceptual experience. The object may be seen in its absolute singularity through, let us say, the eye of a Vermeer. It erupts as a unique thing in the world, irreducible to an exclusive, a priori class, yet subject to a variety of relationships, a thing which may have been made, used, exchanged and which nonetheless may reveal different aspects according to the quality of light, position among other objects, meaning to those who relate to it. Or it may exist as a thing in nature, its being contained in its existence. The uniqueness of the object inheres in the immediate, concentrated response of the unaided, humanly experienced eye. The object is connotative. Through the structure of analogy and metaphor that defines discourse among primitive people, it reveals a manifold and spontaneous reality. No decisive denotative statement can be made about the object, no mathematical or metaphysical statement can define it. This heightened perception is, of course, an aspect of the definition of art and commands a focus on the singularity of the object to such a degree that everything seems at once marvelous, strange, familiar and unexpected. No category can exhaust such an object; it saturates the perceiving subject. That is what William Blake, who despised Plato, meant when he said that he could look at a knothole in a tree until he became terrified. This existential perception, which is also that of the artist and the mystic, cannot be trimmed to fit a metaphysical class, and it is the converse of a theoretical construct. Yet all three ways of looking the utilitarian, the Platonic, and the poetic are abstract and relational. What is at stake is the type of abstraction involved. The non-

14 Platonic or concrete abstractions comprise the customary mode of primitive thinking,* not generically but culturally, and also define the mode of the artist who has been politically alienated from the ordinary man. Yet, despite everything, the artist is more closely aligned with the ordinary man, now differentiated from his primitive estate,than he is with the priest, scientist or statesman. Like the ordinary man, he ambivalently perceives his dependence on the structures the priest, scientist and statesman command. Like the ordinary man, he focuses on the object; but for him the object has become incandescent. He is perpetually recovering his primitivism. Platos theory of cognition is, therefore, not only an aspect of his esthetics, but logically defines his sense of justice or rather, demonstrates once again how astonishingly integrated, how final his thinking is. Justice, the aim of the Republic, confined one man to one vocation; that principle of esthetic and political order is extended to assume single realities behind a multitude of appearances. Indeed, Platos ontological ethic inheres precisely in this: for a man to engage in many jobs is to deny his essential nature, for men to concentrate on the uniqueness of things in this world is to deny their essential natures, and for men to presume above their natural stations is to deny the essential nature of the State. Justice in the Republic inheres in the given structure and indivisibility of essences. This is not only a reflection of the political imperatives of civilization it is, at the same time, the basis for a definition of evil (violation of the order) and an affirmation of the meaning of virtue (appreciation of the order). In the Platonic order, we discover the link between political, metaphysical and scientific classification and, therefore, the significance of the Platonic abstraction, the essence of civilized modalities of thought. PRIMITIVE RITUAL DRAMA Platos opposition to the drama and the dramatist is directly associated with the class and ideational structure of the Republic. At its root, this is also an opposition to the primitive, not merely with reference to the old tie between artist and magician but, more comprehensively, in connection with the form and meaning of the primitive ritual drama. In the ritual drama, art and life converge; life itself is seen as a drama, roles are symbolically acted out, dangers confronted and overcome and anxieties faced and resolved. Relations among the individual, society, and nature are defined, renewed, and reinterpreted. I am, of course, defining the primitive ritual drama in the broadest possible way, that is, as comprising those ceremonies which cluster around life crises or discontinuities, either of the individual or of the group at large. Generally speaking, the latter are concerned with crises arising from the groups relation to the natural environment, while the former are concerned with personal crises, that is, with the individuals relation to himself and the group. In all ritual dramas, however, despite the relative emphasis on the group or the individual, there is an apparent continuity from the individuals setting in the group to the groups setting in nature. Moreover, the problems of identity and survival are always the dominant themes, and it is for this reason that we can, I believe, term these primitive ceremonials dramas.
*

Robert Redfield understood this as follows: The patterns of thinking of a city man where a multitude of unfamiliar experiences are dealt with by relating them to convenient classes are different from those of a remote rural dweller, whose social objects are all unique and known by their individual characters. 43

15 To clarify, let us consider those ceremonials which devolve upon personal crises, such as death, marriage, puberty or illness. These can be considered existential situations; that is, people die, marry, sicken, become sexually mature and economically responsible in all societies. In primitive societies, such ordinary human events are made meaningful and valuable through the medium of the dramatic ceremonies. Here we confront man raising himself above the level of the merely biological, affirming his identity and defining his obligations to himself and to the group. The ritual drama, then, focuses on ordinary human events and makes them extraordinary and, in a sense, sacramental. At the same time, the ceremonials we are speaking of enable the individual to maintain integrity of self while changing life roles. The person is freed to act in new ways without crippling anxiety or becoming a social automaton. The person discharges the new status but the status does not become the person. This, I believe, is the central psychological meaning of the theme of death and rebirth, of constant psychic renewal, which is encountered so frequently in primitive ceremonials. It is an organic theme; what one is emerges out of what one was. There is no mechanical separation, only an organic transition extending over a considerable time, often crowded with events and never traumatic, but modulated and realistic in its effects.44 Hence, the ceremonies of personal crisis are prototypically dramatic in two related ways. They affirm the human struggle for values within a social setting, while confirming individual identity in the face of ordinary existential situations such as death or puberty. These ceremonial dramas constitute a shaping and an acting out of the raw materials of life. All primitives have their brilliant moments on this stage, each becomes the focus of attention by the mere fact of his humanity; and in the light of the ordinary-extraordinary events, his kinship to others is clarified. Moreover, these ritual dramas, based on the typical crisis situations, seem to represent the culmination of all primitive art forms; they are, perhaps, the primary form of art around which cluster most of the esthetic artifacts of primitive society the masks, poems, songs, myths, above all the dance, that quintessential rhythm of life and culture. Ritual dramas are not automatic expressions of the folk spirit. They were created, just as were the poems, dances and songs that heighten their impact, by individuals moving in a certain cultural sequence, formed by that tradition and forming it. Whether we call these individuals poet-thinkers, medicine men or shamans, (terms used by Paul Radin45) seems unimportant. Plainly, they were individuals who reacted with unusual sensitivity to the stresses of the life cycle and were faced, in extreme cases, with the alternative of breaking down or creating meaning out of apparent chaos. Let us call them primitive dramatists. The meanings they created, the conflicts they symbolized and sometimes resolved in their own pantomimic performances, were felt by the majority of so-called ordinary individuals. There was, of course, magic here too; but, more deeply, there was a perception of human nature that tied the group together. The primitive dramatist served as the lightning rod for the commonly experienced anxieties, which, in concert with his peers and buttressed by tradition, the primitive individual was able to resolve. This is not to say that the primitive dramatist simply invented meanings promiscuously. It was always done within a given socio-economic and natural setting. But he shaped dramatic forms through which the participants were able to clarify their own conflicts and more readily establish their own identities. There was an organic tie, then, between the primitive dramatist and the people at large, the tie of creation and response, which is in itself a type of creation. The difference was

16 that the dramatist lived under relatively continuous stress, most people only periodically so. Thus the dramatist was in constant danger of breakdown, of ceasing to function or of functioning fantastically in ways that were too private to elicit a popular response. In this prototypical primitive situation, we can, I think, sense the connection that binds the psychotic to the shaman whom we have called a dramatist and the dramatist to the people at large. The distinctions are a matter of degree. The very presence of the shaman-dramatist is a continuous reminder that life often balances on the knife edge between chaos and meaning and that meaning is created or apprehended by man coming, as it were, naked into the world. THE INEVITABILITY OF GREEK DRAMA The Greek drama is the direct heir of the primitive ritual drama, as Cornford, Murray, and Harrison have helped establish. Indeed, it retains various technical ritual elements: the chorus, the conscience of the play, was a vestige of group participation. The plays of Sophocles were watched with an air of ritual expectancy, Aristophanes was performed at the Dionysiac festivals, and the themes of Greek drama had the style of ritual.46 Thus we can begin to apprehend why Plato found it necessary to exile the dramatist, as the very prototype of the artist, from the republic. The dramatist is tied to the ignorant multitude, he presumes to create meanings and reveal conflicts, he senses in his own being the ambiguity of man, and he is concerned with the ordinary-extraordinary things, with values as a problem and the common human struggle for personal identity. Such men are dangerous precisely because they view life as problematical in the best of states; they clarify what others feel. Hence, they must either be confined to composing hymns to the Gods and praises of famous men or exiled. We must remember that in the Republic the problem of identity is presumably solved in terms of a political interpretation of higher and lower human natures. Such an institutionalized human identity is entirely contrary to the dramatists perceptions; it is equally foreign to the mind of primitive man. The dramatist, as a dramatist, cannot believe in such stark and ultimate separations between men or within the individual man. When Shakespeare writes his tragedies of kings, he plays out their conflicts against a specific socio-economic background, but in the end he tells all of us about ourselves, and the multitude in the pit responds. And was not Shakespeare, in a sense, all the characters he constructed, what Plato would call a gross imitator? Nor can the dramatist deny the sensuous, earthy things, since his plots are based on the existential situations: marriage, death, the coming to maturity, sickness of mind and body, the recurring issues in the inner relations among men, the very themes that served as the occasions for the primitive drama of personal crisis. Let me put it as plainly as I can. In the end, the dramatist must either become an antagonist to Platos perfectionist God, or he must cease being a dramatist. Within his own lights, the philosopher was right. If the dramatist is a tragedian, then he is grimly concerned with the problem of identity, self-definition, integrity; for tragedy is no more than the dissolution of personal identity and social value through behavior to which the hero is compelled and of which he is, sooner or later, aware. And by that awareness, he transcends himself in one final blinding moment, as did Oedipus at Colonus. The civilized tragic drama is, then, a free elaboration on the theme of identity, celebrated in the primitive ritual.

17 If the dramatist is a comedian, then he burlesques the problem of identity, he laughs it out of court, he stands aside and lets men make fools of themselves; men, he tells us, with Aristophanes, are everything but what they presume to be. The civilized comic drama, then, is based on the tricksters primitive image of the world, on identity, as it were, turned inside out. It is a celebration of the failure of identity. Among primitives, the most serious rituals (those ancestral to the modern tragedy) and the ancient comic spirit of the trickster are often mingled. In Wintun, Pueblo, and Kond ceremonials, for example, in nearly every instance it is the very thing which is regarded with greatest reverence or respect which is ridiculed, as Steward states.47 The Dionysiac tradition of the satyr (or trickster) play following the tragic trilogy echoes this primitive usage. It should be dear, then, that on every major count Platos exile of comedy and tragedy was inevitable; for the dramatist, in his elemental or, better, primitive nature, would have worked havoc with the structure of the ideal state and its ideology of identities. But if one exiles or diminishes the artist, then who helps discover and dramatize the people to themselves? And if the people are considered incapable of attaining to real understanding, a view obviously not held here but essential to the Republic, then how are value and meaning to be transmitted to them? Plato answers this question, although he does not ask it. The royal or noble lie, the manufactured or applied myth filtering down from above, that is, official propaganda, is to provide the popular raison detre of the republic. The youth are to be told, in morality tales, that they live in the best of all possible worlds. We have already quoted the fictions which justify the class structure. These lies, these political myths as opposed to primitive myths are the means for fixing personal and social identity for the majority of people in the ideal state in the absence of the artist, both as a specialized figure and as an inherent aspect of the personality of every man. But if the philosopher kings can lie in the name of the public good and in the interests of a higher truth accessible only to them, the common people cannot. Socrates says: It seems that our rulers will have to administer a great quantity of falsehood and deceit for the benefit of the ruled.48 And further, for a private man to lie to them in return is to be deemed a more heinous fault than for the patient or the pupil of a gymnasium not to speak the truth about his own bodily illnesses to the physician or to the trainer, or for a sailor not to tell the captain what is happening about the ship and the rest of the crew.49 Plato was a sober, shrewd, sometimes witty, but hardly comic, idealist; he constructed his heavenly city, brick by brick, with great care and impeccable intentions. When he has finished and what a craftsman he was we confront a shining, impervious structure, a luminous monolith, a society with no problems, no conflicts, no tensions, individual or collective. As the Republic approaches its end of perfect justice and harmony, it becomes perfectly inhuman. It is so abstractly and ruthlessly wise, so canny and complete an exercise in statecraft, that were we to disregard Platos temperament, we should have to consider him one of the most skilled totalitarian thinkers in history, the first state Utopian, as opposed to the primitive Utopians. His historic fault, which speaks to us across millennia, is not merely in his anthropology, it is not in his intoxication with God, abstract though that was, but rather that he, who so fastidiously shunned politics, should have insisted upon the politicization of his faith. Even Cornford, an eloquent defender of Plato,50 sees him finally as president of the Nocturnal Council, an inquisitor. His prisoner, of course, is Socrates.

18

NOTES 1. Although Plato makes a passing reference to a kind of idyllic rusticity which some of his interpreters have called primitive life, it bears no resemblance to the latter at all and serves merely as a foil for his developing rationale of the state. See The Republic of Plato, trans, by B. Jowett (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925), p. 53. 2. Ralph Waldo Emerson, Representative Men: Seven Lectures (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1903), pp. 39-40. 3. F.M. Comford, The Unwritten Philosophy and Other Essays (Cambridge: At the University Press, 1950), p. 129. 4. J.B. Bury, A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great, 3rd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1956), p. 56. 5. The Dialogues of Plato, trans, by B. Jowett (New York: Bigeldw, Brown, 1914), vol. II, The Republic, p. 303. All citations, unless otherwise indicated, are to this edition. 6. Although the details of the chroniclers observations are, in all likelihood, distorted, his conclusion is sound. Stanley Diamond, Dahomey: A Photo-State in West Africa (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1951; University of Michigan Microfilms), p. 26. This is a study of a society in transition from kin to civil structure and involved in a kin-civil conflict that ramifies throughout the culture. 7. Stanley Diamond, Kibbutz and Shtctl: The History of an Idea, Social Problems (Fall, 1957), Vol. 5, pp. 71-99. 8. Republic, p. 68. 9. Ibid., p. 102. Compare this with the famous passage from As You Like It: And one man in his time plays many parts. Shakespeare would have been excluded from the republic on the double score of being both a tragedian and a comic dramatist. 10. Melville J. Herskovits, Dahomey, An Ancient West African Kingdom, Vol. 1 (Locust Valley, N.Y.: Augustin, 1938), p. 30. 11. V. Gordon Childe, Man Makes Himself (New York: New American Library, 1955), p. 149. 12. Cornford, Unwritten Philosophy, p. 134. 1$. Republic, p. 129. 14. However, Platos philosophy could today be characterized as both transcendental and essentialist. 15. Ibid., p. 187. 16. Ibid., pp. 191-92. 17. Ibid., p. 129. 18. Ibid., p. 128. 19. Diamond, Dahomey, p. 91. 20. Republic, p. 130. 21. Ibid., p. 128. 22. For a recent and rich analysis of the distinction between collective and community, see Erich Kahler, The Tower and the Abyss (New York: George Braziller, 1957). 23. Platos educational psychology is what we would probably term mechanically behavioristic. The attenuation of immediate kin ties among the elite and the emphasis on morality tales would tend to diffuse emotional-intellectual growth; the tensions that provide leverage for such growth can hardly be generated by institutions and abstractions. Further, the collective rearing of elite children would probably have defeated itself in the end by not producing enough emotion to secure loyalty. See, for example, the writers remarks on collective rearing in the Israeli Kibbutz. Kibbutz and Shtetl, Social Problems, pp. 88-93. 24. A.L. Kroeber, Anthropology: Race, Language, Culture, Psychology, Prehistory, rev. ed. (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1948), p. 281.

19
25. Republic, p. 102. 26. Ibid., p. 98. 27. Ibid., p. 73. 28. Ibid., pp. 75-78. 29. Ibid., p. 86. 30. Ibid., p. 88. 31. Ibid., p. 78. 32. Ibid., p. 82. 33. Ibid., p. 91. 34. Paul Radin, The Trickster, A Study in American Indian Mythology, with commentaries by Karl Kerenyi and C.J. Jung (London: Routledge and Regan Paul, 1956), p. ix. 35. Republic, p. 93. 36. Ibid., p. 380. 37. Ibid., p. 396. 38. As Joyce Kilmer confessed, Poems are made by fools like me, but only God can make a tree. 39. Republic, p. 389. 40. Ibid. 41. Paul Radin, Primitive Man as Philosopher (New York: Dover, 1957). 42. Edward B. Tylor, Researches Into the Early History of Mankind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964). 43. Robert Redfield, Tepoztlan-A Mexican Village: A Study of Folk Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930), pp. 222-23. 44. I use the term traumatic here in the sense of deep, psychic trauma. This is not to deny the pain and suffering often involved in primitive rituals, but the personal and traditional meanings infusing them, the conventional structuring of the situation, strip these experiences of the unwitting and pathological ramifications of trauma. 45. Paul Radin, Primitive Religion, Its Nature and Origin (New York: Dover, 1957). 46. Francis Fergusson, The Idea of a Theater (New York: Doubleday, n.d.), p. 40. 47. J.H. Steward, The Ceremonial Buffoon of the American Indian, in Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, Vol. 14 (1930), 187-207. 48. The Republic of Plato, trans, by A.D. Lindsay (New York: Dutton, 1940), p. 148. 49. The Republic, trans, by Jowett, p. 89. 50. Cornford, Unvmtten Philosophy, p. 67.

Scan & OCR: anarhija/ blok 45, Beograd, 2010, [email protected]