Edward Byron Reuter

w
THE MULATTO IN THE UNITED STATES

INCLUDING A STUDY OF THE ROLE OF MIXED-BLOOD RACES THROUGHOUT THE WORJLD
BY
EDWARD BYRON REUTER
BOSTON
RICHARD
G.
BADGER
THE GORHAM PRESS
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY RICHARD G. BADPFR

All Rights
Reserved
INIade in the
United States
of
America
U.
S. A.
The Gorham
Press, Boston,
PREFACE
the social problems before
solution, there
is
the
American people for
none perhaps of more fundamental than that created by the presence of some ten importance million persons of a race and color different from that of
the
major part of
is
the nation
this
in a degree conditioned
the country's population. The future of by the treatment which
race problem receives. Is the amalgamation of the contact to be regarded as an ideal? If so, there races in
remains the problem of working out a technique by means of which some degree of harmony and good will can be
established between the racial groups during the period that mongrelization is in progress. Or would the infusion of ten
per cent of Negro blood .so materially lower the ideals and the intellectual and cultural capacity of the population as to cause the country to drop out of the group of culture
nations?
If so, there
is
already
in progress, as well as the
the problem of checking the fusion problem of establishing
some sort of harmonious working relations between the races while they separately work out their racial destiny. In regard to the fundamental question there is as yet no concensus of scholarly opinion; the problem has scarcely been attacked in a scholarly way. The more immediately practical problem has as yet received little intellectual consideration
:
for the most part
it still
arouses emotion rather than
thought. At the same time that the social problem created by the presence of the race in America challenges the careful study
men and taxes the ingenuity of the statesman and the administrator, the racial group itself presents the
of scientific
richest field for study of a people in evolution of
any group
6
in the
Preface
Every stage in the social evolution and moral development of a people Yet the study of is present in the American Negro group. the Negro and his American environment his reaction and responses to that environment and the effect of that reaction and response on his intellectual growth and social development, as well as the influence which his presence and peculiar racial traits have had in modifying or determining the direction and the degree of development of American customs and institutions has received but a trifling amount of attention from scholars. Discussion of the Negro and the American race problem has for the most part been left to the doctrinaire and the demagogue, neither of whom has accomplished much toward the discovery of truth, even
and
in the intellectual
modern world.
toward the discovery of those relatively simple truths which must be known and acknowledged before any rational pro-
gram looking toward a more harmonious

the races can be advanced.
relation between
The
following study
is
not a brief in behalf
of,
nor
in
opposition to, racial amalgamation; yet it presents certain of the facts which must be known before any pronouncement
of scientific value can be
is
made upon that
subject.
Neither
a study of the race problem, in the narrow sense in which that phrase is popularly understood, yet it presents certain facts which must be taken into account in any intelit
ligent dealing with that problem.
The book
is
an attempt
to state one sociological problem arising when two races, divergent as to culture and distinct as to physical appearance, are brought into contact under the conditions of mod-
ern
and produce a hybrid offspring whose characteristic physical appearance prevents them from passing as either the one or the other. Under such conditions physical becomes the basis for class and caste distincappearance
life
Preface
tions; a biological phenomenon gives rise to a sociological It is with the sociological consequences of race problem.
intermixture, not with the biological problems of the interThe mixture itself, that the present study has to do.
investigation proceeds throughout on the assumption that no permanent good can accrue to the Negro people as a
whole and that unfortunate and avoidable discord in interracial relations

is
promoted by the concealment of truth and
the denial of fact.
opportunity to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr. Robert E. Park, at whose suggestion the work was begun and to whose friendly encouragement and
generous criticism during the progress of the investigation much of the merit of the study is due. In no respect, however, is Dr. Park to be considered responsible for any errors
of fact or interpretation which may appear in the text. To Dr. William I. Thomas the writer is indebted to mention
The
writer takes this
but one way for mediation in publication, always a difficult' matter where a study deviates either in method or content
from the
It
strictly conventional.
was through the courtesy of Editor R. S. Abbott and the other members of the staff of the Chicago Defender that
the writer had placed at his disposal, during the entire period of investigation, some sixty odd of the best and best
known Negro newspapers.
He
here acknowledges his in-
debtedness and expresses his appreciation. Finally to a number of other prominent Negroes, who may not here large
be mentioned by name, the writer is indebted for information on many matters of race sentiment and attitude and
especially for information concerning the racial ancestry of members of their race. E. B. R.
Palo Alto, California
February, 1918.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
II.
PAGE 11
.
MIXED-BLOOD RACES In Primitive Times In Spain The Eurasians The Eskimos In Spanish America In the Philippines
21 21
23 26 31 33 51
III.
MIXED-BLOOD RACES (concluded) In Cuba, Porto Rico and Santo Domingo In Haiti . In Jamaica In South Africa
....
...
STATES
.
55 55 61 65
71
North American Indians

IV.
V. VI.
77
THE MULATTO: THE KEY TO THE RACE PROBLEM THE AMOUNT OF RACE INTERMIXTURE IN THE UNITED
Intermarriage
86
105.
NATURE OF RACE INTERMIXTURE IN THE UNITED STATES

The Concubinage of Colored Unlawful Polygamy
Women
by White
Men
. .
Intermarriage with Indians Intermixture During Slavery and at Present

VII.
127 127 139 144 155
.158
Jj>6-^
THE GROWTH
LEADING
OF THE
MULATTO CLASS
VIII.
MEN
OF THE NEGRO RACE

. . .
183
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
THE HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY OF THE NEGRO THE NEGRO AND THE MULATTO IN PROFESSIONAL AND
ARTISTIC PURSUITS
.216
246
THE NEGRO AND THE MULATTO IN BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY THE ROLE OF THE MULATTO IN THE INTER-RACIAL SITUATION THE ROLE OF THE MULATTO IN THE UNITED STATES
. .
293
315
338 375
XIV.
SUMMARY: PRESENT TENDENCIES

INDEX TO NAMES OF ALYZED
MEN WHOSE ETHNIC
ANCESTRY
is
AN___.
399
GENERAL INDEX
413
THE MULATTO
IN
THE
UNITED STATES
CHAPTER
I
INTRODUCTION
mulatto, as the term
x
THE
all
those members of the
used in this study, includes Negro race with a visible adis
mixture of white blood.
Thus
used, the
word
is
a general
term to include
all Negroes of mixed ancestry regardless of the degree of intermixture. It includes all persons who are recognized, in the communities in which they live, as being
of mixed blood.
It
is
in this sense that the
word
2
is
most
widely used and best understood in this country. 1 The United States Census Office has not been consistent
tion of the term.
".
.
in its defini-
the fact that the definition of the term 'mulatto'
adopted at different censuses has not been entirely uniform may affect the comparability of the figures in some degree." In 1870 and 1910, however, the term was applied to all persons having any perceptible trace of Negro blood, excepting, of course, Negroes of pure blood. In 1850 and 1860 the term seems not to have been defined. In the returns for 1890 the Negroes of mixed-blood were classified into mulattoes, quadroons and octoroons.
129.
a
U.
S.
Census Report 1910: Population, Vol.
1,
p.
woman by
"The offspring, ... of a negress by a white man, or of a white a negro; in a more general sense, a person of mixed Caucasian and negro blood, or Indian and negro blood." Webster, International
"Loosely used for any half-breed resembling a mulatto."
Dictionary.
Dictionary.
Murray,
11
12
The Mulatto
in the United States
Strictly defined, the word designates the first generation of hybridization between the Negro and the Caucasian races. 3 The hybrid may be the offspring of a white father
and a Negro mother or the child of a Negro father and a white mother. Both ancestral elements, however, must be of racially pure lineage else the offspring resulting from the union will not be a first generation hybrid and hence not a mulatto in the biological sense. 4 The word thus delimited
becomes a biological concept unavailable for use except
technical, biological sense.
scientifically interesting
in
It designates a particular
and
man
hybrid.
It
is,
but relatively infrequent type of huin this usage, coordinate with the words
like
5
mango, sambo, quadroon, octoroon, musttfee and the
* In its derivation the word is from the Spanish mulato, the diminutive of mulo, a mule. So mulato is literally a young mule so called because of hybrid origin. Century Dictionary. 4 The first cross, for example, between the Negroes and the North European races gives a mulatto in the true and accurate biological sense. The offspring shows definite predicable physical characteristics. This is not true in the case of crossings between the Mediterranean peoples and
the Negro.
The offspring here may show
in
the
first
generation the
North European and Negro. The ancient intermixture of black blood in the South European peoples makes the effect of their crossing with the Negro that of the crossing of a pure and a hybrid race. Olmsted, writing about 1854, states that the French of the Southern
variability that appears in the second generation cross of
States classify the colored people, according to the greater or ponderance of Negro blood, as follows: Sacatra griffe and negress Griffe Negro and mulatto
less
pre-
Marabon
Mulatto
.mulatto and griffe

.white
and Negro
Quadroon
Metif
white and mulatto

white and Quadroon
iwhite
,,
Meamelouc
Quarteron
Sang-mele.
Frederick
and metif
white and meamelouc
white and quarteron
Law
Olmsted,
Journey in the Seaboard Slave States,
p. 583.
Introduction
18
each of which connotes a specific type of racial cross. 6
But for purposes of sociological study it is the mixed group as a whole, not the degree of hybridization nor the particular types of hybrid, that is of prime importance. So
Davenport gives the following Mulatto
classification:
Negro and white

mulatto and white (quadroon and white
-mulatto and mulatto
.mulatto and
Quadroon
Octoroon
Cascos
Sambo Mango
Mustifee
Mustifino
.'
Negro sambo and Negro .octoroon and white mustifee and white
Negro-White Crosses,
p. 27.
C. B. Davenport, Heredity of Skin Color in
The mulatto, of
course, differs in certain
marked ways from other
types of intermixture. He is the product of the cross between pure races and, like all first generation hybrids, shows an unvarying uniformity and a universal instability of physical type. The Negro characters are al-
ways dominant and appear prominently; the Caucasian characters are recessive and for the most part remain concealed. It is possible to predict with scientific certainty the characters that will
appear in the
first
generation hybrid. In the second and subsequent generations the Caucasian and Negroid characters combined in the mulatto, i.e., the first generation hybrid, segIndividuals appear with the regate in almost infinitely variable ways. typical characters skin color, hair color, hair length, eye color, body Indiodor and the like redistributed in endless new combinations.
viduals appear with light skin
and tufted
hair, black skin
and blue
eyes,
with dark skin and lank hair, with fair skin and light but curly hair, with the skin coloration and hair formation of the white man and the
human
body odor of the Negro; so with hundreds, perhaps thousands, of other The uniformity of the first generation hybrid becharacters. comes an almost infinite variety as further generations appear. But however wide the variations, however numerous the varieties, the mixed race can never become, biologically, either Negro or white. Interbreeding or further crossing produces new hybrids. No amount of interbreeding or of crossing can ever produce a white man or a Negro from
a hybrid ancestry. The hybrid individual is a biologically unstable type and he and his descendants remain hybrid and physically unstable to the extermination of the group.
14s
The Mulatto
in
the United States

it
if
the biological terminology be adhered to, sary to adopt some other term to include
becomes necesindividuals of
all
mixed ancestry.
in the
No
term more satisfactory than mulatto
has been suggested.
The word coloured
is
used in this sense
English publications, but, as this word is widely used the United States as synonymous with Negro, it is not in
available here.
The term mulatto
will therefore
be used in
the following pages in its more general and popular sense as defined above. When it is used in the more restricted
sense to designate the first generation offspring of a Negrowhite cross, the fact will be so indicated. The mulatto, then, is a man of mixed blood. But it is not
that alone that makes the mulatto a matter of sociological Mixture of blood is a characteristic of all importance.
races. 7
Man
always has been a restless animal moving to and fro
in search of food or adventure, to escape his enemies or

8 merely in response to a nomadic impulse. Ratzel, speaking of the "innumerable wanderings" of certain Pacific primitive
peoples, says that this should not be considered as an exception but rather as the rule, "for none of these races was ever
at rest."
T
9 Again he says that "It would hardly be possible
The term "race"
is
to be understood in its popular rather than in
its
ethnological sense.
its
Ethnologically it means a human group which owes distinctive traits to the selective forces of nature acting upon biologi-
cal
mutation and which invariably breeds true to type. As used here it refers to peoples rather than to biological races. Practically all the present day races are the products of intermixture in varying degrees
less well established types, and the adaptation of For the purpose in the hybridized stock to the special environment. hand we are not concerned with race as a physical concept but with race
of previously more or
as a social unity which arises

8
by and through social development. Friedrich Ratzel, The History of Mankind, English Translation by A, J. Butler, Vol. I, p. 174.
'Ibid., Vol. I, p. 446.
Speaking here of the Malays.
Introduction
to
15
name a
race, however small, the traditions of which are
not based upon a migration." Migrations brought contacts with new and strange peo-
some cases, in an intermingling of blood, which, combined with environmental adaptation, produced 10 summarizes the early mixmodified racial types. Johnston
ples resulting, in
ture of races in these words

.
. .
into
since the existing human species diverged four or five existing varieties or sub-species, there has been a constant opposite movement at work to unify the type. Whites have returned southwards and mingled with Australoids, Australoids have united with Negroids, and produced Melanesians, and Papuans, and these, again, have mixed with proto-Caucasians or with Mongols to form the Polynesian. The earliest types of White man have mingled with the primitive Mongol, or directly with the primitive Negro. There is an ancient Negroid strain underlying the pop-
Ever
its
ulations of Southern and
Western France,
Italy, Sicily,
Corsica, Sardinia, Spain, Portugal, Ireland, Wales and Scotland. Evidences of the former existence of these negroid people are not only to be found in the features of their mixed descendants at the present day, but the fact is attested by skulls, skeletons, and works of art of more or less great antiquity in France, Italy, etc., .... There are few Negro peoples at the present day perhaps only the Bushmen, the Congo-Pigmies, and a few tribes of forest Negroes which can be said to
be without more or mixture.
less
trace of ancient
White
inter-
formed from the fragments. 11
Old races have been constantly broken up and new ones Powerful groups have consmaller groups or imposed themselves as a ruling quered
10 Sir Harry H. Johnston, "Racial Problems and the Congress of Races," Contemporary Review, Vol. 100, pp. 159-60. u Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 139.
16
class
The Mulatto
on weaker but more numerous peoples and absorbed or been absorbed by the conquered group. No primitive group
has remained long in the form peculiar to it; all were being 12 constantly modified by the fusion with other types. Reinsch 13 shows that in modern times the intermixture of
races has been greatly increased as a result of the great advance in the safety and rapidity of communication which
made
possible the contact in large fore far distant from each other.
numbers of races hereto-
At
the present time there
are no pure races in Europe elsewhere in the world. 15

If the attention be turned
14
and few of any consequence
of nationalities
from races to the composition the mixture of blood is even more apparent.
European
nations, without exception, are a medley of im-
perfectly blended types.

. . .
The modern
Italian,
Frenchman, and German
is
a composite of the broken fragments of several different racial groups. Interbreeding has broken up the ancient stocks, and interaction and imitation have created new national types which exhibit definite uniformities in language, manners and formal behavior. 16
Mayo-Smith
17
says that "There has never been a state
whose population was not made up of heterogeneous ethnical

"Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 395. "Paul S. Reinsch, "The Negro Race and European Civilization," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 11, p. 145. "William Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe, pp. 109-10, 597 if. Edward Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage, pp. 282 f.
"The mixtures are, of course, generally of nearly allied races. They are rather mixtures within a single race, as the different groups of the white race or different tribes of the Negro race, than between races.
16 R. E. Park, "Racial Assimilation in Secondary Groups," Publications of the Sociological Society, Vol. 8, p. 66. 1T Richmond Mayo-Smith, "Theories of Mixture of Races and Nation-
alities,"
Yale Review, Vol.
3, p.
175.
Introduction
elements," while Luschan would even have
it
17
that the ad-
vance of civilization
intermixture.
is
dependent upon
18
:
this process of racial
He
says
We all know that a certain admixture of blood has always been of great advantage to a nation. England, France, and Germany are equally distinguished for the great variety of their racial elements. In the
know that in ancient times and at the Renaissance Northern "Barbarians" were the leaven in the great advance of art and civilisation; and even Slavonic immigration has certainly not been without effect on this movement. The marvellous ancient civilisation of Crete, again, seems to have been not quite autochthonous. We know also that the ancient Babylonian civilisation sprang from a mixture of two quite different national and racial elements, and we find a
case of Italy we
nearly homogeneous population in most parts of Russia, and in the interior of China associated with a somewhat low stage of evolution.
Normally the intermixture of the diverse racial elements

of a population, especially in a cosmopolitan situation, goes
on without arousing comment or opposition. Except in a pathological situation, it does not become a social problem.
Rather,
it
tends toward the elimination of any problem that
the presence of the unassimilated alien element may have created. Any distinguishing racial marks which the parents
may have borne
are partly effaced in their mixed offspring. at least, the mixed-blood individuals are like Superficially all other members of the community in that they generally
bear no obvious marks of their origin. It is not, then, the mere fact of a mixed ancestry that makes the mulatto a problem in the community and an ob18 Felix von Luschan, "Anthropological View of Race," Inter-Racial Problems, pp. 22
18
The Mulatto
ject of sociological interest.
the crossing of races produces an offspring readily distinguishable from both the parent races of which it is a mixture, the situation may be-
But when
come the
of the individual
; the bi-racial ancestry determine his status in the community. may This would seem to be true especially in those cases where
basis for class distinctions
there already exists a condition of racial ill-will, of jealousy or hatred between the groups in contact; where the two
groups are on different cultural
levels,
19
and where the
dis-
tinctive appearance of the lower race gives a hold around which prejudice may crystallize. 20 This race problem, that is, the problem of arriving at and
maintaining mutually satisfactory working relations between the members of two non-assimilable groups which oc-
cupy the same territory,
is
primarily a matter of difference
of physical appearance. 21 The color, or other racial marks, of one race may come to be a symbol of its inferior culture
and so come to stand,
in the thinking of the culturally superior group, for poverty, disease, dirt, ignorance, and all the
undesirable concomitants of a backward race.
It
is
this
that makes
it impossible for individuals to escape the status of the lower group. Any person bearing the physical marks of the lower group is assumed to embody the traits that are
supposed to be typical of the lower race. The individual cannot pass in the opposite group on his merits as an indiM The terms "lower," "backward," etc., do not assume anything and do not prejudice anything biological or fundamental. They are purely cultural designations. backward race is one backward in culture.
"Race
as such has nothing to do with the possession of civilization." Yet, "It would be silly to deny that in our time the highest civilization
has been in the hands of the Caucasian, or white race." of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 20.
Ratzel, History
Mayo-Smith, Yale Review, Vol. 3, p. 185. Compare, T. P. Bailey, Race Orthodoxy in the South, pp. 40
ff.
Introduction
vidual, but
19
The
half-castes
must pass as a member of the opposite race. who appear in such a situation are an
This characteristic
classifies
easily distinguishable physical variety.
physical appearance
separates them from both groups and makes them alien in both. It makes it impossible for them to escape the stigma which attaches itself
them;
it
to a tainted ancestry. The half-caste individual cannot, be a mere individual he is inevitably the representherefore, tative of a type. He is not merely a biological product ; he
;
is
a sociological phenomenon.
conditions, the half-castes tend to develop peculiar mental traits and attitudes which are not racial but are determined by the social situation in which they find
Under such
themselves. To the extent that this takes place, the differences that normally exist between individuals are suppressed and the mental and moral characteristics of the group ap-
proach uniformity.
class or caste in the
In a word, they tend to form a distinct community and one based fundamentally
is
on physical appearance.
The problem
and
local: it
of the mulatto, then,
not something unique
the problem of the mixed-blood wherever blood has been made the basis of caste. It seems desirable,
is
therefore, before
coming to the
specific
and detailed study
of the mulatto in the United States and as a preliminary to that study, to pass in review the chief mixed-blood races
that have appeared in other countries as a result of the contact of advanced and backward races and have constituted
distinct types
is
and distinct problems
in other situations.
It
actually to determine to what extent they have arisen under similar social situations, or what the situations are
under which they have arisen to determine to what extent they have developed the same type of mind in different
;
groups, or what the types of mind are
if
they differ
and to
20
see
The Mulatto
social
what are the reactions they have made to the different and racial environments; what accommodation they
in the different social situ-
have made or caused to be made
ations in which they have been placed, that a summary of the origin and development, the psychological condition and the
social status of the chief of these mixed-blood races
is
here
a necessary background given. to an understanding of the mulatto situation in the United It will serve to put in proper perspective what States.
Such a survey
will furnish
might otherwise appear to be a detached and an isolated
phenomenon.
CHAPTER
II
MIXED-BLOOD RACES
In Primitive Times
AMONG
primitive peoples, a mixed-blood race as a separate caste or class in the community seems no-
where to have existed.
Primitive peoples, especially those
near enough together geographically to come into contact with each other, did not differ very widely. The various
culture stages were not markedly different and the ethnological contrasts were not generally such as distinguish one group sharply from another. Where exogamy existed, it
was between related groups. Moreover, where two races were on sufficiently friendly terms for intermarriage to take place between them, there seems to be little reason to suppose that the appearance of mixed-blood offspring would cause a social problem. Strange groups were mutually
groups with a state of potential warfare always existing among them. Where there was intermixture it was
exclusive
the blending of a conquering with a conquered group to produce a single mixed-blood group. 1 In numberless instances, the ruling classes were of an
origin different from that of their subjects. But the conquering and the conquered groups very soon became bound 2 Pride of race was but a feeble together by ties of interest.
'See Franz Oppenheimer, The State; Its History and Development Viewed Sociologically. Translation by J. M. Gitterman, pp. 60 if. 'See F. Stuart Chapin, Social Evolution, pp. 201 if. Friedrich Ratzel, The History of Mankind, Vol. 2, pp. 165-66.
21
22
sentiment,
The Mulatto
if
The prestige of the the conquered race, ruling class attracted the maidens of and the choicest of these became the auxiliary wives of the
indeed,
it
existed at
all.
conquerors.
But the mixed-bloods produced, did not form a
separate caste.
primitive state nowhere possessed the cohesive strength to withstand for long the disorganizing It would lead quickly to a force of a mixed-blood caste.
The
dissolution of the
group though there seems no adequate
ground for assuming that the incessant decay and reorganization of primitive tribes was anywhere due to this cause.
The mixed-bloods were seldom an outstanding physical

Their appearance
intimately
in the situation
type.
tended to bind yet more
together
3
the
conquerors
first
and
their
subjects.
Their production was the
step toward a new racial
homogeneity. In the ancient world, contacts seem nowhere to have resulted in the production of a mixed-blood race with a distinct social
and psychological
status. 4
The Phoenicians,
interested above all else in material prosperity, sacrificed every national and racial trait that interfered with their
commercial prosperity. Their colonies very soon lost their national character through a fusing with their ethnic environment. 5
The Greeks with a stronger sense of nationality than the Phoenicians, better maintained their national idenTheir colonists felt strongly the distinctions between tity.
themselves and the barbarians, and so kept themselves free from any large-scale miscegenation with the natives. "The
In Africa there are, in general, two regions of pure Negro and two See Ratzel, The Hisregions of Caucasian-Negro mixed-blood races. tory of Mankind, Vol. 2, pp. 245 if., 257. map showing the mixed8
given in Vol. 2, pp. 336-37. 4 See G. Elliot Smith, "The Influence of Racial Admixture in Egypt," Eugenics Review, Vol. 7, pp. 163-83.
is
8
blood races of North and East Africa
A. G. Keller, Colonization,
p. 35.
Mixed-Blood Races
barbarians became Greek
less
23
through contact with Greek settlements than through the dissemination of the Greek tongue and culture they became Greek by adoption, not The Romans mixed, no by the infusion of Greek blood."
doubt, with their subject peoples, but there was on the part of these peoples, no very clearly defined sentiment of race
diversity.
The Romans were not looked upon
as enemies
;
There was no sentiment of nationality as for the state, it simply did not exist. All was disorder and continual struggle between petty groups. There existed no
of the race.
very marked outstanding external differences that would 7 serve as a basis for race separation and discrimination. 8 Keller speaking of the Gauls remarks upon "the absence
of wide racial diversity in these ancient times."
.
.
He
adds: 9
The superiorities of Roman ideas and systems ". were self-evident because the grades of civilization were not so distant one from another as to prevent easy passage from the lower to the higher. This was particularly noteworthy in respect to Gaul, but not untrue in the case of other lands."
In
Spam
In Spain there has always been much intermixture of the blood of different ethnic stocks but no purely racial problem
or distinctive half-caste population. The Phoenicians fused with the Iberians who were already modified by intermixture
'Ibid., p. 48.
"... The contrast between the culture represented by the modern white and that of primitive man is far more fundamental than that between the ancients and the peoples with whom they came in contact. ." Franz Boaz, The Mind of Primitive Man, p. 12.
7
. .
Colonization, p. 59.
Ibid., pp. 59-60.
24
Tlis
Mulatto in the United States

Following the Phoenicians, the peninsula
with the Celts. 10
was overrun successively by the Carthaginians, the Romans, the Visigoths, the Vandals and finally by the Arabs and the
Moors. 11
In addition to these there was a large infusion of Jewish blood and, with the Moors, came some admixture of
the Negroid. 12 In spite, however, of this extensive mixing of blood, there was little alteration in the original type. 13 Most of the invaders, like the original stock, were dolichocephalic, short of stature
and dark of skin and hair and
eyes.
Class stages of culture were not widely contrasted. distinction between noble and not-noble, between town and
The
countryman were everywhere

little
rigidly
drawn.
There was
to create a permanent racial problem and there was
no emergence of a half-caste group. The persecution of the Moriscoes after the fall of the Moorish Empire was not
primarily, nor even largely, racial. During the flourishing period of the Moorish Empire, the line of demarcation be-
tween the races was but faintly drawn. 14 "Openly, at least, 15 Intermarthey did not consider each other as enemies."
16 riages were frequent especially those of Spanish women with the men of the dominant group. Intermarriage was,
however, contrary to the policy of Islam and such alliances

Appleton's Encyclopedia: Spain. International Encyclopaedia: Spain. "Sir Harry H. Johnston, "The World-Position of the Negro and Negroid," Inter-Racial Problems, p. 330. The Moors of course are mem11
10
New
bers of the white race though much mixed. They have than Berber blood." Encyclopaedia Britannica: Moors.
"more Arab
n Nev> International Encyclopaedia: Spain. 14 S. P. Scott, History of the Moorish Empire

"Ibid., Vol.
16
in
Europe, Vol.
3, p. 197.
3,
p.
197.
".
The harems of
the
Moslems were
filled
with Christian maidens
who had, without

fathers."
hesitancy or compensation, renounced the faith of their Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 200.
Mixed-Blood Races
85
were discouraged 17 although no stigma attached to either party of such union. It was, however, this attitude on the part of the Arabs that was chiefly responsible in preventing a complete amalgamation of the races. With the decline of the Moorish Empire and more especially with the
rise of the Castilian
power
in Spain,
an antipathy grew up
between the races.

ally
The
latent or repressed feeling gradu-
The prejudice was sedunourished until the Spanish came to consider the lously
grew into an open
hostility.
as their hereditary 18 and implacable enemy. They asserted the superiority of their race and considered their
Moors
enemies as barbarians in spite of the wide and obvious superiority of the latter in knowledge and culture. The smallest
drop of Moorish blood became a taint that nothing could remove. 19 But behind this hostile attitude, was the Church
and the impoverished condition of the national treasury.
In
the sixteenth century, Spain subordinated everything to the Church ; 20 she sacrificed everything to the idea of religious
unity.
gal
Moreover, the Moriscoes were industrious and fruthey were prosperous and wealthy. The Castilian sub-
sisted
by rapine.
The wealth
21
of the Moriscoes attracted the
cupidity of the authorities. period, their wealth brought

22
Like the Jews of a previous
upon them the suspicion
of
23
heresy.
The
institution of the Inquisition
was put into
operation against the inoffensive and prosperous class,

"Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 212. "Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 199.
any public
3, p. 224.
was sufficient to prevent the holding of even in the smallest municipality." Chambers' EncyVol. clopaedia: Spain. See, also, Scott, History of the Moorish Empire,
19
"A
taint of Moorish blood

office,
"Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 304. n lbid., Vol. 3, p. 245. "Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 226.
lbid., Vol. 3, p. 260.
26
The Mulatto

final
and the persecution ended only with their The persecution, however, was a religious
only incidentally racial.
expulsion.
festival; it
was
The Eurasians
The mixture
of races
is
by no means a modern phenome-
non, but it is breed appears as a psychological type and as a social problem. Keller, placing the emphasis on the more tolerant
attitude of the culture races arid the absence of wide cultural
only within recent centuries that the half-
or ethnical differences of the races in contact, summarizes

the situation as follows
24
:
For similar reasons the "native policy" of ancient times was constructed to subserve the purposes of exchange, or was directed simply toward the maintenance of such subordination and order as a wider administrative experience had proved to be socially beneficial, if
not indispensable. There was no idea of "culture-mission" or the like, and consequently no dogma, ... of "assimilation." No moral or religious crusades were carried on through the colonies; diversity of customs and morals was regarded as natural and a matter of course, though both customs and religions were nationally less differentiated than they have come to be
The predominant commerin the eyes of later ages. cial motive, and the imperial policy as well, counseled
respect for the social forms of an alien people; between the races that were brought into contact, especially around the borders of the Mediterranean, there existed few contrasts of any significance. The like was true in the case of the Chinese and their ethnic environment. There was no obvious ethnological differences such as distinguish one race sharply from another, and the various stages of culture were separated
. . .
24
Colonization, pp. 76-77.
Mixed-Blood Races
.
.
27
.
Even by no impassable or discouraging chasms. slavery was an institution totally different from that with which later ages have made us familiar: there was no "color-line"; the system was one of "domestic slavery" in the main; and the passage from freedom to servitude was easy. Hence that eternally vexatious and unsolved question of the treatment of a "lower race" was but faintly represented. [With these colonies] instead of native wars and annihilation, an auspicious large-scale miscegenation, mainly of
. . . . .
closely allied races, took place, ... no such barriers to intermarriage existed as appeared in later times,
when
It
racial distinctions were
more marked.
was the mass meeting of the cultured and primitive peoples, brought about as a result of the period of the discoveries,
that gave rise to the mixed-blood races with a
status different in some respects from that of either of the parent races ; and so gave rise, in some cases at least, to
special social
and racial problems.
Chief
a mixture of
among these mixed-blood races are the "Eurasians," Hindu and European living in the port cities
Eskimo-Dane
living off
of India; the mixed-blood race of

the
of Greenland; the so-called "coloured peoof South Africa, a mixed-blood race of complicated ples" ancestry ; the metis of Brazil, a mixture of Portuguese with
;
West Coast
Amerindian and Negro

proportions of
the mestizo, a mixture with varying
Spanish and Indian blood found in most
parts of South and Central America ; the Spanish mulatto in Cuba and Porto Rico; the "coloured people" and "whites
by law"
in
Jamaica; the Spanish mestizo and the Chinese

;
mestizo in the Philippines and the mulatto in the United States. In lesser numbers, are the English-Eskimo mixtures on the
Newfoundland Coast
the
ental mixtures in the port cities of China
European and and Japan

;
Orihalf-
28
caste
The Mulatto
Arabs
in
Indian-White,
East Central Africa; various mixtures of Indian-Negro and Indian-Negro-White in

;
the United States
French-Indian mixtures
in
Canada
and
a great variety of other mixtures in various regions but in

lesser
numbers or forming
less
The Eurasians or Indo-Europeans
acute problems. are a people of mixed
European and Asiatic blood born and raised in Asia. This population had its origin in the miscegenation of Hindu women with the early Portuguese traders and resident Portuguese. There was never any considerable immigration of Portuguese women into India and illicit relations with the native women were common. 25 The Portuguese, accustomed to such mixed unions in their home country, had no racial
policy was fostered by the Portuguese governors; Albuquerque himself was the father of a mulatto son. 27 But the effort to build up a half-caste
26 repugnance to overcome.
The
group was only partially
The mongrel type, in successful. the absence of a regular infusion of Portuguese blood, failed to hold its own. It has now pretty thoroughly reverted to
the native type. 28 Perhaps a half million of the population show traces of this early hybridization, but they are distinguishable from the natives mainly
tive dress.
29
by virtue
of
a distinc-
With the coming of the English into India, there was a new intermixture of European and Indian blood. Concubin25 28
21 28
Keller, Colonization, p. 122.

Ibid., p. 104. Ibid., p. 122.
. .
". The Portuguese have left behind a monument of their Indian dominion in a very numerous race of half-breeds, They enter largely into domestic service and in Bombay all the best cooks and waiters are of Portuguese extraction. Nor will you find, in the whole of India, any ." Herbert Compton, Indian Life in Town better servants than these,
.
and Country, pp. 208-10. M filisee Vol.

Reclus, Asia,
3,
pp. 389-90.
Mixed-Blood Races
29
30 age with the native women was the usual and manly thing. The new body of half-breeds number in all somewhat over
one hundred thousand and are confined almost exclusively to the large port cities where the foreign trade of India is
31 It is, for the most part, these Englargely concentrated. lish Hindu hybrids alone who are responsible for the so-
called
Eurasian question. Physically the Eurasians are

is
slight
and weak. 32
Their
personal appearance In skin color, for example, they are often darker even than the Asiatic parent. 33 They are naturally indolent and will enter into no employment requiring exertion or labor. This
lack of energy
tion.
34
is
subject to the greatest variations.
correlated with an incapacity for organizaresponsibilities,
not assume burdensome They but they make passable clerks where only
will
routine labor
is
required.
inordinately proud of her half-caste offspring. In infancy he is nursed, and in youth pampered by his native servants upon whom he is dependent. "As a
native
is
The
woman
consequence,
80
all
the stronger traits of
manhood are
feebly
Recently the anti-nautch movement has resulted in forcing this rela-
"Concubinage, which was esteemed as rather a tionship into the dark. manly fashion twenty years ago, has largely disappeared among the more
enlightened classes; and even among the less enlightened as a thing rather to be ashamed than to be proud of."
Social Reformer."
it is
regarded
"The Indian
nal of
Quoted by J. P. Jones, "Conditions in India," JourRace Development, Vol. 2, p. 201. "Madras 26,000; Bengal 20,000; Burma, Bombay and the United
Provinces 8,000 to 11,000; total 100,451. This is an increase of 15 per The increase seems partly due to "the growing tendency amongst certain classes of Indian Christians to pass themselves Census of India 1911, Vol. 1, Part 1, p. 140. off as Anglo-Indians."
cent since 1901.
"Mary Helen Lee, The Eurasian: A Social Problem, p. 13. See, also, Ellsworth Huntington, "Geographical Environment and Japanese Character," Journal of Race Development, Vol. 2, pp. 158-59.
"Compton, Indian Life, p. 208. *Lee, The Eurasian, pp. 11, 13.
30
The Mulatto

36
35 In manhood he developed in him."
is
wily,
untrustworthy
and untruthful.
He is lacking in independence and is forever begging for special favors. Yet supersensitiveness is a characteristic of the whole Eurasian community. They
recklessly "resign
37
from any and every post when, for some
reason or without reason, their feelings are hurt." 38 39 girls, in some cases at least, are sold into prostitution.
The The
men
are employed for the most part by the government in subordinate clerical positions.
Socially the Eurasians are outcaste. They are despised the ruling whites and hated by the natives. 40 In the by
words of one of their class

caste,
"To
the
European we are
half-
among
ourselves
we are no
caste,
and to the Indians
we are outcaste." 4
42 point of color. 43 necessary to avoid the term Eurasian in their presence.

85
They are extremely sensitive on the They object to the term nigger; it is even
Lee, The Eurasian, pp. 12, 17. See, also, Ethel Hunter, The Y.W.C.A.
in India,
88
Burma and Ceylon, 1911. "Industrially a Christian native

Reclus, Asia, Vol.
3,
is
more trustworthy."
17
is preferred to an Eurasian, for he Lee, The Eurasian, p. 10.
"They frequently appeal to ministers especially and to all charitably gave their memorials special attendisposed people. Lord Curzon tion, and as a result delivered a reply of the most searching kind and urged the people of the community to carve out something worthy themselves, instead of being continually memoralizing for special favors; and refused to aid in the special class regulations. The delegates retired,
.
pp. 389-90.
'thanking His Excellency for his sarcastic remarks.'"
J.
Smith, Ten
2,
Years in Burma, p. 117. 89 See J. S. Dennis, Christian Missions and Social Progress, Vol.
p. 273.
40
3, pp. 389-90. Lee, The Eurasian, p. 10. 43 "Especially if very dark the Eurasian is overmuch pained that he has not a white skin." Ibid., p. 13. "Catering to this idiosyncrasy the British government has changed
Reclus, Asia, Vol.
"Quoted by
their official designation to "Indo-Europeans."
Mixed-Blood Races
44 They wish to be called Europeans. They have no part in the racial situation.
31
They
aspire
do nothing to consolidate British as neither the Indian nor the white man considers them rule, as Englishmen. They have equally little standing with the
to be English, but they
Indian.
of
neither.
They stand between two civilizations but are a part They are miserable, helpless, despised and
neglected.
The Eskimos
In Greenland, the half-breed Eskimos date their origin
from the establishment of the Danish missionary settlements on the West Coast in 1721. The European interest always
has been trade and missions.
The number
of Scandinavians
has at no time been large, and the colony is composed almost exclusively of men. In the early days, it was used
as a penal colony,
and from time to time, there was a com-
pulsory immigration of orphan boys to recruit the teaching force and the inferior clergy. The present white population
is
about two hundred and never has exceeded that number
very greatly. At first there were no white women in the colony even now the number is very small. The relations between the races always have been friendly in spite of the
;
missionary interference with the native customs, and in spite of the feeling of superiority of the Europeans over the
natives.
Miscegenation went on from the

that the native
.
Eskimo
is
and so extensively extinct in the territory practically

first
.
44 ". Some special enquiries made in certain towns . . showed three-tenths of the persons returned as Europeans were in reality AngloIndians." "The number of Eurasians who returned themselves as Euro.
peans
is
perhaps somewhat
pp. 139, 140.
less
use of the term 'Anglo-Indian.'
than at former censuses owing to the ." Census of India 1911, Vol. 1,
. .
Part
1,
32
The Mulatto

civilization.
under the influence of European
hundred
years after the settlement, the half-breeds composed fourIn 1885 the proportion teen per cent of the population.
had increased to thirty per cent. At present the intermixture has gone so far that the various mixed types are no
longer distinguishable but blend into one another in almost imperceptible degrees from the pure Dane, on the one exture, for the
This intermixtreme, to the pure Eskimo, on the other. most part, has been extra-matrimonial, though
there have been some unions of a semi-regular sort. The interference of the missionaries with the fundamental stupid
native customs brought about a disorganization of the native habits which, in the presence of their severe climate, proved destructive to the native population. In the pres-
ence of a declining pure-blood population, the Danish government has favored the policy of intermixture and requires
the Danish
official
on his return to Denmark on pension to
leave his native wife
and children
45 in the colony.
In comparison with the native Eskimo the mixed-bloods They are an improvement, 47 in physical appearance, over the native stock. especially
are in reality superior men. 46
Socially the status of the mixed-blood man is superior to that of the native, but the social distinctions are not so much
dependent upon the presence or absence of white intermixture as they are upon the amount of that intermixture. "The native women prefer the worst Dane to the best Greenlander,
48
and the half-breeds are the more

there are
eligible for their
At present
women.
from
thirty
to
forty Danes so married to
native
Encyclopaedia Britannica: Greenland. ** Handbook of the American Indians, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bull. 30, Part 1, p. 913. "Keller, however, says: "The mongrels resulting from these mixed unions appear to form no very great improvement on the native stock."
Mixed-Blood Races
strain of white blood;
illicit
33
relations with white
men are
woman,
rather a glory than a disgrace." 4
The young
native
says Nansen, "positively glories" in illicit relations with white men and gains a considerable prestige among her fe-
male friends as a result of having been so honored. 49
In Spanish America
From the first coming of the Portuguese to Brazil, there was a wholesale miscegenation with the Indian women. The mestizo group soon became a numerically important element
in the population.
Later, there were introduced large
numbers of black slaves from the West Coast of Africa.

Unions between the Portuguese and the black women began with the first introduction of the Negroes. As a result, the
mulattoes presently appeared as a second mixed-blood race in the population. Moreover, the Negroes mixed readily
with the Indians, giving rise to a race of Negro-Indian hybrids the zambos. There were thus six distinct racial
groups
in the
population each with a clearly defined status.
Crosses between these various hybrids and between the hybrids and the pure races took place with even more readiness than between the pure stocks. The mixed-blood groups gradually blended into one another to form a single mixed-
blood race, the relative ethnic composition of which tirely indeterminable.

It
is
en-
was
this triangular
mixture in unknown proportions
of the blood of Portuguese, Indian, and Negro that produced the so-called metis, 50 who compose somewhat above one-third
49
"Ibid., p. 515. F. Nansen, Eskimo lAfe, pp. 12, 20, 163-5.
See, also, A. N. Gil-
bertson,
Some
Ethical Phases of Eskimo Culture, p. 73.
He
quotes
Trebitsch as expressing an opposite opinion. 80 The metis differ from the mestizos of other parts of South America
84
The Mulatto
of the present population of Brazil. 51 Of the fifteen million whites, a considerable number are so by law rather than be-
cause of an entire absence of Indian or Negro blood. 52 53 Their physBiologically the metis are an unstable type.
vary with each new crossing sometimes toward one and sometimes toward the other parent though there is
ical traits
a general tendency toward the white type. 54 They are not muscular, and have little power to resist disease.
Tuberculosis
is
common among
them. 55
Some
of the
women
are graceful and well proportioned, but they are
principally in that there is a considerable amount of Negro blood in their ethnic composition. It would seem to be an error, however, to say that this term is a synonym for mulatto. See W. E. B. DuBois, The
Negro,
61
p.
166.
P. F. Martin, Through Five Republics of South America, p. 155 gives the population as follows:
15,000,000
3,500,000
6,000,000
1,300,000
total
Negroes mixed
Indians
900,000
Portuguese
520,000
1,800,000
Germans
Italians
James Bryce, South America; Observations and Impressions, pp. 433Negro and Negro mixture to be about 8,000,000 or two-fifths of the total population. The number of zambos he puts
34, 564-65, estimates the
at 300,000.
"Martin, Through Five Republics,

pp. 564-65.
p.
155.
Bryce, South America,
""Their physical characteristics are not fixed." Jean Baptiste de Lacerda, "The Metis, or Half-breeds, of Brazil," Inter-Racial Problems,
p. 378.
**
tion
"Continuous infusions of Portuguese blood, due to an immigrahave gradually overcome the native strain of what was a
.
largely mongrel population, and a fortunate reversion toward the more developed ethnic component, with its happier adaptation to modern conditions, has ensued."
Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 380,
Mixed-Blood Races
35
In color they vary from in no sense a beautiful people. a dark yellow to a dull white. Their hair is usually dark and nearly always curly. Their eyes are chestnut, brown,
or greenish.
lar,
Their
less
lips
are thick.
Their teeth are irregu-
though protruding than the Negroes'. On the whole seem to be an improvement upon both the Negro and they
this
the Indian elements of their ancestry, 56 though the evidence
on
point
is
57 by no means uniform.
As
agricultural
laborers, they are inferior to the blacks
and they show no for commercial or industrial life. 58 Lacerda 59 capacity

asserts that they are ostentatious, unpractical, talkative,
intemperate, and lacking in veracity and loyalty but admits that they are intelligent, have some literary ability and show
great cleverness as politicians. In Brazil the metis form a sort of middle-class between the
white aristocracy, on the one hand, and the Negro and the The Indians are passive and, so far Indian, on the other. as political affairs are concerned, are outside the nation.
The black Negroes are

M ".
inferior in education 60
and enter-
ties
if these half-breeds are not able to compete in other qualiwith the stronger races of the Aryan stock, ... it is none the less certain that we cannot place the metis at the level of the really inferior races. They are physically and intellectually well above the level of the
. .
blacks,
381.
OT
who were an
ethnical element in their production."
Ibid.,
p.
being.
"In Brazil ... his [the Indian's] successor is a decidedly inferior ." Martin, Through Five Republics, p. 1. "Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 380. * Ibid., p. 380. Compare the Chileans. E. A. Ross, South of Panama,
. .
pp. 113, 213-14, 319, 221. 90 The ratio Eighty per cent of the total population is illiterate. among the blacks is far higher. See Martin, Through Five Republics, 155. Of recent attempts to provide education adapted to the needs
p.
of the situation, see H. E. Everly, "Vocational Education in Brazil," Manual Training Magazine, June, 1915,
36
The Mulatto
prise to the
61 Negro of the Southern States of America.
They take
life very easy, exerting themselves just sufficiently to provide the few necessities of life in a tropical climate. 62 The whites are the ruling class, 63 though for political and
social purposes, the
upper grade of the metis and the whites
are practically one class. At the founding of the republic, the numerical preponderance of the mixed-blood race enabled them to secure an equal
share in the governmental affairs of the country. Many of them secured political offices, and they exert a considerable
influence
on the government of the country. 64 Many of the mixed-blood race are men of property 65 and are influential
in the affairs of the
community.
between the whites and the
neither hard nor fast. 66
In social
affairs, the color line

is
mixed-blood race
Many
of the
67 Negro or Indian blood. Intermarriage is forbidden neither by law nor by custom, and mixed unions are not uncommon. To the Portuguese,
so-called whites are tinged with
the idea of personal contact with an Indian or a Negro excites little feeling of physical repulsion. The aristocracy
South America, are pure white; and marriages between them and the pure Indians or Negroes do
here, as elsewhere in
Biyce, South America, pp. 479-80.
Ibid., pp.
404-05.
"Ibid., p. 565. **Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems, pp. 381-82. M Not so many as is sometimes asserted. "Bahia
has a population
of 250,000 and
.
. .
is
rapidly growing.
.
who
M
The city Negroes. are millionaires.

1-15-1916.
It
Most of the population are real is so prosperous that there are 10,000 Negroes ." The Chicago Defender, A Negro Paper,
ficial
observers to
seems to be the observation of this fact that has led certain superannounce an entire absence of color prejudice in
Brazil.
See The Chicago Defender, 12-11-1915, 1-22-1916. Bryce, South America, p. 565.
Mixed-Blood Races
not occur. 68
37
"The Brazilian lower
class intermarries freely

69
with the black people ; the Brazilian middle class marries with the mulattoes and the quadroons." 70
inter-
The
color line
so far as there
is
a color line
is
drawn
with the Negro and the Indian on the one side and the white man and the metis on the other. 71 The mixed-blood man is
as contemptuous of the native
and the Negro, as
is
the white
aspiration of the half-breed is to be like the white man. 73 He calls himself white, consciously models himself on the white man, tries to think and act as a white man
man. 72
The
and,
if
He
is
is
74 possessed of education and property, is so treated. free to intermarry with the whites and his ambition
to do so.
With each such
crossing, the offspring approx-
imate more and more to the pure white type. Aside from reversions, they are sometimes able to pass as white in their
Portuguese community by the third generation. sums up the racial situation in these words
:
Lacerda
75
The mulatto himself endeavours, by marriage, to bring back his descendants to the pure white type.
88
See Theodore Roosevelt, "Brazil and the Negro," Outlook, Vol. 106,
pp. 409-11.
* Largely mixed. Officially white. See Bryce, South America, p. 492; South American Year Book, 1915, p. 216. w Bryce, South America, pp. 479-80. Bryce counts as white all individuals having three-fourths or more white blood. " In southern Brazil in the expanding German, Swiss
and white Por-
tuguese settlements the color line is the colored and the mixed. See Sir
the
New
World.
See, also,
drawn separating the whites from Harry H. Johnston, The Negro in D. P. Kidder and J. C. Fletcher, Brazil
and
71
the Brazilians, pp. 132-33. Bryce, South America, p. 565.

p. 382.
"Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems,

460-6T.
Bryce, South America, pp.
74 The same thing is theoretically true of the Indian and the Negro. See Roosevelt, The Otdlook, Vol. 106, pp. 409-11. "Inter-Racial Problems, p. 382.
38
The Mulatto
in the
United States
Children of metis have been found, in the third generation, to present all the physical characters of the white race, although some of them retain a few traces of their black ancestry through the influence of atavism. The influence of sexual selection, however, tends to neutralise that of atavism, and removes from the descendants of the metis all the characteristic features of the black race. In virtue of this process of ethnic reduction, it is logical to expect that in the course of another
century the metis will have disappeared from Brazil. This will coincide with the parallel extinction of the black race in our midst. When slavery was abolished,
the black, left to himself, began to abandon the centres of civilisation. Exposed to all kinds of destructive agencies,
and without
the
sufficient resources to
main-
scattered over the themselves, negroes districts, and tend to disappear from thinly populated
tain
are
our territory.
Aside from Brazil, most of Central and South America
was colonized by the Spanish. The early immigration was of a poor quality, being composed chiefly of clergy and of adventurers who came with an intention of acquiring a com-
and then returning to Spain. Another of immigrants were convicts, sentenced to death large group or mutilation, whose sentences were commuted on condition
petence
if
possible
that they emigrate to the colonies. The objects of the early colonists were adventure and trade rather than settlement. 76
Consequently there were

unlike
good character though, Portuguese, Spanish government never foisted their objectionable women upon the colonists. There was, therefore, a dearth of Spanish women either marfew
of
women
the
the
ried or marriageable.
The Spanish
interest
was centered
in the
mines and for
"See James Bryce, "Migrations of the Races of Men," Contemporary Review, Vol. 62, p. 134.
Mixed-Blood Races
89
three centuries the plantations and agriculture in general
was a failure
in
77 Spanish America.
The
healthful
and
wealth-producing regions of the tropics were the interior highlands, and it was there alone that a considerable population
was made up mostly of useless individuals, adventurers, and functionaries but not of workers, as is shown by the fact that it was almost exclusively a town population.
grew up.
But even
there,
it
the Spanish were not so temperamentally constituted as to be able to come to any mutually satisfac-
The Indians and
tory working relations.
They never reached anything

;
re-
motely approaching kindly feeling and unity of purpose. The Indians were not adapted to slavery the Spanish had an exaggerated idea of their own superiority. The situation worked itself out on the single and simple principle of relative power. 78 The attitude of the Spanish was ruthless
and savage. They seized the public and private wealth of the natives, appropriated their women, and finally levied upon their vital force. To develop the mines, they needed a
large labor supply ; to get the labor supply, they drove the natives in crowds to the mountains, where the unwonted labor
and the scanty nourishment combined with the
effects of the
climatic change and the broken family life, to bring about a rapid decline in the population. 79 To supply the place of
the decreasing native labor, African slaves were introduced
and grew rapidly
in
numbers. 80
first
Intermixture with the natives began with the

of the Spanish explorers on
77
landing
American
soil.
81
and so exten-
Keller, Colonization, p. 223. "Ibid., p. 259.
"Ibid., pp. 256 ff. 80 Ibid., pp. 280-82.

81
Syphilis,
the sixteenth century, dates
which spread like a plague over the whole of Europe during its origin as a disease of civilized man from
40
sive
The Mulatto
was
this

it
mixture of races that
has been characterized
as the "prime
phenomenon
America."
82
contact of races in Spanish After the introduction of the Negro, there

in the
grew up several new varieties of half-breeds and each of the races and half-races came to have a more or less clearly and definitely defined status in the community life. The main constituents, taken as ethnic and social types,
were six in number. 83
The Peninsular Spaniards, those from were of course the aristocracy; next in order came Europe, the white Creoles, descendants of Europeans settled in Amerthe association of
ica; a third class
later in
was the mestizos, mongrels resulting from Europeans with the native women a little time and lower in status, came the mulattoes next
; ;
in the social
rank came the Negroes, and
last of all, the
natives.
Between these main groups were many other mixtures approximating one or the other of the main groups, or form-
The mestizos multiplied with ing separate groups apart. such rapidity that they came to form and still form a very considerable portion of the population of Spanish America. The association of these various ethnic groups was marked
by hatred, bitterness and
strife.
84
The Spanish
officials
held
the return of the first Columbian expedition from America. It was the red man's one contribution to civilization. See Iwan Bloch, The Sexual
Life of Our Time, M. Eden Paul's Translation, pp. 351-56. "Keller, Colonization, p. 295. 83 Perhaps seven or even more. See H. C. Morris, The History of
Colonization, Vol. 1, pp. 252-53. 84 "The different shades were classified with minute attention, not only by the force of custom but also by the law. When there was only a sixth
of negro or Indian blood in the veins of a colonist, the law granted him Each caste was full of the title of white: que se tenga por bianco. envy for those above and of contempt for those below." Leroy-BeauKeller, lieu, i, II; cf. Roscher, The Spanish Colonial System, pp. 149-50.
Colonization, p. 220,
f. n.
Mixed-Blood Races
in
41
contempt the Creoles and, especially, the mestizos who formed the industrial elements of the Colonies. The mixedfelt
blood races
from which they had sprung. 85
superior to the native and the Negro stock The Negroes had an im-
placable hatred for the natives and, secure in their greater physical strength and the approval of their masters, mistheir pitiable condition
treated the natives at every opportunity. The natives in hated all their oppressors in varying
degrees.
Time and further mixed breeding reduced
the various
mon-
grel types to a relative uniformity in physical appearance and mental characteristics. Immigration being restricted
of incoming Spaniards was small with the scarcity of Spanish women, together kept the natural increase of the white race very limited. Consequently the native element was the determining factor
for a long time, the
number
and
this,
in the biological situation.
The very
fact of relative
num-
bers
made
it
inevitable that the mixed-blood race should tend
toward the Indian type. The caste feeling was not sufficient to preserve them from this fate and, in spite of a larger
later immigration
from Europe, the reversion has partly
taken place. 86
M "The aversion between mulattoes and negroes was as great as that between whites and negroes. The civil position of each class depended mainly and naturally upon the greater or less whiteness of their com'Todo bianco es caballero'" Roscher, The Spanish Colonial plexion. System, p. 21. Keller, Colonization, p. 220 f. n. "Earl Finch states that it is the American Indian who declines in
the process of miscegenation of the Negroes, Spanish, Portuguese and Indians. See "The Effects of Racial Miscegenation," Inter-Racial Problems, p. 109. This is true in the sense that the introduction of foreign blood into a population tends to diffuse in a culturally downward direction, and the lower strata of the population tend to become contaminated by traces of it. But the decline in numbers of a pure-blood native race
due to disease and the failure or inability of the primitive folk to accommodate themselves to civilized habits and manners of life. In an
is
42
The Mulatto
Such
is
the racial background for the latter in the various Spanish-American Republics.
day situation
countries,
There are no general censuses of the Spanish-American and consequently no accurate numerical knowl-
edge of the various racial groups in the different republics.
Bryce estimates the total population at 45,000,000, of whom approximately one-fifth are pure Indians, one-third mestizos, one-third white with much Indian blood and the remainder 87 Of the 15,000,000 whites, Negroes, mulattoes and zambos. more than half are in the Republics of Argentine and Uru88 guay, which republics contain no native or Negro elements, and in the southern part of Brazil which is also free from the colored races. The Negroes and their various intermixtures with the white and Indian races are chiefly in northern and eastern Brazil, though there are a goodly number in Guinea and some in Venezuela. 89 In insignificant numbers, they are
found
in the cities of the other
South American countries.

nearly
all
The population
bia
is
of
Paraguay
fifty
is
Indian
the white
and mixed elements are so small as to be

approximately
is
negligible.
Colom-
per cent so-called white.
The
inter-racial situation in
the result
groups.
which there is intermarriage between the races determined exclusively by the relative members of the two In a caste situation, Finch is right: there the lower groups
receive a continual admixture of blood
from the castes above them while

Whites
Indians
15,000,000
the superior caste receives no blood from the inferior groups.
"
Whites
Indians
15,000,000
8,000,000
8,000,000 3,000,000
19,000,000
Negroes
Mestizos
3,000,000
Negroes
13,000,000
5,700,000
Mixed
Mulattoes
Zambos
300,000
South America, pp. 564-65. 88 There is a substratum of Indian mestizos
in North Argentine but no country in the western hemisphere with the single exception of Canada is so nearly racially white. See E. A. Ross, South of Panama, pp. 119-20. 89 White 10 per cent; mestizo 70 per cent; Indian and Negro 20 per cent.
South American Year Book, 1915,
p. 742.
Mixed-Blood Races
actual whites form a
48
much
smaller per cent. 90
Equador
is
91 Peru has ten per cent approximately ten per cent white. or less of white and near-white, thirty-five per cent mixed,
92 Bolivia has a somewhat per cent Indian. of pure Indian stock. 93 Chile has a small larger percentage white aristocracy and a very few Indians the population
and
fifty-five
is
nearly
all
tendency is states are about
mixed though they claim to be white and the to so classify them. 94 The Central American
fifteen
per cent white or what passes for
white in the Spanish-American states. 95 The Mexican census of 1900 returned nineteen per cent of the total population as "white or nearly white," forty-three per cent as Indian and white intermixture and thirty-eight per cent as
Indian out of a total population of 13,607,259. 96

"Ibid., 1915, p. 503.
Ibid., p. 562.
The Lima Geographical Society, 1896, estimated the population of Peru as white 20 per cent, Indian 57 per cent and mixed 23 per cent. Quoted by P. F. Martin, Peru of the Twentieth Century, p. 42. Bryce estimates that the pure whites of Peru do not number as
"Ibid., p. 638.
much
as 5 per cent.
See South America, p.
66.
Ross, South of Panama,
pp. 39-40, 260, gives the population as 2,000,000 Indians, 1,500,000 mestizos and 500,000 white or near-white.
93
Bryce gives the population of Peru and Bolivia as follows:

6,000,000
total
3,500,000
1,500,000
Indian
mestizo
1,000,000
Spaniards, more or less pure.
South America, pp. 458-59.

"Ibid., p. 232.
86 Martin, Through Five Republics, p. 237. N. O. Winter, Guatemala and Her People of To-day, p. 109. Bryce is disposed to materially modify these proportions. He gives:
wfl
Total
15,000,000
Indian
8,000,000
6,000,000
1,000,000
Mixed
Spaniards
South America,
p. 459.
44
The Mulatto
These numbers are at best only a rough approximation. There are no data available which justify any close estimation either of the total population or of the various racial
elements of which
sible to
it is
composed.
Moreover,
it is
not pos-
distribution of the population into racial categories because color is a badge of inferiority and is always denied or if too obvious to be denied, the
make any accurate
amount
is
understated.
Further there
is
no agreement as
to what proportion of Negro or Indian blood must be present to rule an individual out of the white class to which
Bryce, for example, in his every one strives to belong. estimates counts as "white" all whose racial ancestry is as much as three-fourths white. 97 The tendency of the official
statistics
is
to count as white all educated mestizos."
Despite the fact that they constitute but a small percentage of the total population in most of the Spanish-
American
class."
republics, the whites are in all cases the ruling They form the social aristocracy, they practically
control the political and governmental situation, 100 and they 101 comprise the educated class so far as such a class exists.
The census of 1910 gave a

as follows:
total population of 15,160,369 distributed
15,160^69
15,043,842
total
Mexican birth
OT
foreign birth of Bryce, South America, p. 565.

116,527
"Politics
whom
29,541 were Spanish
-Ibid., p. 460. Bolivia, for example.

tizos in
is
left to the
few whites and Mes-
four or
five
towns.
two million to some

of Panama, pp. 331
Politically the Bolivian nation shrinks from thousands." Ibid., p. 529. See, also, Ross, South
ff.
^ South
American Year Book,
1914, pp. 561-62.
101
Ibid., p. 503.
lics
Speaking in particular of the women: "So far as the northern repubof dusky and mixed races are concerned, one can only deal with the few white women of each republic, since all the rest may, for the pur-
Mixed-Blood Races
45
In the southern and more progressive republics, the white element has been reinforced continuously by a considerable
immigration from western Europe.

of Argentine
This
is
especially true
and Uruguay and to a somewhat lesser extent 102 where the whites Chile and of south and central Brazil, of are numerically the dominant group. In the northern republics, however,
it is only a small white aristocracy that is with the general population of Argentine and comparable the other white states of the south. 103 As a consequence,
the whites have been able to maintain a republican

in the
;
form of
southern republics in the north, it is only government by compromising with the mixed elements that they have been able to maintain any government at all. 104
Everywhere throughout Spanish America, the Indians form the lowest strata of the population and but seldom 105 rise out of their degraded position. In the remoter central regions
and
in the
mountains, the race
is still
relatively
poses of generalization, really and truly be placed in one categorythat of the completely unintellectual." W. H. Koebel, The South Americans, p. 31.
103
See, also, pp. 13, 16. Argentine, for example, has received an immigration in excess of four million during the past fifty years. Ibid., p. 17. There is much
Germanic blood in the upper classes of Chile and this fact is said to be reflected in the political life. Ross, South of Panama, pp. 109, 110. ioa To the N or th of these countries [Argentine, Chile, Uruguay, South Brazil and Central Brazil] we get for the most part territories where a small white and educated aristocracy governs of necessity the population of Indians, Mestizos, or even Negroes; and thus we enter into a new and different phase which does not permit of comparison
. .
.
with European circumstances." Koebel, The South Americans, p. 13. 104 Venezuela, for example, with her 10 per cent of white and nearwhite and her 90 per cent of Negroes, Indians and mestizos has never in her whole history had a president who attained office through a legally
conducted election.
106
South American Year Book, 1915,
p. 742.
3ryce, South America, pp. 478-79. northern republics.
He
is
speaking here of th
46
unmixed.
The Mulatto

settlers
There are no European
and even the

106
in-
The Negro, Negro blood has been small. and the northern tropic regions, has not 107 The Indians in general perform all the lower persisted. forms of work and come but little into contact with the white people, except in the capacity of servants and emfiltration of
aside from Brazil
are in general wholly illiterate, 108 and sowithin the nation cially and otherwise form a group apartbut not of it. "By the constitution they are, in many states,
ployees.
They
citizens
and have
votes.
But they never think
of voting,
having, although free, no more to do with the government than the slaves had in the Southern United States before the
Civil
War."
109
Between the small white upper
class
and the
illiterate
and
is, taking Spanish America as a whole, the numerically dominant group. While the status of the mestizos varies within rather wide
largely uncivilized natives, stands the mestizo
who
limits in different states
and even within the same
state,
they form,
tion.
middle class in the populaException must here be made of the white Republics
in general, a sort of
of Argentine and Uruguay, the native Republic of Paraguay and of Brazil, the southern parts of which are white, and the
northern parts largely Negro and mulatto. 110

class mestizos are in
The upper
many cases small property owners and most of the small shop-keeping class ; from the compose
". the distinctions which undoubtedly exist, and are often supposed to be of race, are in fact only between Indians who are Catholic and speak Spanish and Indians, who are grouped by the other Indians, 'as savages' ." Sir Charles W. Dilke, "Forced and Indentured Labor
.
.
. .
loa
South America," Nationalities and Subject Races, p. 101. 1OT Koebel, The South Americans, p. 92. 108 The same might be said of most of the mixed and a good per cent of the white population. Eighty per cent of South America is illiterate. io Bryce, South America, p. 529. Ross, South of Panama, p. 331.
in
110
Ibid., p. 492.
Mixed-Blood Races
47
lower grades of the mestizo come the artisan and the ser111 vant classes.
distinctions seldom are clearly drawn. certain per cent of the white race have preserved their 112 and these everywhere form the soracial integrity intact
cial
But the ethnological
and
intellectual aristocracy.
11
But
the bulk of the so-
called whites are tinged with a greater or less
Indian blood.
The upper
life,
class mestizos, in
amount of manners and
customs and habits of
with their white neighbors. In education, they are Spanish; in reability, Spaniards. ligion, they are Christians and in their ideas and habits of
;
often compare not unfavorably They are, to the extent of their
thinking, they are faithful imitations of the white aris114
tocracy.
Between the white man and the educated mestizo there

no color
line in the sense in
is
which that term
is
understood in
purposes they
the United States.
For
class.
social
and
political
All mestizos, and increasingly so as their color decreases and their education increases, claim
form virtually one

to be white men,
115 It they are so treated. in fact, by compromising thus with the mixed element that is, the white has been able to maintain some semblance of or-
and
in general
derly government in many of the Latin American republics. But the mestizos are not all educated, and by no means all
m South
133
American Year Book,

pp. 638, 503, 562. ethnologically there
1915, p. 503.
Ibid.,
113
. .
". is no dividing line to be drawn in South America between the white, the Indian, and the Savage. The so-called whites are largely Indian, the Indians are largely negro, and the savages are partly Indian, partly negro and partly an amalgam of races older
in
the country than the principal Indian tribes." Dilke, Nationalities and Subject Races, p. 103. 114 Bryce, South America, p. 433. Ross, South of Panama, p. 168. 118 ." Bryce, "Every one wishes to be reckoned as a white man. South America, p. 460. See, also, pp. 478-79, 473-74, 232, 472-73.
.
48
The Mulatto
white men.
are able, even in a South American community, to pass as It is frequently as difficult to determine who
it is
should be deemed an Indian and who a mestizo, as
at the
other end of the scale to say who is to be deemed a white man and who a man of mixed-blood. 116 Between the lower
class mestizo
and the Indian, there

117
is
little intellectual
or
social distinction.
While there are thus mixed-blood men in both the white and the Indian groups, it is not to be understood that the
mestizo forms, in any other than a physiological sense, a connecting link between the races. He is, rather, a member of one or the other group depending upon his color, education,
class mestizo
and economic status. The break between the upperand the Indian group is frequently a sharp one. sometimes differ as widely as do the native and the They
white with the additional consideration that the mestizo constantly emphasizes the fact of his white blood by his hatred of and contempt for the native. 118 "The Indians," says
Bryce, "have nothing, except the worship of the saints and a fondness for liquor, in common with the class above
them." 119
nothing in law or custom to prevent the intermarriage of the races. The educated mestizo endeavors to marry a white woman and is successful in proportion to his economic
is
There
status in the community. The lower-class mestizos intermix 120 Between the whites and the nearreadily with the Indians.
119 117
Bryce, South America, p. 458. . absorb or are absorbed by the Mestizo." "The Indians
. .
South
American Year Book, 1915, p. 503. 118 [He] "has repeatedly shown himself to be very eruel toward the Indians, whom he despises much more than the better class man would
do."
America, p. 474. See, also, pp. 438, 185-86. 110 The mixed-blood women in Peru bear a goodly number of children to the Chinese coolies. See Ross, South of Panama, pp. 39-40.
w South
Ibid., p.
7.
Mixed-Blood Races
whites,
49
on the one hand, and the Indian and the lower-class mestizo, on the other, there is no intermarriage; but this
fact seems to be due
is
more to
social
than to racial causes.
It
class separation rather

122
than a racial antipathy. 121
Says
Bryce:
To understand the social relations of the white and Indian races one must begin by remembering that there is in Spanish and Portuguese countries no such sharp colour line as exists where men of Teutonic stock are settled in countries outside of Europe. As this is true He of the negro, it is even more true of the Indian. be despised as a weakling, he may be ignored as a may citizen, he may be, as he was at one time, abominably oppressed and ill treated, but he excites no personal It is not his race that is against him, but repulsion. Whatever he suffers, is suffered his debased condition. because he is ignorant or timid or helpless, not because he is of a different blood and colour. The distinction between the races is in Spanish America a distinction of rank or class rather than of colour. Against intermarriage there is, therefore, no more feeling than that which exists against any union palpably below a man's or woman's own rank in life. If it is rare for a pure white to espouse a pure Indian, that is because they are of different ranks, just as it is rare for a
. . .
well-born Englishman to marry a peasant girl. There is nothing in the law to oppose such a union, and though whites seldom marry pure Indians, because the classes come little into contact, the presence of an un-
mistakable Indian strain in a mestizo makes no difference to his acceptability to a white woman of the
same
121
class.
However, Meredith Townsend states that the years "during which Spaniards and Indians have dwelt together in South America have not softened their mutual antipathies; ." Asia and pp. 217-18.
w South
Europe,
America, pp. 470-71,
50
The Mulatto
The state of almost entire absence of racial or color prejudice thus pictured seems, at times, between revolutions race wars to approach realization in some of the South and
American countries. In how far this racial harmony is real and in how far it is merely a temporary accommodation to
the exigencies of the situation, is still a matter of some doubt. But wherever the Negroes and mulattoes are found even
in small
numbers, there is also found an unmistakable race In Guiana, for example, there is a marked anquestion. toward and avoidance of the black man by every tipathy
other race and color in the community. There was formerly some intermarriage between the Portuguese immigrants and
the blacks and mulattoes, but there
is
now an avoidance
of
association even of the low-class Europeans and the Negroes. There is still some intermarriage between the Portuguese and
the near-white mulattoes. 123

fear of the Chinese,
The Negroes have a wholesome and the latter freely and without hesitation use the mulatto and Negro women as concubines 124 The East though the relation is hardly one of marriage. Indians intermix to some extent with the mulattoes, but they
have the greatest antipathy for the blacks and refuse to cohabit with them. 125 The American Indian detests and
126 despises the Negro.
The
whites, even where they
show
no particular prejudice against the presence of Indian blood, have an entirely different attitude toward the Negro and the
"Johnston, The Negro in the New World, pp. 333-34. ** The Negroes are "entirely 'unmoral' in their sexual Ibid., p. 332. relations" and have no repugnance toward intermixture with any of the
other races.
138
Ibid., p. 334.
Indian kuli would ordinarily prefer to live unmarried sooner than cohabit with a negress: they are not perhaps so squeamish about marriage with mulattoes." Ibid., p. 334. See, also, p. 332. They inter-
"An
marry with the Amerindians. Ibid., p. 332. Bryce, South America, pp. 473
f.
n.,
566-67,
Mixed-Blood Races
mulatto.
51
The greatest antipathy, however, is that existing the near-white mulattoes on the one hand and the between
127 Negroes and mulattoes of darker hue on the other.
In the Philippines
In the Philippine Islands at the present time, there are two mixed-blood races in considerable numbers and of different
race
mestizo.
the product of the intercrossing of the Chinese and the Malay; the latter is the offspring of
is
parentage the The former
Chinese
mestizo
and
the
Spanish
the Peninsular Spaniard or the Spanish creole with the native Malay woman. great variety of other mongrels is
found, but not in numbers tions of a problem.
sufficient to
assume the propor-
When
Moros.
ness
the productive valleys
the Spanish entered the Islands in 1521, they found occupied by a race of uncivilized
this race,
They subjugated
and undertook the busi-
the Spaniards, the Islands were rather a mission than a colony. There were no mines always to be worked and no plantations calling for a large body of
of conversion.
servile labor.
To
There was no decline in the native population was elsewhere true of the Spanish colonies 128 and there was no introduction of a substitute labor supply. The Islands were too far away and offered too little in the way of immediate and large returns to attract the Spanish meras
**
lies
"There is a slight 'color question' in Guiana, but the sensitiveness rather between the 'near-whites' of pale ivory complexion and the
darker tinted mulattoes or negroes. There is now practically no intermarriage between whites and blacks; on the other hand, numerous unions
take
place between whites, especially Portuguese, and the lighterskinned negroids, many of whom would almost sooner perish in celi-
bacy than intermarry with the negro or mulatto."

in the
138
Johnston, The Negro
New
World,
p. 337.
52
chant.
The Mulatto
the United States
the Islands was always small and consisted almost exclusively of the military and
The number of Spaniards on

129
Other foreigners were excluded. the four centuries of the Spanish occupancy of During the Islands, there grew up a Spanish mestizo mixture that
priestly classes.
numbers at present about two per cent of the population. small per cent of this mixed-blood race is the product of intermarriage between the Spanish Creoles, who now number
about three hundredths of one per cent of the population, and the native women of mixed parentage. The bulk of the mixed-blood race, however, owe their origin to less conven-
Another considerable tional and less permanent unions. number of the mixed-blood race trace their ancestry back to a priestly origin. Officials and other Spaniards usually
formed no permanent unions with the native
girls.
The second mixed-blood
race, the Chinese mestizos,
ber about two per cent of the population. often, perhaps generally, the offspring of a fairly permanent union.
numThey are more
The
civil
and
social status of the various races
and half-
races follows for the most part the lines of race and color. Color prejudice and class hatred are everywhere a factor
in the situation.
At one extreme
of the social scale are the
foreign white and the white Creoles. Below them in the social scale, come the Spanish half-breeds, envious of the classes
above them, contemptuous of those below.
Every mixture
of foreign blood has tended to raise them above the native. Now, as during the last two centuries of Spanish rule, they are the dominant class in the native affairs.
139
The prominent
mostly in Manila.
In 1820 there was one white to 1,600 natives. The whites were In 1864 there was a total of 4,050 Spaniards in the Of these 3,280 were government officials, 500 were clergy, 200 Islands.
were landed proprietors and 70 were merchants.
Mixed-Blood Races
53
Filipinos are probably without exception from this mixed"No Filipino ever has become known in blood class. 13
'
America, either through his attainments or his political prominence, who was more than a few generations removed
from a foreign ancestor." 131
It
is
from
this class that
most
of the higher Filipino officials come. They are the discontented and troublesome element in the population. 132 "They are always hoping for recognition as equals by the foreigners with
whom
they
may
they are brought into contact and to whom be related." 133 They despise the native element
ties by which they are bound to them. The administrative problem in the Islands is to prevent present the half-breed official from oppressing the despised Malay. 134
and ignore the
The vigorous, thrifty, enterprising Chinese share with the Chinese half-breeds the monopoly of the trade in the Islands. The Chinese are despised by
half-breed
"
and
the races, even by the Chinese the Filipino, as bitterly as by the Creoles and
all
most famous man and one might say the only famous produced by the islands was the direct descendant of a Chinese trader, and his mother was of Filipino-Chinese-Spanish descent with a little Japanese blood." Carl Crow, "What About the Filipinos?" World's Work, Vol. 26, p. 519. See, also, J. A. Robertson, "Notes from the Philippines," Journal of Race Development, Vol. 3, p. 470, and Keller, Colonization, p. 350 f. n. The best discussion of RizaFs personality is by Ferdinand Blumentritt, Internationales Archiv fur Ethnographie, Bd. X, Heft 2. There is a brief abstract of this article in Pop. Sci.
"Rizal, the
man
No., July, 1902. An inaccurate and laudatory appreciation by his personal friend, Sir Hugh Clifford, appeared in Blackwood's Magazine,
Vol. 172, pp. 620-38.
,.
Rizal married a white
woman of
English birth.
See James A. LeRoy, The Americans in the Philippines, p. 117 f. n. Sergio Osmena, former speaker of the Philippine Assembly, was a Chinese mestizo. Crow, World's Work, Vol. 26, p. 523.
M Ibid., Vol. 26, p. 519. M LeRoy, The Americans

181
in the Philippines, p. 76.
Crow, World's Work, Vol. 26, p. 519. 184 Charles E. Woodruff, "Some Laws of Racial and Intellectual Development," Journal of Race Development, Vol. 3, p. 175,
54
The Mulatto
in
the United States
135 foreign whites, and this is a situation of long standing. The quiet, industrious Chinese half-breed is perhaps the
best as a
man on
the Islands. 136
He
is
classed with and despised
while, in his turn, he shares with the white the white man's bitter hatred for the
Chinaman by the races above him,
Chinese and contempt for the Filipino. At the bottom of the social scale, comes the Filipino who is economically inefficient
and despised by every one, while he
in
turn hates in varying
degrees the various classes above him.

noteworthy that the Filipinos and even the Chinese (mestizos de sangley) exhibited this hatred in as bitter a form as did the Spanish themselves." Keller, Colonization, p. 355. Le.
.
m ".
It is also
half-breeds
Roy, The Americans in the Philippines, p. 279, speaks of the "traditional hostility between the Filipinos and Chinese." 138 ". . . During the latter days of my residence in the Islands in 1905
Governor-General Wright one day told me that he had recently personally received from one of the most distinguished Filipinos of the time, and a member of the Insular Civil Commission, the statement 'that
there
was not a single prominent and dominant family among the chrisThe voice and tianized Filipinos which did not possess Chinese blood.' the will of the Filipinos to-day is the voice and the will of these brainy, industrious, rapidly developing men whose judgment in time the world
is
bound to respect. . . ." A. E. Jenks, "Assimilation in the Philippines, as Interpreted in Terms of Assimilation in America," American Journal Sociology, Vol. 19, p. 783. Ratzel, The History of Mankind, Vol. 1,
p. 397, says that the
Chinese half-breed in the Philippines

See, also,
is
superior
in
to the
European
half-breed.
LeRoy, The Americans
the
Philippines, p. 76.
CHAPTER
III
MIXED-BLOOD RACES (CONCLUDED)

In Cuba, Porto Rico, and Santo Domingo
Islands of the
West
Indies were colonized
during the first quarter of the sixteenth century. Durthis period Spain was at the height of her national power, ing and the Islands were the centers of trade and commercial
activity.
THE
by Spain
The Spaniards found
the Islands inhabited by a numerous
population of peaceful Indian tribes
whom
they conquered,
enslaved, converted, and worked to death on the plantations and in the mines on the mainland. So disastrous to the
natives
was the Spanish policy of slavery, concubinage, and Catholicism that, with the exception of some infusion of Indian blood in the Spanish part of Santo Domingo and
1 Cuba, the native element is totally extinct. It was to save the native element from total extinction that
in
three years of Spanish occupancy. follows :
The population of Santo Domingo decreased two-thirds in the first The population was estimated as
1492
1508
3,000,000
60,000
1510 1572
1574 1648
46,000
20,000
14,000
under 500
See A. G. Keller, Colo-
similar fate befell all of the other Islands.
nization, p. 226.
55
56
The Mulatto
the introduction of Negroes was first recommended. The Spaniards had intermixed freely with the natives during the
two centuries that their extermination was
in process. With the Negroes they intermixed with almost equal readiness. 2 mulatto race soon sprang up and increased rapidly in numbers. In Porto Rico, at the time of its cession to the in
United States
ulation was returned as colored. 3
1898, approximately one-third of the popThe colored element in-
cluded a few Chinese and the Negro-white mixture as well as the pure Negroes. Of the total returned as colored
eighty-four per cent were of mixed-blood. In cent of mixed-bloods in the Negro population
as
is
Cuba
is
the per
yet larger
to be expected from the fact that the ratio of Negroes to the white population is much smaller. 4 From the other
Islands, the Spanish were expelled before the mixture gone so far.
had
Cuba, Porto Rico and Santo Domingo, Spanish until 1898 and in spirit and civilization Spanish still, have the race problem in much the same form as it is found on the mainland of South America.
Negro, and Indian blood.

is
The mixed-blood race is of Spanish, On the mainland, the Indian blood

it is
is
vastly in excess of the Negro; on the Islands, Negro blood that predominates ; the Indian blood
the
but a
a Johnston attributes the fact that the Spanish have never shown the same repugnance as have the Northern nations of Europe to sexual intercourse with Negroes, to the ancient strain of Negro blood in their ethnic composition. Sir Harry H. Johnston, "The World-position of the Negro and Negroid," Inter-Racial Problems, pp. 329-30.
Total
953,243 589,462 363,817
White
Colored
4
White 1,067,354 or 67.9 per cent; Colored 505,443 or 32.1 per cent. The few Chinese are here counted as white as has been the Spanish custom in all previous censuses. United States War Department Censu* of
Cuba, 1899,
p. 97.
Mixed-Blood Races
trace.
57
In Cuba the opportunities and personal privileges of the Negro people have been somewhat greater than in most
other parts of the West Indies. They are and always have been sufficiently below the whites in numbers effectually to
prevent any wide-spread reversion to their ancestral African customs. During the slave period, though cases of barbarous mistreatment were not infrequent, the Spanish laws
were highly favorable to the slave. It was easy for him to purchase his freedom and there were a large number of free 5 After the aboliNegroes throughout the slavery period.
tion of slavery in 1880, the rights of the black
man were
of course
much greater and
his
status
Spanish government giving the same colored as to the white Cuban. The rebellions of 1868-78
higher, the consideration to the
much
and of 1895-98 and the threatened uprising

operated to raise the status of the Negro.
civil,
in
1906
all
all
At present
military and ecclesiastical positions and honors are to members of the race. 6 open
The mulattos have responded
to these conditions in a
way
that differentiates them from the Negroes elsewhere. Though the race is behind the whites in education, morals, and eco-
nomic advancement, many individuals have made advances along these lines. They are found in all professions and
Census Year
1775 1792 1817 1827
1841
1861
Free Colored
41.0
45.6 36.7
27.1
Slaves
59.0
54.4
63.3
72.9
74.1
25.9
37.4
55.7
62.9
1877
Ibid.,
44.3
p. 98.
See, also,
H. C. Morris, The History of Colonization,
Vol.
I, p.
278.
U. S.
War
Dept. Census of Cuba, 1899, p. 69.
58
The Mulatto
in all trades.
Bullard says 7 "Though found in more professions than in America, they are less industrious than here. They show disposition but no aptness for commerce, and
:
must perhaps be looked more as a desire to avoid the hard labor of the fields upon than as any serious effort to try fortune in trade." However this may be, a few have distinguished themselves 8 and a goodly number have made a reasonable success they show more self-respect and self-possession than is found elsewhere
their inclination in this direction
;
among Negro
people.
9
:
Speaking of
this self-respecting atti-
tude Bullard says

. . .
Everywhere in public, atres, on steamers and cars
in the streets, in the the-
our
man
carries himself with confidence

is
and
of negro blood It self-possession.
his marked characteristic in Cuba. Looking at him, one cannot but be impressed with his great gain in He feels himself a worthier dignity in consequence. man. In rural guard, police and other official positions occupied by him, he conducts himself with steadiness and dignity. Placing him in such offices seems not in Cuba, as in America, to make him foolish and
These are noteworthy things for giddy. the negro race.
Cuba and
During the slavery period the black and mulatto females sought the white and disdained the black men as fathers of their children. So extensive and long continued has been
this intercrossing that it is
distinction between the
now impossible to draw any clear races. At either extreme the colors
the middle-class towns-
are unmixed.
T
The aristocracy and
Lieutenant-Colonel R. L. Bullard, U. S. A., "The Cuban Negro," North American Review, Vol. 184, p. 629. 8 Antonio Maceo of the Cuban Army, 1895-98, was a mulatto. See U. S. War Dept. Census of Cuba, 1899, p. 69. 9 North American Review, Vol. 184, p. 626.
Mixed-Blood Races
folk are quite free
69
from Negro intermixture; some blacks, especially the rural folk of the interior, are still of unmixed African blood. But between the extremes is an unbroken
gradation through
all
the tints from the swarthy complexion
of the Spaniard to the glossy black of the West African Negro. Yet few of those who pass as Negroes are without some admixture of the white man's blood. "Few of the Ne-
groes are black ; some of the blackest have the regular features of the Caucasian ; and racial mixtures are everywhere
evidenced by color of skin and by physiognomy." 1 There is no hard and fast color line separating the col-
ored and white races of the Cuban population. In politics, the Negro is the equal of the white man. In resorts, in
places of amusement, and in public conveyances, there is no Negroes have held some minor separation of the races.
political offices
and members of some of the higher govern-
mental bodies have been tinged with Negro blood. In social affairs there is little ostensible inequality but only in the
army,
if
anywhere, has there been recognized any condition
of real social equality. 11 Socially and politically, however, the Negro is constantly losing ground as the white race Nowhere else in the West Indies increases in numbers. 12
is
there so
much
tenderness on the point of color.

13
:
Bullard
says on this point

10
Encyclopaedia Britannica: Cuba. See, also, Sir Harry H. Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p. 59, and William Z. Ripley, "Race Problems in Cuba," Publications of the American Statistical Association,
11
Vol.
7,
pp. 85-89.
Dept., Census of Cuba, 1899, p. 69.
U. S.
is
War
is losing ground, politically and socially, and unless content with his present status of farmer, labourer, petty tradesman, minor employ6, and domestic servant, there will arise a 'colour' question here as in the United States." Johnston, The Negro in the New
M "Yet the negro
he
World,
13
p.
60.
North American Review, Vol.
184, p. 628.
60
.
The Mulatto
. . The earliest negroes brought to Cuba had a sad, faint little belief that after death they should be born again into another land, white men. "Negro" and even .
"mulatto" must be softened into "gente de color" . . and "pardo" while the house-maid becomes "Sefiorita" ... and the cook "Senora." These, and the tendency, in the face of manifest aversion, to push themselves as equals upon another race, are dis.
couraging signs of weakness, showing a lack of that genuine independence, self-respect and pride that indicate strength and real worth.
It
is,
however, between the blacks and the mixed-bloods
that the lines of social demarcation are most clearly drawn. The mixed-blood man desires to be white, and imitates the
white man's virtues and the white man's faults.
Bullard
14
points out the difference in the social life of the blacks and the mixed-bloods and illustrates the difference by a description of the two dances which are
more or
less
peculiar to the
Negroes of the Island:
There are two dances, the "Congo" and the "Creole,"

both protracted perhaps through many nights. The first is a memory or tradition of Africa. In it, men
and women, black, real negroes, sing the songs and dance the dances of Africa to the sound of rattles and rude drums, genuine savage instruments. The dance is always significant. It takes many forms of war, love, tradition and con jury, yet it is most addressed to the sexual passions and can but lead to their indulgence. The "Congo" may be seen to-day in any country town
in the cane regions.
The "Creole" aspires to be very different. It is a modified waltz by the more mixed generation, far less
interesting,
the "Congo."
1
more modern, but not more moral than One needs but to see it to be impressed
184, pp. 625-26.
with its sensuality. North American Review, Vol.
Mixed-Blood Races
In Haiti
61
to the French.
After some two centuries of occupancy Spain lost Haiti It remained a French province for nearly a
1
hundred years, during which time the mulattoes came to be a distinct caste and to occupy a separate status in the community. On the one hand they were generally free from
bondage; on the other they were excluded from citizenship. When, at the time of the French Revolution, the slaves were
mutual antipathies of the whites, blacks, and mulattoes blossomed into a triangular warfare, the final result of which was the massacre of the entire European popliberated, the
After several costly and unsuccessful attempts on the part of the French and later of the English to restore orderly government, the Island was abandoned, became a black, independent state, and has been for a century free to
ulation.
15
work out its salvation without interference. The abandonment of the Island by the
civilized
so soon after the emancipation of the blacks
powers was fatal to
Haitian prosperity. The civil wars had destroyed property and capital of every description and left labor in a hopelessly
demoralized state.
The
effect
was as disastrous
polit-
ically as it
was economically: the

is
political history of the
simply a narrative of revolutions. The country, nominally a republic, has in practice alternated between anarchy and military despotism. The actual power
hundred years
has been in the hands of the president who almost always rode into office as the momentary favorite of the major division of the
15
army.
16
Below the forms of
civilized
government
A. Froude, The English in the West Indies, pp. 182-83. 18 ". Scarcely a President in the history of Haiti has not been a military man, and the favorite leader for the time being, of the major
J.
. .
portion of the army.

p. 197.
."
Johnston, The Negro in the
New
World,
62
The Mulatto
there always has existed in every department of the official life every conceivable form of political corruption, official
dishonesty, and judicial murder. 17 police brutal and inefficient."
"Justice
is
venal and the

relig-
The Roman Catholic
ion has degenerated into a thin disguise for the practice of the rites of Voodooism in which cannibalism and the sacrifice
of children in the Serpent's honor has, at least at times, 18 The forms of marriage are played an important part.
19 disregarded or forgotten.
Polygamy
prevails in the in-
and the frequent orgiastic dances are accompanied by 20 On the whole, the Island, promiscuous sexual debauchery. during the century of independence and self-government, has made no progress along any line, has retrogressed in some
terior
"
Encyclopaedia Britannica: Haiti.
"See H. V. H. Prichard, Where Black Rules White; a Journey Across and About Hayti, Chapter IV. For a more apologetic account see General Legitime, "Some General Considerations of the People and
Government of Haiti," Inter-Racial Problems, pp. 183-84. ""In most of the country districts polygamy is openly practiced. The rite of marriage civil and religious is probably confined to about ." an eighth of the total adult population. Johnston, The Negro
.
.
in the
80
New
World,
p. 194.
"The
will even
this
2,500,000 Haitian peasants are passionately fond of dancing, sometimes dance almost or quite naked. And following on
exercise
is
choregraphic
much
immorality.
."
Johnston,
The
Negro in the New World, p. 194. It is interesting to compare this statement with his description of the dance of the Brazilian Negro. "The dances to which negro slaves were trained usually began with a slow movement of two persons, who approached each other with a shy and diffident air, and then receded bashful and embarrassed. By dethe diffidence wore off, and the grees, the time of the music increased,
.
dance concluded with 'indecencies not fit to be seen nor described.' Sometimes it was of a different character, attended by jumping, shoutover each other's heads, and assuming the ing, and throwing their arms most fierce and stern aspects. The indecent display was a 'dance of
love,'
but the shouting dance was a mimicry of war." Ibid., p. 93. As a further stage in the evolution of the race and the dance compare the
American Negro's "cake-walk."
Mixed-Blood Races
lines
63
and
in others the "republic

21
has gone back to the lowest
type of African barbarism."
census ever has been taken, and consequently there are no accurate figures as to the population. The population,
No
however,
tenths of
is
made up almost
is
whom
entirely of Negroes, about nineare full-blood Africans. The ten per cent
of mulattoes
number
said to be a rapidly diminishing class. 22 The of whites is very small and of negligible influence in
the affairs of the country.
They are, by a provision of the from holding real estate. 23 constitution, prohibited There is a sharp contrast between the black and the mu-
latto inhabitants.
The
blacks,
who form
24
the peasantry of
the country, are peaceable, kindly,
and hospitable people.
They are
cated
25
almost entirely uneduconstitutionally lazy, and they preserve their ancient snake worship and
cannibalistic rites
under the forms of
Roman
Catholicism. 26
Their sex relations are of a frankly natural sort.

21
"Mar-
Chambers' Encyclopaedia:
nica: Haiti,
and
New
Hayti. See, also, Encyclopaedia, BritanInternational Encyclopaedia: Haiti.
23 Encyclopaedia Britannica: Haiti. For a contrary opinion see Earl Finch, "The Effects of Racial Miscegenation," Inter-Racial Problems,
pp. 109-10.
fertile in the world, and if it had an enlightened and stable government, an energetic people, and a little capital, its agricultural possibilities would be boundless." Encyclopaedia
"Johnson's Cyclopaedia: Haiti. 34 "The island is one of the most
Britannica: Haiti.
3,000,000 of Haitians cannot read or write,
"The plain fact remains that something like 2,500,000 out of the and are as ignorant as unreclaimed natives of Africa:" Johnston, The Negro in the New World,
30
p. 187.
"But what use is it talking of the 'country' doing this or willing that when no more than 200,000 out of 3,000,000 Haitians have the slightest
." Ibid., p. 204. approach to education? 2 "At least two out of the three millions of Haitian negroes are only Christians in the loose statistics of geographers. They are still African
. .
pagans,
."
Ibid., p. 193.
64
riage
is
The Mulatto
the United States
amy
is
2T neither frequent nor legally prescribed." Polygopenly practiced and the African dances lead to a
more or
less
wholesale and promiscuous sexual indulgence.
They speak a patois of French origin which is known locally as creole. The one man of first-class ability produced by
the black group was the insurgent chief,
28
Fraôis Domi-
nique Toussaint. The mulattoes are economically, socially, and intellectually far in advance of the black Negroes. They compose the
They professional classes and own most of the property. are frequently educated in Paris and many do not materially 29 In differ in education from Europeans of the same class.
regard to the educational system, Johnston says
.
. .
30
:
Unhappily, the weak point in

is
all this
superior
utterly unpractical relation to a useful and profitable existence in the West Indies. But the education which she gives to the youth of Haiti is perversely useless in its naIt is apparently only adapted to life in Paris ture.
.
.
education of the Haitians

.
its
or in a French provincial town, and the adepts thus trained show a singular tendency on returning to Haiti
to cast off their European learning. Young doctors, sent to France for education in medical science, come
back and discard any modern aseptic or antiseptic theories in their practice, in fact almost revert to the position of negro charlatans. Lawyers can think of noth-
ing but the meticulous intricacies of the Code Napoleon,

27
'Encyclopaedia Britannica: Haiti.

life
"In middle
cause, having lost the most of his front teeth, there
Toussaint acquired the nickname L'Ouverture bewas a marked open-
ing in his mouth when he spoke. See Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p. 157. Toussaint was a leader of the Negroes and is generally considered to be a full-blood Negro. That this is the case, however, is at least doubtful.
K New International Encyclopaedia: "Negro in the New World, p. 188,
Haiti.
Mixed-Blood Races
j
65
civil
and seem incapable of devising a simple

can race which inhabits Haiti.
.
and crim-
inal jurisprudence applicable to the essentially Afri.
In dress, manners, and habits of life, they imitate the French and exaggerate upon their models. 31 Though comparatively few in numbers, they occupy most of the prominent positions in the political and governmental affairs of the Island and
generally manage to control the political situation. jority of Haiti's score or more of Presidents, and
better ones, have been mulattoes. 32
The maall
of the
They form the more en-
lightened and less brutal class of the population. Between the two groups there exists and has existed
throughout the entire history of the Republic the bitterest type of race hatred. The hatred of the Negro for the mulatto
is
Negro.
with
33
equaled only by the mulatto's contempt for the The mulattoes hate and despise the black man
the bitterness of a superior caste which lacks the power, but not the desire, to reduce the black man to the status of a slave. 34
all
In Jamaica
Jamaica became an English province in 1658. The century and a half of Spanish occupancy, except for the annihilation of the native
81
Arawak
was,
Indians,
had no permanent
"As
to the dress of the

less exotic
two hundred thousand educated people,
though
the tall hat
a worship of it is still, as in Liberia In the streets of Port-au-Prince, as of Monrovia, in a temperature 95 degrees in the shade and something under boiling-point in the sun, you may see Haitian statesmen cavorting about
it
than
and frock-coat.
in black silk hats
down
33
of portentous height and glossiness, with frock-coats ." and wearing lemon kid gloves. Ibid., p. 190. Prichard, Where Black Rules White, p. 82.
to their knees,
. .
"Johnston, The Negro in the

clopcedia Britannica: Haiti. M Johnston, The Negro in the
New New
World, p. 159.
World,
p.
See, also,
Ency-
159.
66
effect
The Mulatto
upon the
Island.
in the
United States
taken by the British, the
When
total population, slave and free, did not number above three thousand. After the formation of the Royal African Comin 1672, with a monopoly on the slave trade, Jamaica became one of the great slave marts of the world. The Eng*lish emancipation act was passed in 1834 and, subject to a
pany
short apprenticeship, the slaves were free. The present total population of Jamaica
is approximately round numbers, are pure 830,000. these, 15,000, white, 17,000 are East Indian coolies, and about 2,000 are Chinese; a total of some 34,000 non-African people. The
Of
in
The remaining 796,000 are Negro and Negro mixtures. mixed-bloods number about one-fifth of the total number of
the race.
35
The various
classes in the population seem to correspond
exactly to the race and color lines.

.
Needham
36
says that
classes
The
inhabitants
are divided into
three
which are comparable, except as to numbers, to the The pure whites three classes existing in England. correspond to the aristocracy; the "coloured" are in a social sense relatively like the English middle class; the darks or blacks meaning those who have
. .
.
no evidence of white ancestry are the laboring or peasant class. These three mingle freely in many of
*
Races
Numbers
15,605
Percentage
1.88
White
Colored
163,201 630,181
17,380
2,111
19.63
Black East Indians

Chinese
75.80
2.09
0.25
0.35
Not
specified
2,905
Total
831,383
100.00
Census of Jamaica, 1911. M Charles K. Needham, "A Comparison of Some Conditions in Jamaica with those in the United States," Journal of Race Development, Vol.
4, p. 190.
Mixed-Blood Races
the affairs of
67
life, but in certain other matters there is a distinction well recognized by an individual when coming in contact with one who is his social supe-
rior.
There
is
a hard and fast color line between the whites and
the Negroes
and mulattoes.
effort to settle
the laboring class. There has been some them as independent peasant proprietors but the effort has not been a marked success. The conditions of life are such as to require but little work in order to
The blacks are
live; the
Negroes do the
little
that
is
37
required.
38
without education or the desire for education.

little
They are They have

little
part in the government and in general show

39
de-
sire to participate.
The
relations of the sexes are of the

illegiti-
most
elastic sort, well
over half of the births being
mate. 40
"It was the impossibility of getting the Negroes to do any regular work that led to the importation of the Chinese and the Indian coolies. Froude, The English in the West Indies, pp. 50, 73 if. 88 "At the present day only about one-quarter of the total colored The fact that there is population of Jamaica can read and write."
little
oifered in agricultural or industrial education suited to the race the schools perhaps accounts in part for their indifference to education.
Though free and

is
liberally
not suited to the needs of the race.
supported by the government, the education See Johnston, The Negro in the
New
World, p. 270. '""The black does not want representative government; he prefers to "The blacks ." trained officials, rely on the impartial, despotic rule of
. .
." William Thorp, "How Jamaica always prefer a white man. the Negro Problem," World's Work, Vol. 8, p. 4910. Solves * ". No negress could bear the idea of growing to old age without Therefore the negro being a mother; she would deem herself slighted. and mulatto men are much run after; the marriage rate is not only low, is just now about 3.8 per 1000 persons), and but tends to decrease
. .
.
.
(it
with
decrease rises the percentage of illegitimate births, which now children out of every hundred." [1906] stands at the figure of sixty-five
its
Johnston, The Negro in the
New
World, p. 275.
68
The Mulatto
The mulattoes
are
officially
separated from the blacks by
applying to them the special racial designation coloured. This class includes the majority of those engaged in the
trades and professions and they fill most of the minor governmental positions and some of the higher positions in the
public service. by white men,
41
The
is,
press of the country, though owned for the most part, run by mulattoes.
Johnston
42
states that
in this island enters into all the profes-
The negroid
sions
and careers and fills nine-tenths of the posts unThe coloured population, besides der Government.
residing as cultivators in the country, frequents the towns and earns a living as doctors, dentists, ministers of religion, teachers, waiters, tradesmen, skilled artisans, clerks, musicians, postal employes, press reporters, the superior servants of the State railways, overseers of plantations, hotel-keepers. . The pure Ne. .
gro in Jamaica
is
mainly a peasant and a countryman.

is
Between the blacks and the mulattoes, there

social as well as official distinction. 43
a sharp
social position conditioned by the lightness of his skin and the absence of other racial marks. 44 The mu-
The
of a
member
of the race
is
**"On the Legislative Council of to-day only four of the elected
members are of unmixed Nordic-European descent; four are of wellknown Jamaican-Jewish families descended from the Spanish and Portuguese Jews of Guiana and Brazil; one member is an absolute negro (of Bahaman birth), and the remainder (five) are octoroons and mulattoes of Jamaican birth." Johnston, The Negro in the New World,
p. 268.
"Ibid., p. 280. **"... I am told that in the
West
Indies the 'coloured'
man
despises
the 'nigger* and feels himself immeasurably his social superior." William Archer, Thro Afro-America, p. 273. See, however, Froude, The English in the West Indies, p. 155, for the attitude of the blacks toward
the mixed-bloods.
" See Needham, Journal of Race Development, Vol.
4,
pp. 193-94.
Mixed-Blood Races
69
lattoes refuse to intermarry with the blacks 45 except in cases where the black individual is possessed of large fortune
or holds a high government position even in this case the children of the union will be barred, because of their color
;
and features, from the upper class mulatto society. 46 The same views on the subject of intermarriage of the races are held by the white people of Jamaica as are held
by the white people of the Southern United States. Mixed marriages are approved by the ambitious mulattoes and by the "whites by law." The exceptionally light-colored girls
of this latter class are occasionally able to secure white
husbands from the immigrants to the Island, whom they have deluded into the belief that they are really white. 47 A
class are able to
few other pretty, well-educated and wealthy girls of this marry white because of their wealth and
of the scarcity of white girls on the Island. 48 The number, however, is very small, and sexual association between the
white
men and
the mulatto girls goes on without the forare proud,
*B The same thing is true of the East Indian coolies, "They however, and will not intermarry with the Africans. women look with envy at the straight hair of Asia, their unhappy wool into knots and ropes in the vain hope of
. .
The black and twist
being mistaken for the purer race. But this is all. The African and the Asiatic will not mix. ." Froude, The English in the West Indies, pp. 73-74. 48 ". When such a child [a mulatto with Negro features] appears in the Jamaican upper class let the skin be ever so irreproachable in
. . . .
color
settles
that individual
is
almost doomed to step down when he or she
under a roof separate from the parents. Of course all such obstables are sometimes counterbalanced when an abundant dowry is provided; but we are now considering only general rules." Needham, Journal of
47
Race Development, Vol. 4, p. 192. Thorp, World's Work, Vol. 8, p. 4912. 48 ". Out in the country it is not uncommon to find a white man married to a woman of mixed ancestry, for the same reason that white ." Needmen go to Oklahoma and marry squaws or half-breed girls.
.
.
ham, Journal of Race Development, Vol.
4, p. 195.
70
The Mulatto
49 mality of a legal marriage. Marriages between mulatto or "white by law" males and white women almost never occur.
The few on record are those of light-colored men of wealth who have gone to England and married white women there,
where a
of
it,
man
is
lionized not in spite of his color but because
The
or where the fact of his Negro blood is not known. 50 native families on the Island never marry outside their
official
race; any British officer or taking a colored wife.
would ruin
his career
by
Racial feeling is everywhere present in Jamaica though the insignificant number of the whites and the political recognition of the mulattoes have, in general, kept it from assum51 ing the proportions of a problem.
The
blacks are socially,
economically, and
and contentedly acthe inferior status assigned them. 52 cept Except in the
intellectually inferior
49
Needham, Journal of Race Development, Vol.
4, p. 195.
.
Some
.
stu-
There is dents at least recognize this as a desirable phenomenon. ". no such reason against the begetting of children by white men in countries
where, if they are to breed at all, it must be with women of coloured or mixed race. The offspring of such breeding, whether legitimate or illegitimate, is, from the point of view of efficiency, an acquisition to the community, and, under favourable conditions, an advance on the
." Sir Sidney Olivier, White Capital and Colpure-bred African. oured Labour, p. 38. 60 Thorp, World's Work, Vol. 8, p. 4913. See, also, W. P. Livingstone, "The West-Indian and American Negro: A Contrast," North American
. .
Review, Vol. 185, p. 647. 51 "... I am convinced that

is
this class [mulatto] as it at present exists a valuable and indispensable part of any West Indian community, and that a colony of black, coloured, and whites has far more organic effi-
more promise in it than a colony of black and white alone. The graded mixed class in Jamaica helps to make an organic whole of the community and saves it from this distinct cleavage." See, also. Olivier, White Capital and Coloured Labour, pp. 38-39. Livingstone, North American Review, Vol. 185, p. 647. M "The whites regard the negro as a primitive being, incapable as yet of standing alone, and adopt the attitude of trainers and teachers: the
ciency and far
.
.
negroes are conscious of their inferiority and willingly
fall into the po-
Mixed-Blood Races
capacity of employees they come contact with the whites.
little
71
or not at
all
into
In South Africa
In South Africa the native population is everywhere far more numerous than the Europeans the mixed element is
;
is, speaking generally, only in Cape a very considerable half-caste population is Colony that found. 53
generally small.
It
The
half-breed race
is
the early days, the
Dutch mixed
In of very complicated ancestry. to some extent with the
Hottentot women of the Cape, giving rise to the so-called Bastaards. 54 Later, as they withdrew into the interior, they
came into contact with the Abantus, who at that time were migrating from the Northwest, and produced a second type of hybrid. 55 In 1658 came the first introduction of Negro
sition
of learners."
is
647.
See, also, Johnston,

this feeling
it is
Livingstone, North American Review, Vol. 185, p. The Negro in the New World, p. 279. So uni-
versal
laitoes that
claimed that white
of inferiority on the part of the blacks and muwomen can go about unprotected in
perfect safety. 63 "In British South Africa the colored races are nearly five times as numerous as the whites." Encyclopedia Britannica: South Africa. In
1904 the white population was 1,149,336 and the colored 7,111,329. In 1911 the white population was 1,305,531 and the colored 6,890,693. By colonies H. E. S. Fremantle, The New Nation; A Survey of the Conditions
and Prospects of South Africa,
p. 179, gives the
following:
Colonies
European
579,741
142,679
Colored
1,830,063
Total
2,409,804
Cape Colony Orange R. Colony

Transvaal
244,636
387,315
1,269,951
297,277
97,109
1,116,806
972,674
1,011,645
Natal
Total
See, also,
64
1,108,754
4,059,018
5,175,824
Encyclopedia Britannica Year Book, 1913, pp. 702-12.
65
Keller, Colonization, p. 444. The Bushmen appear to have been the original South Africans.
The
72
slaves
The Mulatto

56
shortly afterwards the importation of Asiatic convicts from the East began
;
from the West African Coast
These Mohammedan Malays mixed Indian Archipelago. with the slave women from the Guinea Coast as well as with
the native Hottentot women.
There were also
slaves
from
the injection of whose blood further complicated the ethnic mix. 57 Speaking of the present-day conditions in Cape Town and Colony
Mozambique and natives from Madagascar,
as a result of an incomplete fusing of these divergent ethnic types,

.
Evans says
. .
58
:
Equally, to a Natal resident visiting Cape Town the mixed colored population of that city and neighborhood is a feature that deeply impresses him. He sees a mixture of races to which he is quite unaccus-
tomed.
Hottentot, Bushman, Mozambique black,
Ma-
lay, and other peoples from the Far East, liberated slaves from West and East, Abantu, and European all
varying proportions, to make the colored Cape people of to-day. At one end of the scale he sees men and women almost white, well educated, well spoken, well dressed, courteous and restrained in manner, and at the other end of this color scale some whom he considers inferior to the ordinary native or Indian coolie of his home.
fused, in
. . .
These mixed-blood people are at the present time the intellectual class among the blacks. The blacks are on their
native soil and never have had the advantage of a period of
Hottentots were the dominant race at the time of the settlemnt.
The
Kafir (Bantu) is a conqueror in South Africa. These people have never been enslaved and are keenly conscious of that fact; they have the instincts of a race with a proud history. Fremantle, The New Nation,
pp. 181-82.
"James Bryce, Impressions of South
Africa, p. 104.
"Encyclopedia Britannica: South Africa. 68 Maurice S. Evans, Black and White in South East Africa;
in Sociology, p. 296.
Study
Mixed-Blood Races
73
industrial training such as the Negroes in the New World received during the slave regime. They are practically all
heathen and handicapped by the lack of a culture language. In point of natural ability, the Abantus probably are considerably superior to
West African Negroes who made up
the bulk of the importations to the Americas. 59 Moreover, the blacks are such an overwhelming majority in South
Africa that they have little opportunity to acquire, or to have thrust upon them, the white man's culture; their numerical preponderance operates to their serious disadvantage.
The mixed-bloods form separate groups apart from

and from the white, and
live
the native
life
similar to their
European neighbors. In general their aims and ideals are white, though they grade off by almost imperceptible degrees into the native groups who form the great mass of the Freemantle considers them as doubtfully supopulation.
perior to the Abantus.
He
60
says
The half-castes, or coloured people, as they are generally called, have more civilization though not more character. They are showing good capacity as artiand although their position as the lower class in the towns, the dubious origin of their race, and the absence of such primitive but effective discipline as controls the Kafirs in their tribal state do not conduce to high standards of life, it cannot be said that they have proved that they are essentially lacking in the
sans,
moral
ples.
.
qualities
. .
which distinguish strong and
virile
peo-
in
Mr. Finot, however, has asserted that the Bastaards are no sense inferior to the pure whites, 61 but this seems not
M Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, pp. 378-79. w The New Nation, p. 182.
Finch, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 109, says that they have "multiplied and prospered while the pure Hottentots have rapidly decreased." ""The Griquas [Bastaards], mixed products of Hottentots and Dutch,
74
The Mulatto
to be the opinion of those with most knowledge of the actual C2 facts. Evans, for example, says
:
utterly contrary to fact to say they are equal to Europeans; either physically, [Griquas] mentally, morally, as a whole, neither are they equal The Griquas are in any single character of value. a degenerate, dissolute, demoralized people, weak and unstable, lazy and thriftless. They appear to be constitutionally immoral, far more so than either the EuroIt
is
. . .
...
pean or Bantu people among whom they live. The branch of these people with whom I am best acquainted live in Griqualand East, just south of the Natal border.
They came to this land, then unoccupied owing to native wars and thus called No Man's Land, under
their chief, some half century ago. It is one of the best parts of South Africa, well grassed and well watered, with fertile arable land, a glorious climate, with good rainfall, and healthy for all kinds of live-stock. This goodly land was parcelled out to the Griqua families in farms of from 2000 to 3000 acres. Never had a people a better start in life. To-day the land has passed from them and they live miserably as squatters, as herds for Europeans, or without definite employment, and the farms they once held are owned
Adam Kok
and occupied by Europeans, who are prosperous and thriving, and constantly advancing in the amenities of
The Griquas were not dispossessed by force; excepting for one short-lived outbreak the country has been in peace. They are simply constitutionally unable to hold gin, immorality, laziness, debt, the lack of
life.
;
foresight and inability to forego present gratification

or the Cafusos, are quite equal to pure whites, just as the cross breeds of Indian and Spanish are at least as good as the Spaniards themselves."
Finot,
Race Prejudice.
Quoted by Maurice
S.
Evans, Black and White
in the Southern States, pp. 25-26. M Black and White in the Southern States, pp. 26-2T. See, also, Friedrich Ratzel, The History of Mankind, Vol. 2, p. 295, and filisee Reclus, Africa, Vol. 4, p. 149.
Mixed-Blood Races
75
failure.
for future well-being, are the reasons for their race The methods of the incoming European were sometimes not justifiable, but the hopeless weakness of the Griqua was his undoing.
in South Africa there is a complete on the basis of color. The white inhabitants separation no difference between the various shades of Nerecognize
Between the races
groes, but
other. 63
draw an impassable color

all
line
with the whites on
one side and
No
grades of the colored population on the colored man ever enters the house of a white
except it be as a servant. Intermarriage, though permitted in the English colonies, does not occur in South Africa, and illicit relations between the races are pretty
effectually tabooed
man
race goes its dren are not admitted to the schools attended by white chil66 with the exception of a very few mission schools to dren,
64 by an intolerant public opinion. "Each own way and lives its own life." 65 Black chil-
which a few families of the poorer whites send their children because of the low fees. 07 The superiority of the white man
must be maintained even at the expense of
his sense of hu-
Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, p. 368. M "I suppose, in the opinion of the average South African, the admixture in blood of the races is the worst thing that can happen, at least for the white race, and possibly for both ... he can see the degradation of the white man, the ambiguous position of the children, often the resentment, of the native in cases of miscegenation; ." Evans, Black and White in South East Africa, p. 223. See, also, Fremantle, The New Nation, pp. 217-18. "Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, p. 375. "Evans, Black and White in South East Africa, p. 299. "Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, p. 378. 88 "Sometimes the usual relations of employer and employed are reversed, and a white man enters the service of a prosperous Kaffir. This makes no difference as respects their social intercourse, and I remember
.
76
The Mulatto The
attitude of the white
man
is
one of aversion towards
colored people. He dislikes and despises the black. The attitude of contempt is to be found in all classes though
The Dutch are more strongest in the rougher elements. bitter than the English, and more disposed to treat the native harshly.
There
is
no community of ideas and no sym-
"The black man accepts the white man as a part of the order of nasuperiority of the ture." 70 He submits patiently to the stronger race. But there is no serious friction between the white and the
69 pathy between the races.
The native is too far reblack people of South Africa. moved from the white man to appreciate or resent the white
The mixed-bloods, here as everywhere, chafe against the social ostracism from the white group with which it is their ambition to be identified, and resent the attiside of their ancestry
man's attitude. 71
tude of the white group which identifies them with the native which they are anxious to conceal and
forget.
Speaking of the half-castes Fremantle says
72
:
is
In varying degrees he possesses white blood. He permanently conscious of the fact that the infusion of that blood differentiates him completely from the natives who surround him. He feels that he has a right to a definite place in the social structure of South Africa, and he is embittered by finding that no such place is accorded to him. He has a definite place in each Colony but, as has already been stated, he is sub-
...
jected
to
different
rules
in
the
different
Colonies.
South Africa, as such, does not recognize him.

to have been told of a case in which the white " his employer should address him as 'Boss.'
And
he,
workman
stipulated that
Bryce, Impressions of
South Africa,
70
p. 367.
"Ibid., pp. 365-68.

Ibid., p. 375.
" Ibid., p. 375. " The New
Nation, pp. 319-20.
Mixed-Blood Races
77
who ought
to be a permanent support to the influence of white rule, is tempted to turn his face backwards to a more sympathetic understanding with that native
population from which he

rived.
is,
in so large
a part, de-
North American Indians
The contact of the North European races with the North American Indians more often resulted in the extermination of the Indian by slaughter or disease, than in an amalgamation of the races. During the period of settlement and colonization, there generally existed a state of potential if not of actual warfare between the races. The Indian was dis-
possessed and driven farther and farther into the interior, rather than absorbed into the new life of the country. However, there was from the first some intermingling of
the blood of the races which has continued to the present day. The French mingled freely with the Algonquian tribes
both on
the
coast
and
in
the interior.
They furnished
fathers for the great group of present-day French-Canadians. The Catholic missionaries, especially in the interior,
favored these unions and they took place to such an extent that to-day few French families in the Missouri-Illinois
region are entirely free from any trace of Indian blood. Of the fifteen thousand persons of French-Canadian descent
in
mixture. 73
Michigan, few are without some trace of Indian interIn Manitoba at the time of its admission to the
Dominion, there were some ten thousand mixed-bloods, the

result of the
Hudson Bay Company's
activities in the
Cana-
considerable per cent of the mixedbloods of the Northwest are the descendants of English and Scotch fathers. The Iroquois are largely mixed with both
dian Northwest.
78
Bureau of American Ethnology, Handbook of

I,
the
American Indians.
Part
p. 913.
78
The Mulatto
French and English blood, an appreciable amount of which came from the captives in the wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and from their tribal institution of
In the Apache, Comanche, and other warlike adoption. tribes of the Southwest, is also some admixture of captive white blood. In such cases the offspring are, in a larger
percentage of cases than is elsewhere true, the children of white mothers and Indian fathers. 74
In the early days, the unions of the whites and Indians were usually temporary alliances formed and broken at the
pleasure of the conquering white man. Almost exclusively they were unions between white men and Indian women. Occasionally, and much more frequently during the past half century, there have been alliances of a different sort. Edu-
cated individuals of some Indian blood and whites occasionally
between white
tives, it is of
have intermarried; some of these unions have been women and men of Indian blood. In how far
these mixed marriages have been dictated
by economic mo-
At
course not possible to say. 75 the present time the Indian population of the United
is
about forty per cent mixed-bloods, and considerably over nine-tenths of the mixed-bloods are Indian-white
States
crosses.
The
actual numbers and percentages are as fol-
lows: 76
Indian Population, Continental United States, 1910
Per cent
Racial Ancestry Full blood
74
Number
150,053
of Total
56.5
See Handbook of the American Indians, Part I, pp. 913-14. "Charles Alexander Eastman, "The North American Indian," InterRacial Problems, pp. 367-76.
76 Indian Population in the United States and Alaska, United States Census 1910, Supplement 1915, p. 31.
Mixed-Blood Races
79
Per Cent of Total
Racial Ancestry Mixed blood "White and Indian a Negro and Indian
Number
35.2 93,423 33.1 88,030 0.8 2,255
White, Negro and Indian Other mixtures
1,793
80
1,265 22,207
0.7 0.1
Unknown Not reported

Total
a Includes
0.5
8.3
265,683
Mexican and Indian.
100.0
"not reported" group are scattered through the white population and the great 77 Moremajority are probably individuals of mixed blood.
four-fifths of those in the
More than
over, the degree of the intermixture is appreciably greater than appears on the face of the table. Of the total number
less
of mixed white and Indian blood about twenty per cent are than half white, nearly twenty-eight per cent are one-
half Indian
of
all
and one-half white, while approximately one-half the mixed-bloods are more than one-half white. About
four-fifths of the total
number of mixed-bloods are at
least
one-half white. 78
Degree of Mixture
Less than one-half white One-half white, one-half Indian More than one-half white
Number
18,169 24,353 43,937
Per cent
20.6 27.7 49.9
In regard to the geographical distribution of the mixed79 bloods, the report gives the following table
:
m lbid., "
"Ibid., p. 31.
p. 35.
Ibid., p. 32.
80
The Mulatto
in
the United States
Mixed-Blood Races
live
81
a region sparsely populated by the whites. The Croatans, a small group of composite origin, have been in
in
contact with the whites and Negroes since the colonial days, in a region of relatively dense white population.
a tribe of mixed Iroquoian origin living in the state of New York, are the second most mixed 80 Out of a total of 1219, there are 1140 mixedgroup.
St. Regis,
The
The Navajo, a large nomadic tribe of New Mexico and Arizona, is next to the Hopi in the purity of their blood. Out of a total of 22,304, there are but 99 mixed-bloods. 81 Oklahoma is the only notable exception to the rule that the number of mixed-bloods is inversely proportional to the number of full-bloods in the region. With a large number
bloods.
of Indians,
it
also has a small proportion of full-bloods.

82
:
In
explanation of this anomaly the report says
This low proportion in Oklahoma is no doubt due in part to the fact that the possession of valuable lands by the Indians encourages intermarriages between whites and Indians, and that persons with very little Indian blood are anxious to establish their claims as members of the Indian tribes, in order that they may be entitled to participate in the distribution of lands and moneys belonging to the Five Civilized Tribes in Oklahoma.
. . .
It should also be
homa
is
tribes were
noted that some, at least, of the Oklaenormously mixed before being settled in
also that the
their present
home;
number of white people

region.
relatively large in the
Oklahoma
80 Indian Population in the United States and Alaska, United States Census 1910, Supplement 1915, p. 84.
"Ibid., p. 78. "Ibid., p. 32.
82
The Mulatto
the United States
The Negroes and

intermixed.
the Indians of most tribes have freely There never has been any legal barrier to their
intermarriage and positively there exists some fundamental grounds of sympathy between them. In the early days, they
were frequently slaves together associating on terms of soIn these cases, the Indians eventually discial equality.
appeared by absorption into the larger body of blacks, and were counted with the Negro slaves. Throughout the slave
period, there
is
occasional mention
made
of slaves of mixed
Indian and Negro blood.
Many
of the broken coast tribes
have been completely absorbed into the Negro race. 83 All these mixtures, however, now appear in the American mulatto rather than in the American Indian groups.
in the Gulf States
In certain of the tribes, notably those who formerly lived and on the Atlantic seaboard, there is
a large
tribes
84
admixture of
Negro
blood.
The
five
civilized
were large slave holders and, at the close of the Civil War, they were required to free their Negro slaves and
admit them to equal Indian citizenship. There were over twenty thousand of these adopted Negro citizens in the five
tribes in addition to those of various degrees of intermix-
ture.
The number
of Indians
doubtless far less than the actual number. 85
Negro blood in those than the amount of white blood

**
who reported Negro blood was The degree of is relatively very much less reporting
in the Indian-white crosses.
the American Indians, Part I, p. 914. "The Seminoles at this time, 1834, owned perhaps 200 slaves, their ." Minnie Moore-Willpeople had intermarried with the maroons, son, The Seminoles of Florida, p. 14. 68 "The number of Negro and Indian mixed-bloods reported, 2,255, is
84
. .
Handbook of
probably an understatement, owing to disinclination to admit Negro blood." Indian Population in the United States and Alaska, United States Census 1910, Supplement 1915, p. 38.
Mixed-Blood Races
83
86
Amount
of
Negro Blood
in the
Indian-Negro Crosses
Per cent
Degree of Mixture Less than one-half Negro
One-half Negro, one-half Indian More than one-half Negro
Number
717 729 780 29
of total
31.8 32.3 34.6

1.3
Unknown proportions
In
all
cases the fertility of the mixed unions is higher than the unions of the full-blood Indians. The greatest
amount of
full-bloods
;
sterility is
found
in the
marriages between the

is
considerably less common. The per cent of issueless marriages decreases directly with the decrease in the amount of Indian blood in the
in cases of miscegenation it
married couple.
children
is
In cases of
fertile
also less in the Indian marriages
marriages the number of than in those
that were mixed.
The marriages between mixed-blood Ne-
87 groes and Indians show the highest degree of fertility. Such study as has been made of the Indian-white mixtures in America, shows the mixed-blood race to be physically Boaz 88 in a study of the superior to the Indian type.
French-Indian mixtures, found the offspring to exceed both parents in height, to be more variable than the Indian parents and also to be more fertile. "We observe in the mixedblood race that the fertility and the laws of growth are affected, that the variability of the race is increased, and
that the resultant stature of the mixed-blood race exceeds
that of both parents." In other respects, notably in the color of skin, texture of the hair and the facial features,
87
"Ibid., p. 38. Ibid., pp. 157-58.
88 Franz Boaz, "The Half-Breed Indian," Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 45, pp. 761-70. See, also, Eugen Fischer, Die Rehobother Bastards und das Bastardierungsproblem bevm Menschen.
"Ibid., p. 766.
84
The Mulatto
is
the mixed-blood race
much nearer
to the Indian than to
the white ancestry. In the case of the Negro intermixture, the offspring incline much more to the Indian than to the
Negro
90
type.
In general, the mixture of other blood with the Indian The inhas not given rise to a special racial problem.
creasing amount of white blood in the Indian race simply has decreased the gap between the races, not by the creation of an intermediate caste, but
by a modification of
the temperament and appearance of the Indian group. 91 The mixed-blood Indian, dressed in the clothes of civilized
man, loses most of his distinctive Indian characteristics. Moreover, a trace of Indian blood is not considered a taint which it is necessary to conceal and of which the individual need feel ashamed. As a consequence, the man of mixed Indian-white ancestry who desires to do so, may escape
from the Indian group and identify himself with and become
lost in the culture
group.
frequently, however, the half-breeds have elected to remain with the mother race and to become the leaders of
Civilized Tribes are to-day far more than they are Indian. The Wyandots have Anglo-Saxon not a single full-blood. For over a century, to take a single
Most
the race.
The Five
example to
leading
80
man
status of the half-breed, every of the Cherokee Nation has had more white than
the
illustrate the
Handbook of
American Indians, Part
I, p.
365.
"Possibly also by causing his intellectual advance. At any rate "The families that have made Cherokee history were nearly all of this mixed descent. The Doughertys, Galpins, and Adairs were from Ireland; the
Rosses, Vanns, and Mclntoshes, like the McGillivrays and Graysons among the Creeks, were of Scottish origin ; the Waffords and others were
Americans from Carolina or Georgia, and the father of Sequoya was a ." See James Mooney, "]\yths of the [Pennsylvania?] German. Cherokee," 19th Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part 1,
.
p. 83.
Mixed-Blood Races
Indian blood.
85
John Ross, their most noted man, was one92 eighth Indian and seven-eighths white. Where a race problem has appeared, it has been due in most cases to an antipathy toward the Negro and Negro
mixtures, or to an effort on the part of these mixtures to The Croatan escape classification with the Negro race.
Indians of North Carolina, a mixed-blood race of Negro and white around an Indian nucleus whose identity has been
completely lost, were for years classed with the free NeThey persistently refused to accept the classificagroes.
tion or to attend the
Negro schools or churches, claiming
special privileges on the ground that they were descended from native tribes and early settlers. In 1885, they were given separate legal existence on the baseless theory that
they were descended from Raleigh's lost colony of Croatan, and separate school provision was made for them. 93 In some
distinctly Indian tribes, notably the Cherokee and Osage, there is a bitter rivalry between the mixedbloods and the full-bloods, and they have formed rival fac-
of the
more
against their Negro citizens and refuse to intermarry with them.

tions.
The Cherokees,
too,
draw a color
line
M Handbook
98
of the American Indians, Part
I, p.
914.
They are a mixture of wasted Indian tribes, forest rovers, runaway slaves and other Negroes. There are a number of other similar groups, the "Redbones" of South Carolina, the "Melungeons" of West Virginia and East Tennessee and the "Moors" of Delaware, but like the "Croatan Indians" they are rather mulatto than Indian mixtures.
p. 365.
See Ibid.,
CHAPTER
:
IV
THE MULATTO THE KEY TO THE RACE PROBLEM

review of the origin and status of the chief half-caste races has necessarily been brief
THE
foregoing
less
summary
and more or
sketch of
all
unsatisfactory.
It
does not include a
such groups, and makes no pretense of being an adequate treatment of any. Little more can be done, however, in the present state of
knowledge concerning these peoples. Of the score or more of mixed-blood races scarcely one has been made the sub1 The whole work on this ject of objective scientific study. important subject remains to be done. Any wide observa-
any thoroughgoing analysis of a has not been made. single situation, The little that is known concerning most of these racial
tion or comparison, or
groups comes from the reports of travelers and
officials
who
*Dr. Eugen Fischer's Die Rehobother Hastards und das Bastardierungsproblem beim Menschen is the only adequate, objective, scientific study that has been made of the amalgamation of two diverse racial
Fischer's general conclusion is to the effect that the interbreeding of the first generation of bastards and their crossing with the pure parent races have given rise to a group in which the physical charac-
groups.
ters of the pure-blood parent races reappear in endless
new combinations
and that no new race with approximately uniform characters has arisen. On the mental side the bastards show an intellectual capacity and variability superior to that of the Negro side of their ancestry but are as lacking in the mental energy and fixedness of the European as is the full-blood primitive group. Fischer's general position would seem to be
that two diverse races cannot
amalgamate
86
to a
new
ethnic unity.
See
note
6, p.
13 above.
The Mulatto:
the
Key
to
the
Race Problem
87
are dealing primarily with other matters. These observers frequently disagree concerning even the most obvious objective facts.
they see one
Their opportunity to observe generally is limited ; phase of a situation, seldom the whole. Moresee.
over, individual interest determines
observer of a social situation will

lead
what the non-scientific His preconceptions

is
him to
see the things for
which he
looking.
His prej-
udice may prevent him from giving an unbiased report of what he observes if, indeed, it does not actually prevent him from seeing certain facts of first-rate importance. Sweeping generalizations are made on the basis of the most par-
and inadequate observation. Seldom is any account taken of the part played by different factors at work in The amental influences behind the observed the situation.
tial
conditions are never gotten at and there is seldom a consciousness on the part of the writers that such influences
exist.
the basis of such data as are available, the object has been to give in brief space as accurate a statement as pos-
On
concerning the main facts of the miscegenation of the advanced and backward races for the light that such a comsible
parison would throw on the mulatto type and problem existing in the United States. Incomplete as are the data, and tentative as the conclusions must consequently be, enough
has been said to reveal the fact that the mulatto
to the racial situation.
scientific
is
the key
Any study of a race problem that fails to take account of the man of mixed ancestry
and the special and important part he plays,
falls
short of
a complete analysis of the situation. Any program of racial adjustment that does not recognize and provide for this special factor fails at the most vital point. Broadly speaking, the review
seems to bear out the conclusion that in

is
its
acute and troublesome form, the "race problem"
the prob-
88
The Mulatto
.lem of the mulatto.
It remains for this section to
summarize
in general
terms
certain facts in regard to the origin, growth, and status of the mixed-blood races ; to point out certain similarities in
cal
the psychological type developed, and to show the sociologiproblem that the type creates.
In every case the half-caste races have arisen as the / result of illicit relations between the men of the superior \and the women of the inferior race. 2 In India it was the
Portuguese and later the English men who mixed with the native women in Greenland it was the Danish men and the
;
was the English was the Portumen with the native and later with the guese immigrant Negro women; in other parts of South America and the Spanish West Indies, it was the Spanish males with the native and later with the Negro females in Haiti it was the French settlers with the Negro women, and so it has
native
women; on
the
Labrador coast
it
fishermen and the native
women
in Brazil it
been in
is
all
other cases.
There
is
no mixed-blood race which
the result of intermarriage between culturally unequal races and none where the mothers of the half-castes are not
of the culturally inferior race. While all the advanced races have, under certain condi-
mixed with the women of the lower races they have not done so with anything like equal readiness. Of the the Portuguese have mixed white races, the Spanish and
tions,
most easily and in largest numbers. They have mixed, moreover, with almost equal readiness with the Malay, the American Indian, and the African Negress ; and with less
repugnance than any other people with whom these lower races have come in contact. "They had never acquired, or
Sir Harry H. Johnston, "Racial Problems and the Congress of Contemporary Review, Vol. 100, p. 159.
*
Races,'*
The Mulatto:
had
the
Key
to the
Race Problem
89
lost as the result of experience,
mixture."
The French mixed
any aversion to race readily with the American
Indians but in contact with the Negroes in Haiti they mixed relatively little. The English have crossed with all
the lower races, but
much more
slowly than have the Latin
Moreover, the English mix less readily with the peoples. than with the Indians, and more slowly with these Negroes than with certain of the brown races. 4 Bryce summarizes
the situation in these words:
. , .
we may say that while Roughly speaking the races of the same, or a similar, colour intermarry freely, those of one colour intermarry very little with those of another. This is most marked as between the white and the black races. The various white races are, however, by no means equally averse
. . .
all
such unions. Among the Arabs and Turks the sense of repulsion from negroes is weakest, The South European races, though disinclined to such unto
. . .
A. G. Keller, Colonization, pp. 104, 216, 219. The History of Colonization, Vol. 1, p. 249.
4
See, also,
H.
C. Morris,
B. L.
Putnam Weale [Weale
is
the pseudonym of Mr. B. L. Simp-
son], "The Conflict of Color," World's Work, Vol. 19, p. 12,328, points out the same preference on the part of the Chinese. They mate readily with "many varieties of brown maidens" but avoid the black. See, also,
U. G. Weatherly,
Vol. 79, p. 480.
"A World Wide
Color Line," Popular Science Monthly,
"James Bryce, Relations of Advanced and Backward Races, pp. 18See, also, Bryce, "Migrations of the Races of Men," Contemporary ". Whether in each case of dispersion Review, Vol. 62, p. 130. the migrating population becomes fused with that which it finds, depends chiefly on the diiference between the level of civilization of the two races." Luis Cabrera, "The Mexican Revolution Its Causes, Purposes and Results," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
19.
.
civilized races
Science, Supplement, Jan. 1917, p. 5, states the order of ease with which fuse with the Mexican mixed-blood race as follows: 1.
2. German, 3. French, and 4. American and Engtwo races "nearly always" blend; the last two "hardly
Spanish and Italian,

lish.
The
first
ever."
90
ions,
The Mulatto
do not wholly eschew them. ... In modern times the Spanish settlers in the Antilles and South America, and the Portuguese in Brazil, as well as on the East and West coasts of Africa, have formed many unions with negro women, as the Spaniards have done with the Malayan Tagals in the Philippines, and the Portuguese with the Hindus in Malabar. There is to-day a negro strain in many of the whites of Cuba, and a The averstill stronger one in the whites of Brazil.
the Teutons. Indies did, indeed, during the days of slavery, become the parents of a tolerably large mixed population, as did But they scarcely ever the Dutch in South Africa.
sion to color reaches its
maximum among
The English
in
North America and the West
intermarried with the free coloured people: ... So the English in India have felt a like aversion to marriages with native women, and even such illicit connections as were not rare a century ago are now seldom found. Where a white race comes into contact with the sothe sense of recalled "red" or "yellow" race
.
pulsion is much less pronounced. The English settlers intermarry, though less frequently than the French The Spandid, with the aborigines of America. iards have been still less fastidious. All over Central and South America they have become commingled with the aborigines, especially, as was natural, with the
. .
more advanced
tribes.
Another element that conditions the amount of miscegenation that takes place between the members of two divergent races is the class of the superior race that comes into con-
In most of the early contacts of the white race with the darker races, the white race has been
tact with the native race.
represented by
its
adventurer and outcast classes. 6
In Cen. .
8 "Most race crossing has occurred on the outskirts of civilization, ." Earl Finch, "The Effects of Racial Miscegenation," Inter-Racial Prob-
The Mulatto:
tral
the
Key
to
the
Race Problem
91
and South America, the adventurers and the clergy
were reinforced by convicts sentenced to death or mutilation who had their sentences commuted on condition that
Greenland was practically they emigrate to the colonies. with a forced immigration of orphan a Danish penal colony
boys to recruit the teaching force and the inferior clergy. South Africa was made the dumping ground for Asiatic convicts. Portugal unloaded on her Brazilian colony not
only her convicts but her prostitutes as well. Aside from the criminal and the vicious, however, the military and the adventurer classes are hardly more typical of the moral
sense of a community, but they usually have been the first
representatives of the superior race with peoples have come in contact.
whom
the nature
Of more importance, perhaps, than

considerations
of
is
either race or class
women
the matter of the presence or the absence of the higher race. In the absence of their own
all divisions
women, men of
of the white race have inter-
mixed, though not with equal readiness, with the women of 'the lower races. Where women have been present some in-
termixture has
still
gone on, but never in the wholesale way
that characterizes the trading, as distinguished from the the presence or abIt is to this fact settlement, colony.
sence of
women
of the culture race
that Keller seems in-
clined to attribute the differences in the
amount of
inter-
mixture with the native races in the North American and

the South
in the
latter. 7
American
;
colonies.
in
White women were present

in the
former
and few
number, or entirely absent,
See, also, Felix von Luschan, "Anthropological View of Race," Inter-Racial Problems, p. 23. See, also, E. A. Ross, South of Panama, pp. ''Colonization, p. 14.
Urns, p. 111.
109
ff.
92
The Mulatto
Comparison is likewise challenged in respect to marriage and the family. The fundamental factors which rendered the conditions of the tropical colonies so different from those, say, of the New England settlements, were the great preponderance of males, and the feeble economic efficiency of such females as were present. The former factor led to formal celibacy, intermixture of races, and aberrations all but unknown in all this amounting to societies of the other type, a negation of matrimony in the sense characteristic of the temperate colony. The other factor, economic inefficiency, minimized the importance of woman's status the materfamilias had no such independent and influential position in the tropics as in the cooler regions. And where woman was absent or of little significance, there could be little of the family life and solidarity
;
characteristic of
many
settlement colonies.
the increase of women and the consequent equalizing of the sexes of the white race, the miscegenation with the native women everywhere has tended to decrease. But the
With
families,
coming of women, usually as the members of immigrating has meant, also, a change in the class of men who
It has indicated that the
were immigrating to the colony.
settler and the home seeker was displacing the adventurer so that a difference in the sexual relations of the races is
to be expected quite apart from whatever influence the presence of women might have.
It is sometimes held that the institution of slavery was responsible for the origin of the mixed-blood races through the compulsory concubinage of the slave women by the mas-
ter class.
But mixed-blood
races have arisen where the in-
stitution of slavery has not prevailed.
The North American
Indians were never successfully enslaved, yet they have intermixed with every other race with whom they have come
in contact.
The same
fact
is
to be noted in other regions.
The Mulatto:
the
Key
to
the
Race Problem
93
Slavery did not exist in Greenland, nor in the Philippines, nor in India or elsewhere in Asia. The simple fact of the case seems to be that the women of the lower races every-
where seek sex relations with the men of the superior race Ratzel 8 comments upon "the ease with which or caste.
Malay women form transitory

and adds that "nearly
all
alliances with foreigners," the so-called Chinese women in
Banca are half-breeds from Malayan mothers." Keller 9 says of the Eskimo women that "illicit relations with white men are rather a glory than a disgrace." Of the Indian
women, Lee
is the seducer and it is the proudest when she has allied herself with a man of a superior race," while Crooke 11 points out the fact that a failure on the part of girls of certain castes to attract the attention and have sex relations with men of
10
says "she
life
moment
of her
a higher class ruins their chances to secure husbands in their own group, and that for a girl to claim such an honor
is legal grounds for divorce on the part of the outhusband. 12 It seems to be the usual situation everyraged where that the women of the lower races or the lower castes
falsely
desire, seek, fee!
honored by the attention of the higher class and are enormously proud of their light-skinned, halfmen,
caste children.
The
effect of slavery, so far as
any
effect
can be shown, seems to be to lessen the amount of intermixture by separating and restraining the vicious elements, and so preventing an indiscriminate sexual relation.
Once started, the half-caste races everywhere increase

"Friedrich Ratzel, The History of Mankind, Vol.
9 10
11
1,
p. 438.
Mary Helen Lee, The Eurasian: A Social Problem, p. 5. W. Crooke, "The Stability of Caste and Tribal Groups
in
India,"
Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. 44, pp. 270-81.

13
Edward Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage,
pp. 65-67,
76-77, 81.
94
The Mulatto
ward race. and the men
rapidly in numbers and always at the expense of the backIllicit relations between the half-breed women
of the superior race are the normal situation after the mixed-blood race has become sufficiently large to
allow the forces of sexual selection to operate.
The
half-
breed men in their turn prey upon the women of the pureblood native race. Both result in additions to the mulatto
group.
viduals
is
Moreover, the marriage of the mixed-blood indiin nearly every case with their own or a lighter
color, hence the natural, legitimate increase is

so.
13
normal or
nearly In some cases, especially after the earlier crosses have produced a somewhat choicer type of female, there has come
to be some intermarriage.
small
number of Danes form
temporary marriage unions with the mixed-blood Eskimo women in Greenland, though the women and children are deserted
when the man
retires
from
official life.
The unions
of the Chinese with the native
women
in the Philippines is
a form of marriage very similar to that practiced by the Danes and Eskimo women of Greenland. There is some
intermarriage between the middle-class or low-class whites and the mixed-breed races of Latin America. In Brazil the
wealthy
and near-white mulattoes and metis sometimes marry immigrant and other white women. Occasionally
among
13
the Indian tribes in the United States, are to be

illegitimate children that
It
would be quite normal except for the
the
women of
the mixed-blood race bear to white men.
These, how-
ever, cannot all be counted as substitutes for children of a mixed-blood
father.
They are usually born before the
girl
forms a regular sexual
union with one of her own class and are in general to be looked upon as extra-matrimonial additions to the class. Such relations seem generally
not to be a bar to the girl forming a regular matrimonial alliance with one of her own class and in some cases at least gives her a decided
prestige.
The Mulatto:
the
Key
to the
Race Problem
95
found white men and women married to wealthy Indians and

half-breeds.
In most of these situations
if
not in
all,
intermarriage
is
Where it takes place, the the exception and not the rule. motive is to be looked for in the economic status compelling
of the colored
man
or woman, in the scarcity of
women
of
In all the advanced race, or in a combination of the two. other situations, mixed marriages are very rare though isolated cases occur in all countries.
All in
all,
the
number
of mixed marriages that occur in any country with an advanced race and a backward race in the population, is very
trivial as
compared
to the
amount of amalgamation that
takes place between the races outside the marriage bond. In general, the half-breed children are disowned by their
fathers though this
is
not always the case.
Where
the
unions take the form of a fairly permanent marriage, as with some of the Danish-Eskimo and many of the Chinese-
Malay unions, the offspring are acknowledged and cared for. The Chinaman is even said to be inordinately proud
In the colonial days,' the Spanand the Portuguese in South America in some cases acknowledged their mixed-blood offspring by the Negro and native women, and provided for their education and trainof his half-breed progeny.
ish
ing.
In general, however, the child followed the status of the mother. 14 The French in Canada in the colonial days
often showed
much fondness
dian women.
for their offspring by the InIn Haiti their unions with the Negro women
were of a casual sort; the fathers showed little concern for their mulatto progeny. The British never have acknowl14
"The amalgamation of the negroes by the Mohammedans
is
facili-
tated particularly by the institution of polygamy, the conquerors taking native wives, and raising their children as members of their own famFranz Boaz, The Mind of Primitive Man, p. 15. ily."
96
The Mulatto
edged their offspring by a lower race.

sea-port cities of Asia, the offspring in
result of
In India and the
offspring be said that individual fathers, more frequently in some places than in others, have acknowledged and cared for
their half-caste children but that this has at
many cases are the a casual meeting; the father may not know his or even know of their existence. In general it may
no time or
place been the rule. The status of the mixed-blood race tends to differ from
that of either of the parent races. It is not everywhere the same, however, and the status of a single group is not the
same at different
factors
times.
The operation
the racial differences
and the cultural
of the two prime differences
is modified of the pure-blood groups by historical factors and by the prevailing social situation.
culture.
in
There are almost infinite gradations of both color and There are, however, four different combinations which these factors may appear. The two races in con-
tact in a given geographical situation may be practically alike both as to color and as to culture. There may be an
essential equality of culture, but a wide diversity in color
or other physical characteristics.
They may be widely
different as to cultural development, yet essentially alike as to color and other ethnic characters. Finally they may diverge both in cultural and in racial characteristics. The inter-racial situation differs in each case
and the status of

situation ordi-
the half-caste race likewise differs.
The
first
narily does not give rise to a lasting racial problem* The third case may or may not do so. In the second, a characteristic
form of the race problem appears. It is in the fourth, however, that the problem emerges in its most characteristic present day form and presents the most
troublesome social situation.
Each
of the phases will be
The Mulatto:
noted in turn.
the
Key
to the
Race Problem
97
Of the innumerable bastard races produced by the commingling of primitive groups, none seems to have acquired
a distinct status in the community life. Where there exist no fundamental differences in culture and no wide ethnic
divergence, there soon comes to be an intermingling of the cultures of the two groups in contact, or a cultural assimilation of the one
by the
other.
As
The
friendly intercourse
lines gives way individuals of mixed
increases, the original separation

little
on race
by
little
to a class division.
direction.
ancestry who practically always appear are a help in this They serve as a tie between the originally hostile
groups and their lack of a distinctive appearance militates against their being made into a special class in the community.
In the process of racial amalgamation, the group
of lesser numerical strength presently loses itself within the
withlarger becomes an integral part of the community out greatly altering the ethnic type of the larger group. Where the numerical strength of the two groups is more
nearly equal, the intermixture of the two races leads to the formation of a homogeneous hybrid race in which the distinctive features of the parent races blend and disappear. Between closely related ethnic groups, as different branches of the same race, intermarriage is governed by much the
rules as govern the marriage of individuals within same branch. It is a question of association and of sufficient time to allow of mutual understanding and appre-
same
the
ciation.
Oppenheimer,
15
discussing the formation of the primitive
state through the subjugation of one and their gradual reduction to an ethnic
18 Franz Oppenheimer, The State; Vfawed Sociologically, pp. 80-81,
group by another and cultural unity,

and Development
Itg
History
98
says:
The Mulatto
the United States
The two groups, separated to begin with, and . . then united on one territory, are at first merely laid along side one another like a mechanical mixture, as the term is used in chemistry, until gradually they become more and more of a "chemical combination."
.
They
A race of bastards thus develops, sometimes taken into the ruling class, sometimes rejected, and then because of the blood of the masters in their veins, becoming the born leaders of the subject race. In form and content the primitive state is completed.
cubines.
intermingle, unite, amalgamate to unity, in cusSoon the toms and habits, in speech and worship. bonds of relationship unite the upper and the lower strata. In nearly all cases the master class picks the handsomest virgins from the subject races for its con-
Where each of the two races in contact possesses a culture and a civilization, yet differ markedly in physical appearance, the mixed-blood race tends to become an outcast
group.
distinctive physical
appearance makes
it
impos-
hybrids to pass as individuals of either race. cannot rise, as a group, superior to either of the parThey ent races. Both races despise and reject them.
sible for the
This appears to be the status of the Eurasian of India and of the various European-Asiatic half-castes. The Orientals, as the East Indians, have a civilization in which they believe, and a pride of race that is often more intolerant
than that of the Caucasian.
They do not
consciously ad-
mit the superiority of European culture. are not serially arranged; one is not so
The civilizations much higher than
the other as that they are different civilizations. In this situation there is no place for the half-castes. They are
neither
Asiatic
nor European.
They are accepted by
neither race and they can rise superior to neither.
The Mulatto:
the
Key
to the
Race Problem
99
Where the two peoples, essentially alike as to ethnic characters but different as to cultural development are brought
into close contact
and
association, a
lem
may
or
may
not arise.
Even though
permanent race probcolor and other
physical features are not sufficiently divergent to create, or serve as a basis for, an antipathy; the peoples may be so tempermen tally constituted as to make it impossible for
tions.
them to arrive at any mutually satisfactory working relaTheir interests may so clash as to keep them even
from approaching anything like kindly feeling and unity Their political ideas may diverge. Their reof purpose. beliefs may differ. Their distinctive manners, cusligious
The differtoms, and habits of life may be at variance. ences may be so marked that toleration may be impossible
the one or the other or a
and accommodation come about only by the elimination of more or less complete separation
along racial
lines.
The
established customs
and the habits
of thought and action, differences in speech, dress, religion, and the like that set them off as a distinct people, may be
nursed and deified and every effort made to prevent assimilation of the one by the other. This, however, is the problem of the immigrant ;
it is
the problem of nationalities.
It,
for the most part, falls outside the present discussion. The half-races that appear, differ too slightly from either of
the parent races for them to be easily distinguishable. Individuals may therefore pass in either group and be judged
according to their personal ability and worth. They do not represent a type. Individual initiative and opportunity
are the things required to raise the individual to a higher
class.
When
color differences coincide with differences in culture
levels, then color becomes symbolic and each individual is automatically classified by the racial uniform he wears.
100
The Mulatto
If the proportions of the two groups be such that the racial purity and cultural traits of one group are potentially
threatened,
the
initial
conflict
may
settle
chronic
state
of
racial
contempt or hatred.
down into a The more
widely the races differ in appearance, culture, language, remore ligion, anything that serves to distinguish them, the
bitter will be the feeling existing between them.
The more
unalterable the differences, the more permanent will be their mutually hostile attitude. The greater the danger the back-
ward group
will
is felt to be to civilized standards, the greater 16 be the intolerance of the culture group. Where the two groups in a racial situation thus have
differed widely both in culture
and in color, they everywhere have tended toward an adjustment on the basis of superiand subordination.
ority
enslaved
The Portuguese and the Spanish or exterminated the natives of the West Indies and
on the mainland of South America.
In the Philippines, the the native Moros. The Danes reduced Spanish subjugated the Eskimos to a dependent status. The settlers of North
America exterminated the Indians or drove them into the

interior as did the English settlers in Australia. The Negro has been reduced to the status of a slave by every people with whom the race has come in contact.
Where
the status of one race
is
absolutely inferior to that
of the other
and the
social separation complete, the adjust-
ment of the races is frequently a harmonious one. The accommodation of the races under a slave regime, for example, is in general marked by a singular lack of racial friction.
Under
the condition of freedom with its consequent
greater differentiation within the ranks of the backward group, the racial superiority and inferiority become less
"See Bryce, Relations of Advanced and Backward Races. Weatherly, Popular Science Monthly, pp. 478-79,
See, also,
The Mulatto:
the
Key
to
the
Race Problem
101
Friction absolute and the social separation less complete. arises and prejudice becomes active when, and to the extent that, the unlike races
petition.
come into association and com-
there has been this absolute separation of superior and inferior groups, the half-castes, as a class, have
Where
tended to acquire a distinct status in the life of the community. This status is, in general, above that of the colored race, and inferior to the position occupied by the dominant race. They everywhere tended to become a middle
class between the races and a connecting link between the extremes of the population. In the Philippines, the Spanish mestizo stood midway, socially, between the parent elements. 17 The Chinese-Moro half-breed was superior to the
Moro and not markedly
inferior to the Chinese.
The same
midway position was reached by the mulatto races of the

18 the metis of Brazil, 19 the mixed-blood English possessions, 20 race of South Africa and the various Indian-white mix-
tures in
Mexico and
in
Central and South America. 21
This tendency of the mixed-blood group to rise superior to their racial status generally has been modified by the cirIn South Africa, because of their numerical insignificance and because of the racial intolerance of the small white group, 22 the tendency
cumstances of the social situation.
"Carl Crow, "What About the Filipinos?", World's Work, Vol.

p. 519.
18
26,
W.
P. Livingstone,
"The West-Indian and American Negro," North

185, p. 646.
American Review, Vol.
"Jean Baptiste de Lacerda, "The Metis, or Half Breeds, of

Inter-Racial Problems, p. 381.
30
Brazil,"
Maurice
S.
in Sociology, pp.
Evans, Black and White in South East Africa; 298 ff.
Study
pp.
481, 492.
* This intolerant attitude
"James Bryce, South America; Observations and Impressions, Ross, South of Panama, pp. 29-30, 40-41, 92, 111.
finds its
explanation in the fact that the
102
The Mulatto
the United States
was to thrust them back upon the lower race. In Brazil and in general throughout Spanish America, the numerical
strength of the mixed-blood group, in the presence of a relatively weak sense of either race or national pride on the
part of the ruling group, has enabled them to claim social In some cases, they apparrecognition from the whites. have risen to the upper class standards; in other ently cases, they have debased the higher standards to the level
of the mongrel group.
In Jamaica the insignificant number
of the ruling race has counseled the "divide and rule" policy. The natural tendency of the mulatto to rise above the blacks
has been fostered, while a rigid separation from the whites has been maintained. Thus they occupy a distinct middleclass status in the
community
life.
23
Psychologically, the mulatto is an unstable type. In the thinking of the white race, the mulattoes generally
the contempt
ries all the
are grouped with the backward race and share with them and dislike of the dominant group. Nowhere
are they accepted as social equals. The discrimination vaway from the more or less successfully concealed
contempt of the Brazilian white for the socially ambitious

whites were a small, isolated group in the presence of an overwhelming number of primitive peoples. "That cry, which unceasingly for genera-
rung out from the Boer woman's elbow-chair, 'My children, Do always as you have seen your father and mother do was no cry of weak conservatism, fearful of change; it was the embodiment of the passionate determination of a great, little people, not to lose the little it possessed and so sink in the scale of being. To laugh at the conservatism of the Boer is to laugh at the man who, floating above a whirlpool, clings fiercely with one hand to the only outstretching rock he can reach, and who will not relax his hold on it by one finger, till he has found something firmer to grasp." Olive Schreiner, "The African Boer," Cosmopolitan, Vol. 29, p. 602.
tions has
never forget that you are white men!

!'
23
Their caste feeling of superiority tends to keep them a separate type.

p. 110.
See Finch, Inter-Racial Problems,
The Mulatto:
metis, to the
the
Key
to the
Race Problem
103
for the "coloured
open and bitter hatred of the South African man" and the Native boy, but it seems to
be present everywhere.
The
origin of the half-castes was

this is
everywhere an irregular one; prejudice can always center.
a point about which Their nearer approach in
physical appearance to the white type is simply taken as evidence of additional irregularities in ancestry. The two
the lower ancestry and the presumption of a duthings are the focal points about which the white bious origin man's contempt for the mixed-blood group centers.
By
the native race, the mixed-blood
accepted as superior.
evidence of
udice.
The possession superiority. The ancestral
group is generally of white blood is an
The mulattoes
blot excites no prejare envied because of their color and
among the darker group because of it. Between these two groups, one admiring and the other despising, stand the mixed-bloods. In their own estimation, they are neither the one nor the other. They despise the
lower race with a bitterness born of their degrading association with it, and which is all the more galling because it
needs must be concealed.
it
enjoy a prestige
They everywhere endeavor to esand to conceal and forget their relationship to it. cape They are uncertain of their own worth conscious of their
;
superiority to the native they are nowhere sure of their equality with the superior group. They nvy the white,
aspire to equality with them, realization of such ambition
dissatisfied
and are embittered when the

is
denied them.
They
are a
It is this discontented
and an unhappy group. and psychologically unstable group
which gives rise to the acute phases of the so-called race

problem.
of the primitive group, recognizing the hopelessness of measuring up to the standards of the white race, are generally content and satisfied with their
The members
104
The Mulatto
in
the United States

is
lower status and happy among their own race. It mixed-blood man who is dissatisfied and ambitious.
real race
is
the
The
problem before each country whose population divided into an advanced and a backward group, is to
determine the policy to be pursued toward the backward group. The acute phase of this is to determine the policy To reject the to be adopted toward the mixed-bloods.
claims and to deny the ambition of the mulattos may cause them to turn back upon the lower race. In this case, they may become the intellectual leaven to raise the race to a
higher cultural level, or they may become the agitators create discord and strife between the pure-blood races.
who
To
form them into a separate caste between the races, is to lessen the clash between the extreme types and, at the same
time, to deprive the
to advance in culture
intellectual leaders.
members of the lower race of their chance by depriving them of their natural,
To
admit the ambition of the mulattoes
to be white
and to accept them into the white race on terms
of individual merit, means ultimately a mongrelization of the population and a cultural level somewhere between that
represented by the standards of the two groups. The actual policy that has been adopted towards the mixed-blood race in different countries and the consequent
role that the
mulatto plays in different situations
will
be
made the subject of a later chapter. 24 The tentative conclusions here reached by a review
of
the mixed-blood races outside the American mulatto group, will be further verified or modified by a closer investigation
into the origin, growth, status, and role of the mulatto in the United States.
"Chapter
12.
CHAPTER V
THE AMOUNT OF RACE INTERMIXTURE
IN
THE UNITED STATES
INures
Negro-white crosses, the characteristic negroid featpersist with noticeably greater relative tenacity
In the
than do the characteristic Caucasian features. 1
mixed-blood population, therefore, the great majority of those individuals in whom Negro blood predominates pass as
Negroes of pure blood, while
in crosses
where the white blood
largely predominates, the Negro characteristics are still 2 As a result, that part of the population quite noticeable.
commonly classed as mulatto contains far more white than Negro blood, and the actual number of mixed-bloods is
Boaz, in studying Indian-white crosses, found similar results. "We . the remarkable fact that the Indian type has a stronger influence upon the offspring than the white type. The same fact is ex1
find
the half-breeds."
pressed in the great frequency of dark hair and of dark eyes among Franz Boaz, "The Half-Breed Indian," Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 45, p. 768. See, also, The Mind of Primitive Man,
pp. 78
ff; and "Zur Anthropologie der nordamerikanischen Indianer." Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fur Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte. 27:366 if.; and F. von Luschan, "Die Tachtadschy u. andere Ueberreste der alten Bevolkerung Lykiens," Archiv fur Anthropologie, 19:31 ff., who points out the same fact as regards the mixed population of Southern Asia Minor. See James Oliver, "The Hereditary
Tendency to Twinning," Eugenics Review, Vol. 4, p. 40. 8 H. Gregoire estimated that five generations with no Negro blood after the original cross were necessary to make it possible for a Negro to pass as a white man. Literature of Negroes, p. 29. "Where the proportion is less than one-eighth of African blood the distinction of class ." The Compendium of the Seventh Census of begins to be obscured,
.
.
the
United States, 1850,
p. 62.
105
106
likely to
The Mulatto
3 The be greater than a set of census figures shows. desire, too, of the Negroes themselves to claim as full-blood all dark mulattoes of prominence tends further to obscure
the facts.
Moreover, the actual statistics of race intermixture in 4 are of the most meager sort, and those the United States 5 This is more available are not always wholly dependable.
especially the case as investigation is pushed toward the beginning of the group. The only general statistics are those of the Federal Censuses of 1850, 1860, 1870, 1890
and 1910. No other general census made a distinction in the returns between the full-blood and the mixed-blood Negroes.
Prior to 1850, that is for four-fifths of the period that the Negro has been in America, there are only occastatistical reports of sections, for special purposes. institution of slavery is indigenous to Africa, and
cities
sional estimates
states, or
and partial
made
The
morial.
the slave trade has been carried on there since time imme-
At
the time of the
American colonization and de-
velopment, the traffic in African slaves, captured on the West Coast, or purchased from the native African slave
8
C. K. Needhara,
"A Comparison
of Some Conditions in Jamaica with
those in the United States," Journal of Race Development, Vol. 4, p. individuals 192, calls attention to the fact that in Jamaica the sambos
about three-fourths Negro blood usually do not return themselves as mixed bloods. It is notorious that in this country many brown Negroes
call
themselves full bloods and so pass in their group.
It
is
the excep-
tional Negro,
of course, who knows what his ancestry was for more than a generation. See, for example, William Pickens, Th'e Heir of Slaves, p. 4. 4 In South America and Central America and Mexico the statistics are wholly unreliable as the tendency is for every one to call himself white if he has any trace of white blood. See p. 47 above. 6 "The censuses of mulattoes, as distinguished from full-blooded negroes, taken in 1850, 1860, 1870 and 1890, though subject to a far greater
and wholly indeterminate probable error, have shown a general agreement of results." United States Census, 1890, Population, Vol. I, Part
1, p.
185.
Amount
dealers,
of
Race Intermixture
in United States
107
was an important and profitable business carried on with the sanction of the more important nations of Europe. American colonization opened a new market for
the slave dealers and slavery was introduced into most of the colonies almost as soon as they were founded. 6 Georgia was the only exception. This colony started with ordi-
nances against the institution, but political pressure from the mother country, combined with business competition
and
social pressure at
home, overcame the
first
intention so
that slavery was introduced into the colony and legalized seventeen years after its founding.
For a century there was a very slow increase in the number of Negroes in the colonies. 7 Increased importabegan after about the middle of the eighteenth cenFor tury, and the number of Negro slaves grew rapidly. of a century, the natural increase was being three-quarters
tions
constantly added to by an ever and ever greater- importaThe actual number of importations, as well as the actual number of slaves, can only be estimated. 8
tion.
Virginia 1619; Massachusetts before 1633; Connecticut from the first settlement of the colony; Maryland 1634 or earlier; Delaware probably in 1636; Georgia 1749; Rhode Island and each of the remaining colonies
had slaves from their founding. 7 The Compendium of the Seventh Census of the United States, 1850, p. 83, quotes from Mr. Carey's work on the Slave Trade as follows: ". the trade in negro slaves to the American colonies was too small
.
before 1753 to attract attention."

8
Carey's estimate of slave importations:
Prior to 1715
30,000
90,000
17151750 17511760 17611770 17711790 17911808

Total
"It
is
35,000
74,000
34,000
70,000
333,000
is
claimed, however, that this total
too small, and that a closer
108
The Mulatto
in
the
United States
The number
of the Negroes was very different in the dif-
ferent colonies, though there was an increase in number in all sections of the country until at least the middle of the
"At the beginning of the eighteenth century, negro slavery was considered by the settlers of the colonies as a usual and routine matter, and in the New England
century.
and Middle Colonies, as well as in the South, the possession of slaves was generally accepted as an evidence of wealth and importance in the community." By the middle of the
10 legal sanction in each of the colonies. "Mr. estimate would bring the number to 370,000 or even 400,000." Carey's figures indicate that the average annual importation was about
century
it
existed
by
1715 and 1750, and 3,500 for the period between 1751 The following decade was the period of greatest activity, the importations reaching an average of 7,400 a year. For the 20 years from
2,500 between
and
1760.
1771 to 1790 the average fell to 1,700, but for the period immediately preceding the legal abolition of the slave traffic in the United States it was more than double that number." A Century of Population Growth, United States Census, 1890, p. 36.
Ibid., p. 37.
"Slave population:
Colonies
1715 a
1,500
...
...
1775 a
5,000
1790 b
2,648
8,887
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
9,000
16,000
29,264 103,036
Maryland New Hampshire
9,500
80,000
150
1,500
629
7,600
157
11,423
New Jersey New York

North Carolina
Pennsylvania
4,000
3,700
2,500 c
15,000
21,193
100,783
3,707
75,000
10,000
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Virginia Massachusetts
500
10,500
4,373
958
107,094
110,000
165,000
3,500
23,000
2,000
292,627
aG.
325.
W.
Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol.
1,
p.
*A
c
Century of Population Growth, p. 132. Includes Delaware.
Amount
of Race Intermixture in United States
109
The crossing of the races began from the very first introduction of the Negroes into the country. The first law in regard to slavery was an act not to establish, or even
rule
to provide a legal basis for, the institution but to "fix a by which the status of mulatto children could be de11
termined."
the
This was in 1662, forty-three years after

sold to the planters of
Dutch traders had
Jamestown
the first African Negroes brought to America. The total at the time probably did not exceed one thoupopulation
sand. 12
In Maryland the
1663.
13
first
its
It
had for
statute concerning slavery was in object the deterring of English

the the
women from marrying with slaves and had to do with offspring of Negro slaves who had intermarried, or in
14
future should intermarry, with white women. This was twenty years after the first introduction of slavery into the
colony.
Massachusetts already was requiring military service of certain classes of her free Negroes and mulattoes by 1707,
though the total number of Negroes at the time scarcely exceeded half a thousand, most of whom had come in dur15 Intermixing the quarter of a century just preceding.
11
J.
H.
Russell,
The Free Negro in Virginia,
p. 19.
it
1648 the number was about 300; in 16TO See Chambers, American Colonies, Vol. 2, p. 7.
"In
was given
as 2,000.
"Slavery seems to have been mentioned incidentally in a law proposed in 1638. See J. W. Cromwell, The Negro in American History,
p. 3.
"Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 240. 1676 there were said to be some two hundred Negroes, chiefly from Guinea and Madagascar in the colony. Four years later Governor there may be within our Government Bradstreet estimated that ".
"In
there are very few about one hundred or one hundred and twenty In 1708 Governor Dudley estimated the num." blacks borne here.
.
ber at 550.
G. H. Moore, Notes on the History of Slavery in Massa-
110
The Mulatto
ture must have begun early in order that there could be a body of mixed-bloods at this time sufficiently numerous Eleven to be made the object of legislative enactment.
years later, another act was passed having for its object the fixing of the status of mulatto slaves and mulattoes
who were servants for a term
of years.
In Pennsylvania intermixture was already going on before the colony was ceded to William Penn in 1681. A white
servant was indicted in 1677 for having sexual intercourse
16 settlement in Sussex County bore the with a Negro. name of "Mulatto Hall." 17 In 1698 the County Court of
Chester County forbade the mixture of races. 18 Again in 1722, a woman was punished for "abetting a clandestine
The marriage between a white woman and a negro." same year the Assembly received a petition praying for relief
from the "wicked and scandalous practice of Negroes 20 A general law of 1725-26 cohabiting with white people.
forbade the mixture of the races.
By
the close of the colo-
hundred years after the colony was ceded to William Penn, 1681 the mulattoes constituted twenty
nial period, one
per cent of the slave population of Chester County. Nearly half the Negroes in Pennsylvania were free at that time. 21
The percentage of mulattoes was doubtless greater among them than among the total Negro population or among
the slaves.
What was
land,
true in this respect in regard to Virginia,
Marycolo-
and Pennsylvania was equally true of the other
See, also, Williams, History of the Negro Race in chuselts, pp. 49 ff. America, Vol. 1, pp. 183, 184. 16 E. R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, p. 29.
"Ibid., p. 30.
**Ibid., p. 30.
"Ibid., p. 30.
lbid., p. 30.
In 1790 the slaves numbered 3,707 and the free Negroes Century of Population Growth, pp. 222-23.
21
6,531.
Amount
nies.
first
of
Race Intermixture
United States
111
In New York, in 1706, twenty-two years after the introduction of Negroes, mulattoes were sufficiently numerous to be made the subject of legislative enactment.
series of
Connecticut began her black code in 1690 by passing a measures in which mulattoes were enumerated with
22 Negroes and Indians.
The
first
act of
Rhode Island was
one recognizing the manumitting or setting free of mulatto and Negro slaves. 23 New Hampshire never legally estab-
but as early as 1714 passed several laws the conduct of "Indian, Negro and mulatto serregulating The first legislation of Delaware in vants or slaves." 24
lished slavery,
North Carolina was settled 17&1 mentions mulattoes. 25 from Virginia and as some of the settlers brought slaves
with them into the new territory, there were probably muThe lattoes in the colony as soon as there were Negroes.
statutory recognition of slavery was in an act against 26 South Carolina's first posiintermarriage passed in 1715.
first
tive slave act,

toes,
1712, mentions
27
mestizos as well as mulat-
members of these who were slaves.
Negroes, and Indians, and implies that there were classes who were free as well as members
Jersey the usual formula including Negro, Indian, and mulatto slaves appears in the 28 legislation at least as early as 1714.
In
New
23
B. C. Steiner,
liams, History of the

23
History of Slavery in Connecticut, pp. 12-13. Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 254.
Wil-
Ibid,, Vol. I, pp. 262-63.
"Ibid., p. 310.
"Ibid., p. 250.
26
J. S. Bassett,
p. 15.
Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Caro-
lina,,
* Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 290. " H. S. Cooley, A Study of Slavery in New Jersey, p. 39. "In 1704 'An Act for regulating negroe, Indian and mulatto slaves within the province of New Jersey,' was introduced, but was tabled and disallowed." Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 285,
112
While
it
The Mulatto
is
in
the United States
thus clearly evident that the mixture of the races went on in all the colonies from a very early date, no definite information exists as to the number of mulattoes
at any time during the colonial period. reason to believe that it was relatively
29
There
is
every
more rapid than
during the period that slavery existed as a national institution 30 and this seems to be borne out by the few statistics available.
census of Maryland in 1755 returned eight per cent of the Negroes as mulattoes. Out of a total Negro popu31 At lation of 42,764, the mixed-bloods numbered 3,592.
that time, Maryland had about one-sixth of the total Negro 32 On the assumption that Marypopulation of the country.
land was a typical average of the colonies so far as racial and this would seem to be a intermixture was concerned
fairly reasonable
assumption
there would have been 21,552
mulattoes in the country at that time. Allowing twenty33 five years for the mulatto population to double by natural increase, that is, by interbreeding and intermarriage
with the blacks, they would have numbered approximately sixty thousand by 1790. Assuming that intermixture went
on during the years between 1755 and 1790 as it had during the preceding decades, and allowing for the enormously greater number of both the white and the black population,
the
number would
easily double the above figure
by the be-
ginning of the national period.
The
statistics of free
subject.
90 11
Negroes throw no light upon the Of the 3,608 mixed-bloods in Maryland in 1755,
p. 91.
ff.,
"See A Century of Population Growth,

See pp. 128, 147
158
f.,
163 below.
Century of Population Orowth, p. 6. See, also, p. 185. total Negro population of the English Colonies in 1754 was 260,000. That of Maryland in 1755 was 42,764.
M The
M This has been the approximate rate of increase
since I860.
Amount
113
34 The per1,460 were free Negroes and 2,148 were slaves. centage of mulattoes among the free Negroes was appar-
ently higher everywhere than it was among the slaves, but there were mulattoes in considerable numbers among the
slaves
and by no means
35
lattoes.
The
of the free Negroes were situation differed greatly in different

all
mure-
In 1860 in the South, 10 per cent, roughly, of the gions. 36 slaves and 40 per cent of the free Negroes were mulattoes.
In Richmond, there were more free blacks than free mulattoes, while in Charleston the great bulk of the free Ne37 The growth of the free Negro class groes were mulatto.
was constant and rapid throughout the period that slavery existed as a national institution. 38
Concerning the distribution of the mulatto population
at any time before the census of 1850, not much can be The relative number of mulattoes was stated definitely.
greatest in the Northern colonies especially during the latter colonial period and during the entire national period.
"A Century of Population Growth, p. 185. In 1752, Baltimore County had 116 mulatto slaves and 196 free mulattoes, 4,027 Negro slaves and 8 free Negroes. See, J. R. Brackett, The Negro in Mary"
land, pp. 175-76.
85
Free Negroes 1850: Black Mulatto

Total
275,400
159,095
434,495
The Compendium of the Seventh Census of the United States, 1850,

p. 52.
86
See p. 116 below, notes, 45, 47. Free black
891
4,587
Free mulatto
1790 1800 1810 1820
59,557
108,435
1830
319,599 386,293 434,495
1840 1850
186,446
233,634
p. 80.
1860
488,070
Century of Population Growth,
114
The Mulatto
ratio of
Negroes to the white race was less there than Southern colonies; the relative number of free NeAs a result of these two conditions, groes was greater. there was always a relatively greater admixture of white blood to the Negro group in the Northern states than in
The
in the
39 The later and heavy imother sections of the country. of slaves was into the Southern colonies, hence portation
the newer and darker Negroes were in the South as against a relatively larger ratio of the older importations in the
North.
The determination
of the Northern colonies late in
the eighteenth century to free the slaves, further increased the difference. The percentage of blacks among the slaves
when these laws began to go into effect, was than their percentage in the general Negro popugreater The free Negroes, who had a larger lation of the North.
sold South
percentage of mixed-bloods, were not effected by the emancipation laws and so remained behind and became, relatively,
a more important part of the Negro population. Of the actual numbers North and South, however, no definite facts
are ascertainable.
As between
the urban and the rural situation, the
mu-
lattoes were largely a city product.
Not only
did the inter-
mixture go on chiefly in the towns, but the free Negroes, always with a large percentage of mulattoes, tended to drift
For example, the slave register of Chester County, Pennsylvania, in 1780 showed twenty per cent of the slaves to be mulattoes a percentage reached by
to the urban centers.
the whole country only after one hundred and thirty years of further intermixture. There were probably between four
89
At
lation in the, then, Southern States
the time of the first census the ratio of slaves to the white popuwas fifty-three to one hundred; in
less
New England
than one to one hundred, and
the Middle States.
five to one hundred Century of Population Growth, pp. 139-40.
in
Amotmt
and
five
of
Race Intermixture
in United States
115
tioned.
40
thousand Negroes in the state in the year menThis preponderance of mulattoes in the city as
against the rural districts was especially the case in the South, but the difference was marked in all sections of the
41
country.
Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, p. 197. Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, pp. 14-15, points out the larger per cent of free
40
Negroes in the urban population in colonial days and during the whole period of slavery. 41 Per cent of mulattoes in total Negro population of a chief city and
of the rest of the state of typical Southern, Border and Northern
States in 1860.
Area
Georgia
1860
18.1
8.2
Savannah City
Rest of State Louisiana
Orleans City Rest of State South Carolina
Charleston City
New
48.9
11.0
25.2
5.5
Rest of State
Kentucky
Jefferson Co. (Louisville) Rest of State
21.8
20.0
Missouri
St. Louis County Rest of State
(St. Louis)
32.7
19.2
Virginia
Richmond City
Rest of State
21.4
16.9
New York
King's County (Brooklyn) Rest of State
Illinois
19.5
(N. Y. City 3.3)
20.3
Cook County (Chicago)

Rest of State Massachusetts
Suffolk
Co. (Boston) Rest of State
49.3
46.8
38.3
29.9
1,
United States Census, 1890, Population, Vol.
Part
1, p.
191.
116
The Mulatto
first
The
the mixed-bloods was that of 1850.
Federal Census to make separate returns of At that time, they con-
stituted something over eleven per cent of the Negro pop42 Of the total mulatto population ulation of the country.
approximately forty per cent were free and the remaining

43 Of the free mulattoes approximately sixty per cent slaves. were in the slave states. 44 Of the total slave two-thirds 45 while population about eight per cent were mixed-bloods about thirty-seven per cent of the free Negro population
were mulattoes. 46
Among
the free Negroes, the per cent
of mulattoes was considerably higher in the slave than in the free states. 47 But as the whole Negro population of
"Blacks
43
3,233,057;
1,
Population, Vol.
Mulattoes 405,751. Part 1, p. 129. Free
United States Census, 1910,

159,095
Slave
pp. 64, 82.
44
246,656
The Compendium of the Seventh Census of the United States, 1850,

Free mulatto
Slave states
105,945
Free states
Ibid., p. 83.
53,150
Slave population
3,204,313
2,957,657
Black Mulatto
Ibid., p. 82.
246,656 434,495
Free Negroes Black
275,400
159,095
Mulatto
Ibid., p. 62.
Free Negroes
Slave States
Black Mulatto Free States Black Mulatto

Ibid., p. 83.
151,076 105,945
124,334 53,150
Amount
the
of
Race Intermixture
in United States
117
free at this time, the only comparison with that between the total Negro population of any point the two regions. Nearly one-half the Negroes of the Northis
North was
ern States were mixed-bloods, as against about one-ninth of those in the slave-holding states. In summarizing the
distribution in different regions, the Census
48
Report of 1850
says:
in the United States are about onenumerous as the blacks the free mulattoes are more than half the number of the free blacks,
The mulattoes
eighth as
whilst the slave mulattoes are only about one-twelfth of the slave blacks. Between the states the ratios are
very remarkable. Whilst nearly half of the colored in the non-slaveholding states are mulatto, only about one-ninth in the slaveholding states are mulatto, excluding New Jersey. In Ohio and the Territories there are more mulattoes than blacks. In nearly all of the slave states, except Kentucky, Arlc^psas and Missouri. etc., the free mulattoes greatly preponderate over the free blacks. Kentucky, Arkansas, Missouri and Texas have the largest portion of slave mulattoes, and in the District of Columbia they are about one-fourth of the
whole.
Since the emancipation of the slaves, the census figures
show an immensely more rapid increase among the muThe lattoes than among the darker members of the race.
returns for the United States as a whole for the
five
census
periods for which there was a separate enumeration of the mulattoes is as follows 49
:
48
The Compendium of
the Seventh
Census of the United States, 1850,
p. 82.
is
States Census, 1910, Population, Vol. 1, Part 1, p. 129. There a constant effort on the part of the mulattoes to make the proportion appear larger. "The figures as to mulattoes have been taken from time
% United
to time
and are
officially
acknowledged to be understatements.
Prob-
118
The Mulatto
in the
United States
CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES NEGRO POPULATION

Census
Total
Year
1850 1860 1870 1890 1910
*
Negro
3,638,808 4,441,830 4,880,009 *7,488,676 9,827,763
Black
3,233,057
Per cent Mulatto Mulatto

405,751 588,363 584,049 1,132,060 2,050,686
11.2 13.2 12.0 15.2 20.9
3,853,467 4,295,960 6,337,980 7,777,077
Includes 18,636 Negroes enumerated in Indian Territory not distinguished as black or mulatto.
Doubtless these figures contain inaccuracies, but there

seems to be no reason for the opinion often expressed that 50 The Census itself they are fundamentally misleading.
ably one-third of the Negroes of the United States have distinct traces of white blood." W. E. B. DuBois, The Negro, pp. 184-85. He adds: "There is also a large amount of Negro blood in the white population." Fortune's statement is even See, also, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 350. more absurd: "The blood of all the ethnic types that go to make up American citizenship flows in the veins of the Afro-American people so that of the ten million of them in this country, accounted for by the Federal census, not more than four million are of pure negroid
some four million of them, not accounted for by the Federal census, have escaped into the ranks of the white race, and are reenforced very largely by such escapements every year." T. T. Fordescent, while
tune, "Place in American Life." In Booker T. Washington, The Negro Problem, pp. 214-15. w Question as to the accuracy of these Census figures is frequently A good deal of this popular skepticism seems to have had its raised. Mr. Baker origin in a widely read book by Mr. Ray Stannard Baker.
"In the last census (1900) the government gave up the attempt discouragement of trying to enumerate the mulattoes at all, and counted all persons as Negroes who were so classed in the communities where they resided. The census of 1870 showed that one-eighth (roughly)
says:
in
of the Negro population was mulatto, that of 1890 showed that the proportion had increased to more than one-seventh, but these statistics are confessedly inaccurate; the census report itself says: 'The figures are of little value. Indeed as an indication of the extent to which
Amount
says:
119
The only available test of the trustworthiness of . the results reached in 1850, I860, 1870 and 1890 would be the degree to which they corroborated and confirmed one another.
.
.
And
.
.
again
.
51
:
full-blood negroes,
[i.
the censuses of mulattoes, as distinguished from though subject to a greater e., greater than the returns of the Negro] and
. . .
wholly indeterminate probable error, have shown general agreement of results.
This increase
all
in the
mulatto population has been general
sections of the country; each division has throughout shown a marked increase from census to census. Not only
have numbers increased, but the percentage of mulattoes to full-blood Negroes has increased everywhere except in the Mountain, Pacific and East North Central divisions. While the number of mulattoes has of course been far
the races have mingled, they are misleading.' " Following the Color Line,
p.
153.
Mr. E. B. DuBois, "The Negro Race in the United States of America," Inter-Racial Problems, p. 350, and elsewhere, apparently following Mr. Baker, reiterates the same error. The Census Report (Eleventh Census of the United States, 1890, Vol. 1, Part I, p. xciii. See, also, United States Census, 1900, Population, Vol. 1, Part 1, p. cxi.) does use the words quoted by Mr. Baker but in a context which wholly changes their significance. The census of 1890 undertook to divide the Negroes into Negroes, mulattoes, quadroons, and octoroons. Regarding the results of this last inquiry the census report used the words quoted by Mr. Baker. To acknowledge that the attempt to make a minute subdivision of the race into Negroes, mulattoes, quadroons and octoroons was not considered successful is quite a different matter from asserting that the enumeration of mulattoes as distinct from the blacks is "of doubtful validity and officially
acknowledged to be misleading." " U. S. Census, 1890. Population, Vol.
1,
Part
1, p.
185.
120
The Mulatto
at all periods greater in the Southern sections of the country covered by the census returns, the percentage of mulattoes
The always has been greater in the Northern sections. tabulation shows both the numerical and percentfollowing
ual increase in the different divisions thus allowing a comparison between different sections of the country.
NUMBER OF MULATTOES AND THE PERCENTAGE THEY FORMED OF THE TOTAL NEGRO POPULATION
1870
1890
1910"
1890 1910
1870
DIVISIONS
England Middle Atlantic E. N. Central W. N. Central South Atlantic
E. S. Ceutral W. S. Central
Total
Percent
Total
Percent
Total
Percent
New
Mountain
Pacific
Amount
of
Race Intermixture
in United States
121
her of mulattoes
population of the state as enumerated in
and their percentage of the total Negro 1860 and 1910.

IN
NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF MULATTOES

STATES
DIFFERENT
122
The Mulatto
in
the United States
Number
Michigan
of
Number
of
Mulattoes Per cent
Mulattoes Per cent
Amount
of
Race Intermixture
in United States
123
RANK OF MINOR DIVISIONS IN ORDER OF INCREASING PER CENT MULATTO TO NEGRO POPULATION
Minor
divisions
having at
Rank in order of increasing per

cent mulatto in total negro
Per cent negro in total
least 1000 negroes
in 1850
population
1890
popu-
Southern Eastern S. Central
S. Atlantic
Western S. Central Northern S. Atlantic Southern N. Atlantic Western N. Atlantic
New England
Eastern N. Central
Pacific
1111 2222 3333 4444* 5567 6655 7778 9986

1870
lation
1860
1850
45.5 33.0 29.1 25.6

1.8
2.5
0.9
1.6 0.8
was found by the enumerators to be high or low, according

66 high or low." The figures of the separate states bear out this conclusion
as the proportion of whites to negroes
is
in
some
detail.
57
Commenting upon
66
this
distribution of mulattoes Stone
United States Census, 1890, Population, Vol. 1, Part 1, pp. 190, 191. "The figures also indicate that this admixture was found to be most prevalent in sections where the proportions of negroes to whites was smallest, and least prevalent where the proportion of negroes to whites was largest." And again, "The table seems to Ibid., p. 190. show that as a rule the states with the largest proportion of negroes to total population have the smallest reported proportion of mulattoes to total negroes. To this general rule Louisiana is a notable exception, that being third in order of proportion of negroes to population, but ranging from eighth to sixteenth in order of proportion of mulattoes to neThe exception in the case of Louisiana is to be groes." Ibid., p. 190. accounted for by the fact of the early French and Spanish occupation, by the fact of it being an older settlement and by the fact that the
Also,
transfer of the territory to the United States created a large population of free Negroes. 5T See table p. 122. Compare pp. 79 ff.
124
58
The Mulatto
:
in
the United States
says
separate enumeration of mulattoes has been times, in the censuses of 1850, I860. 1870, and 1890. The results disclosed the fact that where the proportion of Negroes to whites was lowest, the proportion of mulattoes to total Negroes was highest. For example: in 1890, in the South Central States of
....
made four
Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, the mulattoes were but 14* per cent of the total Negro population. On the other hand, they were 32.7 per cent in the New England group. Expressed differently, of all the so-called "Negroes" whom a white man would see in Mississippi, only 11.5 per cent would be of the mulatto type, while of all those observed in Massachusetts 36.3 were mulattoes. In Maine 57.4 per cent were mulattoes, and in Michigan they were 53.8 per cent; while in Georgia and South Carolina they were respectively 9.9 per cent and 9.7 per cent.
.
The proportion
Southern States.
of mulattoes
is
higher in the
cities
than
in the rural districts.
especially the case in the In the cities of the Border States the
is
This
percentage of mulattoes
noticeably higher than it is in the general population of the states though the difference is not so marked as in the distinctly Southern
is
still
States.
mulattoes
In the Northern group of states the per cent of is enormously higher in both the cities and the
general population of the states, and the difference between the two is less noticeable though the difference still exists. 59
The data
available seem to
show that intermixture of
the races began with the first coming of the

88
Negro
to the
A. F. Stone, Studies in the American Race Problem, pp. 40-41. Unfortunately there seems to be no figures upon which a quantitative statement can be based. The census gives the proportion of mulattoes to Negroes in the cities of over 5,000 inhabitants. It also gives
69
Amount
of
Race Intermixture
in United States
125
English colonies. It seems to have been a phenomenon in no way characteristic of any particular section of the coun-
Mulattoes appeared in all of the colonies and the increase seems to have been rapid during the greater part of
try.
in the
With the decline of the slave system the colonial period. North and the consequent freeing of large numbers of Negroes, the mulatto population correspondingly in-
With creased and its growth has continued to be rapid. the firmer establishment of the slave system in the South,
the
relative
amount of
racial intermixture
probably deFor
the proportion of mulattoes in the general population of the states.
example:
State and city
Per cent of mulatto

17.3
Georgia Atlanta Louisiana New Orleans
32.4 21.4
34.1
16.1
South Carolina
Charleston
23.6
Kentucky
Louisville
25.2 36.6 28.4
Missouri
St.
Louis
34.0
33.2
39.9 22.8
Virginia
Richmond
New York New York

Illinois
City
24.9
33.8
Chicago Massachusetts
41.6
36.7
34.3
Boston
This
is
a comparison of the chief city in the state with the Negro population of the state as a whole. Were it possible to separate the urban from the rural regions the differences shown here would be enor-
mously increased.
It
would probably be found that the mulatto popu-
lation is exclusively or almost exclusively urban and that the rural population with rare exceptions is black. United States Census, 1910,
Pop-
ulation, Vol. 1,
Part
1,
pp. 159, 230.
126
The Mulatto
Since the emancipation of the slaves, the number of mulattoes, especially in the former slave states,
creased greatly.
has increased rapidly.

uals.
The decades from 1890
to
1910 show
an enormous increase in the number of mixed-blood individ-
The ratio of mulattoes to Negroes has been greater in the North than in the South, at all periods for which tl facts are known. The present forces operating tend to d< crease this difference. At all periods, the mulatto forme<
a larger per cent of the Negro population of the towns an< This is particularly cities than of the rural population.
the case at the present time in the southern section of country but is not untrue of any region. If the facts coul
be known the mulatto would probably be found to be almost an exclusively urban phenomenon. The nature of the racial intermixture and the forces opei
ating to produce the observed conditions are considered

the following chapter.
ii
CHAPTER
NATURE OF RACE INTERMIXTURE
VI
IN
THE UNITED STATES
Intermarriage
many
there was already some infiltration of Caucasian blood. The great majority, well above fifty per cent, came from the
IN
of the Negroes brought as slaves to America,
>
West
Coast.
few came from the Congo and other re;
gions toward the interior a few were Hottentots and Bushmen from the southern part of Africa. These latter, however, like the Pygmies of the interior, were mostly of a
physical type too low to serve the purposes of slave labor. In general the higher Negroes were not taken. 1 It has been estimated that possibly one per cent of the Negroes im-
ported were able to speak an Arabic dialect. Possibly fifty per cent had some trace of a previous intermixture with a
the Negroes brought the Guinea Negroes were the purest and they constituted above half of the total importations.
white race.
But of
all
Edward Wilmot Blyden, one of the ablest men of the Negro race, maintains the thesis that white intermixture "has been the salvation of
1
the
Negro
in the
New
World, for the black man who was weak enough
to be caught and shipped away as a slave was naturally inferior in mind and body to the black man who possessed ingenuity enough to escape
from the toils of slavery and remain at home as a slave hunter." Quoted from The Crisis, Sept. '13, pp. 229-30. See, also, G. W. Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. of Blyden's thesis.
2,
pp. 544-45, for a variation
127
128
The Mulatto
the United States
Further crossing began as soon as the Negroes landed on American soil, if, indeed, it did not begin before the Negroes The race never has shown any hesitancy were landed. 2
about crossing with other races in any time or country. Their women have mixed with every race and people with whom they have come in contact in the ancient, as in the
modern world. The scarcity of white women all through the Colonial period doubtless was *m imrpej)sp factor tending to overcome any hesitancy the whites may have had to-
ward sexual association with the members of a strange race. 3 This mixture, as we have seen, has increased as the race has gained the rudiments of civilization and come to a better appreciation of Western culture. While the crossing of the Negro and the white races in America has for the most part not been within the bounds of conventional marriage, some small part of the actual intermixture has received the sanction of law and social tolerance.
In the colonies, the marriage of Negroes with white persons was considered highly undesirable and from an early date was usually prohibited by severe laws. 4 The public
disapproval seems generally to have got itself enacted into legal prohibitions as a result of the first unions of the kind
'"Indeed, in those early days many a negress was landed upon our shores by her captors already pregnant by one of the demoniac crew that made up the company of the slave ship that brought her over."
R.
W.
"The
Shufeldt, The Negro: A Menace to American Civilization, p. 80. first mulatto children were born off the coast of Africa, and
their fathers
were the
.
.
first
white
men
the black princesses of that coun-
try ever saw.
Anonymous, The Independent, Vol. 54, p. 2226. * J. H. Van Evrie, White Supremacy and Negro Subordination, p. 153. * "In the French, English and Dutch colonies, the laws, or public opin."
ion, so prevents
those
who would
. .
marriages between individuals of different colors, that contract them, would be considered as degraded by
."
their alliance,
H.
Gre"goire, Literature
of Negroes,
p. 66.
Nature of Race Intermixture

5 that took place.
in United States
129
The
first
act of
Maryland
establishing
slavery, passed in 1663, forbade the practice of intermarriage and, from its wording, seems to show that such mar-
had already taken place. 6 North Carolina in 1715 passed an act carrying a heavy penalty on any white man or woman who should marry a Negro, mulatto, or Indian and also provided a heavy penalty on any minister who should officiate at such a marriage. 7 Within two years of the passing of the act, two persons were indicted for perriages
8 forming such a marriage ceremony.
further law in 1723
Negroes, mulattoes, and other persons of mixed blood had moved into the colony and, in derecites that certain free
fiance of the laws to the contrary, several of
them had
in-
termarried
with
the
white
inhabitants.
Pennsylvania
passed a similar law in 1725-1726, partly the result, apparently, of a clandestine marriage between a Negro and
a white woman. 10
Similar laws in the other colonies were passed at an early date usually as a reaction and a protest against some mixed marriage. How many such marriages there were, we have
no way of knowing but that they were anywhere more than

;
6 The law of Maryland, 1681, for example, seems to have been called forth by the marriage of "Irish Nell," a servant of the Lord Proprietor, who had married a slave. It was to determine the status of her mu-
J. R. Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, p. 34, f. n. further enacted, that all issues of English, or other free born women, that have already married negroes, shall serve the master
latto children.
""And be
."
it
Sec.
III.
Act of
1663.
Negro Race
in
7
in
America, Vol.
1, p.
Quoted by Williams, History of the 240. See, also, Brackett, The Negro
Maryland, pp. 32-34.
J. S. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, pp. 58-59.
8 9
Ibid., p. 58. Ibid., pp. 68-69.
10
E, R, Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp. 29-31.
130
The Mulatto
11 the rarest exception there is no reason to believe. Then, as now, such mixed unions roused an indignant protest from
the decent
members of the community. 12

in these early days,
Such intermarriages as did take place
seem to have been invariably with the meanest classes of 13 The marriages were contrary to law and to the whites. public sentiment, and were entered into at the price of social
14 ostracism and legal punishment. Williams, speaking of ^the first statute establishing slavery in Maryland, says:
Section two was called into being on account of the intermarriage of white women and slaves. Many of these women had been indentured as servants to pay their passage to this country, some had been sent as convicts, while still others had been apprenticed for a
term of years. thy persons.

Brackett
lish
15
Some
.
of them, however, were very wor-
also speaks of marriages between these serving-women and the slaves or free Negroes.
EngTur-
ner
speaks of two mixed marriages in Pittsburgh in 1788. In one case, the couple was said to occupy a respectable
11
16
E. R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp. 194-95. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, pp. 69, 58-59. " See, for e.g., Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp. 195-96. Also, E. I. McCormac, White Servitude in Maryland, p. 67.
" In North Carolina
in 1727
eral Court because she
had
left her
"a white woman was indicted in the Genhusband and was cohabiting with a
slave." Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, p. 58. "Among the servants imported into the colony, there were often women of a very low type, who during their term of servitude
Negro
intermarried with negro slaves."

land, p. 67.
McCormac, White Servitude

1,
in
"History of " The Negro " The Negro
the
in
Negro Race
Maryland,
in America, Vol.
p. 196.
in Pennsylvania, p. 194.

17
in United States
131
position.
declares that such marriages were common in Philadelphia after the repeal in 1780 of the laws The grandmother of Benjamin applying to the Negro.
Branagan
18
Banneker
of
19
of Delaware. 20
was an English felon transported to the colony There seems to be absolutely no evidence
any marriages of a mixed sort in which the white contracting party was not of the lowest and usually of a vicious
class.
intermarriage may have taken place between the Negroes and the servant class of whites in early colonial times, it decreased to an almost absolute zero as
little
But whatever
the status of the
Negro became
fixed
and better understood.
The
spirit of fellowship that at first existed between the slaves and the indentured servants, imported criminals, pau-
pers, and prostitutes gradually gave place to the feeling of bitter hatred that, throughout the days of slavery, characterized the relations of the "poor whites" and the Ne-
""Cette famille
est
de Warville, Nouveau Voyage, pp. 33, 34.

in Pennsylvania,, p. 195, f. n.
18
une des plus respectables de cette ville." Brissat Quoted by Turner, The Negro
"I solemnly declare, I have seen more white women married to, and deluded through the arts of seduction by negroes in one year in Philadelphia, than for the eight years I was visiting. [In the West Indies and
the Southern States.]"
"There are many, very

. . .
many
blacks,
who
will not be satisfied unless begin to feel themselves consequential, they get white women for wives, and are likewise exceedingly impertinent to white persons in low circumstances." "I know a black man who
seduced a young white girl who soon after married him, and died with a broken heart; on her death he said he would not disgrace himself to have a negro wife, and acted accordingly, for he soon after married
. .
.
another white woman."
"There are perhaps hundreds of white women
thus fascinated by black men in this city, and there are thousands of black children by them at present." Branagan, Serious Remonstrances,
pp. 70-71, 73, 74, 75.
p. 195, f. n.
19
Quoted by Turner, The Negro
in Pennsylvania,
See page 190 below.

J.
20
W. Cromwell, The Negro
in
American History, pp.
86-97,
132
groes.
The Mulatto
In the slave states, there was no intermarriage, ex21 In the North, cept rarely among the creoles of Louisiana. there was very little. Where such marriages were not forbidden by law, they were forbidden by the decent elements Turner's summary of the situaof the white community.
tion in Pennsylvania
tire non-slave
is,
in general, characteristic of the en-
holding parts of the country.
He
says
22
:
After a while a strong feeling was aroused, so that 1821 a petition was sent to the Legislature, asking that mixed marriages be declared void, and that it be made a penal act for a negro to marry a white man's daughter. In 1834 such a marriage provoked a riot at Columbia; while in 1838 the subject caused a vehement outburst in the Constitutional Convention then Three years later a bill to prevent interassembled. was passed in the House, but lost in the Senmarriage ate. From time to time thereafter petitions were sent to the Legislature, but no action was taken the obnoxious marriages continuing to be reported, and even being encouraged by some extreme advocates of race Nevertheless what the law left undone was equality. largely accomplished by public sentiment and private As time went on marriages of white people action. with negroes came to be considered increasingly odious, and so became far less frequent. When a case occurred,
in
;
it
was usually followed by swift action and dire vengeance. The fact that a white man was living with a negro wife was one of the causes of the terrible riot in
Philadelphia in 1849.
tension in the
21
In the period just preceding the Civil War, the emotional North and the preaching of amalgamation of
F. L. Olmsted,
Journey in the Seaboard Slave States,

.
.
p.
636,
White men, sometimes, married a quotes a resident as saying that ". rich colored girl; but he never knew of a black man to marry a white
girl."
?a
Olmsted adds: "I subsequently heard of one such case." The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp. 195-96.

the races
in
United States
133
Phillips and others brought about a few interOne of the wives 23 of Frederick Douglass, for marriages. example, was a white woman. But the total number of such unions was so small as to be negligible.
by
In the period since the Civil War, mixed marriages have been very infrequent. Baker 24 gives one hundred and seventy-one as the number of mixed marriages in Boston for
the six-year period ending in 1905. This is about the same 25 Hoffman 26 average that has obtained for half a century. found sixty-five such marriages to have taken place in
Connecticut in the eleven-year period ending in 1893. For the same period fifty-eight such marriages were reported
from Rhode Island. In Michigan, for the twenty-year period ending in 1893, he found a total of one hundred and eleven
mixed marriages. 27
28
24
In Bermuda for the twelve-year period
The second.
five
Baker, Following the Color Line, p. 172. table gives the number of mixed marriages by year periods from 1855 to 1887. Total Average per year
Ray Stannard "The following
185559 186266 186771 187377 187882 188387

1890
99
50
45
88
172
121
10
9
17.6
34.4 24.2
24.8
124
24
24
ff.
F. L. Hoffman,
Race Traits and Tendencies, pp. 199
to have included in his figures cases of open concubinage as well as conventional and lawful unions. According to the statement presented to the Michigan Legislature in 1915 less than 40
"Hoffman seems
mixed marriages have been legalized in the state in the past 30 years. The committee however were endeavoring to make a case against the proposed law to prohibit intermarriage and gave expression to a number of errors of fact. Hoffman is probably the better authority. Report of Commit tee on Equitable Legislation, "Treatise on Proposed
Changes
in the
Law
of Marriage."
134
The Mulatto
in
the United States
from 1872 to 1883, there were one hundred and nine mixed marriages; for the following twelve-year period from 1884
to 1895, there were but fifty -eight. In twenty-eight states the intermarriage of the races
is
forbidden by law,
28
in
most cases under severe penalty. 29
In other states, the sentiment against such unions is sufficiently strong to make the question a regular subject of 30 That they are not forbidden in all the legislative debate.
not that they are approved, but that the number of Negroes is so small and the number of such unions so
states
is
few, that they constitute no menace sufficient to force proThe Massachusetts attitude tective legislative enactment.
as described
states
lem. 31
by Stone, is fairly typical of the more northern where the Negro is not a grave and immediate prob-
For a period of 138 years Massachusetts prohibited intermarriage between whites and Negroes or mulattoes. The statute of Queen Anne of 1705 may be said originally to have been tinctured by the religious objection to a union between Christians and pagans. But it was several times reenacted long after such influences had ceased to exist. It was finally repealed in 1843. By such action Massachusetts did not by any means intend to declare in favour of racial intermarriage. The real significance of the repeal was that, whether consciously or unconsciously, the numerical insignificance of the Negro population had finally brought possibly a majority of the whites to a point from which they were able to view with entire indifference any posconstitutions of six of the states prohibit such marriages. E. A. Jenks, "The Legal Status of Negro-White Amalgamation in the United States." American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 21, pp. 666-78.
39
38
The
In 1913 bills aimed at prohibiting Negro-white intermarriages were introduced in ten of the twenty states then permitting such unions. Jenks, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 21, p. 666.
80
"A,
F. Stone, Studies in the
American Race Problem, pp.
60-61.

sible
United States
135
consequences of a formal reversal of the ancient
policy of the state.
The large majority of the mixed marriages are of Negro or mulatto men and white women. In one hundred and fiftyeight of the one hundred and seventy-one cases reported by 32 In Baker, the groom was a Negro and the woman white. Of the fiftythirteen cases the groom was a white man.
eight mixed marriages in Rhode Island fifty-one were white females and seven were white males. Of the one hundred and
eleven cases in
33 eighteen were white men. Boston situation as follows:
Michigan ninety-three were white women and 34 Stone 35 comments on the
all
the
As a matter of fact, for the past five years, of Negro marriages in Massachusetts, an average
of about 10 per cent have been mixed. Moreover, in these cases the white party is a woman, very infre-
quently a man. Of the 52 mixed marriages in 37 towns and cities of the state in 1900, 43 were between white women and Negro men. . During the five years from 1900 to 1904 there were 143 marriages between Negroes and whites in the city
. .
Groom Negro
Year
1900
1901
Groom white
Bride Negro
3
1
Total mixed
Bride white
32 30
25
marriages
35
31
1902
1903
4
2
1
29
2T
27
17
29
1904 1905
28
19
Baker, Following the Color Line, p. 172. 88 Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies, p. 119. 84 It is interesting in this connection to note that of the 18 white
men
married to Negroes 6 married black females and 12 mulatto females; of the 93 white women married to Negroes 47 were married to black males and 46 to mulatto males. "Stone, Studies in the American Race Problem, pp. 62-63.
136
The Mulatto
of Boston, and 907 in which both parties were Negroes. In other words, with a Negro population of 11,591 Of these, 143, or 13.6 there were 1,050 marriages.
if my calculation is correct, married white persons. Of these mixed marriages 133 were cases of white women marrying Negro men, while only 10 white men married Negro women. With the white women in this instance representing 93 per cent of her race's participation in such alliances, it is safe to dogmatize
per cent,
And my inas to the processes of race intermixture. thus far lead me to believe that the same vestigations
conditions
exist
in
Chicago, Philadelphia, and
New
York.
of the whites.
The mixed marriages as a rule The woman in most
are of the lower classes

of the unions are recent
alliances with-
immigrants and often, no doubt, contract the
out realizing the social consequences. 38 Hoffman made a careful investigation of thirty-seven such mixed unions. 37
nine of white
Eight were of white men living with Negro women, twentywomen living with Negro men.
Of the eight white men, four were legally married and four were not. Three of the number were criminals or criminal suspects. The others were outcasts: one was a saloon one had deserted a white wife and family, two others keeper, were of good families but were themselves of bad reputation.
Of the twenty-nine white women, nineteen were lawfully married to their Negro husbands, while ten were living in
88
".
The few white women who have given
birth to mulattoes have
always been regarded as monsters; and without exception, they have belonged to the most impoverished and degraded caste of whites, by whom
they are scrupulously avoided as creatures who have sunk to the level of the beasts of the field." P. A. Bruce, The Plantation Negro as a Free-
man, p. 55. 87 Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies, pp. 204-06.
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States

open concubinage.
137
Five of these latter were of foreign 38 birth. Eight of the number were prostitutes, one was insane, and one was the daughter of respectable parents. Of
the nineteen
who were
lawfully married, four were prosti-
tutes, two were guilty of bigamy, four were either divorced or had deserted husbands, five were apparently of respectable parentage and contented with their husbands. Of the
four others, Hoffman was able to obtain no information. Of the twenty-nine Negro men, one was an industrious
were
barber of good character, five were of fair repute, nine idlers, loafers, or drunkards, and eleven were proved The character of the remaining three was not criminal.
determined.
Hoffman concludes
this
phase of
his
study as follows
39
:
Comment on these cases is hardly necessary. They tend to prove that as a rule neither good white men nor good white women marry colored persons, and that good colored men and women do not marry white perThe number of cases is so small, however, that sons. a definite conclusion as to the character of persons intermarrying is hardly warranted. However, it would seem that if such marriages were a success, even to a limited extent, some evidence would be found in a collection
of thirty-six
cases.
It
is
my own
opinion,
based on personal observation in the cities of the South, that the individuals of both races who intermarry or
live in
concubinage are vastly inferior to the average of the white and colored races in the United types States; also, that the class of white men who have intercourse with colored women are, as a rule, of an inferior type.
perhaps not generally understood to what extent sexually sa-
88
It is
tiated prostitutes seek
Negro men
in their search for
new
stimulation,
The same thing
is
true of
many debauched
p. 206.
white men.
"Race
Traits
and Tendencies,
138
The Mulatto
The great majority
of the mixed marriages occur in the
Rhode Island, larger cities. Of 40 for example, fifty-two were from Providence.
the fifty-eight reported from
These mixed marriages are very frequently marriages of

mulattoes, usually very light-colored mulattoes, with the poorer and lower class of white women. Not infrequently, it would seem these unions take place without the girl realizing that she is marrying a Negro. Cases where such facts are made the grounds for divorce proceedings, appear from
time to time in the daily press. So uniform groom is of some importance and the bride a
is it
that the
of the
woman
lower class, that some predict a final solution of the problem of the Negro in America by a fusion of the upper class
41 Negroes with the lower class whites.
this reason the idea, unpopular, to be sure, but indicated by the facts, that the races in America are amalgamating is not unwelcome to many thinkers.
still
For
we are now part way which I do not hesitate to say along will be accomplished in time. The black race is to be
to show that
in the process,
That simply goes
absorbed. In fact, the thing will not be so repellant in a few hundred years as it is now. As it is, those who say the relation between whites and blacks is a symptom of mental defect on the part of the whites fail entirely to consider that times without number the scions of our best southern families have shown signs of such degeneracy.
Is it not more reasonable to expect that as time goes on the more cultured blacks will more or less naturally intermingle with the least cultured whites in the
40
41
Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies,
p. 199.
G. B. Foster, as quoted in the daily press. See, for e.g., the Chicago Tribunt, 11-9-1914. See, also, DuBois, note 134, p. 164 below.
in United States
199
south until eventually the whole process will have been completed and our race will have absorbed the other? Surely, there is every reason to believe that that condition will result.
However
this
may
be, it is evident that the origin of the
mulatto group and its subsequent growth have been brought about, only in a very minor degree, through the conven-
marriage relation. Such marriages as do take place are almost exclusively Northern Negroes, frequently lightcolored mulattoes, with women of the lower classes and espetional
42 The desire of the European immigrant girls. in this respect is, when he becomes wealthy, freNegro quently taken advantage of by white adventuresses of ques-
cially with
tionable virtue.
tion
is
certain prize fighter of national reputa43
a case
in point.
The Concubinage
of Colored
Women by White Men
been the concubinage of colored form of sex relation was fairly
Another source of the increase of the mulatto group has women by white men. This
during the period of slavery.
common in certain sections The relation, where it existed,
approached often more nearly a form of polygamy than that of an indiscriminate sex relation. To what extent the
relationship existed during the slavery days or even at the The custom varied it is not possible to say.
in different
**".
. .
present time,
sections
and
in
the same section at different
the lower walks of
In the majority of intermarriages the white women belong to life. They are German, Irish, or other foreign women,
.
." Baker, Following the Color Line, p. 172. respectable, but ignorant. . 43 There is here no intention to put in question the sincere devotion and pure romantic love that doubtless led to the marriage unions between
men as Frederick Douglass, President Scarborough of Wilberforce, Ira Aldridge, the actor, and other prominent mulattoes and their white wives. See note 4, p. 316.
such
140
times.
The Mulatto
No doubt
there were isolated instances of the sort
everywhere, throughout the whole period that the Negro has been in the country. That it was a uniform custom of the slave-owning class, there is no reason to believe: that it
was common in certain regions, there

doubt. 44
is
no reason to
The form
and Negro
of this sex relation was exclusively nf white men women. In general, it seems not to have been a
promiscuous relation between the master class and the female slaves, but a relation between some favorite slave girl
and a young man of the family. 45 It was not ifl any sense a_forced relation on the part of the Negress; on the contrary, it was a relation to which the girl of the upper classes
of the Negroes aspired as the highest honor and privilege which she could attain. ^To_jhe girl it was, in the great ma46 jority of cases, a matter of being honored by a white man.
When achild
they_jaot along with that of the mother

received an education
infrequently
or children resulted from the association, received their freedom generally
and occasionally, at
in life.
least,
and a
stfl.rt
f
To
escape the
restrictions placed upon the free Negro in many of the Southern States, these natural children, and other faithful slaves whom the master might wish to free, were frequently
taken into free territory and there given their freedom. 47

See pages 92-93 above. See note 25, p. 176 below. 46 J. S. Bassett quotes a physician
46 44
whom
he considers trustworthy and
who was
raised on a rice plantation near Wilmington, North Carolina, . as saying that ". Among themselves the slaves were immoral, but,
.
generally speaking, there were no illicit relations between them and the white men. The white boys were sometimes intimate with the house." Slavery in the State of North Carolina, p. 86. "At this time [about 1850] says Mr. Brown: 'Cincinnati was full of women, without husbands, and their children. These were sent by the planters of Louisiana, Mississippi, and some from Tennessee, who-
maids.
47
in United States
141
highest development of the system of concubinage seemsîoT to have been between the slave-holding families
The
and
their slaves, but between the free mulatto
women and
the_non-slave-holding men. In its fullest development, the system flourished where there were the largest number of
free
of
Negro w omen of mixed ancestry and of some degree In Charleston, in Mobile, and culture and refinement.
r
New Orleans, the system reached a stage little Olmsted's deshort of a socially sanctioned institution. of the system in New Orleans shortly before the scription war gives a picture of concubinage at its point of highest
especially in
48
development.
I refer to a class composed of the illegitimate offspring of white men and colored women (mulattos or quadroons), who, from habits of early life, the advantages of education, and the use of wealth, are too much superior to the negroes, in general, to associate with them, and are not allowed by law, or the popular prej- / udice, to marry white people. The girls are frequently sent to Paris to be educated, and are very accomplished. They are generally pretty, and often handsome. I have rarely, if ever, met more beautiful women, than one or two of them, that I saw by chance, in the streets.^
I
had got fortunes and had found that white women could live in those states, and in consequence, they had sent their slave wives and children
to Cincinnati
and
set
them
free.'
"
of the Negro, Vol. 1, p. 227. The Mr. Brown quoted was a free or mulatto. This would seem to indicate that the scarcity of white
Booker T. Washington, The Story Negro
women
was the determining factor in the intermixture. Wilberforce, Ohio, is said to have a settlement of this sort. "The thing that gives a peculiar and interesting character to many of these ante-bellum Negro settle-
made by Southern slave-holders who desired to and were not able to do so under the restrictions that were imposed upon emancipation in the Southern states. Many of the colored people in these settlements were the natural children of their
ments
is
that they were
free their slaves
master.
48
."
Ibid., Vol.
1,
pp. 234-35.
Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, pp. 594-97.
The Mulatto
in the
United States
They are much better formed, and have a much more graceful and elegant carriage than Americans in general, while they seem to have commonly inherited or acquired much of the taste and skill, in the selection and arrangement, and the way of wearing dresses and ornaments, that is the especial distinction of the women of Paris. Their beauty and attractiveness being their fortune, they cultivate and cherish with diligence every charm or accomplishment they are possessed of. Of course^jnen are attracted by them, associate with them, are captivated, and become attached To them,
auL_jlot_j)emg able _ t.n marry _ the usual forms and securities for constancy, make_ such arrangements "as can be agreed upon." When a man makes a declaration of love to a girl of this class, she will admit or deny, as the case may be, her happiness in receiving it; but, supposing she is favorably disposed, she will usually refer the applicant to her mother. The mother inquires, like a Countess of Kew, into the circumstances of the suitor; ascertains
whether he is able to maintain a family, and, if satisfied with him, in these and other respects, requires from him security that he will support her daughter in a style suitable to the habits she has been bred to, and that, if he should ever leave her, he will give her a certain sum for her future support, and a certain additional sum for each of the children she shall then have.
The wealth, thus secured, will, of course, varyas in society with higher assumptions of morality with the value of the lady in the market; that is, with
her attractiveness, and the number and value of other suitors she may have, or may reasonably expect. Of course, I do not mean that love has nothing at all to do with it; but love is sedulously restrained, and held
firmly in hand, until the road of competency
is
seen to
be clear, with
requires about
less
humbug than our English custom
it. Everything being satisfactorily arranged, a tenement in a certain quarter of the town is usually hired, and the couple move into it and go to

housekeeping
in United States
143
woman
is
The living as if they were married. not, of course, to be wholly deprived of the
her former acquaintances are consociety of others tinued, and she sustains her relations as daughter, sis-
Of course, too, her husband (she calls ter, and friend. him so why shouldn't she?) will be likely to continue, also, more or less in, and form a part of, this kind of There are parties and balls bals masques society. and all the movements and customs of other fashionable The society, which they can enjoy in it, if they wish.
women
fectionate
of this sort are represented to be exceedingly afin disposition, and constant beyond renil
proach.
will
man snst.ajps this relation, he be moving, also, in reputable society on commonly the_other side of the town ; not improbably, eventually he marries, and has a family establishment elsewhere,
Tjnn'nff
thp timp n
majT separate from his placee (so pays her according to agreement, and as much more perhaps, as his affection for
she
is
termed).
If so, he
her,~or his sense of the cruelty of the proceeding, may lead him to ; and she has the world before her again, in the position of a widow. Many men continue, for
a long time, to support both establishments particularly, if their legal marriage is one de convenance. B ut many others form so strong attachments, that the relation isnever discontinued, but becomes, indeed, that
ojL
marriage, except that
it is
not legalized or solem-
nized.
These men leave their estate^* Hpath, to their children, to whom they may have previously given every
advantage of education they could command. What becomes of the boys, I am not informed ; the girls, sometimes, are removed to other countries, where their color does not prevent their living reputable lives but, of course, mainly continue in the same society and are fated to a life similar to that of their mothers.
;
The extent
time,
it is
to which concubinage prevails at the present not possible to determine. There is no unanimity
144
The Mulatto
in
the United States
in the opinions expressed
and no wide investigation on the
basis of which an estimate can be made.
The
relation shocks
community and the pronouncements so frequently met with on the subject are seldom anything more than an offhand expression of
passion and prejudice.
this
the conventional, middle-class sex ethics of the
That
of
the relative importance of
generally grossly exaggerated seems certain, but how numerous the cases of concubinage actually are, it is wholly impossible
to say.
particular form
race
intermixture
is
Unlawful Polygamy
Aside from a very little lawful intermarriage and a larger, but wholly indeterminable, amount of unlawful, subsurface polygamy
there is, and seems always to have been, a much larger number of sexual irregularities between the races which are wholly casual in their nature. 49 It is this
;
casual meeting and temporary association of individuals, a relation which approaches more nearly a form of prostitu-
form of polygamy, that is now, and seems always to have been, the characteristic form of intermixture
tion than a
that has existed between the races in America.

confined to
It
is
not
any one section of the country
50
nor to any one
48 It is this third and numerically more important element that is overlooked by Mr. DuBois when he asserts that the mulatto is the product of "a system of concubinage of colored women in slavery days, together
with some intermarriage." See The Negro American Family, p. 47. Also, see the article in Inter-Racial Problems, The Negro and elsewhere. 60 The Independent, Vol. 55, p. 454, says, speaking editorially: "None
of the intermixture
is
produced
mothers."
in the South,
and
the fruit of marriage. It has been nearly all is all the fruit of white fathers and darker
Here
is
It is not "all the fruit

it
exaggeration almost to the point of misstatement. of white fathers and darker mothers:" some of
is the fruit of marriage. It has been "nearly all produced in the South" only in the sense that nearly all of the race has been in the

social
in United States
145
the community. 51 It goes on everywhere where class differences exist and where the vicious elements
class
in
have an opportunity to associate.
studying the free Negroes in Virginia concludes that they were in large measure the result of illicit relations between the masters and the slave women. Turner 53 conRussell
cludes his study of the matter in Pennsylvania by freeing the master class from the charge of debauching the slave
52
women. Bassett seems to doubt that the master class was an important element in production of the bastard race. Speaking of the laws enacted in regard to bastardy in 1715 and 1741 which provided extra terms of service for the servant who became a mother of a bastard child, he says 54
:
It is also evident that the sin of the servant would be an advantage to the master, since he would thereby
South. Relatively the intermixture of the races has been greater in the Northern and Border States than in the South.
best of the Negro papers, in an unmannerly a coarse but on the whole truthful and accurate statement concerning the morals of Negro women, asserts that it is Issue "the Southern Aristocrat" who is responsible for the mulattoes.
editorial replying to
31
The New York Age, the
9-2-1915.
63
".
Illegal marriages
and of associations of whites with free ne-
groes was so disreputable and disgraceful that they were entered into by the vilest white persons at the price of chastisement by privately organized bands of white persons supported by community sentiment. The
free mulatto class
. .
.
was of course the
result of illegal relations of
white persons with negroes; but excepting those born of mulatto parents, most persons of the class were not born of free negro or free white
mothers, but of slave mothers and were set free because of their kinship to their master and owner." J. H. Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, p. 127.
"It must be said that the stigma of illicit intercourse in Pennsylvania would not generally seem to rest upon the masters, but rather upon servants, outcasts, and the lowlier class of whites." The Negro in Pennsylvania, p. 31.
84
63
Slavery and Servitude In the Colony of North Carolina, pp. 83-84.
146
The Mulatto
in
the United States
have not secure her services for a longer period. the least evidence that such a thing did happen, yet it is possible that a master might for that reason have compassed the sin of his serving-woman.
We
Whatever may have been the extent to which the masterwas involved and there is no doubt that some portion of the bastard race was the offspring of temporary associations of white masters and slave women there seems to be no evidence of a reliable sort to indicate that all, or even the major part of the mulatto group, was of this origin. 55
class
Concubinage certainly involved economically prosperous individuals of the white race and the choicer individuals from
among
the darker groups
the casual intermixture was char-
acteristic of the undeniably
common people
of both races.
owed
In the colonial days, one group of the mulatto population its origin to illicit intercourse between slave women
and white servants.
The
first
introduction of the white indentured servants

is
not known, 56 but by 1619, when the first Negroes came, they constituted a distinct class in the community life. The system was a colonial modification of the
into the colonies
scientific credence to be given to the stories that they are descendants of some prominent man. The making of genealogies is not confined exclusively to the newlyrich class of the whites. It is not meant to question, however, that ceris,
K There
of course, no
of so
many mixed-bloods
men may have been fathers of mulattoes. Benjamin Frankwas openly accused of keeping Negro paramours and seems to have made no attempt to deny it. "What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander." "An humble attempt at scurrility." (1T65), etc. (1764.) His Franklin, however, was not a member of the aristocratic class. actions are rather an evidence of the part that the middle and lower Thomas Jefferson class had to do with the production of the mulattoes. has also been accused of being the father of mulatto children and he certainly was of the aristocratic class. " J. C. Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, p. 27, f. n.
tain eminent
lin
in United States
in vogue.
57
147
European apprenticeship system then

eral, this
indentured servant class
may
In genbe divided into three
on the basis of the cause of their immigration to 58 America. Many were free, poor people, anxious to go to America but unable to pay their way, who pledged their
divisions
service for
also
a term of years to gain passage. There were a goodly number of persons, generally children, kidnapped in the streets of English cities and sold into servi-
tude in the colonies.
The
third class were transported
fel-
ons, dissolute individuals, vagabonds, prisoners of war and various others whom the government was anxious to get So many of this latter class were out of the country. 59
sent, that in 1663, they
were present in
sufficient
numbers
to imperil the government. 60

in
The importation was stopped
1671, England diverting the stream for a time to the West Indies but it was begun again in 1717 and continued,
;
in spite of protests, to the
time of the Revolution.
It
was
not effectively stopped before 1788. 61
From 1664
to 1671,
the average importation into Virginia alone was fifteen hundred a year. 62 It is estimated that from 1717 to the Revolution there were
colonies.
63
some
fifty
thousand criminals sent to the
This white indentured servitude was just reaching its height in Virginia at the time the first Negroes were brought
into the colony. 64
M
The number
of Negroes increased slowly

1.
"McCormac, White Servitude
in Maryland, Chapter
Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, p. 33. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, pp. 75-77.
"Ibid., p. 30.
Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, pp. 36-37. "Ibid., pp. 37-38.
"Ibid., p. 41. *H. P. Fairbanks, Immigration, p. 48. Servitude in Maryland, pp. 93 ff.
See, also,
McCormac, White
p. 91.
"Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia,
148
at
65
first,
The Mulatto
the United States
there being only thirty in the colony in 1650. In 1671 there were about two thousand slaves and six thousand
white servants in Virginia. Twelve years later, the latter had nearly doubled, while the blacks had increased to about
The Negroes, however, proved their supeas a servile labor class and from about 1685 on riority In white servitude began to give way to black slavery. the white servants were numerous 66 and of the Maryland,
three thousand.
same general type as those of Virginia.
Brackett
67
states
that the English jails were in part emptied into the colonies and adds that many of the indentured class were adventurers
and good-for-nothings. Elsewhere the situation was simi68 lar, though in the other colonies the white servants did not form so high a percentage of the total population. 69 It was these servants with whom the Negroes came into
closest contact.
Many
70
spectable persons,
sons,"
71
of them, of course, were highly rebut among them were "disorderly per-
deported convicts, prostitutes, and the like, in great numbers. They courted the Negroes as agreeable 72 The social condition of the black and white companions.
85
See p. 107
f.
above.
in Maryland, Chapter 3, "Number and Economic Importance." m Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, p. 118. 68 Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, pp. 92-93. 89 Maryland, Pennsylvania and Virginia were the three chief colonies
"See McCormac, White Servitude
importing white servants. 70 ". In many instances they were people of much worth who had met with misfortune, or who having been poor in the first place had taken advantage of this opportunity to make their fortunes in the New
.
World.
. . ." Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, p. 80. "Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 121. " See Bassett, Slavery in the State of North Carolina, p. 22, for illu-
minating side-light on the consequences of the association of the Negr.oes
&d
the low-class whites.

servants was at
in United States
149
first much the same; they "were bound toa fellowship of toil." 73 The relatively great numgether by ber of the vicious whites in certain regions 74 made it in-
evitable that there should be
much
illicit
relations between
is
the races.
The
is
first
case of intermixture of which there
any record
that of a white servant and a
75 Negro woman.
"During the first half to three-quarters of a century there Wilwas an indiscriminate mingling and marrying." 76
liams adds
77
:
of slaves and of these two elements was neither prudent nor healthy. The halfbreed population increased and so did the free negroes. The negroes suffered from the touch of moral contagion of this effete matter driven out of European so-
The contact
convicts
ciety.
There was a provision in the Maryland law of 1692 that any white man who married with or had a child by a Negro
"Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 121. 74 The population of the present territory of Baltimore and Hartford
in 1752
was given as follows: Free whites White servants

Convicts
over
nearly
5,000 to
11,000
1,000
6,000
Mulatto slaves
116
4,027
Negro
slaves
196 Free mulattoes 8 Free Negroes Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, pp. 175-76. 76 This was the case of Hugh Davis. He was publicly flogged September 17, 1630, "before an assembly of negroes and others" for "defiling himself with a negro." "It was required that he confess as much
the following Sabbath."
Williams, History of the Negro, Vol.
1, p.
121,
See, also, Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, pp. 72-73. 78 Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, p. 121. "History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 247.
quoting Henning.
150
The Mulatto
In the United States
woman
78
years. 79 In 1722, the Assexual offence with a Negress in 1677. sembly was petitioned for relief from the practice of white whole tract of land in people cohabiting with Negroes.
should be put to service for a period of seven In Pennsylvania, a white servant was indicted for
Sussex County was known as "Mulatto Hall." The mulattoes, who were numerous, were the offspring of Negroes
and low-class
slaves
whites. 80
In the earlier days, the association between the Negro and the bonded servants was close, and this sym-
pathetic relation held in some cases as between the free Negroes and the freed white servants. The poor whites
in
many
81 cases tried to screen the fugitive slaves,
and the
82
free
Negro was not always improved by freedom.

females,
"It
free
was thought that a rather large proportion of the

colored
particularly
free
mulattoes,
were
un-
In Maryland, there was a special legal enactment to cover the case of free Negro women having children of white men. 84 Bassett 85 says of the early Negro
slaves that
78
chaste." 83
"They were
in the lowest
moral condition
Bracket*, The Negro in Maryland, p. 33. "Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp.
Ibid., pp. 30-31.
81
29-30.
80
Bassett, Slavery
and Servitude
in
the
Colony of North Carolina,
p. 34.
"The women grew unchaste, the men dishonest, until in many minds the term 'free negro' became a synonym of all that was worthless and
83
David Dodge [O. W. Blacknall], "The Free Negroes of despicable." North Carolina." Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 57, p. 26. "Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, p. 137. He adds: "However
is ample documentary evidence to show that was a large class of the free colored population the members of which were respectable and observant of decency and
this
may have
been, there
in the 19th century there
regularity in their family relation." 84 Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, pp. 33, 195. 88 Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, p. 30.
in United States
151
They were
they had
well,
bestial, given to the
worst venereal diseases and
or no regard for the marriage bond." Bricka physician, says that the white men of the suffered a great deal from a malignant kind of colony venereal disease which they took from the slaves. 86 The
little
who was
looseness of the marriage tie
among
the free blacks was
notorious. 87
tain order
Strenuous measures were necessary to main-
As
the assemblages of the blacks and whites. 88 the Negroes increased in numbers, however, distinc-
among
tions were
heavier
class
made between the blacks and the whites. The work was put upon the Negroes "and the servant as more intelligent was reserved for the lighter
tasks."
field
The Negresses were
work with the men.

the
Many
frequently employed in the of the servants were taken
into
master's
house.
"Women-servants
were
com-
90 monly employed as domestics." The servants, as a class, came quickly to exaggerate the difference. They worked with the Negro but did not live
with him.
The
feeling of fellowship that at first existed
between the white servants and the black slaves gradually

91 gave place to social estrangement.
"Yet, in spite of the

illicit
strong social antipathies,

"Ibid., pp. 30, 59.
there was some
relations
It is probable that they contracted this disease
from the Indian rather than from the Negro slaves. If from the Negroes, they had received it from the Indians. 87 Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, p. 189. 88 ". Friends were still troubled by the racing of horses and the Great crowds of idle whites and blacks, they meeting of negroes said, drank and behaved riotously there until, in 1747, horse racing was forbidden, also, and the constables of the neighborhood ordered to disperse all crowds of slaves, at the time of the yearly meetings, if necessary by whipping and by the assistance of a posse." Ibid., p. 102. 89 Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, p. 69.
. .
. . .
80
Ibid., p. 69.
"Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, pp. 124-27.
152
The Mulatto
Wilbetween shameless white persons and Negroes." 92 93 of Maryland, says that the Negro slaves liams, speaking
who were at
courted by the convicts and other lowly whites, at length came to be treated worse by them than
first
by the opulent and intelligent slave dealers. This attitude of superiority and the disposition to keep free from all association with the Negro, which was at all
times true of
many
individuals
94
and which
later
came to be
class, is
a marked characteristic of the whole poor white

thus stated by Ballagh:
pride of the free man sustained this feeling, together with the strong race prejudice that has ever separated the Englishman from an inferior and dependent race. These sentiments were effective with the better class of servants in keeping them aloof from association with such inferiors. With convicts and the lower classes, where such considerations were not always sufficient, the law. Freemen and servants alike were subjected to severe penalties for intercourse with negroes, mulattoes and Indians, and intermarriage with them or with infidels was prohibited by many statutes prescribing the punishment both for the offender and the minister who performed the ceremony. The limitation of the servants, marriages upon the master's consent was a sufficient safe-guard in their case, and but little responsibility may be regarded as attaching to them for the growth of the mulatto class. As was natural between two dependent classes whose conditions were different and widely in favor of one class, race prejudice and pride were at their strongest and developed jealousies which did not exist between master and his dependent or the freedman and the slave. disposition on the part of the servants to keep them-
The natural
92
Russell,
The Free Negro in Virginia,
p. 124.
History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 247. M White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, pp. 71-73.
98

selves free
United States
153
from
all
association with negroes was per-
ceptible.
Another body of the mulattoes were children of white women by slave and free Negro men. There seems have been a considerable number of these mulattoes in to
servant
95 Virginia toward the end of the seventeenth century. By the law of Virginia, these children were bound out by the church warden's until the age of thirty. The master was
required to provide some degree of education for the ap96 The servant woman guilty of having a muprentices.
97 These years as a punishment. mulatto children of white women account, in small part, for
latto child
was sold for
five
the large
number of
free mulattoes in Virginia in the middle
and latter part of the seventeenth century. 98 In Maryland from 1692, there were penalties for white
women allowing
themselves to be with child by colored persons and for colored men guilty of the act. 99 The same
100 penalty was provided for slaves and free colored persons.
Says McCormac
101
:
While this law [1681] very effectually protected the servant from evil designs of an avaricious master, it did not prevent lewd conduct on the part of the servant. Mingling of the races continued during the 18th
"Ibid., pp. 72-74.
68 97
Russell,
"Where
The Free Negro in Virginia, pp. 40 if., the offence occurred, then, it was more
. .
138. likely to
do so
in
the case of a free person than of a servant, tude in the Colony of Virginia, p. 73.
98
99
."
Ballagh, White Servi-
W. H. Thomas, The American Negro,

Brackett, The
p. 6.
Negro in Maryland, p. 196. lw> "There were not a few cases of such offspring." In Ibid., p. 191. 1790 there is a case of a sale of a white woman and her mulatto child
as servants.
There are other cases in 1793 and 1794.

69-70.
See,
also,
p.
140
101
f.
n.
McCormac, White Servitude in Maryland, pp.
154
The Mulatto
in th* United States
Preventing century, in spite of all laws against it. the marriage of white servants with slaves only led to a greater social evil, which caused a reaction of public sentiment against the servant. Masters and society in general were burdened with the care of illegitimate mulatto children.
.
In Pennsylvania, especially in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, a mulatto population grew up, some of which were slave and some were free, according to the condition
of the mother.
.
Says Turner:
102
The child of a slave was not necessarily a slave one of the parents was free. The line of servile descent lay through the mother. Accordingly the child of a slave mother and a free father was a slave, of a free mother and a slave father a servant for a term of
.
.
if
years only.
The
result of the application of this doc-
a negro and a white person was that the mulattoes were divided into two classes. Some were servants for a term of years the others formed a third class of slaves.
trine to the offspring of
;
The act of 1725-1726 recognized this. The law enumerated four classes of Negro servants. "Fourthly, all mulatto children who were not slaves for life, were to be bound
out until they were thirty-one years of age." 103 Bassett, 104 in enumerating the sources of the free Negro population,
says:
Another [source] was the children of white women by negro men. There is evidence that not a few such Taken all together, people were in the government. there was a considerable number of free negroes among the people by the close of the Colonial period.
102 10
The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp. 24-25. /&id, pp. 91-92. 104 Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, p. 67.
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States

Delaware
fornication.
in
155
1721 passed an act punishing adultery and
It provided that in case of children of a white

slave, the
woman by a
County Court bound them out
until
105 The number of muthey were thirty-one years of age. lattoes born to white women was nowhere large but that
number was considerable there is no reason to doubt. There appears also to have been some intermixture between the low-class white women and the Indian men. 106 The Indians were never under the social ban to the same
the
mustees,
extent as the Negro. The distinction between mulattoes, and half-breed Indians was not always clearly
made; the term mulatto was frequently used to include all 107 three. It may well be that in some of the cases men-
women having mulatto children, the off-/ off were really half-breed Indians. spring
tioned of white
i
Intermarriage with Indiana
The Negro has everywhere and with the Indian. The barriers to
at all times mixed freely

social equality were less
between them than between either and the white.
There was some ground of sympathy between them and there were no laws forbidding intermixture. 10 In many of the colowere Indians. 109
Negro Race
nies, the first slaves

108 10i
The
captives in battle
1, p.
Maryland, p. 117, mentions such a case. ". At about the same time, a Pocouiok Indian was imprisoned for rape of an English woman. ... As it was found that the woman had willingly erred, the Indian was merely whipped, according to English law, and advised by the court to be more circumspect."
.
.
Williams, History of the Brackett, The Negro in
in America, Vol.
250.
107
Russell,
The Free Negro
in Virginia, p.
130.
See, also, Bassett,
Slavery in the State of North Carolina, p. 90.

.
He
here quotes a cor-
respondent as saying that "many of them [mulattoes] were descended from Indian and ."
.
108
109
Russell,
The Free Negro in Virginia, pp. 41, 12T ff. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina,
156
The Mulatto
the United States
were enslaved, 110 and not a few were kidnapped along the unsettled coasts and sold into slavery among the more settled colonies.
is
111
How many
Indian slaves there were,
it
impossible to say; they were classed with the blacks and no difference was made between them and other slaves. 112
113 and as particularly adapted to slavery,
114
They were not
the Negroes increased, they gradually disappeared. They were thrown into close association with the Negroes, inter-
married readily with them, and were gradually absorbed by
and disappeared into the growing body of blacks. 11

pp. 71-74. B. C. Steiner, "Indian Slavery."
History of Slavery in Connecticut, pp. 9
if.
110 Massachusetts sold the captives in King William's war into slavery. Virginia made slaves for life of those Indians taken in war but hesitated to do so with those offered for sale by other Indians. Steiner,
Maryland,
History of Slavery in Connecticut, p. 9. Brackett, The Negro in p. 19. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, pp. 72 ff.
first slaves in North Carolina were of this sort. Ibid., p. 71. H. S. Cooley, A Study of Slavery in New Jersey, pp. 11-13. 118 "At first some masters enslaved Indian women to increase their slave-progeny. This cross was not adapted to slavery, because those of Indian blood knew the country and were better able to escape. Consequently a law was passed in most states forbidding the enslavement of the children of Indian mothers. For this reason many Negro men took
113
m The
Indian wives so that their children might be born free
"
J.
F.
Gould, "The Negro Finding Himself," Speech before the Boston Business Negro Organization. Quoted in the Boston Reliance, a Negro League,
newspaper. It is not meant for humor. u* Massachusetts in 1712 and Connecticut in 1716 forbade the importation of Indian slaves on the ground that they were fierce and caused
trouble.
Bassett, Slavery
and Servitude
in the Colony of
North Caro-
lina, p. 73.
Dodge, Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 57, pp. 29-30. part of the free negroes whose freedom dates further back than this century show traits in mind and body that are ." The Indians seem to have been more used unmistakably Indian. as concubines than were the Negresses and consequently more of them set free because they had borne half-breed children. This was especially
Ibid., p. 72.
many,
if not the larger
United States
157
The
eenth centuries in
reservations set apart in the seventeenth and eightmany cases became the common home for
Indians and free Negroes. 11 117 As the Negroes frequently outnumbered the Indians, these settlements generally lost
all
but a tradition of Indian ancestry. 118
Runaway
slaves
frequently
cases, they
sought refuge among were harbored 119 and taken into the
the Indians.
In some
tribe.
In
true of the French settlements.

less
Both the French and the English feel H. A. repugnance toward the Indian than toward the Negro.
See, also, note 118, p. 157 below.
2,
Trexler, Slavery in Missouri, p. 80.

118
John Fisk, The Discovery of America, Vol.
pp. 427
ff.,
has an
excellent brief description of Indian slavery. 117 petition in 1843 in regard to the Paraunkey reservation in
King
but a small remnant of the old Indian tribe was extinct, and that in its place were free mulattoes, 'They are so mingled with the negro race as to have obliterated all striking features of Indian extraction. It is the general resort of free negroes from all parts of the country.' " Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia,
Williams County stated "that
all
. .
.
129. White persons in the vicinity of the reservation of the Nottaways and kindred tribes affirmed, in 1821, that the wives and husbands of the Indians were free Negroes and "that they had neither prudence nor economy." Ibid., p. 129. Of the inhabitants of the Gingaskin reservation it was said in 1787 "that those who were not entirely black had 'at least half black blood in them.' The place was called Indian Town, but many of the squaws had negroes for husbands, and the Indian
p.
braves lived with black wives."

U8
Ibid., p. 128.
Bureau of American Ethnology. Handbook of the American Indians, Part 1, p. 914. "There is no doubt that many of the broken coast
tribes
have been completely absorbed into the negro race."
See, also,
p. 81 above.
119
Indians, in 1661
to return
"In treaties made with the governor of Maryland with various and 1663, there is the stipulation that the Indians are
any runaway 'Englishmen.' Later the neighboring Indians were encouraged to seize runaways by the reward of a blanket or its value. Treaties with them forbade their harboring servants and slaves, who were to be given over to the nearest English plantation. The back-
woods oifered a near retreat for runaways. As a certain tribe of Indians had evidently been regardless of the rights of the good people of Maryland in their servants and slaves, the Governor and Council decided, in
158
The Mulatto
other cases, they simply became the slaves of the Indians 120 The Cherokees and among whom they sought refuge.
the Creeks were large slave holders and for the most part mixed on terms of equality with their black slaves. The
with
Seminoles at a later date owned large numbers of slaves whom they had intermixed. There seem also to have
been in their tribe

slaves.
many runaways who were
not classed as
Intermixture During Slavery and at Present
The
illicit
relations between the
class whites,
which
in
Negroes and the lowsome regions at least characterized the
racial situation during a considerable portion of the colonial period, very greatly decreased as the institution of
On the one hand, the general and bitslavery developed. ter hatred that existed everywhere in the slave states bethe races apart
tween the "poor white class" and the slaves tended to keep and to keep intermixture at a minimum. 121
1722, to send to these
ship,
a messenger with a treaty of peace and friendand the promise of a reward of two blankets and a gun to every Indian who should return a slave. These allurements were evidently unavailing, for three years later it was decided to send again, to invite ." the chiefs to Annapolis. Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, pp.
. .
74-75.
m Bassett,
Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina,

. .
Natural History of North Carolina, p. 273, as sayhad a natural and irreconcilable hatred for ing that "The Indians the negroes and delighted in torturing them. When they would meet runaways in the woods they would attack them vigorously, either killing
p. 57, quotes Brikell,
.
them or driving them back to the whites." 121 This was by no means always the case between the free Negroes and See Bassett, Slavery in the State of North Carolina, the poor whites.
Dodge, Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 59, p. 29, says: ". Hardly a neighborhood was free from low white women who married or cohabited with free negroes. Well can I recollect the many times when, with the inconsiderate curiosity of a child, I hurriedly climbed the front
p. 43.
.
.
United States
159
On
the other hand, whatever
may have
been the extent of
and their female
the irregular relationships between the slave-holding class slaves, the slave system as a working and
developed institution regulated strictly the conduct of the slaves and thereby restricted, in a measure, irregular relations between them and the general white population. 122
Miss Frances A. Kemble, who spent some time in Georgia about 1850, naively testifies to this fact. 123
I observed, among the numerous groups that we passed or met, a much larger proportion of mulattoes than at the rice-island upon asking Mr why this was so, he said that there no white person could land without his or the overseer's permission, whereas on St. Simon's which is a large island containing several plantations belonging to different owners, of course the number of whites, both residing on and visiting the
:
place,
was much greater, and the opportunity for intercourse between the blacks and whites much more
124
frequent.
gate-post to get a good look at a shriveled old woman trudging down the lane, who, when young, I was told, had had her free-negro lover
bled,
and drank some of his blood, so that she might swear she had Negro blood in her." 132 Bruce, The Plantation Negro as a Freeman, p. 17, gives a good
statement of the restraining effects of slavery on the Negro. 133 Residence on a Georgian Plantation, p. 162.
134
ble says:
In another place, speaking of a certain mulatto woman, Miss Kem"This woman was a mulatto daughter of a slave called Sophy,
by a white
190.
white
It
man of the name of Walker, who visited the plantation," p. Of another mulatto she says: "The woman's father had been a man who was employed for some purpose on the estate," p. 194.
was of course to the master's interest to prevent intermixture so far was able to do so. "If a woman had children she was rendered ." less desirable as a slave. Frequently slave women were offered for sale for no other reason than that they had children. Cooley, A Study of Slavery in New Jersey, p. 55. However, this was not alas he
.
ways the
case.
Brickell,
Natural History of North Carolina,
p.
272,
160
In the
The Mulatto
cities
and towns of the South, however, there was no such degree of restraint exercised over the slaves as was the case on the plantations. Opportunities for association
with others than the master class were greatly increased. A much larger per cent of the slaves were house servants. The
number of
free
Negroes and free mulattoes was larger.
The
better opportunity for association resulted in a greatly increased amount of intermixture in the cities. 125 Here there
was a casual mixture totally different in kind from the more or less permanent or regular association that frequently existed between the slave owner and a favorite Negress.
It
was
in general the vicious elements of the whites

cities
;
which
were responsible for the mulattoes in the

tations, generally speaking, the
Negro woman
on the planwas screened
from association with this class of whites. resulting from the breakdown of the master and slave relationship, brought with it an enormous increase of racial intermixture. The restraint under which the slaves had been held shielded them from general assoas far as possible
The disorganization
ciation with the vicious whites.
As they
realized the fact
towns and
of their freedom, they wandered in great numbers to the 126 cities where they gave themselves up to a pro-
says that "a fruitful woman amongst them being very much valued by the planters and a numerous issue esteemed the greatest riches in the country." Quoted by Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of
North Carolina, pp. 57-58. 126 "The slave-holders of the Southern
are benevolently dostates ing their best, in one way at least, to raise and improve the degraded race, and the bastard population which forms so ominous an element
. .
in the social safety
of their
cities
."
Kemble, Residence on a Geor-
gian Plantation, p. 14. That it was essentially a city phenomenon in the South is correct: that it was the slave-holding class which was responsible, wholly or chiefly, is notoriously undemonstrable.
138
Steiner,
this
A History of Slavery in Connecticut, p. 80, comments upon tendency of the manumitted slaves of Connecticut and attributes
United States
161*
longed celebration which was frequently characterized by a more or less promiscuous sexual intercourse among the Negroes themselves and between their white elements of the cities. 127
women and
the vicious
Wherever the Union armies went in the South, they were besieged by an army of Negro women. Says Thomas, a severe and unsympathetic but on the whole a frank and accurate critic of his own race: 128
... It may have been the outcroppings of gratitude to Federal victors, or reckless abandon to lust, but the inciting cause is immaterial, so long as the shameful fact is true, that, wherever our armies were quartered in the South the negro women flocked to their camps for infamous riot with the white soldiery. All occupied cities, suburban rendezvous, and rural bivouacs, bore witness to the mad havoc daily wrought have in black womanhood by our citizen soldiery. personal knowledge of many Federal officers of high station, and some of strong prejudices against the
We
race, who openly kept negro mistresses in their army quarters ; nor do we doubt that the present lax morality everywhere observable among negro womenkind is largely due to the licentious freedom which the war engendered among them. Slavery had its blighting evils, but also its wholesome restraints. 129
At the present time, the intermixture of the races seems to be going on more rapidly than at any time in the past. 131
it
to "their gregarious tendencies."
See, also, J. R. Brackett, Notes on
the Progress of the Colored People Since the War, p. 25. 137 F. A. Bancroft, The Negro in Politics, pp. 14 ff.
138
The American Negro,

is
p.
14.
a significant fact that venereal diseases were practically unknown in the South outside of a few cities before the War and the Ne""It
groes were generally free from them. Following the wake of the Union armies they rapidly spread throughout the whole black population of the South. See, however, p. 151 above.
wo
Sir
Harry H. Johnston, The Negro
in the
New
World,
p. 98, points
162
The Mulatto
in the
United States
As has been previously pointed
out,
some
of this increase
is
due to legal intermarriage between the races, and some to a more or less ordered but unlawful concubinage of mulatto
and Negro
sort,
girls
by white men.
Relations of a more
however, are responsible for the large per 131 and these take two forms. On the one hand, there cent; is a debauching by white men of the lighter-colored muvicious
latto girls whom they, of course, do not marry. In their turn, the mulatto men debauch, but refuse to marry, the
black girls.
It
is
132
necessary to remember that the amount of interis,
mixture
contact.
in general, proportional to the
opportunity for
of a lower race
Granting numerous individual exceptions, the gen-
eral statement holds true that the
women
everywhere are honored by the attention of the men of a It is not only true of the Negro, but is superior caste.
inferior
true of every race or class within a race, which and recognizes itself as inferior.
is
culturally
In summarizing, we
may
say that the intermixture of the
races everywhere has gone on to the extent of the white man's wishes. The Negro woman never has objected to,
out a similar fact in regard to Brazil.
"After emancipation the move-
ment toward a fusion of the races between the ex-slave and the descendants of his Luso-Brazilian masters went on more rapidly even than
during the three centuries of mild servitude." ul The great majority of the mixed-blood race
is
of course the result
of marriage between the mulattoes themselves. 183 Said a Negro Y. M. C. A. Secretary, speaking before a mixed audiNo colored" ence at the Frederick Douglass Center in Chicago: ". girl who comes to Chicago has been in the city forty-eight hours without being besieged by the colored men and boys of the city whose one
.
.
effort
and desire
is
to
work her downfall.

girls
We
our
talk of the
the white
men wrong our
but
it
is
men and
boys
way in which who least
respect and honor them."
especially ig flattered by the attention of white men.
The black girl is flattered by these attentions, when they come from mulatto men just as the mulatto girl
m
;
United States
163
and has generally courted, the relationship. It was never at any time a matter of compulsion on the contrary it was
a matter of being honored by a man of a superior race. Speaking generally, the amount of intermixture is limited only by the self-respect of the white man and the pelling strength of the community sentiment.
com-
Intermixture went on rapidly during the colonial days especially where the Negro was in contact with the indentured servant class, and in regions where there was a scarThere was a large intermixture becity of white women.
were in contact.
tween the Indians and the Negroes wherever these two races Occasionally the Negro men found white
wives or formed extra-matrimonial alliances with the white
women
of the servant class.

defined
As
the status of the slave be-
came better
and a
social difference
was made, the
friendly relation between the Negroes and the white servants gave place to a feeling of hatred between the Negro and the
poor white
class. This, together with the more strict disover the slaves, generally prevented much intercipline mixture of these classes during the period that slavery existed as a national institution.
Mixture of the races probably went on more slowly during the period that slavery existed as a national institusince. Such and the slave women were generally a kind of sub-surface polygamy and
tion,
than in the period before or the period
relations as existed between the master class
were rather a process of further whitening the mixed-blood race than a mixture of the whites and blacks. This was dur-
where concubinage between a mulatto

tion between
ing the slavery period, and the same thing is true to-day exists, the relation being generally one
woman and a white man seldom a white man and a Negro woman. 133
;
a rela-
m W.
Laird Clowes, Black America, pp. 142-43, points out that "the
164
The Mulatto
of racial intermixture, being conditioned by the opportunity for association of the races and especially for association of the lower classes, has, in general, been greatest where the Negro has been least numerous as com-
The amount
Consequently the intermixture always has been greater in the cities and towns than in the rural districts, and relatively greater in the North than
in the South.
pared to the white race.
Since the freedom of the Negroes and their
immigration to the towns and cities, intermixture of the races in the South has increased. It is in the urban situation that the
Negro
girls
and women come into contact most
frequently with dissolute white men. It is there, too, that the opportunity to conceal the relationship makes the control of the situation
effective
by the prevailing public sentiment
less
than in the rural situation.
Finally, such intermixture of the races as now goes on, outside a very little intermarriage, is, for the most part, between the vicious elements of both races. Under the slave
regime, especially as it took place outside the cities, it was often a relation between a better class of white men than
usually the case and the choicest and usually the At the present time, there is lightest-colored Negro girls.
is
now
a disposition on the part of the better-class whites and a growing sentiment among the Negro middle-class to avoid
such relationships. There is, however, much intermixture between certain classes of whites and mulatto girls 134 and
between mulatto men and Negro

chief sinners
if sinners
girls.
It seems to be
on
they can be called in such connection
are the
coloured, as distinct from the pure negro, women of the South." 134 Mr. DuBois has pointed out that the process of intermixture goes in on between the mulatto girls and the lower grade of whites. ".
.
.
many an
instance a prudent negro mother finds
it
wise to send her
good-looking yellow daughter to some institution to save her from the temptation of association with the lowest grade of white boys in the
United States
165
the whole, though not exclusively, a casual association of the lower classes of the whites and frequently the lower classes of both races.
neighborhood." Needs, p. 35.
is
Quoted by Raymond Patterson, The Negro and His
compare this with the situation in Chile where, it "very few prostitutes can make a living" because the halfbreed girls "are so easy." E. A. Ross, South of Panama, pp.
It is interesting to
said, that
CHAPTER
VII
THE GROWTH OF THE MULATTO CLASS

Negroes introduced into the English Colonies 1 in America were probably not introduced as slaves. White servitude was the rule before the Negro came. He was brought into more or less intimate contact with these
THE
first
and probably little difference and theirs. It was the first contact in any appreciable numbers of the North European peoples with the African races. Aside from whatwhite indentured
servants,
was at
first
made between
his status
ever natural antipathy
may have
existed between people so
widely different in physical appearance, there was no sentiment of hostility toward the black man, no traditional
2 prejudice, and no customary caste feeling of superiority. Such feeling as did exist was probably not so much a matter of race as it was a matter of religion. 3 The Negroes
were "heathen" and the distinction was between Christians
and Barbarians rather than between people of white and

1
"Beyond
freemen.
all
question the
first
as
The only question
negroes brought in were not introduced is whether, upon entering the colony,
.
they became servants or slaves.

in Virginia, p. 23. 'Ibid., p. 137.
."
J.
H. Russell, The Free Negro
See, also, p. 19.
Study of Slavery in New Jersey, p. 57. The Negro in the District of Columbia, p. 43. David Dodge, "The Free Negroes of North Carolina," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 57, p. 24, gives 1830 as the date, and reaction against abolitionism the cause, of change in race prejudice. J. R. Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, pp. 30 ff.
H.
S. Cooley,
Edward
Ingle,
166
The Growth
people of black skin.
of the Mulatto Class
167
The
ferent from that which
early colonial conception of slavery was very difcame to prevail at a later time. The
; there existed no crysof doctrine as to the slaves' condition or sta-
system was new, imperfect, immature

tallized
tus.
body
Nor was
to the institution.
there any strong body of sentiment opposed The seventeenth century idea of a slave
life. It was for the most part a domestic institution as opposed to an industrial one. The slaves were recognized as persons not, as in the later con-
was that of a servant for
In most cases, they lived in close relation ception, things. to the family of the master and neither in law nor in cus-
tom were they regarded in any way as very different from other servants and apprentices. They were laborers and not considered, nor treated very differently from probably other laborers. The very strangeness of the Africans and their physical, cultural, and temperamental differences from the settlers may have given them a status unlike that Their number was very of other persons in the colonies. and it was, in general, a generation after small, however, their first introduction before black slavery was recognized by law. It had existed as a well-established and well-understood custom long before
tion.
it
anywhere received legal sanc-
But gradually the Negroes acquired or were assigned a separate and inferior status. From the status of servants, they acquired the status of servants for life, or slaves, and
finally
that of servants in perpetuity. As white servitude declined, the status of servant or slave came to be associated with color;
and slavery became the presumptive
sta-
tus of all Negroes. Moreover, the early conception of a slave as a person serving for life, gave place to the conception of a slave as
a thing rather than as a person.
"Grad-
168
The Mulatto
the United States
4 ually," says Turner, "the very best negroes had be regarded as of an alien race, and as an outcast
come to
graded people with

sible."
whom
and deno intimate association was pos-
Color prejudice grew up as the characteristics of
the Negroes became better known and increased in strength Where the with the increase in numbers of the blacks. 5
numbers remained small, the prejudice remained very largely

a simple, organic, repulsive reaction against the strange and the ugly. As long as the numbers remained so small
as
to
constitute no
immediate menace, the outward ex-
pression of the race prejudice remained in abeyance. Where the slaves were more numerous and better known, the sentiments and attitudes were more definitely organized and
the Negro, as such, was assigned a separate and lower economic and social status as the only conceivable working
site
relation that could exist between two groups at the oppoextremes of human culture.
This race, ever more and more separated from the white
group by the action of the whites, was in no sense a homo6 Its members were much alike as to color geneous group. and other physical characteristics, but in temperament 7 and in talent they differed much as other men differ. As their domestication progressed, they rapidly became a less
E. R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, p. 199. See, also, J. C. Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony Ibid., p. 143. of Virginia, pp. 97 ff.; and G. W. Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 142.
6 4
"There were
tribes
as
Guinea.
the
representatives of many African Blacks, natives of Oceania and New Well over one-half of the slaves, however, were Negroes from
among
the
slaves,
well
as
Australian
West African Coast. See C. H. Otken, Ills of the South, pp. 203 if. for an attempt to identify and evaluate the different tribal elements. T The very considerable number of Indians and later of Indian-Negro
intermixtures
differences.
among
the slaves did
much
to increase the temperamental
The Growth
and
less
169
homogeneous group.
This natural differentiation
within the group, due to the different rate at which individuals were able to accommodate themselves to civilized
manners and customs, was being constantly increased by the addition of new arrivals from Africa. 8 But aside from differences in native talent and the length
of the period of domestication of the Negroes brought to America, there were other forces at work tending to bring
about
a differentiation within the
Negro group.
Such
things as climate, occupations, types of people in the different regions or colonies, afforded the black man unequal
opportunities for assimilating the white man's culture.

versity in customs, sentiments, racial heredity,
belief
Di-
made
differences in his treatment.
The
religious differences in
and
climate and consequently in occupations in various sections The wide of the country, made a difference in his work. variety of conditions naturally produced a great difference in the rate at which the Negroes acquired the outward
forms of English culture.
numbers of the Negroes and whites varied In most of the northern sections the proportionate number of Negroes was As a result, they came more into contact never large. 9
relative
The
widely in various sections of the country.
with the white people and consequently their opportunity to assimilate the white man's culture was superior to the
opportunity of those Negroes whose lot fell in sections of the country where the proportion of Negroes to whites was
The negative side of the proposition importance. Where the number of Negroes was
greater.
8
is
of equal
small, they
lina,
S. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Caropp. 56-57. ""For the most part, only one or two negroes were owned by any
J.
person."
B. C. Steiner,
History of Slavery in Connecticut, p.
21.
170
The Mulatto
had not the same opportunity to associate with one another and so did not have the opportunity to develop and perpetuate their African traditions and culture. The Negroes more rapidly in some sections than in others, therefore,
simply because of differences in numbers, threw off the language and traditions of Africa and took on the language
and customs of their masters. Another differentiating factor among the

lack
of
slaves,
was the
uniformity
class
-
among
the
slaveholders
themselves.
While as a
the slaveholders represented the educa-
tional, moral, economic, intellectual,
and
social aristocracy;
life,
and stood for
all
that was best in American

of the same high type.
they were
by no means
all
The
slave in the
household of a wealthy, educated, and refined gentleman had a vastly better opportunity than did the slave in the
household of the ignorant and the vicious. 10 In some cases, at least, the slaves were given some education, taught the religion of their masters and had some opportunity for association with the white people. 11 In other cases they were denied these things or had no opportunity to secure them.
Again, some slaves early received their freedom. This was the case in all parts of the country. At a later period, it was especially the case in the North where slavery was not the profitable economic institution that it proved to be
in other
10
parts of the country.
The
actual number freed
Frances A. Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation, p. 24. Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, pp. 97 ff. 11 Susan D. Smedes, A Southern Planter, p. 40. Speaking of Lunsford
North Carolina, pp. had been kept in the town for family service, and thus their offspring had opportunities beyond the other Many men of negroes. Lunsford early learned to read and write political prominence visited his master's house, and from waiting on
Lane, J.
S.
Bassett, The Anti-Slavery Leaders in
61-62, says that
"His parents
these he acquired
much
general information.
."
The Growth
171
was, of course, greater in the South. There grew up, therefore, a body of free Negroes who, though their condition on the whole seems often not to have been superior to that of the slaves, 12 were free to follow their
own
inclinations as
to employment, the accumulation of property, associations,
and the
like.
still
more profound
difference
was that between the
condition of the town and plantation slaves. In the former situation, they were brought into continual contact
and association with various members of the opposite race. 13 The plantation Negroes, on the other hand, were isolated
Except for natural procreation, the principal additions or [free Negroes] throughout this period were the result of illegitimacy. There was no tendency to attribute to a few negroes and mulattoes of such low origin any higher social standing than that occupied by more than 99 per cent of their race and color. ." before Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, p. 126. However, ". the time of the active propagation of the antislavery doctrines, there
".
.
12
recruits to this class
existed little if
any prejudice against the education of free colored
See, also, pp. 51, 76. before 1780 a negro even if free was far from being as free ." as a white man. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, p. 113.
persons."
".
.
.
Ibid., p. 137.
See, also, p. 127.
Free negroes were despised rather than hated, and though ". some gained and held a place of comparative comfort and security, the mass came under the obloquy attached to slavery without participation in the benefits enjoyed by the average bondsman." E. Ingle, Southern,
.
.
. .
See, also, Williams, History of See, also, p. 279. Sidelights, p. 285. the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, pp. 315, 286; Cooley, Study of History of Slavery in Slavery in New Jersey, pp. 45 ff. ; Steiner,
Connecticut, p. 23,
Carolina, pp. 34
f.
n.; J. S.
if.;
Bassett, Slavery
ff.
Bassett, Slavery in the State of North and Servitude in the Colony of

religious influence of their
North Carolina, pp. 66
"These
slaves
"who thus came under the
masters and mistresses" were most likely the ones first converted to ChrisSee Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North tianity.
Carolina, pp. 48-50.
See, also, E. Ingle,
The Negro
in the District
of
Columbia, p.
19.
172
The Mulatto
the United States

in continual association with
from the cultured race and

other Negroes.
They did not
get into touch with the whites.
They retained, therefore, the language, the customs, and the traditions of their African home, for years and generations after the
more fortunately situated Negroes had cast
them
off.
The house servants in Charleston or Savannah, in close personal and confidential touch with the master and mistress, and with opportunities to acquire a certain degree of book-learning, and much more valuable culture in morality and refinement, were quite different from the workers in the rice-fields or among the canes, many of whom were steeped in the superstition of barbarism and clung to African gibberish fifty years after they had passed from the decks of the
. . .
slaver.
14
In the back country the contact was more intimate than on the larger plantations and, while not so varied, was frequently more effective even than the city
life.
In North Carolina, and elsewhere, no doubt, it was was of a milder type in noticeable that slavery, Here the farms were small. the western counties. With these they Slave-owners had but few slaves.
.
mingled freely. They worked with them in the fields, plowing side by side. The slave cabins were in the same yard with the master's humble home. Slave children and, indeed, slave families were directly under the
eye
tress.
of
.
.
the
15
,
master,
and better
still,
of
the
mis-
and possibly of greatest importance, was the occupational differentiation among the members of the NeFinally,
14
tation
Ingle, Southern Sidelights, p. 264. Negro as a Freeman, p. 74.
See, also, P. A. Bruce,
The PlanSee, also,
"Bassett, Slavery in the State of North Carolina, p.
8.
Dodge, Atlantic Monthly, Vol.
57, p. 21.
The Growth
173
Some were house and body servants, some gro group. were mechanics, some were laborers and field hands. The first had the opportunity of intimate daily association with
the master's family. 16
tion
The second had not only that association, but the educaand training necessary to make of them efficient workthe superior slave class, and the one that represented all that was best in Negro development, was the mechanics who were in most cases conspicuous for their ability and achievements, for slavery included among its mechanical industries every form of handicraft, and as the ability to acquire a mechanical art carries with it a fair degree of intelligence, it is not
.
men.
. .
But
surprising that negro artisans, who were carefully selected for their special lines of work, should have developed characters superior to their less fortunate fellows.
17
The third class came little into contact with the whites. 18 On the plantation, they might never see the master and
seldom any white
man from
one ,year's end to another.
On
the larger plantations and in Jamaica, it was even possible for the slaves to see little more of the white man than did
these larger plantations, the strictly economic one in contrast to the more patriarchal type it assumed in the back country and on the smaller plantations.
their ancestors in Africa.
On
institution
was a more
18 "I should tell you that Aleck's parents and kindred have always been about the house of the overseer, and in daily habits of intercourse with him and his wife; and wherever this is the case the effect of involuntary education is evident in the improved intelligence of the de-
graded race."
also,
W. H. Thomas, The American
Kemble, Residence on a Georgian Plantation, Negro, p. 15.

See, also, p. 67.
p. 24.
See,
Ibid., pp. 15-16. "Ibid., p. 15.
"
174
The Mulatto
in
the United States
For
these reasons and perhaps for others
because of
superior natural talent, superior advantages, superior education and training, because of their freedom there was
a separation within the Negro group that dates from the
beginning of the Negroes' American life. Some of the classes thus formed were isolated geographically and socially
of
their
and found their chief or only associations with others kind. Other more fortunate classes had the
advantage of association and contact with the cultured

race.
In the ranks of the favored classes, there was a pre-
ponderance of mulattoes.
From
their first appearance,
and
increasingly as the system developed and the control of economic forces allowed a body of trained house servants to
grow, the mulattoes formed the house and body servants. not all could be employed in house work, they were most frequently the ones chosen to learn the trades. They
When
In any case, they and intimate association close, constant, with the white people. This was more especially the case as the institution became older and the number of slaves increased to where a more complete division of labor was There are a number of circumstances each sufpossible.
were the ones employed in skilled work.
came into more
ficient
to account in part for the excess of mulattoes in the

first
favored classes.
it was generally believed throughout the that the mulattoes were superior in intellislavery period 19 In spite of their inferior bodily gence to the black slaves.
In the
place,
strength, they
ket.
20
commanded a higher
this belief
Because of
price in the slave marthe truth or falsity of the
belief is
19
not here in question
they were most often chosen

240.
p. 164.
20
Kemble, Residence on a Georgian Plantation, p. Ray Stannard Baker, Following the Color Line,
The Growth
175
for the tasks that required an exercise of skill

21
and
intelli-
says that "the Negroes coarse in and crude in action were assigned to labor in the speech ." fields and forest. After speaking of the class of
gence.
. .
Thomas
22
domestic servants he adds:
class,
cial
Another equally intelligent, but more self-reliant was the slaves employed in portage in commer-
together with many others engaged in which required little supervision, but a occupations fair degree of personal intelligence and practical judgment to perform rightly.
centers,
Because of the presumption of the mulattoes' superior
in-
telligence the industrial as opposed to the common labor classes were, so far as the number of mulattoes allowed a
choice to be made, mulatto classes.
In the early days some few, at least, of the mulattoes were children of white women. 23 Where this was the case
~)
had the advantage of a white mother's care and and this, even of the type of white woman who training gave birth to a mulatto child, was doubtless superior to
the child
could be given a child by the Negro Consequently the child, other things equal, would be somewhat superior to the child of a black mother. Morethe training that
mother.
"The fact that the majority of those entrusted with responsibility and of those who succeeded best in acquiring knowledge, both of letters and of industrial arts, during slavery were mulattoes, and the fact that the majority of those of the present who have made creditable attainments are of mixed blood, go to prove that a mixture of white blood has had much to do in the matter of higher ambition, mental force, and ." C. H. McCord, The American Negro efficiency of the talented few.
. .
11
as a Defective,
31
88
Dependent and Delinquent, The American Negro, pp. 15, 16.

ff.
p. 50.
See pp. 152
above.
176
The Mulatto
over, as the status of the child followed that of the mother,

it
woman
would, in most cases, ultimately become a free with whatever advantages went with the
man
or
status.
Such ancestry, consequently, tended to increase the percentage of mulattoes in the free Negro group. In some cases, there existed a paternal or other blood relationship between the mulatto slave and the master. How numerous such cases were, it is wholly impossible to
but where such relationships existed, the individual was doubtless favored over other individuals of the servile
say ;
24
He was likely to receive his freedom, generally with that of his mother and often with some property for a start 26 in life. But whether or not such individuals went to swell
class.
25
the ranks of the free

34
Negro group, they were, by heredity
27
See p. 139 above.
it was notorious that freemen sold their own mulatto children born in Virginia." J. P. Dunn, Indiana, p. 223. This was probThere were doubtless such cases ably more notorious than accurate. but the stories that the slave-owning class made this a practice are no longer a part of the mental furnishings of any one of standard development. ". Everywhere there were usually a number of prosperous
""Indeed
free negroes. Most of them were mulattoes, not a few of them were set free by their fathers and thus they fell easily into the life around them. This mulatto class was partly due to the easy sexual relations be-
tween the races. A white man who kept a negro mistress ordinarily lost no standing in society on account of it. The habit, though not common, was not unusual. Often the mistress was a slave, and thus there were frequent emancipations either by gift or by purchase of liberty, till the stricter spirit of the laws after 1831 checked it." Bassett, Slavery
in the State of
North Carolina, pp. 45-46. T. Washington, Story of the Negro, Vol. 1, pp. 227 ff. 27 So far as a sex relation exists anywhere between a master and a subject race it is always the choicest females who are so honored. The
"See Booker
lattoes' ancestry.
statement in the text, therefore, refers to the colored side of the muThere is no implication of or denial of fundamental Their mothers were the choicest individuals of their racial superiority.
race.
The Growth
177
and training, the best specimens of the race and raised the
percentage of mulattoes in the favored classes. But the most important reason that the mulatto was
chosen in preference to the Negro for any employment that brought him into association with the master family was
the fact that he was a better looking animal. 28 He made a better appearance. 29 For this reason he was selected as
the house and

tic
body servant.
This favored class of domes-
servants "were usually bright and intelligent negroes who, through contact and sympathetic supervision, acquired in many instances a training in manners and methods of
incomparable grace and
30
efficiency."
The Negroes everywhere made distinctions among them31 The free Negroes recognized the difference between selves. The town Negroes considered themselves and the slaves.
In the same themselves superior to the country Negroes. the house servants held themselves superior to the field way,
hands.
The basis on which the distinctions were most usuThe free Negroes were very ally made was that of color. mulattoes. 32 The house servants also were frefrequently
28 Sir Harry H. Johnston, "Racial Problems and the Congress of Races," Contemporary Review, Vol. 100, p. 154. 29 "She was quite indifferent to the public opinion that required only fine-looking, thoroughly trained servants about the establishment of a
Stnedes, A Southern Planter, p. 65. The mulattoes were emThomas, The American Negro, p. 15. ". ployed in towns. ... I have seen great plantations with not one of them all black." Bassett, Slavery in the State of North Carolina, p. 90,
gentleman."
30
quoting a correspondent, apparently with approval.

31 The various opprobrious epithets applied to members of the race, and to the opposite race as well, have always been most widely used
by the Negroes themselves.
"Crackers," "twisters," "niggers," "burrheads," "mule-niggers," "polka dots" and the like, if not invented by Negroes were and are more often used by them than by the opposite race. See The Chicago Defender, Editorial "So Say We," 10-9-1915.
"In
1860, for
e.g.,
2,554 of the 3,441
free Negroes were mulattoes.
178
The Mulatto
quently of mixed-blood and the same was true to a greater extent of the town Negroes than of the plantation Negroes
and lower-class
slaves.
The mulatto
slaves held themselves
superior to the black slaves and claimed privileges on acThe white man considered the mulatto count of color.
superior to the black man and the mulatto, taking over the white man's way of thinking, claimed membership in the superior ranks on account of his relative absence of color.
The mulatto woman, Sally, accosted me again today and begged that she might be put to some other than field labor. Supposing she felt herself unequal to it, I asked her some questions, but the principal reason she urged for her promotion to some less laborious kind of work was, that hoeing in the field was so hard to her on "account of her color" and she therefore I was much petitions to be allowed to learn a trade. at this reason for her petition, but was prespuzzled ently made to understand that, being a mulatto, she
considered field labor a degradation; her white bastardy appearing to her a title to consideration in my eyes. The degradation of these people is very complete, for they have accepted the contempt of their masters to that degree that they profess, and really seem to feel it for themselves, and the faintest admixture of white blood in their black veins appears at once, by common consent of their own race, to raise them in the scale of humanity. I had not much sympathy for
this petition.
83
While the distinctions among the members of the race on

the basis of color were everywhere made, the "color line" was most carefully and rigidly drawn where there existed
New Orleans 7,357 of the 9,084. free Negroes were mixed-bloods. Elsewhere the proportion was usually not so high but was everywhere marked. See notes 46, 47, p. 116 above.
In
"Kemble, Residence on a Georgian Plantation,
p. 194.
The Growth
the largest
I
179
34
:
body of
free Negroes.
Evans says
was told by an intelligent light-coloured woman I met in Alabama, who was married to a well-todo mulatto there, and who came from Charleston, South Carolina, that in her early days in that city she had no black associates, and that between the lightcoloured and black there was a gulf fixed similar to that separating the former from the whites. Later in life when she moved into Alabama she found there no such class distinctions between blafck and coloured. Her ancestors on both sides had been freed men for two generations, the family owned property, and had
whom
a recognized position in Charleston.
Fannie Jackson, a mulatto who is said to have been the first Negro woman to graduate from a reputable college,
testifies
to this spirit of superiority

35
on the part of the mu-
lattoes.
So I went out to service. Oh, the hue and cry there was, when I went out to live! Even my aunt spoke of it; she had a home to offer me; but the "slavish" element was so strong in me that / make myself a servant. Ah, how those things cut me then! But I knew I was
right,
and I kept straight

testifies
on.
Frederick Douglass
to the
38
same fact 36 as does
Mr. DuBois,
34
37
Edward Blyden
and, naively or otherwise,

93.
Maurice
S.
Evans, Black and White in the Southern States, p.

the Mulatto,"
See, also,
Ray Stannard Baker, "The Tragedy of
The
American Magazine, Vol. 65, p. 588. 85 J. W. Cromwell, The Negro in American History, p. 213. "Life and Times, p. 458. 87 The thing that makes the mulatto especially useful is that, ". with the white man, he shares the pride of his white blood and is less of race where likely than the black to submit to artificial distinctions
. .
." nature has bridged them. Crisis, Editorial, 9-1913. 88 E. W. Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race, p. 18.
.
180
The Mulatto
the United States
most of the other Negroes who have become articulate. 39
The
white
man always
;
has considered the mulatto superior
Negro and the mulatto, taking over the white man's way of thinking, considered himself superior and attributed the superiority to the fact of his mixed blood. He formed exclusive organizations and claimed superiority on
to the black
the basis of color.
assumption of superiority on the part of the mulattoes and, like the mulatto and the white man, attributed the observed superiority to
the admixture of white blood. 40
The Negroes
in general accepted the
Speaking of the boat songs

41
:
of a certain river plantation group, Miss Kemble says
One of their songs displeased me not a little, for it embodied the opinion that "twenty-six black girls not make mulatto yellow girl" and I told them I did not This desperate tenlike it they have omitted it since. to despise and undervalue their own race and color, which is one of the very worst results of their
;
Jdency abject
The
condition,
is
intolerable to me.
He
88
ideal of the Negro was thus the light-colored man. envied him his color 42 and his superiority. Often he
Thomas, The American Negro, pp. 186, 408, 407. American Life," in Washington, The Negro Problem, pp. 227, 226. The Boston Reliance, 3-13-1915. The Kansas City Herald, 2-13-1915.
T. T. Fortune, "Place in
The Kentucky (Louisville} Reporter, The Washington Sun, 4-9-1915.

40
1-23-1915.
* Residence on a Georgian
Patience Pennington,
A Woman
Rice Planter, p. 235. Plantation, p. 219. See, also, Pennington, Rice Planter, p. 387; and Blyden as quoted in the Crisis,
A Woman
9-1913, pp. 229-30.
Thomas, The American Negro, p. 67. Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race, pp. 24-25, Baker, American Magazine, Vol. 65, p. 589.
89.
The Growth of
the Mulatto Class
181
hated him for his ambition to escape from the race and 43 align himself with the whites.
Once started, the mulatto

self.
class tended to perpetuate it-
However much the Negro hated the exclusive mulatto, every black man was anxious to gain admission to the mulatto class. Admission, in the absence of mixed-blood, was
most readily obtained by marriage into the group. Consequently, it was the almost universal desire of the Negro
and, to the extent of their 45 A roll of importance, they were successful in doing so. the Negroes who have married white women or light-colto
marry light-colored women
44
ored mulattoes would include the great majority of the men who have gained any distinction either within or with-
out the race.
lattoes
Thus by 'association, education, and tradition, the mucame to be superior men. They had white blood and because of their white blood they had superior advanThe white man considered them superior and, as a tages.
46 consequence of this, they considered themselves superior. This gave them a confidence in themselves that the black
Negroes did not have.

the
43
They
felt
more important.
Among
Negro group they enjoyed a prestige because of their
"The same feeling [caste feeling of white superiority] is frequently met with among sober-minded blacks, who, much to one's surprise sometimes, are found to resent the ambitious attempts of their fellows, generally mulattoes, to rise above their own race and align themselves with the whites." B. W. Smith, The Color Line, pp. 173-74. See, also, Monroe Work, "The Passing Tradition and the African Civilization," The
Journal of Negro History, Vol.
1,
Number
1, p. 35.
"Baker, The American Magazine, Vol. 65, p. 589. 45 Bruce, The Plantation Negro as a Freeman, pp. 143-44. 8 "In discussions of the race problem there is one factor of supreme importance which has been so far disregarded ... to wit, the opinion or Idea which a race has of itself and the influence exerted by this idea." A. Fouiltee, "Race from the Sociological Standpoint," InterRacial Probhms, pp. 24
if.
182
The Mulatto
this
mixed blood, and
reacted to further inflate the mu-
47 lattoes' idea of themselves.
So, entirely aside from any of racial superiority, the mulatto is and always has question been the superior man. 48
4T 48
See
Raymond
Patterson, The
See, E. B. Renter,
Negro and His Needs, p. 40. "The Superiority of the Mulatto," American Jour-
nal of Sociology, Vol. 23, pp. 83-106.
CHAPTER
VIII
THE LEADING MEN OF THE NEGRO RACE

has been pointed out frequently both by the friends the critics of the race, that the Negro in America
ITand
has not as yet produced an individual entitled to rank 1 among the world's geniuses. Kelly Miller has said that,
judged by European standards, the race has produced no man of even secondary rank. Mr. DuBois would seem to
2 Indeed, it agree that this is a fair statement of fact. seems to be claimed nowhere by serious students that the
race has produced any

traction.
man whose
men
achievements have not
been surpassed by scores of
of a different racial ex-
accepted belief
Whatever may be the amount of truth in this generally and there is no intention here to prove or
it is
disprove it, nor to affirm nor deny it that the race has differentiated during
certainly true
its life in
America.
The
difference separating the extremes within the race has
become very great. Some individuals have, perhaps, not greatly advanced beyond the standards of life of their African ancestors others have in all essential respects meas;
ured up to the best standards of modern civilized life. It is with these latter individuals, quite regardless of the degree of their absolute native ability, with whom we are here concerned. It is not a question of genius or even of emi*Race Adjustment,
a
p. 188.
E. B. DuBois, "The Advance lover's Magazine, Vol. 2, p. 3.
W.
Guard of
the Race,"
The Book-
183
184
nence;
ership.
it is
The Mulatto
in the
United States
a question of relative superiority and of leadIt is relative and not absolute superiority that de-
termines the value of the individual in a social situation.
Quite aside, then, from all question of genius, the Negro race in America has produced a number of individuals who
in spite of, or because of, their black blood
level of
have reached a
achievement well above the average of either race. Judged by any fair standard there have been and are to-day Negroes who deserve to be ranked as exceptional men in
that their accomplishments are well above the level of the 3 It accomplishments of other individuals of their group. is true that the number is not great. with the Compared
great number of the race
it
must even be admitted that the
number
is
pitifully
small.
But that there are
successful
men, men
of ability and of talent, among the race is not to be denied. They are to be found in greater or lesser numbers in all the various lines of human endeavor: in industrial
in literature, art,
and commercial pursuits; in the learned professions; and music wherever, in short, are to be
;
found the men of other races.
When
it is
the existence of such prominent men is pointed out frequently asserted that they are not Negroes but mu-
4 "Although," says Ingalls, "more than two hundred thousand enlisted in the Union armies, no full-blood
lattoes.
negro holds a commission

militia
in the
is
army or navy and
in the
find," organization "that where the Negro participates to any exsays Stone, the race is almost tent in the administration of affairs
.
their
5
distinct."
"We
invariably represented solely ently, the mulatto as a whole

1
by
is
its
mulatto type."
"Appar-
superior to the pure African
4
8
DuBois, Booklover's Magazine, Vol. 2, p. 4. John J. Ingalls, "Always a Problem," Chicago Tribune, 5-28-1893. A. F. Stone, Studies in the American Race Problem, p. 27.
The Leading Men
of the
Negro Race
185
"Ninety
6 Negro," says Chancellor David Starr Jordan.
per cent of all the leaders of the race are the offspring of the 7 Belin says that "The so-called Caucasian," says Holm. 'negroes,' who have in any way distinguished themselves
breeds."
above their fellows, are not full-blood negroes, but half8 "The recognized leaders of the race are almost
invariably persons of mixed blood, and the qualities which have made them leaders are derived certainly in part and
perhaps mainly from their white ancestry."

Shufeldt
10
quotes Keane as saying that "No full-blood ever has been distinguished as a man of science, a Negro poet, or an artist, and the fundamental equality claimed for
him by ignorant philanthropists is belied by the whole history of the race throughout the historic period." To the same point Dr. Carl Vogt n says that
:
As a proof in favor of the artistic and scientific capacity of the Negro, we find cited in nearly all the works the instance of Mr. Lille Geoffray of Martian engineer and mathematician and corresponding member of the French Academy. The fact is that the mathematical performances of the above gentleman were of such a nature that, had he been born in Germany of white parents, he might, perhaps, have qualified as a mathematical teacher in a middle-class school, or engineer at a railway ; but having been born in Marnique,
"Biological Effects of Race Movements," Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 87, pp. 267-70. T J. J. Holm, Race Assimilation or the Fading of the Leopard's Spots,
p. 279.
H. E. Belin, "A Southern Sociology, Vol. 13, p. 518.

9 10
View of
Slavery,"
American Journal of
Encyclopaedia Britannica: Negro. R. W. Shufeldt, The Negro: A Menace to American Civilization,

192-93.
p. 43.
u Lectures on Man, pp.
186
The Mulatto
the United States
tinique of colored parents, he shone like a one-eyed man among the totally blind. M. Lille Geoffray, besides,
was not a pure Negro, but a mulatto.

other writers, all this is flatly contradicted. The of races is stoutly asserted and the superiority of equality
By
Negro as stoutly denied. Mr. Washington on a number of occasions stated his belief in the equality of the Negro to the mulatto. The A. M. E. Church Review 12 says editorially that ". we colored
. .
the mulatto to the full-blooded
people can never subscribe to the doctrine of the superiority of the mulatto over the black element in brain power."
But of
all those who have expressed their opinion, Mr. DuBois seems to be the most emphatic and the most extreme
on this subject. "If we study cases of and goodness and talent among the American Neability groes, we shall," he says, "have difficulty in laying down any clear thesis as to effect of amalgamation. As a matter of historic fact the colored people of America have proin his assertions
duced as
many remarkable
is
black
men
as mulattoes."
13
The purpose here

these remarkable men.
It
not to evaluate the work done by is not intended to determine what
place they do or should occupy as compared with successIt is not even ful white men in similar lines of endeavor.
intended to show in
age of their on the basis of the most complete and representative lists of exceptional Negroes that have been compiled, in how far
far they are men of mixed It is the assumption and the assertion that there blood. are as many black men as mulattoes among the exceptional
how far they have risen above the averfellows. The purpose is merely to determine,
they are black
men and
in
how
men
18
of the race that we propose to submit to the test of

1915, p. 133.
2, p. 15.
"October
DuBois, Booklover's Magazine, Vol.
The Leading Men

cases that
of the
Negro Race
187
Mr. DuBois suggests. 14
In
all
side of a
other countries where a mulatto group exists alonggroup of unmixed blood, there seems to be a pre\
ponderance of mulattoes among the gifted individuals of the race. In Jamaica the educated and professional classes
In Haiti the ten per cent of mixed-bloods have constituted the ruling and professional 16 classes since the massacre of the French. In South Africa the mulattoes are "the intellectual aristocracy of the In Brazil it is the mixeddark-skinned population." 17 bloods who have attained to a degree of civilization, while the purer-blooded natives and Negroes seem to have cast
off,
15 of the race are mulattoes.
partially at least, the degree of civilization acquired under the regime of slavery. 18 Elsewhere, the same thing seems to be true. 19 The mixed-bloods in every racial situa14
"thesis as to the effect

is
of course, no intention of "proving" by such a method any of amalgamation." The effect of amalgamation a biological problem with which we are not here concerned. More-
There
is,
over
it is
not susceptible of demonstration by the means that Mr.
Du-
Bois suggests. It is the final assertion, that among the exceptional men of the Negro race there are as many black as mulatto men, that we
propose to examine.
"William Thorp, "How Jamaica Solves the Negro Problem," World's Work, Vol. 8, pp. 4908-13. W. P. Livingstone, "The West Indian and American Negro," North American Review, Vol. 185, p. 647. Stone, Studies in the American Race Problem, p. 27. 16 H. V. H. Prichard, Where Black Rules White, pp. 80 ff. Earl Finch, "The Effects of Racial Miscegenation," Inter-Racial Problems, p. 110.
H. E. S. Freemantle, The New Nation, pp. 217-18. See, also, M. S. lis6e Evans, Black and White in South East Africa, pp. 289-90.
1T
Reclus, Africa, Vol. 4, p. 149.

18 Jean Baptiste de Lacerda, "The Metis or Half-Breeds of Brazil," Inter-Racial Problems, pp. 380-82. 19 Charles E. Woodruff, "Some Laws of Racial and Intellectual Devel-
opment," Journal of Race Development, Vol. 3, p. 175. Friedrich Ratzel, The History of Mankind, Vol. 1, p. 397.
188
The Mulatto
the United States
tion seem to have risen, as a group, above the status of their darker kin, while the individuals of talent who have appeared the individuals who have made some conspicuous success
in life
are, with rare exception,
men
of mixed blood.
Of the Historically the same thing seems to hold true. names of Negroes coming down to us from the past, there is a preponderating majority of men of mixed blood and a scarcity, almost an entire absence, of men of unmixed Negro ancestry. Alexandre Dumas, by all odds the most gifted individual whom history shows to have possessed Ne20 Alexander Pushkin, gro blood, was probably a quadroon. the Russian poet, had a trace of Negro blood. 21 It is sometimes said that Robert Browning had a trace of Negro blood, but there seems to be absolutely no basis for this
About the close of the eighteenth century, Abbe Gregoire published a volume 23 to prove the equality of the Negro intellect. This volume contained the biogra24 each one of whom, according to phies of fifteen Negroes
tradition.
**
22
One grandmother was a Negress of San Domingo but whether of
not known. See Encyclopaedia Britannica. Burr, The Autobiography, p. 155, speaking of Dumas' Memoirs, says: "His own figure is painted therein in crude, staring colors, as bright as life ... a figure out of Balzac and the Comedie Humaine. Part Napoleonic soldier, part San Dominican negro, ... ye gods of the drama, what an
full-blood is
heredity! ... he seems to us a savage tale-teller, seated at the campfire,
holding his companions breathless. Alternately lazy and energetic, sensual and shrewd, he has all the undiluted primitive forces of huge
vitality
31
His maternal great-grandfather was a Negro but whether of full-blood is not certain. M ". There is no ground for the statement that the family was
. .
and huge laughter." One-sixteenth or less Negro blood.
partly of Jewish Origin."

88
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
H. Gr6goire, An Enquiry Concerning the Intellectual and Moral Faculties, and Literature of Negroes; followed with an account of the Life and Works of Fifteen Negroes and Mulattoes, distinguished in Science, Literature and Arts. Translated by D. B. Warden, 1810.
"*
Higiemonde or Higiemondo
an Indian painter "commonly named
The Leading Men

Van
Evrie, was a
of the
Negro Race
189
man
of mixed blood. 25
Francois Domi-
nique Toussaint, the guerilla chief of the Negro insurrectionists in Haiti, seems not to have been a full-blooded Negro.
Mr. Lille Geoffray of Martinique, engineer, mathematician and corresponding member of the French acadthe negro," p. 171. Grgoire seems not certain that there or if there was that he was a Negro.
26
was such a
man
Annibal: an
Great.
officer in
the Russian artillery at the time of Peter the
The Son of Annibal: a mulatto. Anthony William Amo: born

L'Islet Geoffray: a mulatto.
in
Guinea, educated in England.
James Durham: mulatto slave, practiced medicine in New Orleans. Thomas Fuller: mathematical prodigy. Apparently a Negro.
Othello: published "An Essay Against the Slavery of Negroes." "Othello" was a pseudonym. The race of the writer is not known. There
seems to be no reason for calling him a Negro. Benjamin Banneker: a mulatto.
Ottobah Cugoano: published
his reflections
of the slave trade and the
slavery of Negroes. James Eliza John Capitein: educated in Holland.

verses.
Wrote some Latin
William Francis: Jamaican Negro of the eighteenth century. Educated in England. Taught Latin and mathematics in Jamaica. Olandad, or Gustavus Vassa: brought to England as a child; wrote
memoirs.
An edition of his letters was Ignatius Sancho: an English butler. printed after his death. Phyllis Wheatley Peters: apparently black.
25 White Supremacy and Negro Subordination, p. 163. Van Evrie would seem to be in error here. Tradition has it that both Thomas Fuller and Mrs. Peters were full-blood Negroes. See p. 190 below. 16 ". Judging from his pictures, you cannot but form the opinion that Toussaint was not a pure-blooded negro: the features, the shape
.
of the head, the setting of the eyes are all so many strong reasons Prichard, Where Black Rules White, p. against such a supposition."
278.
C. V.
For a contrary opinion see the Negro Year Book, 1914-15, p. 75. Roman, American Civilization and the Negro, opposite p. 8, gives a picture of Toussaint and calls him a "full-blood." Either the picture
is
or the caption
in error: the picture
is
not that of a full-blood Negro.
190
The Mulatto
27 emy, was a mulatto. In America, even at an early date, a number of members of the race had risen to some prominence. The most noted
of these was, perhaps, Phyllis Wheatley Peters. Born in Africa, about 1750, she was presumably a full-blooded Ne-
her ancestry.
gro though there is absolutely nothing known concerning She was sold into slavery and in 1761 she
was brought to America where she served in the household of Mrs. John Wheatley of Boston and from whom she reShe ceived some slight instruction in English and Latin.
went to London with the son of her mistress. While there she published a small volume of poems upon which rests her
claim to fame.
forts were
She certainly was not a poet, 28 but her
ef-
an evidence of the
Fuller,
29
race's capacity for intellec-
tual improvement.
Thomas
a mathematical prodigy of the same
period, seems also to have been a black man. He enjoyed considerable local fame because of his power to perform complicated mathematical calculations. He was unable to
read or write and, as is usual with prodigies of this sort, seems to have been a mental defective.
Benjamin Banneker seems

4
to
have a decidedly better
claim to prominence than either of the preceding.

said to have constructed the first clock
later he published
31
He
is
;
latto w
88
an almanac. 30 He was a neighbor and friend of of Maryland.

13.
America Banneker was a free muin
made
Vogt, Lectures on Man, pp. 192-93. B. G. Brawley, The Negro in Literature and Art, p. C. G. Woodson, History of Negro Education, p. 90.
29
G. B. Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol.
1,
p. 399.
Woodson, History of Negro Education, pp. 87-88. 80 Woodson, History of Negro Education, pp. 90-91, 62-63. "Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol.
390.
1,
pp. 385,
See p. 131 above.
The Leading Men

Ellicott
of the
Negro Race
191
He
who acted for him in the capacity of a press agent. seems to have received assistance from Ellicott, but the
is
extent of his indebtedness
uncertain.
James Durham 32 of Philadelphia and later of New Orleans was born a slave in 1767. From his master, who was a physician, he learned to read and write and to compound
simple medicines. When freed by his master, he built up a successful medical practice among the mulatto Creoles in New Orleans. Durham was a mulatto.
Most
George
the
first
of the prominent Negroes of the time were preachers.

Leile,
33
who preached
the
in
Negro Andrew Bân,
Baptist colony in Jamaica,
Georgia and later founded was a mulatto.

the
founder of
African
Baptist
was John Chavis, 34 an itinerant preacher of the Methodist church. John Gloucechurch, was a
man
of mixed blood, as
of Tennessee, founder of the African Presbyterian church in Philadelphia, was probably a black man. Henry Evans, an itinerant preacher of the Presbyterian church, seems also to have been a Negro of pure blood. 35 Lemuel
ster
Haynes, the
first
Negro Congregational
minister,
was a
mulatto, as was Richard Allen, the founder of the Negro
Methodist Church.
In the decade preceding the Civil War, owing to the fact that the emotional attitude of the people of the North magnified out of all focus the doings of any black man, it is
"Negro Tear Book
J.
1914-1915, p. 334.
A. Kenney, The Negro in Medicine, p. 6. Woodson, History of Negro Education, pp. 88-89. * Also known as George Sharp. **J. S. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North CaroThis seems to be an lina, p. 73, says Chavis was a full-blood Negro. error. See, also, the same writer's article in the American Journal of
Sociology, Vol. 13, p. 826.
"
Bassett, Slavery
and Servitude
in the State of
North Carolina,
p. 57,
192
The Mulatto
somewhat surprising that there did not appear a group of prominent men of the race. The only one, however, who succeeded in rising above mediocrity was Frederick DougHis father lass, an anti-slavery agitator and journalist. was a white man 36 and his mother a slave of unknown color, but with sufficient Indian intermixture to show prominently
in the features as well as in the disposition of her noted son. 37
During the
entire period that slavery existed as a na-
tional institution, individuals frequently escaped
from the
Especially during ihe latter years of the slave regime, there were a considerable number of these runaway slaves. An organized and elaborate
border states into free territory.
system of criminal procedure grew up toward the end of the
and became known as the Underground Railto be expected, the free Negroes and escaped slaves took some part in this outlawry. The Year Book 3 names the most notorious of these Negroes and gives
slave period
road.
As was
sketches of their careers. 39
Of the
fifteen,
Harriet
Tubman
"New
International Encyclopaedia: Frederick Douglass. 87 Booker T. Washington, The Story of the Negro, Vol. 1, p. 132. 88 Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, pp. 102-06.
*>
William Wells Brown

Frederick Douglass James Forten
Mifflin
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Wistar Gibbs
mulatto
mulatto
Mrs. F. E. W. Harper Lewis Hayden Lunsford Lane Robert Purvis

Charles Lenox
J. B.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Remond Russwurm
Still
mulatto
William
Sojourner Truth Harriet Tubman
mulatto mulatto
black
David Walker William Whipper
mulatto
mulatto
The Leading Men

seems to have been a black
mulattoes.
40
of the
Negro Race
193
woman
lines
the other fourteen were
Since the Civil
War,
all
of endeavor in
America
have been open to the Negro.
In some cases he has met
with prejudice and discrimination; in other cases his color has given him a prestige not enjoyed by his white com41 At the present time, there is no insuperable, expetitor.
ternal obstacle to the Negro's entrance to, and success in, any of the ordinary lines of human endeavor, as is evidenced
individuals of the race have achieved
in
by the fact that Negroes have entered all of them and that some degree of success
each of the different
lines.
There have been compiled and published, from time to Negroes who have risen to prominence. It may be that these lists do not contain the names of all
time, lists of these
the successful Negroes.
It
may
also be true that
many
of
the names which appear are those of men who have shown no great talent or achieved no great renown. But it may be fairly assumed that they are, in most cases at least, men of some importance and prominence in their community and
that they are leaders in a larger or smaller way within their racial group. If this be so, a determination of the ancestry
of these
men should be a
fair index as to the percentage of
mulattoes and full-blooded Negroes other prominent men of the race.
among
42
list,
the leaders and
Mr. DuBois has compiled such a

page photographs of ten living
40
43
by full who represent Negroes
illustrated
J. S. Bassett, Anti-Slavery Leaders of North Carolina, p. 321, says Lane's parents were "of pure African descent." This is emphatically denied by Negroes who knew him personally.
41
B.
W.
Smith, The Color Line:
Brief in Behalf of the Unborn,

2,
pp. 43-44.
DuBois, BooklovefB Magazine, Vol.

,
pp. 2-14.
1903.
194
the
The Mulatto
"Advance Guard of the Race." 44 To the list, the editors add a similar sketch and a similar photograph of Mr. DuBois. These men "measured by any fair standard of are distinctly men of mark." 45 human accomplishment Regarding the racial ancestry of these men Mr. DuBois
.
. .
says
46
:
... Of the men I have named, three are black, two are brown, two are half-white, and three are threefourths white. ... If we choose among these men the two of keenest intellect, one is black and the other brown; if we choose the three of strongest character, two are yellow and one is black. If we choose three according to their esthetic sensibility, one is black, one is yellow, and one three-fourths white.
Seven of the ten are admittedly mulatto, so may be passed without comment. Three are said to be "black." But
by
this term, it
cannot be meant to assert that they are
The only three men in the list who could possibly be called "black" are Dunbar, the poet; Of Miller, the mathematician and Woods, the electrician.
full-blood Negroes.
;
men Dunbar, according to all accounts, was a real 47 Granville T. Negro. Kelly Miller is a brown mulatto.
these
"Charles W. Chestnutt Paul Laurence Dunbar
Francis J. Grimke"
Novelist
mulatto
black
Poet
Clergyman
Mathematician
mulatto
black
Kelly Miller Edward H. Morris
Lawyer
Artist
mulatto
Henry
O. Tanner
mulatto
W.
L. Taylor Booker T. Washington
Business
Politician
man
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Daniel H. Williams
Granville T.
46
4(1
Surgeon
Electrician
2, p. 2.
Woods
Australian-Malay
Booklover's Magazine, Vol.

Ibid., p. 15.
I. Thomas, "Race Psychology," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 17, p. 746, speaks of Miller as a "full-blooded black," The At-
*T
W.
The Leading Men
of the
Negro Race
195
to have no drop of African blood. He is an birth 48 and by ancestry a mixture of Malay Australian by
Woods seems
Indian and Australian Black. 49
Of these ten names,
then,
one
that of a Negro, one that of an Australian of mixed If Mr. ancestry, and the remaining eight are mulattoes.
is
DuBois be included
in the list, the
count then stands one

issued a small
Negro
to ten
men
of mixed blood.
In 1903, the Pott Publishing
Company
volume of essays by Negroes discussing different phases of 50 the Negro problem in America. Seven writers contributed
51 to the volume.
Of these men, one was a black Negro and Of the six, two were men of about of white and black; while the other four were equal parts
six
were mulattoes.
from three-fourths to fifteen-sixteenths white.

treats the subject of the
lantic
In one of the essays in the volume, Mr. DuBois again Negro leaders under the caption
Advocate
calls
to consider himself a
him a "full-blooded colored man." He seems Negro and is generally so claimed by the race. As we are concerned here with social and not with biological facts we
mixed ancestry.
48
have placed Professor Miller in the full-blood group in spite of his See note 44, p. 194 above.
Miller,
Race Adjustment,
p.
19T,
says
that
Woods was born
in
Ohio.
"His mother's father was a Malay Indian, and his other grandparents were by birth full-blooded savage Australian aborigines born in the wilds back of Melbourne. ... At the age of 16, Woods was
brought by his parents to America.
.
49
."
S.
W.
Balch, "Electrical
Mo-
tor Regulation," Cosmopolitan, Vol. 18, p. 762.
The Negro Problem:
Series of Articles by Representative
Amer-
ican Negroes of To-day. 81 C. W. Chestnutt
mulatto
mulatto
black
W.
E. B. DuBois
Paul L. Dunbar T. Thomas Fortune H. T. Kealing Wilford H. Smith Booker T. Washington
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
196
The Mulatto
in tlw United States
"The Talented Tenth" and finds twenty-one men and two women worthy of this title. Supplying the initials, supplementing the
list
with an indication of the ground on which
their claim to greatness rests
and an indication of
their
ancestry, we have:
Ira Aldridge
Negro actor
Invented clock; published almanac
Reconstruction politician Preacher
mulatto mulatto
Benjamin Banneker
B. K. Bruce
mulatto
black
load of
Alexander Crummell Paul Cuffe

Frederick Douglass
In charge of the
first
mulatto
Negroes sent to Liberia
Runaway
slave; anti-slavery agi-
and Indian mulatto and Indian

mulatto
mulatto mulatto *
tator; politician
James Durham
R. B. Elliott
Practiced medicine
Reconstruction politician
H. H. Garnett
R. T. Greener
Lemuel Haynes John M. Langston

D. A. Payne
J.
Preacher Reconstruction politician Early Negro preacher Reconstruction politician Bishop of the African Methodist
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Church
mulatto
mulatto
black
Rail-
W.
C.
Pennington
Phyllis
Wheatley Peters
Underground Railroad operator Slave of John Wheatley; writer

of verse
Agitator;
Robert Purvis
Charles L.
J.
Underground
road operator
mulatto
Rail-
Remond
Russwurm McCune Smith

B.
Agitator; Underground road operator governor of Liberia
mulatto mulatto
Sojourner Truth
Physician and druggist Underground Railroad agent
mulatto
mulatto mulatto mulatto
mulatto
David Walker
B. T. Washington
Agitator
Principal Tuskegee Institute
Bert Williams
Comedian
Of the women named one was a mulatto and one was a black Negro. Of the twenty-one men, all were mulattoes.
"Sometimes mistakenly classed
as
a full-blood Negro.
The Leading Men
of the
Negro Race
197
Two
of these men, Garnett and Crummell, are sometimes
classed as full-blooded Negroes; but this seems to be contrary to the facts. Both men were the offspring of a mixed
is said to have been an married a free Negro woman of mixed blood. The son, however, is very dark in color and passes He is accordingly listed with as a Negro of full-blood.
ancestry.
The
father of Crummell
African
chief.
He
the full-bloods here.
The Negro Star Publishing Company 53 sale the pictures of "all the great men of the
complete
single
list
advertises for race." 54 Their
woman whose
Of
comprises the pictures of twelve persons. The picture is included in the collection was
the eleven photographs remaining, one man Dunbar, one is that of a man
is
a mulatto.
that of a black
concerning whose racial ancestry there may be a reasonable doubt, 55 and nine are photographs of men who are obviously and admittedly mulattoes. 56
Toussaint
57 names Kelly Miller in a chapter on "Eminent Negroes" sixteen individuals. Presumably these persons are, in the
Greenwood, Mississippi. M See any issue of the Negro Star, for e.g., 1-14-1916. the General Manager under date of 1-25-1916.
"
Letter from
"See
p. 189 above.
W.
Crispus Attucks E. B. DuBois
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Frederick Douglass Alexandre Dumas Paul Laurence Dunbar Richard T. Greener John Mercer Langston
S.
mulatto
black
mulatto mulatto
Coleridge Taylor

mulatto
Henry O. Tanner
Francois Dominique Toussaint
Sojourner Truth
Booker T. Washington "Race Adjustment, pp. 186-98.
mulatto
198
The Mulatto
opinion of Mr. Miller, the best that the race in America has 58 "are at produced. "The names here presented," he says when measured by European standards. least respectable
It
is
true that no one of them reaches the
first,
or even the
second degree of luster in the galaxy of the world's greatness."
But they are

is
ments the race

sented, one
in whose accomplishtake pride. Of the names premay well .that of a black woman, one that of a black
all individuals
man, and the remaining fourteen are names of men of mixed

blood.
The complete
list
follows:
Ira Aldridge
Actor
Inventor
Novelist
Politician
mulatto
Benjamin Banneker
Charles
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
black
W.
Chestnutt
Frederick Douglass W. E. B. DuBois
Paul Laurence Dunbar
Writer Poet
Minister
Lemuel Haynes
Elijah T.
Phyllis
mulatto
mulatto
black
McCoy
Inventor
W.
S.
Wheatley Peters Scarborough
Poet Teacher
B. T. Tanner
Bishop
Artist
mulatto mulatto
Henry O. Tanner
B. T. Washington
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Educator
Physician
Daniel H. Williams
George H. Williams
Granville T.
Writer
Inventor
Woods
60
mulatto*
presents a slightly variant list. His intention, as stated in the preface to his volume, is the publication of a book which will give "the salient points in the history of
the
Cromwell
American Negro, the story of their most eminent men and women ." The twenty persons selected include
.
88
Race Adjustment,
See note 49,
J.
p.
p. 188.
89
195 above.
60
W.
Cromwell, The Negro in American History.
The Leading Men

three
of the
Negro Race
199
three of the
women and seventeen men. One of the women and men were black. The sixteen remaining are
:
names of mixed-blood individuals. His selection of the "most eminent men and women" of the race is as follows
Benjamin Banneker
mulatto
Edward W. Blyden
Blanche Kelso Bruce George F. T. Cook John F. Cook, Jr. John F. Cook, Sr. Fanny M. Jackson Coppin Alexander Crummell Paul Cuffe
Frederick Douglass Paul Laurence Dunbar
mulatto"
mulatto
mulatto
black M
mulatto
mulatto
black
Robert Brown Elliott Henry Highland Garnett John Mercer Langston Daniel Alexander Payne
Phyllis
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
88
mulatto
black black
84
Wheatley Peters
Joseph Charles Price Henry Osawa Tanner Sojourner Truth Booker T. Washington
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
The
dead."
California Eagle
of "the most
Dunbar
81
advertises for sale the pictures of the Colored Race, living and Their picture features eight men, one of whom, was black. The remaining seven are names of men
Famous Men
Cromwell
See
p.
calls
have been the case.

82
Blyden a full-blood Negro but this seems not to He was a dark man of mixed ancestry.
197 above.
52, p. 196 above.
"See note
64
Cromwell calls Price a full-blood Negro. He was probably not a man of unmixed Negro blood. He passed, however, as a full-blood Negro and the race took great pride in claiming him as such. A good photograph appears on p. 212 of Cromwell's book. "A Negro newspaper of Los Angeles, California.
200
The Mulatto
of mixed blood. 66
The Colored American Review** 7

which
is,
offers
similar
list
in the opinion of the editors, "the largest
and
'Famous Negroes,' both past and present, 68 in America and abroad." Thirty-two names appear in Of these, five are names of women, and the printed list. twenty-seven are names of men. Of the five women, one is a pure-blooded Negress, and the remaining four are muOf the twenty-seven names of men, three are of lattoes. full-blooded Negroes and twenty-four are of mulattoes.
finest collection of
The complete
an
list and descriptions to which is here added as to the purity of blood, is as follows indication
:
Hon. Harry Boss William Stanley Braithwaite

Rev.
Lawyer and Legislator

Poet and Critic
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
W. W. Brown
Harry T. Burleigh Anita Bush
Eminent Baptist Divine Singer and Composer

Actress
mulatto
mulatto
Bob Cole
Hon. James Curtis
Frederick Douglass
Actor and Comedian
mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto

black
Lawyer, Minister to Liberia Statesman

Athlete,
Howard P. Drew W. E. B. DuBois Alexandre Dumas

Paul Laurence Dunbar James Reese Europe
Runner
Mathews Henson
Ernest
J.
Hogan Rosamond Johnson
Educator and Author Author Poet Musician and Composer Explorer Comedian
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Composer
mulatto
Crispus Attucks Frederick Douglass
mulatto
mulatto
W.
E. B. DuBois
Alexandre Dumas Paul Laurence Dunbar H. O. Tanner

Coleridge Taylor
mulatto
black
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
semi-monthly magazine, published in New York City. "See, for e.g., the issue of March, 1916, p. 187.
Booker T. Washington
The Leading Men

James W. Johnson
of the
S.
Negru Race
201
mulatto mulatto *
mulatto mulatto
black
70
Ex-U.
Patti)
Consul and Author
Mme. Jones (Black

Hon.
Singer
Wm.
H. Lewis
Sam Lucas
Kelly Miller
Robert Russa Moton

Phyllis
Ex-U. S. Ass't. Dist. Atty. The Original Uncle Tom Philosopher and Author Educator
black black
Wheatley Peters
Famous Poet
Eminent Baptist Divine
Artist
Rev. Clayton Powell
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Henry Tanner
Coleridge Taylor
Major Taylor Aida Walker Mme. C. J. Walker George Walker Booker T. Washington
Bert Williams
Musician and Composer Champion Bicycle Rider

Actress and Dancer
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
71
Hair Culturist, Lecturer Actor and Composer Educator Comedian

7J
mulatto
mulatto
All the present Bishops of the A. M. E. Z. Church All the present Bishops of the A. M. E. Church
The Reverend
nia, in
J.
A. Duncan, Pastor of the Ebenezer Af-
rican Methodist Episcopalian Church of Stockton, Califoran article in The California Eagle, a Negro news-
paper, under the fourteen women.

gress.
"Our Famous Colored Women," names One name is that of a full-blooded NeThe thirteen names remaining are of women of mixed
title
ancestry.
The compilation
is
as follows
Mrs. Ida Wells-Barnet Madam Flora B. Bergen
mulatto
mulatto
Miss Hallie Quinn Brown Henrietta Vinton Davis

Frances E. Harper Sissieretta Jones Edmonia Lewis
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
70
* Classed by some correspondents as a full-blood Negress. See note 47, p. 194 above.
"One correspondent called Taylor black. The consensus of opinion, however, was that he was a brown mulatto. "See pages 276 ff. for an analysis of these groups.
78
See note
70, p.
201.
The Mulatto

black
Phyllis Wheatley Peters Madam Selika
mulatto
Amanda Smith Fannie Church Terrell Sojourner Truth

Mrs.
mulatto
mulatto
Ada Overton Walker

Mrs. Booker T. Washington
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
74
the beginning of the year 1916, Mr. DuBois issued a Who in Colored America. 75 This publication contained the names of 139 individuals who, in the opinion of
At
Who's
the editor, were the real intellectual and social aristocracy The Who's Who contained the of the American Negro.
names of one hundred and thirty-one men and eight women. The list recorded the names of four men whom the Negroes themselves claim as "black" and for social purposes may be so considered, though two, and possibly three, of the four have been modified by an earlier admixture of white blood. Concerning three of the men, no information was
They seem not to be well-known to the members The remaining one hundred and twentyfour men are mulattoes. The eight women are all mulatobtained.
of their race. 76
toes.
dark,
Of the one hundred and thirty-two mulattoes two are while about one-half approximate the white race in features, head-form, and skin coloration. Taking the list a whole, there is present somewhat over four times as as
77
much white
74
as
Negro
blood.
The complete
list
follows
78
:
The
"The
76
third wife of Booker T. Washington. Calendar for 1916.
Cnm
See note 82, p. 207 below. "That is, they are less than one-half white. One is three- fourths The exact amount of Negro blood in the other is not known, black.
but
78
is
approximately three-fourths.
poetic designations are the writer adds the ethnic information.
The
work of the compiler; the present The initials, wrongly given in a

contains the
few
cases,
It has
have been corrected. been asserted that the
list
names of
fifteen full-
The Leading Men
of the
Negro Race
203
WHO'S
Charles
WHO
IN
COLORED AMERICA"
Official
W. Anderson
Worthy Public
mulatto
mulatto
C. E. Bentley
Pioneer in Dental
Reform
H.
J.
C. Bishop
Bowen R. H. Boyd
E.
Stanley Braithwaite
W.
Religious Organizer Lecturer and Teacher
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
W.
Captain of Industry Poet and Interpreter of Literature
B. G. Brawley
Author
Elocutionist
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Miss H. Q. Brown Mrs. B. K. Bruce
John E. Bruce Roscoe C. Bruce

I.
Astute and Gracious Leader Popular Writer Educational Leader
mulatto
T. Bryant
Church
Efficient
Officer
W. H.
Bulkley
Harry T. Burleigh Miss Nannie H. Burroughs

William H. Bush
J.
S.
Educator Maker of Songs Organizer of Women

Organist Bishop of the Church
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Caldwell
mulatto mulatto
James L. Carr
W.
C.
J.
Carter
Chestnutt
W.
Able Advocate Able Advocate Man of Letters

Financier
George W. Cook Will Marion Cook

L. J. Coppin
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto
Musician
W. H. Crogman
Harry S. Cummings A. M. Curtis James L. Curtis
J. C.
Bishop of the Church Teacher and Kindly Gentle-
man
Leader and Lawyer Surgeon and Physician
Political
Minister to Liberia
Dancey
Public Official
Franklin Dennison R. N. Dett
Lawyer and Leader Composer

Violinist
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
H. Douglass W. E. Burghardt DuBois James Reese Europe

J.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Editor and Author Composer and Organizer of

musicians
blooded Negroes.
Such assertion can be maintained only by adopting a very different definition of the term full-blooded from that used as the basis for this study. See Crisis, 12-1917, p. 77.
79
The
Crisis Calendar, 1916.
204
The Mulatto
the United States

Continued
mulatto
WHO'S
S.
WHO
IN COLORED AMERICA
D. Ferguson
J. S. Flipper
T.
Thomas Fortune
Venerable Bishop Bishop of the Church Founder of Negro Journal-
ism
S. C. Fuller
mulatto mulatto and Indian

mulatto
mulatto
Pioneer in Psychiatry
Henry W. Furniss W. H. Goler J. M. Gregory

R. T. Greener Archibald H. Grimk6
F. J. GrimkS
Able Diplomatist Educational Leader Veteran Educator

Pioneer Public Servant
Publicist
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
and Writer Preacher of the Word of
mulatto
God mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
G. C. Hall
W. H. H. Hart
J.
R. Hawkins Mason A. Hawkins
Deft Surgeon Able Advocate and Defender Church Leader Educational Leader
Capable Lawyer Sweet Singer Civil Servant Church Leader Venerable Prelate Teacher of Youth
Apostle to
W.
L.
L.
J.
Ashbie Hawkins
Roland W. Hayes
mulatto mulatto
M. Hershaw H. Holsey
mulatto
mulatto
W. Hood
John Hope W. A. Hunton John E. Hurst E. W. D. Isaacs

J. T. Jenifer
mulatto
Young Men
Harvey Johnson H. L. Johnson

J.
Church Leader Preacher and Publisher Venerable Preacher Venerable Preacher

Public Official
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
A. Johnson
James W. Johnson Rosamond Johnson

R. E. Jones
L. G. Jordan
Apostle to Africa Writer and Poet
and Composer Leader

Able Editor
Orchestra
mulatto
mulatto
Ernest E. Just
H. T. Healing Lucy Laney

R. Augustus Lawson
B. F. Lee
Missionary Student of Living Things Teacher and Educator

Protector
Girls
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
of
Women
and
mulatto
Teacher of Music Bishop of the Church

Public Official
James Lewis
W. H. Lewis
Lawyer and Public
Official
mulatto
The Leading Men
of the
Negro Race
Continued
205
WHO'S
W. Logan
John R. Lynch
E.
WHO
IN COLORED AMERICA
Financial Officer
mulatto
Pioneer in Political Service

Skilled
mulatto
and Indian
McCoy
Mason
Inventor
John R. Marshall
Cassius
James C. Matthews
K. Miller
Military Pioneer Preacher of Righteousness Political Leader and Jurist
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
black
John Mitchell
W.
I.
E. Mollison
Montgomery G. W. Moore Lewis B. Moore

J. E.
T.
Mooreland
E. C. Morris
E. H. Morris
W.
R. Morris N. F. Mossell
Lucy Moton Robert R. Moten

Daniel Murray
J.
Author and Critic Editor and Business Man Banker and Business Man Founder of a Town Religious Leader Teacher of Teachers Builder of Men's Clubs Baptist Leader Chosen Leader Able Advocate Hospital Founder Teacher of Courtesy
Organizer
mulatto
mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto

mulatto
mulatto mulatto black

mulatto mulatto
Bookman
Public Official
Priest of the Church
C.
Napier
Father Oncles
mulatto
mulatto
H. B. Parks I. Garland Penn C. H. Phillips
Bishop of the Church
Church
Official
mulatto
mulatto mulatto

Practical Apostle
Henry L.
Phillips
P. B. S. Pinchback
Pioneer of Reconstruction
R. C. Ransom
J.
Orator and Editor
B. Reeve H. A. Rucker
St. P. Ruffin
S.
Honored Preacher
Efficient Public Official
mulatto
Mrs. J.
Pioneer Club
Woman
W.
I.
Scarborough
Scholar in Letters
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
E. J. Scott
B. Scott
Able Secretary
Artist in Colors
William E. Scott
C. T. Shaffer R. Smalls B. S. Smith C. S.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Servant of the Church
Hero and Public Servant

Lawyer and Public
Officer
mulatto
Smith H. C. Smith
Bishop of the Church Veteran Editor
mulatto
mulatto
206
The Mulatto

Continued
of
WHO'S
T. G. Steward
WHO
IN COLORED AMERICA
Chaplain and Writer Venerable Prelate
Artist in Colors
B. T. Tanner
H. O. Tanner Mrs. Mary Church Terrell

R. H. Terrell
Lecturer
and
Leader
Women
Judicial Officer
mulatto
mulatto
black
W. Monroe Trotter W. V. Tunnell

C.
Intrepid Agitator
Preacher and Teacher
H. Turner
E. Tyree G. W. Vass
Student of Living Things Bishop of the Church

Religious Leader
mulatto
black
W.
T. Vernon Maggie B. Walker
Public Official
Wm.
A. Walters A. Warfield
Marcus F. Wheatland Clarence C. White Fred White G. H. White

Bert Williams D. H. Williams
E. C. Williams
Able Business Woman Bishop and Leader Surgeon and Administrator Noted Physician Musician
Organist
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Congressman and Banker

Apostle of Laughter Master of Surgery Teacher of Youth
Social Student
and Indian
mulatto
mulatto

mulatto
mulatto mulatto
W.
J.
T. B. Williams
Woodson W. Woodson Monroe N. Work

Carter G.
Student of History Able Lawyer

Social Statistician
R. R. Wright R. R. Wright, Jr.

Charles
Young
Noted Educator Editor and Student Military Expert and

Soldier
Brave
mulatto
Such a list, as the compiler himself says, 90 is necessarily largely a matter of personal opinion. In order to eliminate
in so far as possible this personal equation, letters were sent to each of the persons in the foregoing list whose ad-
dress
was possible to secure, asking each to name the twenty-five living Negroes who, in the opinion of the perit
80
Letter from Mr. DuBois under date of 2-10-1916.
The Leading Men
of the
Negro Race
07
son addressed, were the foremost men of the race. addressed proved about thirty per cent courteous.
six lists
The men
Thirtywere received, including in all two hundred and fifty 81 One hundred and forty-four names apseparate names. peared but a single time in the whole series of lists submitted
82
and, inasmuch as they thus represent the opinion
83 of a single individual, they are dropped from further con84 One hundred and six names remained. sideration here.
dark men of Negro features, though not in every case full-blooded Negroes. Ninetyprobably The list of names, the eight are admittedly mulattoes. number of times the individual was mentioned in the letters
Of
these, eight are
received, the vocation
and ethnic composition
follows:
THE FOREMOST AMERICAN NEGROES

in the opinion of
PROMINENT MEN OF THE RACE

81
R. R. Moton
SO
26
W.
E. B. DuBois
Principal Tuskegee Institute Editor and writer
black
mulatto
black
Kelly Miller
Teacher and writer
23
23
21
81
William Henry Lewis Daniel H. Williams
Lawyer and politician Physician and surgeon

Secretary Tuskegee Institute
mulatto
mulatto
Emmett
J. Scott
lists
mulatto
number of
few parently, between accuracy and modesty. in excess of twenty-five. "This is not to be taken as evidence that each
contained twenty- four names: a dead-lock, aplists contained names
man
included his
own
name
in the list submitted
the thirty-six lists such case his name appeared in other lists. 83 One man submitted the Bishops and General Officers of his church
as including
all
In only six of submitted did the compiler include himself and in each
and got no other mention.
Sam Langford,
of the race.
appeared.
Another included the foremost American Negroes. the prize fighter, among the twenty-five greatest men number of other peculiarities of personal preference
84 Of these 144 names 7 were of black men, 95 of mulattoes and 42 were of individuals whose racial ancestry was not determined.
208
The Mulatto
in
the United States
THE FOREMOST AMERICAN NEGROES Continued

18
The Leading Men
of the
Negro Race
209
THE FOREMOST AMEBICAK NEGROES Continued

7
210
The Mulatto
in
the United States
THE FOREMOST AMERICAN NEGROES Continued

3 3 3
2
I.
B. Scott
Charles
Henry Turner
Ralph W. Tyler
R. A. Carter George W. Carver
Preacher Teacher Former Auditor U.
mulatto mulatto
S.
Navy
mulatto mulatto
black
2 2
2
Nick Chiles
George
S.
Bishop C. M. E. Church Teacher Editor
mulatto
W. Cook
Teacher
Physician President Wiley
University
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
2 2 2 2 2 2
E. Courtney
M. W. Dogan J. E. Ford
S.
Preacher
W. Green
J.
Lodge
official
mulatto mulatto
Sutton E. Griggs
Preacher
President of Industrial
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
W.
Hale
School
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2
2
2 2
Ferdinand Havis A. F. Herndon W. A. Hunton John T. Jenifer C. F. Johnson H. T. Johnson J. Albert Johnson Scipio H. Jones
Grocer Barber and Insurance Agent Intern. Sec'y Y. M. C. A.

Preacher
Physician Editor
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
black
Bishop A. M. E. Church President Ark. Negro Business
mulatto
League
mulatto
mulatto
Warren Logan
Christopher Perry Benjamin T. Tanner
Treasurer, Tuskegee Institute Newspaper writer
mulatto
mulatto
black
2
2
Evans Tyree J. Milton Waldron
Bishop A. M. E. Church Bishop A. M. E. Church

Preacher
Physician Reconstruction politician
mulatto
2 2
W.
A. Warfield
mulatto
2
2
George H. White W. T. B. Williams Monroe N. Work
Teacher
Editor, Negro Year Book President of Industrial
Nathan B. Young
School
mulatto
lists
It
will
have been observed that in the foregoing
there has been a frequent repetition of certain names. The names of Douglass, Washington and H. O. Tanner, for ex-
ample, each appears eight times, that of Dunbar seven times, that of Phyllis Wheatley Peters six times and a number of
The Leading Men
of the
Negro Race
211
other names appear two or more times each. Making correction for these duplications and omitting the list compiled
by Gregoire as having nothing more than an antiquarian interest or value there remain the names of two hun-
dred and forty-six individuals.
Of
this total,
two hundred
and twenty-two are the names of men and twenty-four the names of women. Of the twenty-four women two were black and twenty-two mulattoes. Of the two hundred and twentytwo men, the ancestry of three was not determined. Of the two hundred and nineteen remaining names fourteen are of
men who are
Two
hundred and
full-blooded or nearly full-blooded Negroes. five are names of mulattoes. Thus of the
two hundred and forty-six persons considered, two hundred and twenty-seven are mulattoes, sixteen are black
total of
and three are unknown.

These data thrown into tabular form follow (p. 212) Of the two hundred and forty-six persons so far consid:
ered, the ratio of mulattoes to
Negroes of pure blood

one.
is
is
slightly called to the fact that in a few cases there
more than fourteen to
Attention has been

a disagreement
concerning the mixture of blood. In such cases, the individual is classed as black or mulatto according as the evidence seems to favor the one or the other.
Where
the
weight of the evidence seems equal, the individual is placed The number of questionable in the full-blooded group. cases, however, is so small that error in their classification
would not materially alter the general figures. If all the cases concerning which there is a reasonable doubt were to
be classed as full-blooded Negroes, the ratio of mulattoes to full-bloods would still be approximately eleven to one.
such questionable cases were thrown into the mulatto affected group, the ratio would be somewhat more seriously
If all
;
it
would then stand at twenty, or perhaps twenty-five, to
The Mulatto
P-H
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i/^
I*""""
8
Cg.
HG%iHQ!lHatîH
CO
*C
01
ooooooooooocoo
|coo
jco
1 S 5 O O wJj kl C C
S
S>
S5
H
8
III Jjj
The Leading Men

one.
of the
Negro Race
In the opinion of the Negroes themselves, these lists would seem to include all members of the race and many others
who have made any

cludes some
success in
life
which would entitle them

It in-
to mention outside purely racial or local circles.
men But
tive
of first-rate intellectual ability and a few of exceptional talent; perhaps, a few men of eminence.
men
in the first stages, at least, of the evolution of a primi-
folk, great men, as measured by the standards of a more advanced group, are of less importance and of less worth than is that larger and less conspicuous group of men
and women who

fellows.
rise
The
exotic
is
but slightly above the mass of their interesting and important as an in-
dication of the latent capacity and possibility of the group ; he is not the power that moves and guides the group in its
slow and tedious evolution.
It
is
within the group of men,
superior to the great mass yet not so far in advance of them as to form a divergent and hence a racially useless
group, that the great majority of the individuals mentioned The number of men, however, considering the method fall.
of their selection,
eral conclusion.
is
perhaps too small to justify any gen-
this necessarily will involve
increasing the number of cases, though men of a lesser degree of talent and of note, and will thereby tend to raise the proportion
By
85 of blacks to mulattoes, any errors due to sampling will be overcome. The tentative ratio of 'fourteen to one will
therefore be allowed to stand until the examination of larger 86 groups leads to its modification or verification.
85
The
ratio of blacks to mulattoes in the general population

five to
is
ap-
proximately
89
one.
in this
ing chapters was
and the three followand exhaustive a list as possible of men reputed to be of Negro blood who had in some way distinguished themselves above their fellows. The fact that they were
The method of investigation pursued

first
to assemble as inclusive
The Mulatto
in the
United States
mentioned in compilations of prominent Negro men and women, in books or articles by or about Negroes, in lists specially prepared for this study by Negroes of wide acquaintance among their race, in lists of officials or leaders in Negro organizations, in lists of men or women successful in business, professional or artistic endeavor, or individuals mentioned in the literature as men of importance, was taken as evidence of importance in the group. In this way it is believed there has been brought together a list of men and women which includes every person of any
real importance whom the race has so far produced, and most, at least, of those who have in any way, even locally and in very minor degree, been important men among their fellows.
The problem was then to determine which of these persons were pure-blood Negroes and which were of mixed ancestry. This matter of color is perhaps the most tender point in the whole race question. Even in the books and articles that purport to be of a biographical nature the subject is seldom mentioned. Unless the man mentioned
strikingly black or is a blood relation of some prominent white man any reference to ancestry seldom appears. Another group of Negro writers and the practice is followed by some white "students" of race matters refers to every individual with a brown skin as a man of unmixed Negro blood. A certain group among the mulattoes themselves
is
tends to claim as mixed-bloods

tinction
all
those individuals of enviable dis-
and refers to others and
tation as black Negroes. ence to ancestry was collected,
especially to those of unsavory repuUnreliable as it generally is, all this refer-
compared and
verified.
second source
of information was the printed photographs with which almost every book by a Negro writer is profusely embellished. Where the photographs seemed to be genuine and showed beyond question a man of mixed blood or where the photograph showed a man who was appar-
man yet called Negro in the legend or the text the man was tentatively classed as a mulatto. Further information was secured either directly or by letter from both black and white men acquainted with the men in question. In one or more of these ways the original list was separated into three: those who are pure-blood Negroes or accepted as such, those who are notoriously and admittedly mulattoes, and those individuals whose racial ancestry was unknown or disputed. This third list was sub-divided according to sections of the country and according to occupations and professions. These lists were then subently a white
mitted to reliable
men
in the section
were engaged
in the various occupations

list
of the country represented who and professions. After fur-
ther revision the remaining
of names was again submitted to Negro

the race.
men of wide acquaintance among
The response
to this final
The Leading Men
of the
Negro Race
215
appeal gave little additional information and the letters accompanying the return of the manuscript were in almost every case characterized by such comments as the following quoted verbatim from this series of
letters:
".
.
In most cases
included
."
You have
ocrity.
".
. . .
.
many Negroes who have
do not consider these men of any real note. not risen above medi-
am
.
In looking over your list I find so many of mediocre fame that, at a loss to divine to what use you intend to put the informa.
tion.
."
interested in the list of names which you present because are hardly any of the best known colored people in the United States or in American history. Perhaps you did not mean to
"...
am
among them
use the best
".
.
known Negroes
list is
as the basis of your inquiry."
altogether beyond my knowledge. Of most of these have never heard. I fear that the few about whom I can people be certain will be of very little service to you."
.
Your
When this stage of the inquiry was reached the couple of hundred names remaining out of the original list of several thousand were, with half a dozen exceptions, dropped from further consideration. They were, in the opinion of the best informed men of the race, names of persons of absolutely no consequence one way or the other. In a few cases the names of these men were retained in order to give in complete form an original compilation. The chapters in their final form were submitted in whole or in part
to
men of
widest information on matters of racial interest for final
verification.
CHAPTER IX
THE HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY OF THE NEGRO
attempts have been made by Negroes to write l These works differ very widely to some extent deal with different periods. in method and
T 1 1
HREE
JL
histories of the race.
Two
volumes by Williams cover the American period from 1619 to 1880. Brawley treats of the same period and The volume of brings the account down to the present. to build a tradiDuBois is for the most part an attempt tion and to supply "history" rather than an attempt to
One chapter, however, deals record and interpret facts. with the Negro in America in a semi-historical way. In Williams's narrative, mention is made of some one
hundred and
of
men and women as being This number includes several white perNegro sons erroneously classed as Negroes, a list of individuals who were members of the first conference of the African Methforty-five different
blood.
odist Episcopal church, slaves,
Negro
sailors, free
Negroes,
fugitive slaves, ters .with no better claim to distinction.
Negro criminals, and various other charac-
To
consider such
persons here, not only would cumber the ground with useless timber, but w ould have a tendency to obscure the essential
Where, therefore, it did not appear from the narrafrom other sources that these men displayed some degree of native ability, made some contribution to the life *G. W. Williams, History of the Negro Race in America; W. E. B.
facts.
tive or
DuBois, The Negro; and G. B. Brawley,

ican Negro.
Short History of the
Amer-
216
The History and Biography
of the
Negro
17
in their
of the period in which they lived, or were persons of note own day and circle, they have been eliminated from
consideration. 2
sons
who have
little
After eliminating from the total those peror no better claim to eminence than
would an equal number of individuals taken at hazard from the general Negro population, there still remained the names
of seventy persons. Of this number, however, the names sixteen have appeared one or more times in the lists of
3 given in the preceding chapter, and so are omitted here. The names remaining are as follows:
Granville S. Abbott
Preacher.
First
Writer of verse
mulatto mulatto
black
*
John Adams James Enoch Ambush Duke William Anderson

E. D. Basset
Charlotte
Negro teacher in D. C. Founded Wesleyan Seminary

Baptist minister Former minister to Haiti
mulatto
mulatto and Indian

mulatto
black black
8 8
Beams
Maria Becraft
Henry Boyd John M. Brown R. H. Cain

Lott Carey Mary A. S. Carey William H. Carney
Eliza
Early teacher of Negroes Early teacher of Negroes Inventor and manufacturer
Bishop A. M. E. Church Bishop A. M. E. Church Baptist preacher Teacher and speaker

Soldier in Civil
mulatto
War
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Ann Cook
Alexander Cornish
Louisa Parke Costin William Costin
Started school for Negroes Started school for Negroes Started school for Negroes
Bank messenger
mulatto
and Indian
"See, also, note 86, p. 213 above. 8 Of the sixteen names dropped
for this
reason one
is
that
of a
black man, one that
of a black
woman and
fourteen are those of
mulatto men.
4
One authority called Ambush a mixed-blood. 'Several authorities called Cain a mulatto.
"Two One
authorities called
Carey
a mulatto.
authority called Carney
a full-black.
This was obviously an
error.
218
John Cuffe
The Mulatto
the United States

mulatto and Indian
Free Negro in Mass.
Ann Dandridge
John V. DeGrasse Louise DeMortie William F. Dickerson John H. Fleet
Miss Charlotte Forten Nicholas Franklin
Gabriel
Mother of W. Costin
Physician Started an asylum for Negroes Bishop A. M. E. Church
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
8
Started school for Negroes Mrs. F. H. Grimk<
mulatto
Started school for Negroes

Insurrectionist
mulatto
mulatto
John P. Green Leonard Grimes Mrs. Anna M. Hall Alexander Hayes

Bishop Loguen
Mass. Legislature 1881

Baptist minister Started school for Negroes Started school for Negroes
mulatto mulatto
mulatto black
Benjamin M. McCoy Charles H. Middleton

Charles L. Mitchell
Writer and preacher Preacher

Started school for Negroes Member Legislature of Mass. Started a Sunday School, D. C. Preacher A. M. E. Church Baptist preacher Bishop A. M. E. Church
mulatto
mulatto
Lindsay Muse
Charles Pierce
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
9
James Poindexter
William Paul Quinn Thomas Wright Roberts
James Shorter Benjamin Snow

Austin Stewart Marshall W. Taylor
Bishop A. M. E. Church Started school for Negroes Cause of the "Snow Riot" 1835
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto-
Author
Preacher
Indian
Alex S. Thomas H. M. Turner
Photographer Bishop A. M. E. Church

Insurrectionist Insurrectionist
mulatto
mulatto
Nat Turner Denmark Vesey

S.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
black
10
R.
Ward
Author
Bishop A. M. E. Church Bishop A. M. E. Church Started school for Negroes Started school for Negroes Started school for Negroes First A. M. E. Conference
T.
M. D. Ward
A. W. Wayman Nelson Wells
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Mary Wormley William Wormley

Richard Wright
8
mulatto
One correspondent
Two correspondents called Quinn a 10 Ward is quite dark. He was called
called Dickerson pure-black. full-blood Negro. full-blood by two authorities.
The History and Biography The
of the
Negro
219
fifty-four new names presented in this list are in ten names of women all mulattoes and in forty-four Of the men, five are given as fullcases, names of men. blooded Negroes. Of the total fifty-four persons, fortynine are names of mixed-bloods, and five are names of black
cases
Negroes. In the volume by Mr. DuBois, the names of sixteen American Negroes are mentioned. Two of these are names of
women, and fourteen are names of men. Both the women and three of the men seem to have been full-blooded Negroes. Eleven of the men are known to have been of mixed blood. Of the total of sixteen, however, thirteen have been mentioned in one or more of the previous lists and are omitted
here.
three names remaining are, in each case, names of mulattoes. They are:
Anti-slavery agitator Reconstruction Politician
The
James Barbadoes
J. C.
mulatto
mulatto
agent
Gibbs
William Lambert
Underground
Railroad
mulatto
Brawley mentions one hundred and twenty-four individuals in all of Negro descent. Twenty-four of these have been omitted from consideration as being names of men of very
11 The importance even in their own time and circle. names of sixty of these have appeared in preceding lists and so are omitted here. 12 Of the remaining forty names,
slight
thirty-one are of
men and
all
nine are of women.
names of women
are mulattoes.
five
are names of mulattoes and
Of the nine Of the men, twenty-six are of black men. Of the

and
five
total list of names, thirty-five are of mulattoes
are
of black Negroes.
u One
The
forty not previously mentioned are
Madison Washington seems to have been merely a literary See story by Frederick Douglass. "Of the 60 names omitted for this reason, 6 are of black men, 3 of black women, 47 are mulatto men and 4 are mulatto women.
character.
220
as follows:
C. C. Antoine
The Mulatto
the United States
E. M. Bannister
Reconstruction politician Painter
mulatto
mulatto
black
Thomas Bethune Nellie Brown Richard L. Brown

Eugene Burkins
Anthony Burns
Cato
Melville
Musical prodigy
Singer Painter
mulatto mulatto
Invented rapid-fire gun
mulatto
mulatto mulatto "
mulatto mulatto
Well-known fugitive slave

Insurrectionist
Charlton
Organist
James D. Corrothers
A. K. Davis Robert C. DeLarge Oscar J. Dunn Silas X. Floyd
Newspaper writer
Reconstruction politician Reconstruction politician Reconstruction politician
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Thomas Garrett
Writer of folklore Underground Railroad worker

Insurrectionist
mulatto
black mulatto "
Monday
Cell
Richard H. Gleaves
Elizabeth T. Greenfield
Reconstruction politician
Singer
Singer
Pianist
Mrs. E. A. Hackley Hazel Harrison
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulattoes
The Hyer Sisters Elijah Johnson Absolom Jones Thorny Lafon Bertina Lee John McKee
J.
Singers Colonist to Liberia

First
mulatto
black
15
Negro Episcopal Rector
Philanthropist
mulatto
Sculptor
Philanthropist Inventor
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
black
E. Matzeliger
Alice
Ruth Moore
Wife of Dunbar
Married Phyllis Wheatley
Inventor
John Peters
W.
B. Purvis
mulatto
Joseph H. Rainey A. J. Ransier
Reconstruction politician Reconstruction politician

Reconstruction politician United States Senator
mulatto
mulatto mulatto mulattoIndian

black
James T. Rapier Hiram R. Revels"

William A. Sinclair
Writer
"Two
14
One
correspondents called Cato black. authority called Gleaves black.

81, 85 above.
15 Three correspondents considered Jones a mulatto. " Revels came from the Croatan Indian group. See pp.

A. O. Stafford Roy W. Tibbs
of the
Negro
mulatto
Principal of Negro School Pianist
mulatto
mulatto "
Meta Vaux Warrick Felix Wier
Mrs. Fuller, Sculptor

Violinist
mulatto
Among
the books dealing with the
Negro
in
America are
a number of volumes of a semi-biographical and personal sort written by Negroes. In and of themselves these vol-
umes are, in general, of very slight value or importance. But they do each serve the purpose of bringing together a group of men who, in the opinion of the compiler, are among
the important men of the race. Here, as elsewhere in the of Negroes, there is seldom a reference made to the writing ethnic composition of the biographer's subject. But as the volumes of the sort generally contain numerous photo-
graphic reproductions, it is often possible to form from them a fairly accurate judgment concerning the racial ancestry
of the
will
men
discussed.
summary
of some of these books
throw additional light upon the present problem. The volume by Gibson and Crogman 18 contains biographical sketches of a large number of men and women
of
Negro blood.
In nearly one hundred cases, the sketches
are accompanied by photographs of the
men and women. 19
17 See W. F. O'Donnell, "Meta Vaux Warrick. Sculptor of Horrors." The World To-day, Vol. 13, pp. 1139-45. Miss Warrick claims to be descended from an African princess. 18 The J. W. Gibson and W. H. Crogman, The Colored American. fact that a book is referred to is not to be taken as an endorsement of the work. The volume of Gibson and Crogman, for example, is
absolutely devoid of any merit. 19 It is not to be assumed here or elsewhere that a
judgment
as to
a man's ethnic ancestry rests solely upon the interpretation of a printed photograph. Unless the evidence of racial intermixture is so strikingly obvious as to preclude the possibility of error other sources of infor-
mation have been resorted
to.
Where
positive evidence could not be
obtained or where the evidence obtained was conflicting the
man
has
222
The Mulatto
the United States
Sixty-four of the photographs are of men, and thirty-three Of the men, one photograph is that of a are of women.
black
man and
four others are of men who are black, though
The remaining fiftypossibly not pure-blooded Negroes. nine are photographs of mulattoes. Of the women, two photographs are of dark individuals who for present purposes are classed as black though purity of blood is not a cerThirty-two of the men and sixteen tainty in either case. of the women have been previously mentioned, so are dropped
Forty-nine names remain. Of these, thirtytwo are of men, three of which are of black men and twentyOf the seventeen names of women, two nine of mulattoes.
from the
list.
20
The list of are of Negroes and fifteen are of mulattoes. names, omitting those which have appeared previously, is as
follows
:
J.
Rev.
W. Adams W. G. Alexander
mulatto
mulatto
Dr. J. B. Banks Miss Ella D. Barrier
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Henry Black
Rev. E. R. Carter A. C. Cornell
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
black
W. M. Coshburn Walter M. Coshburn Prof. W. H. Council William Custalo J. H. Darden Mrs. L. A. Davis
Mrs.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
black
Louis
Earnest
Miss Hattie Gibbs
mulatto
mulatto
Nora A. Gordon
been classed as a full-blood Negro or as a mulatto depending upon whether the bulk of the evidence favored the presumption of pure or mixed blood. Special attention is called to such cases.
30
Two
of the names dropped for
this reason are
of black Negroes;
the other names, twenty-eight of of persons of mixed blood.
men and
fourteen of women, are those

E. Hansberry Prof. W. E. Holmes
of the
Negro
mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Emma T. Hort Hon. S. J. Jenkins James Kelly Horace King

Mrs.
W. W. King
J.
M. N. King T. King G. H. King M. J. Lehman

Rev.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
black
W. W. Lucas
Rev. Leigh B. Maxwell Prof. J. L. Murray Rev. Cyrus Myers Rev. M.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
W.
D. Norman
Miss Ida Platt

Mrs.
mulatto
black
Mary Rice Phelps
B. F. Powell
mulatto
Mrs. M. A. Robinson
Rev. D. J. Sanders
Dr. B. E. Scruggs
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Huston Singleton Albretta Moore Smith

Charity Still D. A. Straker
Lillian J. B.
mulatto
black
mulatto mulatto
Thomas
Mrs. Margaret Washington Rev. W. B. West
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Miss Emma Rose Williams Mrs. D. H. Williams Mrs. Fannie Barrier Williams Mrs. Sylvanie F. Williams
mulatto
mulatto
M. W. Gibbs
21
in the preface to his
volume
22
says
I have aimed to give

tive
an added interest to the narrapages with portraits of men

.
by embellishing
its
who have gained

"Gibbs was a mulatto. "Shadow and Light.
distinction in various fields,
The Mulatto
the United States
He
gives in all the photographs of thirty men. one is that of a full-blooded Negro. 23 Three are
Of
these,
men
con-
cerning whose racial ancestry there may be a reasonable doubt. 24 The remaining twenty-six are beyond all question men with a considerable proportion of white intermixture
and frequently with only a trace of Negro blood. Nineteen 25 The of the names have appeared in preceding groups.
remaining eleven are as follows:
Joseph A. Booker William Calvin Chase W. B. Derrick A. Bishop Grant John Green William H. Hunt
I.
black
mulatto black
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
G. Ish
Chester
W.
Keatts

mulatto
black
James B. Parker William A. Pledger J. P. Robinson
Gulp, a mulatto physician of Palatka, Florida, 26 compiled and published in 1902 a volume of essays by one hundred American Negroes. The volume is chiefly notable
for the fact that
it
Dr. D.
W.
of the one hundred contributors.

ers the compiler himself says
:
contains full page photographs of each Of the book and the writ27
"Paul Laurence Dunbar.

Rev. J. A. Booker, Bishop W. B. Derrick and Rev. J. P. Robinson. latter may be a man of unmixed Negro blood; the two former are All three are dark as to color and probably men of mixed blood.
24
The
have the characteristic rough features of the African though in no case of an extreme sort.
names omitted for this reason, one is that of a Negro and eighteen are names of mulattoes. M Twentieth Century Negro Literature or Cyclopedia of Thought by One Hundred of America's Greatest Negroes. v Preface, 6, 10.
the nineteen
full-blood
28
Of
pp.

This
is
of the
Negro
nificent
the only book in which there is such a magarray of Negro talent. Other books of a biographical character are objected to, by intelligent people who have read them, on the ground that they contain too few sketches of scholarly Negroes, and too
.
of Negroes of ordinary ability. But it is not to be understood that the one hundred men and women mentioned in this book are the only Negro scholars in this country. So far from this, there are hundreds of other Negroes who are as scholarly, as
many
prominent and as active in the work of uplifting their race as the one hundred herein given. The writers of this book are one hundred of the most scholarly and prominent Negroes in America.
.
Of the one hundred contributors
to the volume, twelve are
women and
eighty-eight are men. The women are in each case mulattoes. Of the eighty-eight men, seventy-six are clearly and obviously men of mixed blood. Of the twelve remaining,
all
are "black"
men though probably not more than

Negro
blood.
four
are
men
28
of unmixed
Omitting twenty-seven
in earlier
men and
pages,
J. g.
three
women whose names have appeared

as follows
:
the
list is
H. Anderson
G. Atkins
Minister, Wilkesbarre, Pa. President Industrial School
mulatto mulatto
H. E. Baker
J.
Clerk in U. S. Patent Office

Teacher, Atlanta, Ga. President Industrial School
Atlanta, Ga.
D. Bibb E. L. Blackshear
Mrs. Ariel
Bowen
Mrs. Rosa D. Bowser E. M. Brawley Geo. F. Braggs, Jr.
Teacher,
Richmond, Va.
mulatto
mulatto
Baptist preacher
Rector Episcopal Church

Baptist preacher Preacher
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
W. H. Brooks
S.
N. Brown Henry R. Butler W. D. Chappelle

38
Physician
Preacher, A. M. E. Church
this reason, 5 are
Of
the 30
names omitted for
of full-blood Neblood.
groes, 22 of
men of mixed blood and
3 of
women of mixed
226
J.
The Mulatto
the United States

mulatto
J.
M. Cox W. Cromwell
President of College Washington, D. C.

Baptist preacher
mulatto
black
Davis I. D. Davis Mrs. Paul Laurence Dunbar
D.
W.
Presbyterian preacher
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Washington, D. C.
Preacher, Jacksonville, Fla.
L. B. Ellerson J. R. Francis
Physician and Surgeon
mulatto
black
A.
J.
U.
Frierson
Teacher, Biddle University

Teacher, Paine College
W. Gilbert M. W. Gilbert
mulatto
G. A. Goodwin
N. W. Harllee W. H. Heard
J. T.
mulatto Baptist preacher Teacher, Atlanta Baptist College mulatto mulatto Teacher, Dallas, Texas mulatto Preacher, Atlanta, Ga.
Hewin Andrew F. Hilyer H. A. Hunt Miss Lena T. Jackson

Johnson
Lawyer, Richmond, Va. Washington, D. C.

Teacher, Biddle University Teacher, Nashville
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
J. Q. J.
J.
Preacher
Teacher, Jacksonville,
Fla.
W. Johnson
H. Jones
Teacher
Business man, Chicago Teacher, Morris Brown College
T.
W.
Jones
mulatto
D.
S.
J. Jordan Kerr
black"
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
W.
George L. Knox I. Lewis

Mrs. Warren Logan R. S. Lovinggood
Rector Episcopal Church Editor
Newspaper reporter
Tuskegee
Institute
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
black
Mrs. Lena Mason
President of College Hannibal, Mo.
M.
J.
C. B.
Mason
Preacher
Teacher, Louisville, Ky. Preacher, Bordentown, N. J.
G. M. McClellan

mulatto
H. Morgan W. Murray D. W. Olney

G.
W.
E. Partee
Lawyer, Providence, S. C. Dentist, Washington, D. C. Preacher, Richmond, Va.

Teacher, Tuskegee Institute
B. H. Peterson
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Mrs. Pettey J. R. Porter

I.
Newborn, N. C.
Atlanta, Ga.
L. Purcell
St.
Lawyer, Pensacola, Fla.

President of College Attorney, Nashville, Tenn.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
black
George Richardson G. T. Robinson

29
A.
Opinion
is
mulatto.
He
is
divided as to whether he should be called a Negro or a a brown skinned man.

R. G. Robinson Mrs. M. E. C. Smith R. S. Smith
Prof. J. H. Smythe Principal
of the
Negro
mulatto
mulatto
LaGrange Academy
Teacher, Jacksonville, Fla.
Mrs. Rosetta D. Sprague
James Storum
Mary
T.
B. Talbert
Lawyer, Washington, D. C. President of Reformatory Washington, D. C. Teacher, Washington, D. C. Buffalo, N. Y.

Teacher, Tuskegee Institute Editor
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
R.
W. Talley W. Thompson
Tucker
T. de S.
W. N. Wallace
M. Waller H. L. Walker
O.
J.
J.
Teacher, Baltimore, Md. Editor
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
W. Whitaker
R. Wilder
B. L. Williams
Rector Episcopal Church Teacher, Augusta, Ga. Tuskegee Institute

Physician and Surgeon Pastor M. E. Church
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
J.
R. P.
Wyche
Pastor Presbyterian Church
mulatto mulatto
Of the seventy new names given above, sixty are names of men and ten are names of women. Of the men, five are black and fifty-five mulatto, while of the ten women all are mulattoes.
Mrs. Williams
best
30
gives
list
of sixty of the presumably
known members of the Negro race. Thirty-nine of these are men and twenty-one are women. Six of the men,
possibly
while
not
full-blooded
Negroes,
may
be
fairly
eight of the Twenty women are clearly mulattoes. The remaining thirteen men and thirteen women, while doubtless mulattoes, have all the
classed as "black."
of the
men and
characteristic features of the Caucasian race.

total list of thirty-nine
men, not above
six
So of the can be said to
be real
Negro and thirty-three, at least, are mulattoes. Of the twenty-one women, all are clearly mixed-bloods. Omitting the names of twenty-two men and fourteen women
list is
which have appeared before, 31 the

80
81
as follows:
Fannie Barrier Williams,
Of
A New Negro for a New Century. the thirty-six names omitted for this reason twenty-two are of
The Mulatto
Dr. A. R. Abbott

mulatto
John H. Alexander Louis B. Anderson H. E. Archer Mrs. Henrietta M. Archer Ferdinand L. Barnett
Lieut.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
black
Mrs.
J.
Anna
J.
Cooper
E. J. Cooper
Webb
Curtis
mulatto mulatto
Mrs. S. J. Evans John R. Francis John B. Frence
mulatto
General Maximo Gomez
mulatto mulatto
Mrs.
Hart
C.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Jackson Miss Lutie A. Lytle William M. Martin Alexander Miles
Mary
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
J.
Frank McKinley
Ida Gray Nelson

J. F.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Wheaton Edward Wilson

N. B.
Wood
mulatto
mulatto
James H. Young
Of the twenty-four new names in Mrs. Williams's list, men and seven of women. One of the men is black or nearly so. Sixteen of the men and all of the women are mulattoes. Of the twenty-four new names one
seventeen are of
is
that of a black Negro and twenty-three are names of
mulattoes.
Mr. DuBois,
in
a volume on the Philadelphia Negro, 32
mentions seventeen men of Negro blood. Eight of the numOf ber, all mulattoes, have appeared in the foregoing lists. the remaining nine names, four are of mulattoes. These are
:
men and
fourteen of women.
Of
the twenty-two
names of men,
five
are those of full-blood Negroes and seventeen of mulattoes. the fourteen women are mulattoes.
83
All of
W.
E. B. DuBois, The Philadelphia Negro.

Robert Adger
Peter Augustin
of the
Negro
mulatto
Furniture
Caterer
Caterer
business
mulatto
mulatto
business
Henry Minton
Stephen Smith
Lumber
1
mulatto
Of the
known.
five
33
remaining there is nothing recorded or even Of the whole list of seventeen, then, at least
,
twelve were mulattoes and six were of
unknown parentage.
In Booker T. Washington's Life of Frederick Douglass, a total of sixty-nine Negroes are mentioned. Seven of slaves and the like, are dropped from conthese, fugitive
Of the sixty-two names remaining, fifty-seven Of the men, two are black are men and five are women. and fifty-five are mulattoes. The five women are all mulattoes. Thirty-three of these names have been listed previsideration.
35
34
ously.
The names
of those not heretofore mentioned are:

Grandmother of Fred Douglass Father of Fannie B. Williams
U. G. R. R. agent
Anti-slavery Agitator Founded school
Grandmother Bailey
mulatto
mulatto-
Anthony Barrier
Indian
Amon
Beaman Hugh M. Browne

C.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto 86
mulatto
Anthony Burns Peter H. Clark Thomas Coppin

William Crafts Mrs. William Crafts
J.
38
Fugitive slave
Teacher
Agitator
Fugitive slave
Fugitive slave
Howard Day
Anti-slavery agitator
mulatto
Robert Bogle, Henry Jones and Prosser were caterers. Thomas Shirley contributed to start a Negro school. The fifth man, Juan, was a murderer. 84 Booker T. Washington calls Lucretia Mott a Negro. This seems to be an error. She was apparently a white woman. 85 Of the total thirty-three names omitted from the list on this account, twenty-nine are names of men and four are names of women.
Each of the four of mixed blood.
women and
twenty-eight of the twenty-nine
men
are
"One
correspondent called Burns a full-blood Negro.
230
The Mulatto
the United States

mulatto
Martin R. Delaney Thomas L. Dorsey Charles R. Douglass H. Ford Douglass Lewis H. Douglass George T. Downing
Anti-slavery agitator New York Caterer
mulatto
Son of Fred Douglass

Anti-slavery
agitator
Thomas Downing
John F. Ganes Primus Hall William Hollowell John Jones
Son of Fred Douglass Delegate to President U. G. R. R. Agent Teacher

Ante-bellum teacher Friend of Douglass
Delegate to President
Anti-slavery agitator Visited President Johnson

mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Benjamin Lundy
William E. Mathews
Stephen J. Myres
Charles M.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
U. G. R. R. Agent
Anti-slavery agitator U. G. R. R. Agent
Ray
William Rich A. W. Ross

G. L. Ruffin
Delegate to President Teacher, Massachusetts

Anti-slavery
agitator
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
black
Theodore
S.
Wright
Of the twenty-nine names here presented, twenty-seven are of men and two of women. Of the men, one is a fullblooded Negro, and twenty-six are mulattoes. The two women named are mulattoes. Of the total twenty-nine names, one is that of a full-blooded Negro and the remaining twenty-eight are of mulattoes. In Oscar Garrison Villard's Life of John Brown, the names of thirty Negroes are mentioned. 37 Some dozen of
these are
names of boys, or
slaves, or
Negro neighbors
of
Brown who, being mentioned only
incidentally in the nar-
rative, are here left out of consideration.
Of the remain-
ing eighteen names, two are of women and sixteen of men. Of the names of men, one is that of a black man and fifteen are of mulattoes. Of the two names of women, one is
that of a black
woman and
one of a
woman
of mixed blood.
Ten
8T
of the individuals have been previously mentioned and

is
Villard
of course a white
man
but his volume
is
included here
because of the group of Negroes not elsewhere mentioned.

their
of the
Negro
281*
names are omitted
here. 38
The names
:
of persons not
previously mentioned are as follows

Osborn Perry Anderson James M. Bell John Anthony Copeland
One of
the
"Men
at
Arms"
mulatto"
mulatto
Friend of John Brown One of the "Men at Arms"
mulatto
mulatto
40
Newby
Dangerfield
One of
the
"Men
at
Arms" Arms"
Jim Daniels Shields Green James E. O*Harra

Lewis
S.
Slave in Kansas
mulatto
at
One of the "Men
black
41
Leary
United States Congress One of the "Men at Arms"
mulatto
mulatto
Of the eight new names here presented, one is that of a man and seven are names of men of mixed blood. In the volume by Carter Godwin Woodson on Negro edu42 are mentioned the names of one hundred and fifty cation, individuals as Negroes who had some part either as teachers
black
or as students in the eduation of the Negro before the Civil War. One of these individuals was an East Indian who
seems to have had no admixture of Negro blood. 43 He is here dropped from further consideration as are also the
names of some half a dozen who are simply mentioned as slaves, and a goodly number of other persons of such minor
importance that they were unknown outside their own famAfter these eliminations one hundred and seven ily group.
names remained. Of these, eighty-eight were men and nineteen were women. Of the men, seventy-nine were mulattoes
88 These ten names include one black woman, one mulatto woman and eight mulatto men. 89 He had a habit of reAlso known as Perry Anderson Osborn. versing his name. 40 Or perhaps Dangerfield Newby. His father was a white man by
the
41
name of Newby.
Of John Brown's "Men
at
Arms"
sixteen
were white men and

full blood.
five
were Negroes. Green was the only Negro of 42 The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861. 48 William Appo, musician.
The Mulatto
and nine were black men. Eighteen of the women were mulattoes and one seems to have been a woman of pure blood. Sixty of the one hundred and seven names have appeared 44 The forty-seven not previously menin preceding lists.
tioned are listed as follows:
John C. Anderson
B.
W.
Arnett
Musician Teacher in Pennsylvania

Physician Built Negro school in D. C.
Caterer, Baltimore Studied in white school
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
A. T. Augusta George Bell
mulatto
James T. Bradford
F. L. Cardozo
T. Morris Chester
mulatto
mulatto
Daniel Coker
J. C.
Corbin
Student at Pittsburg Teacher in Baltimore Teacher in Kentucky
mulatto
Martha Costin
Garrison Draper Charles Henry Green
Teacher in D. C.
Lawyer in Maryland Slave who learned to read

Taught by master's family
Slave.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
black
Robert Harlan
Josiah
Henson
George Horton William L. Jackson John Thomas Johnson John S. Leary Samuel Lowry Martha Martin and sister
Fugitive slave. Preacher Preacher. Illiterate
mulatto
mulatto
black
Musician
Teacher, Pittsburg North Carolina Legislature
mulatto
black
Early preacher in Tenn.
Educated
slaves
mulattoes
Mary
S.
E. Miles
Mitchell
T.
J.
Morris Robert Morris
Teacher in Mass, and Pa. Once President of Wilberforce Student in Charleston

Early Politician, Mass. "Embellished Negro History" 45 Preacher in Virginia about
1800
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
black
William Nell
Gowan Pamphlet
John Prout
Charles L. Reason
Teacher in D. C. Teacher of Negroes
mulatto
mulatto
Sarah Redmond
44
Negro school
girl
mulatto
Of
the
the 60 omitted for this reason 52 were
men and
8 were women.
Of
men
3 were black and 49 were of mixed blood.
Of
the
women,
one was black and the remaining 7 were mulattoes.
**Woodson, Education of the Negro,
p. 281.

Fannie Richards D. R. Roberts B. K. Sampson
of the
Negro
233
Teacher in Detroit
Preacher, Chicago Teacher, Avery College
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Mary Ann Shadd (Carey) Thomas Sidney

John Baptist Snowden T. McCants Stewart Mother of Mary C. Terrell Father of R. H. Terrell
Teacher in Canada
mulatto
black black
Helped build school house

Preacher
Studied in Charleston
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Troumontame George B. Vachon T. P. White W. J. White Ann Woodson Emma J. Woodson James Wormley
Julian
Learned French and English Learned to read when a slave Teacher, Savannah
Teacher, Avery College Reconstruction politician
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Taught by white mother Taught by mistress Teacher, Avery College

Student in D. C.
Teacher, D. C.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
47
Mary Wormley
In Daniels's
tioned some
46
study of the Boston Negroes

of the
are men-
Negro race of more or less prominence in and about Boston in the early days. This number is exclusive of some dozen or score of individuals
who are simply mentioned as slaves, of children and of obscure individuals who do not appear from the text or other
sources of information to be persons of any note or prominence in the community. Of the one hundred and fortyone hundred and twenty-five are names eight considered,
of
men and women
men and twenty-three are names
of women.
Of the men,
so
fourteen appear to have been black or at least considered by people who recall them. One hundred and eleven are
known to have been men of mixed blood. Of the women, one was black and twenty-two were mulattoes. Of the one hundred and forty-eight individuals whose ancestry was traced, fifteen were black or nearly so and one hundred and
"Daniels
the large
47
is
a white
man
but his book
is
included here because of
number of New England Negroes whom he mentions.
John Daniels, In Freedom's Birthplace.
The Mulatto
Forty of the 48 names appear in preceding lists and are omitted here. The names of those individuals who have not been mentioned
heretofore are:
Mrs. Agnes Adams Isaac B. Allen
Organizer of Negro women Served on Governor's Council
First
thirty-three were individuals of mixed blood.
mulatto
black
*
Macon B. Allen
J.
Negro admitted
to the
bar
mulatto
H. Allston
Member
Common
Council,
Boston
Philip J. Allston
mulatto
Business
Member Negro
League
mulatto
Council,
E. H. Armistead
Member
Common
Boston
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
William O. Armstrong Powhattan B agnail

J.
Member of Congress
Minister
B. Bailey
Gertrude M. Baker
Taught boxing in Boston Teacher in Cambridge
mulatto
mulatto
Walden Banks
Jehial C.
Member
Common
Council,
Boston
Beaman
Pastor A. M. E. Z. Church
mulatto mulatto
Edgar P. Benjamin
Paul C. Brooks
E. E.
Lawyer, Boston
Member
Common
Council,
Boston
mulatto
Brown
W. W. Bryant
Seymour Burr
Mrs. Olivia
Deputy Tax Collector, Boston First Negro official in Boston

Soldier in the Revolution
mulatto
black
mulatto
mulatto
Ward Bush
Negro Club woman, Boston

Teacher, Boston Member Mass. Legislature
Jacqueline Carroll Julius B. Chappelle

J.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
black
Milton Clark
Member
Common
Council,
Cambridge
Jonas Clark
Abolitionist, Boston
Bob Cole
Robert F. Coursey
48
Comedian
Property owner, Boston
mulatto mulatto
Of the 40 omitted, 7 were women and 33 men. Of the women, one was black and six were mulattoes. Of the men, 2 were black and 31 were mulattoes.
49
This
is
60
He and
not concurred in by all the authorities. his brother were called "The White Slaves."

W. Alexander Cox
Joshua Crawford
of the
Business
Negro
235
Member Negro
League Lawyer. Politician

Minister to Liberia
black mulatto n
W.
E.
Crum
mulatto
black
William Crowdy Thomas Dalton Louise DeMortie Mark DeMortie Theodore Drury
Rev. Henry Duckery
"Prophet"
Merchant
Teacher,
mulatto
New
Orleans
mulatto
Abolitionist
mulatto
mulatto
Opera Producer
Office
holder,
Boston
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
William Dupree Hosea Easton Joshua Easton Eliza Gardner C. N. Garland Nelson Gaskins
Julius B.
Federal appointee
Abolitionist
Mass, anti-slavery society Organizer of Negro women

Physician, Boston
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Council,
Member
Common
Boston
mulatto
Goddard
George F. Grant Marjorie Groves Charles H. Hall

Charles E. Harris
Gilbert C. Harris
Washington Dentist, Boston Teacher, Boston
Office holder,
black"
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Member
House
Common
Council,
Boston of
1894-95
Representatives,
mulatto
mulatto
Wig
manufacturer, Boston
William A. Hazel
Robert Hemmings John T. Hilton
Draftsman
Boston
and
architect,
mulatto mulatto
Painter in Paris
Abolitionist,
Boston
mulatto
M. Hamilton Hodges A. H. Hunt

Billy Johnson W. C. Lane
Singer in Australia
Physician
mulatto"
mulatto
Comedian
Physician. Office holder Fugitive slave
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
George Latimer Andrew E. Lattimore Joseph Lee J. H. Lewis
House of Representatives Innkeeper, Boston

Tailor,
Boston
"One
62 83
correspondent considered Crawford a full-blood Negro. Questioned by one authority. Hodges is a dark mulatto, not a full-blood Negro as is frequently
asserted.
236
The Mulatto
William C. Lovett
Officer
George W. Lowther
Geo. Reginald Margetson Napoleon B. Marshall
Negro Business League House of Representatives,

1883
mulatto mulatto
Poet
mulatto
Collector
Deputy Tax
mulatto
John
W.
Martin Clarence Matthews

Sella
Minister, Boston Athletic director
Cornelius
McKane
Mrs. Nellie B. Mitchell
Physician, Boston Music teacher
Clement G. Morgan William G. Nell Osborn A. Newton

Dr. Thomas
"Dr." Peters
Lawyer. Alderman Father of William C. Nell
mulatto mulatto black mulatto black

Member Common
Early
abolitionist
Council
W.
Patrick
Pharmacist, Boston
Rev. Thomas Paul
Don
Coffin
T.
Pinheiro
Husband of Phyllis Wheatley black Dentist. West Indian mulatto

Old
clothes dealer
Pitts
black
"Elder" Plummer
Minister, Boston
mulatto
Council,
James W. Pope
John T. Raymond Theodore H. Raymond William L. Reed
Dr. Isaac L. Roberts
Member
Common
Boston
Minister in Boston
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Council,
Director Y. M. C. A.
Deputy tax
collector
Physician, Boston
David R. Robinson
Member
Lawyer.
Common
Physician
Boston
mulatto
mulatto
Council,
David Rock
Stanley Ruffin
Member
Common
Boston
mulatto
Associ-
John E. Scarlett
Rev. M. A. N.
S.
Member Gen. Colored

ation
mulatto
Shaw William Simms
Minister.
Janitor.
West Indian
mulatto
6e
Common
Council,
Blanche V. Smith Eleanor A. Smith Mrs. Hannah G. Smith
Boston Teacher in Boston Teacher in Boston

Organizer of Negro
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
women
mulatto
correspondent called Plummer a black man. 55 One authority called Roberts a full-blood. 56 Called by one authority "pure-Negro." He is a dark brown but seems to be of mixed ancestry.
"One
man

Harriet Smith Joshua B. Smith Mary E. Smith William Stevenson
Caterer.
of the
Negro
237
Teacher in Boston
Abolitionist
mulatto
mulatto
Teacher in Boston
mulatto
Council,
Member
Common
James Still H. Gordon Street

Julian Stubbs
Boston Leader following war Editor, Boston

Office
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
holder,
Washington,
Robert T. Teamoh
D. C. House of
1916
Representatives,
mulatto
mulatto
black
James M. Trotter Dihdwo Twe Walker Edwin G. Walker

Walter F. Walder Mrs. S. I. N. Washington Charles W. M. Williams
Father of politician
Liberian student in Boston
Comedian
Legislature.
mulatto
Son
of
David
mulatto
Walker
In Liberia
mulatto
mulatto
black
Daughter of G. T. Downing
Clerk of Juvenile Court, Boston Clerk under district attorney Head of Massachusetts
James G. Wolff James H. Wolff

E.
I.
mulatto
mulatto
G. A. R.
Wright
Physician
mulatto
Mrs. Minnie T. Wright Butler R. Wilson

lola D. Yates
Organizer of Negro Attorney Teacher
women
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Of the one hundred and eight new names here presented, twelve are names of men who are generally considered to be full-blood Negroes. The remaining ninety-six names are in all cases names of mulattoes. Sixteen of these are of mu-
women and eighty are names of mulatto men. Booker T. Washington prepared a most elaborate compilation of the sort that we are considering in this chapter. In the two volumes of the work, 57 are mentioned nearly four hundred individuals who have made a success in life somewhat above the average of their fellows. In most cases the
latto
The Story of the Negro.
238
success
is
The Mulatto
not great;
in the
United States
when
it is
it can only be called success, in fact, measured by the low level of efficiency that pre-
vails generally in the black
group.
But even
the small de-
gree of relative success makes these persons exceptional men within the race, and this is the matter of importance here.
Dropping from the count some score of individuals, in most cases slaves, criminals, children and the like concerning whom there is absolutely nothing known and who do not appear from the text or from other sources to have been in any
persons, there remain three hundred and Of these, three hundred and eleven fifty-one individuals. are names of men and forty are of women. Of the men,
way important
twenty-nine seem to have been black or nearly so and two hundred and eighty-two are known to have been men of mixed blood. Of the forty women, six passed as black and
thirty-four were mulattoes.
Of the
total three
hundred and
fifty-one individuals, thirty-five passed as black and three hundred and sixteen were persons of mixed ancestry. Omit-
ting the names of persons who have been mentioned in pre58 we have the following names ceding lists
:
Lewis Adams A. R. Abbott

William G. Allen
Ernest Attwell Joseph S. Attwell L. K. Attwood
Teacher, Tuskegee Institute
mulatto
mulatto
Physician Published
"National
Watchmulatto
man"
Business Agent, Tuskegee Preacher
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Bank
President, Jackson, Miss,
Maria L. Baldwin John J. Benson William E. Benson

E. C. Berry Jesse Binga
88
Teacher, Cambridge, Mass.
Farmer, Alabama Real Estate dealer, Alabama Hotel keeper, Athens, Ohio Real Estate Dealer, Chicago
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
One hundred and seventy names are thus omitted 151 men and women. Of the men 14 were black and 137 were mulattoes; of the women one was black and 18 were mulattoes.
19

James Bond
B.
of the
Negro
239
Berea College trustee

Physician, Nashville Insurrectionist 1800
mulatto
Boyd
Jack Bowler
Fellow Bragg A. M. Brown
Rev. William W. Henry E. Brown
J.
mulatto black
mulatto
Free Negro
Physician,
tailor,
N. C.
Alabama
mulatto
mulatto
Brown
Organized True Reformers Director Y. M. C. A.
black"
mulatto
H. Bugg
P. Burrell
W.
George L. Burroughs L. L. Burwell Hon. J. E. Bush

Bishop J. B. Campbell Richard Carroll
Savannah Secretary of True Reformers U. G. R. R. Agent, Illinois

Physician, Physician,
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Selma, Alabama
Lodge
official
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
for orphans
Made
donation to Wilber force
Founded home
Paul Chretien
Elijah Cook Bishop Elias Cottrell
Father of free Negro in La. Undertaker, Montgomery, Ala.
mulatto
black
Founded
industrial
school
mulatto
Henry K. Craft
Samuel Crowther Boston Crummell
W. D. Crum
Bishop Curtis
Austin Dabney
Tuskegee Institute First native Bishop to Africa Father of Alexander. "African Prince" Collector of Customs, Charleston 54 Mass. Regiment in Civil
mulatto
black black
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
War
Soldier in Revolution
Sam
Dailey William Howard
Day
Published
Donated land to reform school black Alienated "The mulatto American"

Established industrial school
Jennie
Dean
black
91
George de Baptiste Juan de Valladelid John H. Deveaux

Rev. Moses Dickson
Dr. Sadie Dillon
C.
U. G. R. R. Agent, Michigan Negro Count, Seville, 1474 Collector of Customs, Savan-
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
nah Founder of Fraternal Order

First
woman bama
doctor in Ala-
N. Dorsette
First Doctor in
Montgomery
mulatto
Disputed by one authority. One authority called Campbell "a pure Negro." One correspondent said "dark mulatto." One authority considered Dickson a pure Negro.
240
The Mulatto

black
Vice-President Dossen
Charles R. Douglass
Liberian
Dubuclet Alexander Dunlop E. F. Eggleston Matilda A. Evans W. R. Fields John S. Gaines G. W. Gibson
embassy Son of Frederick Douglass Physician and musician, France Northern political agitator
Preacher, Baltimore
Physician, Orangeburg, S. C.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
black
63
Undertaker, Savannah
Cincinnati
mulatto
mulatto
Ex-President of Liberia
mulatto
mulatto
Henry Gordon
Sarah Gordon Rev. William Gray
Donation to Wilberforce Wife of Henry Gordon

Organized Savings and Loan
Co.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Benjamin T. Green
William E. Gross George C. Hall Prince Hall R. M. Hall Fenton Harper
T. N. Harris
Mound Bayou
Caterer,
New York
mulatto
mulatto
Chicago "Master" first Masonic Lodge Physician, Baltimore

Physician,
mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto black
Married Francis Ellen Watkins
Jare Haralson
T. S. Hawkins Matt Henson E. M. Hewlett L. P. Hill
Physician, Mobile United States Congress
Physician
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Mrs. L. Hill Richard Holloway

J. T.
With Peary Lawyer and politician, D. C. Founded industrial school Wife of L. P. Hill
Free Negro of Charleston Bishop of Haiti Methodist preacher Toronto Board of Trade United States Congress Farmer, Albany, Georgia
First Jubilee Singer
Illiterate preacher,
mulatto
mulatto
Holly
mulatto black
black
Harry Hosier A. Hubbard

John Hyman Deal Jackson
Jennie Jackson
mulatto-
Indian
mulatto
black
black
black
91
John Jasper
Cordelia A. Jennings Mrs. Mary F. Jennings
Va.
Teacher in Philadelphia Teacher

Courtland, Va. Y. M. C. A., Washington, D. C.
mulatto mulatto
Rev. O. C. Jenkins L. E. Johnson

68 84
mulatto
mulatto
Or nearly so. The authorities about
equally divided.
The History and Biograpl^Bol.

J. G.
of the
Negro
black
C.
Johnson
Editor Savannah "Tribune"
Jones Wiley Jones
Early
Chicago Business man, Pine Bluff, Ark.

Physician, Tuskegee Seven musicians
settler in
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulattoes mulatto
A. Kenney Lambert family

J.
Bishop Isaac Lane
Founded Lane College

Father of politician Reconstruction politician U. S. Congress from Georgia
Stock holder, Boley Bank
Physician,
Matthew Leary Matthew Leary,

Jefferson
S.
mulatto
mulatto
Jr.
Long
mulatto
mulatto
L. Lugrade
U. G. Mason Victoria E. Matthews
Alabama
slave, 1773
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Fellows,
New York
Runaway
Farmer
in
Owen McCarty Sam McCord

E. H. McKissack
Alabama
of
Treasurer
Miss.
Odd
mulatto
John Merrick
Founder Mutual and Provident Association, N. C.
mulatto
Thomas H. Miller Ben Montgomery

Thornton Montgomery Albert Morris Freeman Morris
Francis J. Moultry George A. Myers
Charles E.
U.
S. Congress, S. C.
mulatto
mulatto
Slave of Joseph Davis Slave of Joseph Davis
mulatto mulatto
N. C. tailor, N. C. Caterer, Yonkers, N. Y. Barber, Cleveland, Ohio

tailor,
Free Negro Free Negro
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Nash
Politician.
Reconstructionist
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Owen
T. B. Nickens
Peter Ogden Keebe Ossie
Teacher in Ohio, 1820 First Negro Odd Fellow On last ship load of slaves
Mandingo
mulatto
mulatto
Joseph E. Otis Dinah Pace

C.
I.
Northern Political Agitator
Founded Industrial School
W. Perry
Garland Penn John Peterson Napoleon Pinchback L. M. Pollard
Business man, Boley, Oklahoma mulatto mulatto Physician

Principal
first
Negro Normal
Savannah
mulatto
Brother of P. B. S. Pinchback
mulatto
mulatto
Bank
director,
Maggie Porter
Joseph C. Price Charles B. Purvis
Charlotte
S. C.
Mrs. Cole, Detroit. Singer President Livingston College

Teacher,
First
black*
black
Ray Redmond
Howard University Negro woman lawyer
mulatto
mulatto
Physician, Jackson, Miss.
mulatto
"One
correspondent called Mrs. Cole "Pure Negro.'
242
L. S. Reed Frank Reid Dow Reid John S. Rock
The Mulatto
Organized Union Benefit Assoc. mulatto mulatto Farmer near Tuskegee mulatto Farmer near Tuskegee
Mrs. U. A. Ridley H. K. Rischer
Lawyer, Boston, about 1865 Brookline, Mass.

Baker, Jackson, Miss. Northern political agitator U. G. R. R. Agent Teacher, Lawrenceville, Va.
Jubilee Singer Soldier in battle of Bunker
Hill

mulatto
A.
W.
Ross
David Ruggles James S. Russell Thomas Rutling Peter Salem

George M. Sampson Benjamin Sampson James D. Sampson Thomas Sanderson
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Teacher, Tallahassee, Fla.
mulatto
mulatto Teacher, Wilberforce, Ohio Published The Colored Citizen mulatto

Associated with Prince Hall
mulatto mulatto mulatto mulatto Zulu
M. Sanifer Walter Scott

J.
Victor Sejour Pixley Isaka Seme Mrs. Mary E. Shaw

Ella Sheppard
Farmer, Alabama Officer Negro Bank, Savannah Writer of verse, Paris Student at Columbia, 1907
Gave money
to Tuskegee
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Mr. Sheppard W. H. Sheppard Mrs. J. A. Shorter Alfred Smith

Charles H. Smiley
Mrs. G. W. Moore. Father of singer

Missionary to Africa
Singer
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Wife of Bishop Shorter

Successful cotton grower of Okla.
James McCune Smith John H. Smythe John C. Stanley John Stanley

Alexander Stanley
Charles Stanley W. E. Sterrs
Carrie Steele
F. A. Stewart
Early caterer, Chicago Early physician

Minister to Liberia
"Barber Jack." Son of John C. Son of John C. Son of John C.
Free Negro
Stanley Stanley
Stanley
mulatto
Physician, Decatur,
Alabama
Founded orphanage
Physician,
in Atlanta mulatto
Nashville
slave.
Peter
Still
Fugitive
Brother
of
John
St.
St. Pierre
Father
William Still of Mrs.

Ruffin
mulatto
Josephine
mulatto-
Indian
Benedict,
The Moor
Palermo, Sicily
mulatto
The History and Biography of the Negro

D. C. Suggs R. R. Taylor
243
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
James
Mrs.
C.
Thomas
Lucy Thurman John S. Trower Victor H. Tulane

Benjamin
Josiah
T.
S.
Teacher in Georgia Teacher, Tuskegee Undertaker. "Richest Negro in N. Y." W. C. T. U. Worker

Caterer, Philadephia Grocer, Philadelphia
Turner
U. U.
S.
Congress,
Alabama
Florida
Denmark Vesey
O.
S. S.
Insurrectionist, 1822
S. Congress,
Wall B. Wall
mulatto
mulattoes
R.
Ward
Captain in Civil War Editor "Imperial Citizen,"

1848
J.
H. N. Waring
Teacher, Baltimore
Westons
Wealthy family, Charleston,

S. C.
Heber E. Wharton
Teacher, Baltimore George Washington WUliajng Minister to Haiti, 1888
mulatto
Henry Work
Elizabeth E. Wright
Father of Monroe Work Founder of Voorhees Ind. School
mulatto mulatto
black
Of the one hundred and eighty new names presented in one hundred and fifty-seven are of men and twentythree are of women. One hundred and forty-two of the men and eighteen of the women are of mixed blood. Fifteen of the men and five of the women are Negroes who seem to be
this list,
of pure blood.
The analysis of this semi-biographical and semi-historical material has given in all the names of six hundred and twenty-seven individuals not mentioned in the preceding chapter,
life
who have made a more or

as
less
conspicuous success in
measured by the standards of the Negro race. Five hundred and twenty-two of the names are of men and one hundred and five are names of women. Of the five hundred and twenty-two names of men mentioned four hundred and
sixty-five are of
Negroes.
The
mulattoes and fifty-seven are names of black names of the one hundred and five women
244
The Mulatto
divide into ninety-eight mulattoes and seven black women. Of the total six hundred and twenty-seven names, sixty-four are
names of black Negroes and five hundred and sixty-three are names of individuals of a mixed ancestry (see p. 245). Of the six hundred and twenty-seven persons considered
in this chapter, the ratio of mulattoes to
Negroes of pure
blood
is
approximately nine to one.
was not
full agreement among son in question as to whether he should be classed as a man of pure or of mixed blood. Attention has been called to
In a few cases, there men acquainted with the per-
these cases as they appeared in the text. The rule followed in such cases was to class the man as a pure-blood Negro unless the evidence to the contrary seemed conclusive. It is
believed,
therefore, that
any errors of
classification that
may appear tend to make the ratio of mulattoes to Negroes of pure blood appear somewhat smaller than is actually the
However, any error in classification of a single man or even a dozen or a score out of a list of over six hundred would not materially alter the ratio. Should the twenty odd individuals in the full-blood group concerning whose
case.
in the mixed-blood
purity of blood there has been question raised, be placed group the ratio of mulattoes to full-
bloods would stand slightly over thirteen to one. Should, on the other hand, the dozen individuals in the mulatto
group who by some correspondents were called full-blooded be placed in the full-blooded group the ratio of mulattoes to full-bloods would be slightly over eight to one. Any considerable variation from the findings of nine mulattoes to one full-blood Negro in the books analyzed, would imply a shifting from the definition of mulatto accepted for the
purpose of
MA
this study. 66
distin-
Negro with sufficient admixture of white blood to readily him from Negroes of pure blood. See p. 11 above. guish
of the
Negro
245
28
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mill
CHAPTER X
THE NEGEO AND THE MULATTO
IN PROFESSIONAL
AND
ARTISTIC PURSUITS
r I
1HE
given in the preceding chapters probably include the great majority of the Negroes who
lists
various
have shown noteworthy

tional success in
life.
ability,
or made any very excep-
But
as these lists were for the most

is,
part of a general nature, that
groupings of men and

endeavor,
it
women from
various lines of
human
may
be
worth while to consider the relative success the black Negro and the mulatto have had in some of the specific lines of endeavor. For this purpose we will consider: I. the Army
and Navy,
II.
Politics, III.
Inventions, IV. Medicine and
Law, VI. Education, VII. the Ministry, VIII. IX. Editors and Newspaper men, X. Artists, Literature, XI. the Stage, XII. Composers and Musicians, and XIII.
Dentistry, V.
Business men.
The Negroes have played a part, albeit no very conspicuous one, in every war in which the United States has beei involved. In the Revolutionary War, Negroes, both slave
and
ton
free,
were found on both
sides.
Crispus Attucks, a B<
man
of mixed Indian, Negro,

first
and white blood,
is
st
to have been the
man
killed in the so-called Bostoi

es
Massacre.
In the second war with Great Britain, and
pecially in the Battle of
New
Orleans,
Negro
soldiers we]
esj
engaged
1
in considerable
numbers. 1
154-55.
In the Civil War,
Negro Tear Book, 1914-1915, pp.
246
The Negro and

cially
the Mulatto in Pursuits
247
diers were enlisted in the
during the latter stages, large numbers of Negro solUnion armies. 2 While the Con-
federacy consistently refused to allow slaves to be employed as soldiers and in some cases refused to accept the proffered assistance of free Negroes, 3 the Southern armies nevertheless
employed a considerable number of Negroes, both slave and free, as laborers, and a few free Negroes seem to have
been enrolled as soldiers. 4
The Negro Year Book

gained some distinction
teers
in the Civil
mentions three men as having War: A. T. Augusta,
Surgeon in the Seventeenth Regiment United States VolunA. W. Abbott, Army Surgeon and H. M. Turner, an Army Chaplain. All three men were mulattoes. Three Negroes have been graduated from the United
;
States Military Academy at each case mulattoes.
West
Point. 6
They were
Negro
in

cers.
7
Army,
there are eleven
offi-
They
are in every case mulattoes.

mulatto
Lt. Col. A. Allensworth, (retired) Chaplain, 24th Infantry
Major W. T. Anderson,
'The
soldiers
(retired)
Chaplain, 9th Cavalry
mulatto
seem to have been about equally divided between NeThe 55th Regiment of Volunteer Infantry, for Four hundred and thirty example, had a total of 980 enlisted men. were mulattoes and 550 were apparently pure black. The black men were probably two or three times as numerous as the mulattoes in the general population. See Burt G. Wilder, "The Brain of the American
groes and mulattoes.
Negro," Proceedings of the First National Negro Conference, p. 49. 'The color of these free Negroes, according to General Butler, was "about that of Vice-President Hamlin, or the late Mr. Daniel Webster." See J. P. Ficklen, The History of Reconstruction in Louisiana, p. 191.
4
Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, pp.
157-59.
"Ibid., p. 159.
Henry O. Flipper John H. Alexander

Charles
'
mulatto
Young
mulatto mulatto
Ibid., p. 161.
248
i
The Mulatto
in
the United States

mulatto
mulatto
Lieutenant Louis A. Carter, Chaplain, 10th Cavalry Lieutenant B. O. Davis, 10th Cavalry Lieutenant J. E. Green, 25th Infantry Lieutenant W. W. Gladden, Chaplain, 24th Infantry Major John R. Lynch, (retired) Paymaster
mulatto mulatto
Indian and
mulatto
Captain G. W. Prioleau, Chaplain, 9th Cavalry Lieutenant O. J. W. Scott, Chaplain, 25th Infantry
Captain T. G. Steward, (retired) Chaplain, 25th Infantry Major Charles Young, 9th Cavalry
From
all
other sources of information were obtained facts
in regard to twenty-six other
men who
hold, or have held,
military positions of some importance in the regular army or in the National Guard, or have particularly distinguished
men though
mulattoes.
8
themselves by deeds of valor. Of these men, three were dark in no case is it certain that they were Negroes ;
of full blood.
The other twenty-three were
in all cases
it would thus apthat the race, so far at least as offices and honors go, pear is represented almost exclusively by its lighter-colored mem-
In the military affairs of the nation,
bers. Of the forty-four men mentioned in this section, fortyone at least are men of mixed blood. Nine of these men have
been previously mentioned in other connections. Thirty-two of the remaining thirty-five men are mulattoes. Throwing
into tabular form this information concerning the ethnic ancestry of these members of the race who have distinguished
themselves in a military
way we have
is,
the following:
In military affairs Toussaint
of course, the one conspicuous ex-
ample of military ability among the members of the race so far. He was probably not a full-blood Negro though he was identified with and led the blacks as opposed to the mulatto faction. The National heroes of Cuba Gomez and Maceo are said to have both been men of some intermixture of Negro blood. The same thing seems to be true of Panco Villa. None of these men, however, excepting Toussaint, displayed any particular ability as military leaders.
The Negro and
249
Black Mulatto Total

Soldiers in the Revolutionary Soldiers in the Civil War
War
Graduates of West Point U. S. Army Other Noted Soldiers

Officers of the
Totals
Names Repeated
Corrected totals
In the Navy, so far as
represented.
Oil 033 033 099

11
11
23
26
41
44
3
officers go, the
32
35
Negroes are not
The Negro has played no very conspicuous or important part in the political life of America. For the most part,
he has been barred from participation in politics. Prior to the Civil War, speaking generally, he took no part in the The emancipation of the Nepolitical life of the country.
gro and the Reconstruction following, brought into prominence a number of Negroes who passed into oblivion with the passing of the Reconstruction regime and the restoration of law
and order
9 in the southern states.
Since this
period, politics
way men
has
all
except in a very limited and mostly local but ceased to be a field of endeavor open to
of the race.
Furthermore, the part that the Negro has taken in the political life of the country has not reflected to his credit.
Bruce
10
says:
"In considering who and what are representative Negroes there are circumstances which compel one to question what is a representative man of the colored race. Some men are born great, some achieve great-
Paul ." ness and others lived during the Reconstruction period. Laurence Dunbar, "Representative American Negroes," The Negro
.
Problem, p. 189. "P. A. Bruce, The Plantation Negro a
a Freeman, p. 79.
250
. . .
The Mulatto
Those who have obtained seats in the Legislahave won no special reputation for practical cature, pacity by an intelligent devotion to business; and as they are generally silent members or wandering and irrelevant when they have risen to their feet, they have exercised no marked influence on the enactment of laws, except by the votes they have cast. Indeed, the majority have not been at all superior to the mass of their race in force of character or intellect; many, in fact, have been inferior, and their election to a position of so much responsibility can only be explained on the
ground of accident. The prominence of the office they occupy only brings out into the broadest contrast their
incompetence to represent the interests of their own people, much less advance the general prosperity of a commonwealth.
All this is probably true and exactly the same thing is, true of the country's white politicians. But we are not here concerned with an evaluation of the
Negroes as politicians further than to point out that they are not to be taken as representing in any true sense what
Mr. DuBois has called the "Advance Guard of the Race," 1X any more than the white politicians are to be taken as representing the highest degree of the honesty, intelligence, and public spirit of the white community. The Negro poli-
a conspicuous group and, as such, have been selected here for analysis into their black and mixed
ticians are, however,
elements.
The race has been represented in the National Senate by two members Hiram R. Revels and Blanche K. Bruce. The former was a Croatan Indian and the latter a mulatto.
In the National
House of Representatives, there have
been twenty members of the Negro race, not more than three
U W. E. B. DuBois, Booklover's Magazine, Vol.
2,
pp. 2-14.
The Negro and

of
251
whom were Negroes
The Negro Year Book

Richard H. Cain
of even approximately full blood. lists them as follows: 12
252
The Mulatto
in the
United States
Negroes attained the position of Lieutenant Governors, These men were as follows 15
:
Louisiana
C.
C.
Antoine
J.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Oscar
Dunn
P. B. S. Pinchback
South Carolina R. H. Cleaves Alonzo J. Ransier

Mississippi
mulatto mulatto
Alexander K. Davis"
17
mulatto
18
John R. Lynch in a recent volume on the part played the Reconstruction of the South, mentions by the Negro in nineteen men prominent during the period. Four of these men seem to have been black, and fifteen to have been men of mixed blood. The list follows
:
Roscoe Bruce
Rev.
T.
Son of Ex Senator Bruce

Republican Convention of Miss. 1869 Candidate for office, Miss. 1873
Noah Buchanan
Cardoza
mulatto black
mulatto
mulatto
W.
H.
C. Carter
Proposed candidate for Lieut. Gov.,

Miss.
A. K. Davis
Frederick Douglass Robert Gleed
Candidate for Lieut. Gov. of Miss.

1873
Politician
mulatto
mulatto
black
State Senator of Miss.

Pres. of Republican Club Candidate for Sec. of State of Miss,
Sam Henry James Hill H. P. Jacobs James Lynch

William McCary
I.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Baptist preacher and politician Methodist preacher. Political candi-
date
mulatto
J.
Signed bond for
R. Lynch in 1869
mulatto
T. Montgomery
18
Boliver County, Miss.
mulatto
G.
W.
is
ernors.
lists him among the Negro Lieutenant GovSee B. T. Washington, Frederick Douglass, pp. 279-80. "See pages 205, 208 above.
"Davis was a candidate not the only Negro who
Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, p. 585. Mr. Williams in 1873 but was not elected.
Facts of Reconstruction.
The Negro and

P. B. S. Pinchback
258
mulatto
H. R. Revels
David Singleton
T.
J. J.
Lieutenant Governor of Miss. United States Senator
Croatan Indian
mulatto mulatto black
black
Signed a bond for Lynch

State Senator, Mississippi
in 1869
W.
M. M. Wilson
Stringer P. Williams
Baptist preacher. Political candidate Member of Legislature, Mississippi
federal
Charles
The Negro Year Book names four Negroes now holding 19 offices. These men are all mulattoes. They are:
W. Anderson
mulatto
Collector of Internal Revenue,
New York
City
James A. Cobb
Assistant District Attorney for the District of Columbia Charles Cottrell
Collector of Customs, Honolulu,
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
H.
I.
Robert H. Terrell Judge of Municipal Court, Washington, D. C.
The Negro Year Book names two Negroes

matic service of the
are:
George
Richard
in the diplo-
United States. 20
One
is
of these
men
is
a Negro of pure blood and the other
a mulatto.
They
mulatto
black
W. Buckner
Minister Resident and Consul General, Liberia
W. Bundy
Secretary of Legation, Liberia
eight Negroes in the con21 Two of these men are of the United States. sular service
The Negro Year Book names
Negroes of pure blood and

as follows
:
six are mulattoes.
The
list is
James G. Carter
Consul at Tamatave, Madagascar William H. Hunt Consul at Saint-fitienne, France
mulatto
mulatto
"Negro Year Book,

*>
1914-1915, p. 152.
Ibid., p. 153.
"Ibid., p. 153.
254
The Mulatto

mulatto
George H. Jackson
Consul at Cognac, France James W. Johnson
mulatto
black
Consul at Corinto, Nicaragua
Lemuel W. Livington Consul at Cape Haitien, Haiti Christopher H. Payne Consul at St. Thomas, West Indies
Herbert R. Wright Consul at Puerto Cabello, Venezuela William J. Yerb Consul at Sierra Leone, West Africa
mulatto
black
mulatto
the following as the more held by Negroes during the important political positions 22 presidential administration of William Howard Taft
The Negro Year Book names
J.
N.
W. Alexander
Land
Office,
mulatto
Register of
Montgomery, Alabama
mulatto
G.
W. Buckner
U.
S. Minister
and Consul General to Liberia

mulatto
mulatto
John E. Bush
Receiver of Public Moneys, Little Rock, Arkansas Henry W. Furniss
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister

Prince, Haiti
Plenipotentiary, Port au
George H. Jackson United States Consul to Cognac, France James W. Johnson United States Consul at Corinto, Nicaragua Joseph Lee Collector of Internal Revenue for Florida William H. Lewis
Assistant Attorney General
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Whitneld McKinley
Collector of Customs, Port of Georgetown, D. C.
Fred R. Moore
United States Minister and Consul General to Liberia
mulatto
mulatto
James
C.
Napier
Register of the Treasury
Negro Year Book,
1914-1915, p. 97.
The Negro and

Robert Smalls
Collector of
255
mulatto
Customs at Beaufort,
S. C.
R. H. Terrell Municipal Court of Washington, D. C. Ralph W. Tyler Auditor of the Navy
mulatto
Indian and mulatto
In addition to the foregoing lists, an additional list of men, not heretofore mentioned, was compiled from all the available sources of information. It included, so far as it
was possible to obtain them, the names of all men who are mentioned in the literature as having held elective or apor as otherwise having distinguished themselves by political ability, or gained political prominence. After eliminating from the list thus compiled, the names
pointive
offices,
men who have a better claim to distinction than the political one and who were consequently placed in other categories, one hundred and fifty-two names remained. Of these,
of
all
one hundred and thirty-seven were mulattoes; and fifteen, so far as the evidence goes, seem to have been full-blooded
Negroes.
In tabular form, the facts stand as follows:
Black Mulatto Total

United States Senators United States Representatives Resident Minister to Haiti Lieutenant Governors 23
Reconstructionists Federal Officials In Diplomatic Service In Consular Service Holders of Political Positions Miscellaneous
022 Oil 066 044

3 17
4
1
20
15
19
2
15
68
14 152
14 137
Totals
25
Names repeated
Corrected totals
28
22
203 48 155
228
51
177
See note 16, p. 252 above.
$56
It
The Mulatto
of the country
office
would appear from these facts that in the political life as measured by the relative amount of
holding that the man of mixed blood is somewhat over seven times as successful as the full-blooded Negro.
This, too,
all
is
on the principle of classifying as
full-bloods,
Negroes where there seems to be any reason to doubt the fact of a mixed ancestry.
The number
is
24 very small.
of inventions by members of the Negro race Scarcely half a dozen names are required
list
to enumerate the whole
that the most liberal-minded
would class as important. 25 The patent office makes no record of the race of the patentees, so that it is not possible to
know
ness.
the
list
Negro inventors with any certainty or completeof alleged Negro inventors was furnished to
the Paris Exposition in 1900. 26
The
list
contains two hun-
dred and one separate names but in almost every case there is absolutely no information available concerning the men
themselves.
information was obtained in regard to twenty-seven of the inventors listed. Of these four are said to be black and twenty-three are admittedly mulatto. The
In
all,
it
men whose ancestry
was possible to trace, with the inven:
tion on which they received a patent, follows

14
Harry E. Baker, a mulatto
clerk in the United States Patent Office,
He estimates claims to have verified 800 patents granted to Negroes. that 400 others, unverified, have been granted. His plan of discovery and verification has been to circularize the patent attorneys, newspapers,
"conspicuous citizens of both races," etc., on the subject. "The answers to this inquiry cover a wide range of guess work, many mere rumors and a large number of definite facts. These are all put through the
test
of comparison with the
official
record of the patent
office.
."
But even at the highest estimate that Mr. Baker claims for his race the number of inventors is pitifully small. H. E. Baker, The Colored
Inventor.
"Negro Year Book,

M
Reprinted in D.
1914-1915,
W.
names sixteen, pp. 284 ff. Gulp's Twentieth Century Negro Literature.
The Negro and

L. C. Bailey L. W. Benjamin

Folding bed Broom moistener
257
mulatto
Miss M. E. Benjamin L. Blue
Gong and Signal chairs Hand corn shelling device
mulatto mulatto
Henry Brown Eugene Burkins M. A. Cherry

J. S.
mulatto Receptacle for storing papers mulatto mulatto Rapid-fire gun

mulatto
Coolidge
Velocipede Harness attachment
mulatto
black
W.
J.
R. Davis
H. Dickinson T. H. Edmonds
D. A. Fisher
Library table Piano player devices

Separating screens
Joiner's

mulatto
clamp
A. F. Hilyer W. A. Lavalette
F. J. Loudin
J.
Registers
Early printing device, about

1879
E. Matzeliger
Sash fastener Machine for attaching

to shoes
mulatto
soles
mulatto
E. G.
McCoy W. Murray
Lubricators
mulatto
mulatto
black
L. Nance
Attachments for agricultural implements Game apparatus
O'Connor
Alarm
for boilers
black
W.
B. Purvis
Paper bag machines

Dentist's Chair device
mulatto
E. P.
E.
Ray
Sutton
mulatto
mulatto
black
Australian1
H. H. Reynolds
Safety gate for bridges Cotton Cultivator

Electrical
Woods James Wormley

G. T.
P. B. Williams
appliances
Life saving apparatus
mulatto
Electrical railway track switch mulatto
In his pamphlet, 28 Mr. Baker names twelve additional Negro inventors. Concerning four of these, no information
was obtained.
The
eight remaining, all of
whom
are
mulattoes, are as follows:

Benjamin Banneker
Clock.
Published almanac
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
W. Douglass
Shelby Davidson
Harvesting ments
machine
attach-
Tabulating device
* See note
78
49, p. 195.
The Colored Inventor.
258
James Doyle James Forton R. Pelham
C. V. Richey
The Mulatto

mechanical server
sails

calls
Device for managing Tabulating device

Register
Electrical
for telephone
mulatto
Australian
Lyates
Woods
appliances
The Negro Year Book 29 gives practically the same list. The only additional name is that of a free Negro of Maryland, Henry Blair, who secured patents for a corn harvester in 1834 and again in 1836.
There
is
nothing stated
The and presumably nothing known fact, however, that he was free at least gives the presumption that he was a man of mixed blood.
concerning his color.
During the past eighteen months, the Negro journals and

papers have mentioned thirteen additional patents granted to Negroes. 30 Ten of these men are mulattoes, one a man
of unmixed blood and two, while probably not full-blood, are very nearly so.
Of the forty-eight inventors, then, of whom it was possible to secure information and the number seems to include most of the important as well as most of the recent
forty-one are men of mixed blood and seven are either full black or nearly so. Nine of these men, however, have been mentioned in other connections. Of the thirty-nine
ones
new names, seven are of black Negroes and thirty-two

mulattoes
of
a ratio of nearly
falls into
five
to one. 31
The
collected
information
89
the following tabulation:

if.
1914-1915.
See pp. 282
1916. There may of course have been others that escaped notice. 81 It is quite probable that if data were available concerning any large number of the Negro inventors of lesser note that this ratio of about one black man to five mulattoes would be maintained or the proportion
30
For the eighteen months ending June,
of black
men might even be increased. Minor inventions are very frequently if not generally the work of men in daily contact with the machines they use and for which they invent improvements.
The Negro and
259
Twentieth Century Negro Literature The Colored Inventor

Miscellaneous
Black Mulatto Total 4 23 27
Totals
Names repeated
Corrected totals
088 099
3
7
10
13
41
48
32
39
profession, more perhaps than any other in which Negroes are found, is made up of trained men.
The medical
At least a certain minimum of training is required that a man be licensed to practice. The medical degree, even from
the least reputable institutions, stands for something in the way of training. It is not an honorary degree, and legal
provisions prevent the practice of medicine untrained.
by men wholly
of 1910 gave 3,777 as the number of Negro physicians in the United States. Of these a few have attained something more than local reputation. The Negro
The census
Year Book
national
32
mentions three of those who have "achieved

:
Daniel H. Williams of Chicago, reputation" George C. Hall of Chicago, and A. M. Curtis of Washington, D. C. All of these men are light-colored mulattoes.
Dr. Kenney gives brief sketches of some sixty-eight Negro 33 While he distinctly states that there are hunphysicians.
dreds of others "just as worthy and whose accomplishments are as brilliant as those selected," the list nevertheless contains most, at least, of the better-known
Negro physicians.
mulatto mulatto
The
A.
list is
as follows:
Washington, D. C. Orange, N. J.
W. Abbott
G. Alexander
1914-1915, p. 334.
W.
82
"John A. Kenney, The Negro
in Medicine.
260
The Mulatto

mulatto mulatto 34
mulatto mulatto
A. T. Augusta
B.
Virginia
Dallas, Texas
Nashville, Tenn.
Bluitt
Robert F. Boyd Roscoe C. Brown L. L. Burwell H. R. Butler
Richmond, Va.
Selma, Ala.
Atlanta, Ga.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
George E. Cannon Simeon L. Carson Rebecca J. Cole

E. Courtney A. M. Curtis
S.
Jersey City, N. J.
Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C. Boston, Mass. Washington, D. C.

Chicago,
111.
mulatto
U. G. Dailey
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
38
John W. Darden John DeGrasse C. N. Dorsett

A.
Opelika, Ala.
New York
City
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Montgomery, Ala.
Natchez, Miss.
W. Dumas
Chas. B. Dunbar James Durham John C. Ferguson
New York and Liberia New Orleans, La.

Virginia
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Joseph Ferguson Joseph J. France

S. C.
Richmond, Va. Portsmouth, Va.

Westborough, Mass. Charleston, W. Va. Boston, Mass. Macon, Ga.
Chicago,
111.
mulatto
8fl
Fuller
H. F. Gamble C. N. Garland E. E. Green

George C. Hall John B. Hall R. T. Hamilton
F. S.

mulatto
I.
Boston, Mass.
Dallas, Texas
Hargrave W. H. Higgins
Seth Hills
Wilson, N. C. Providence, R.
mulatto
mulatto
J.
Jacksonville, Fla.
E. C.
Howard
Philadelphia, Pa.
mulatto
mulatto
John E. Hunter
A. B. Jackson
Peter A. Johnson A. D. Jones
Miles B. Jones
Lexington, Ky. Philadelphia, Pa.
mulatto
black
New York
Atlanta, Ga.
City
mulatto
black
Richmond, Va.
"Called black by one authority. 85 Darden is a dark brown man.

blood Negro.
38 One authority writes that not pure Negro."
One
authority considers
is
him a
full-
France
"dark
man
but probably
The Negro and

John W. Jones John A. Kenney
J.
861
mulatto"
mulatto mulatto 88
Winston Salem, N. C. Tuskegee, Ala.

Florence, S. C.
R. Levy
A. C. McClennon David K. McDonough A. M. Moore N. F. Mossell John S. Outlaw Loring B. Palmer
Charleston, S. C.
mulatto
New York
City
C.
mulatto
Durham, N.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Philadelphia, Pa.
Los Angeles, Atlanta, Ga.
Calif.
mulatto
mulatto
W.
F.
Penn
C. B. Purvis
Rapier Peter Williams E. P. Roberts C, V. Roman David Rosell
Atlanta, Ga. Washington, D. C. Washington, D. C.
Ray
New York New York New York

Durham,
Atlanta,
City City
mulatto
black
Nashville, Tenn.
Chas. H. Shepard T. H. Slater
City N. C.
Ga.
James McCune Smith

Willis E. Sterrs
New York
City Montgomery, Ala.

Nashville, Tenn.
mulatto
mulatto
F. A. Stewart
mulatto
mulatto
Tucker.
A. M. Townsend
John W. Walker L. P. Walton
Washington, D. C. Nashville, Tenn. Asheville, N. C.

Atlanta, Ga.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
W.
A. Warfield
Washington, D. C.
Chicago,
111.
mulatto
mulatto
black
Daniel H. Williams James H. Wilson
A. A.
Wych
Philadelphia, Pa. Charlotte, N. C.
mulatto
full-
Of the sixty-eight names here presented, four are of
blooded Negroes. The remaining sixty-four seem in all cases to be men of mixed blood. In five of these cases, the
men
are dark in color and one correspondent called each of them a full-blooded Negro. This, however, was not conin, in
curred
any
case,
by the other
authorities consulted.
Consequently, they have been classed as men of mixed blood and attention called to the dissenting opinion. The list
87
Called full-blood by one authority.
88
dark mulatto, sometimes called full-blood.
The Mulatto
m
1
the United States
other connections.
contains twenty-two names which have been mentioned in Omitting these, the list then stands four
:
latter
Negroes of full-blood and forty- two mulattoes. number are brown or dark mulattoes.
Dr. Kenny's
list
Five of the
seems to be the most elaborate and ac-
curate of any single discussion of the Negro physicians. From various other sources, however, a considerably more extensive list was compiled. While it does not, perhaps,
contain the names of so
perhaps contains it is nevertheless
many men of first-rate ability and more names of men of second-rate ability, made up of physicians of sufficient note
or promise to gain mention in the literature dealing with the Negro, or in the publications of the race. The men included
seem
in all cases to
be of some prominence within the pro-
fession and, consequently, leaders of
some importance among
the people.
This compilation from miscellaneous sources includes the names of two hundred eight physicians not previously mentioned. Two hundred of these are men and eight are women. Of the men eleven are black or nearly so, while one hundred and eighty-nine are undoubtedly of mixed blood. Of the women, one is classed as black and seven are classed as mulattoes. Of the eleven men recorded as black it would not be safe to assert that more than one-half are men of un-
mixed Negro blood
but to
all
intent
and purpose, twelve
of
the entire list are Negroes of full blood. There seems to have been made no special study which brings together a representative list of successful Negro dentists,
and no separate list is here presented. Several of the men discussed in the volume by Dr. Kenney are dentists, or
practice dentistry in connection with their medical pracThe same thing is true of many of the men in the list
tice.
compiled from miscellaneous sources.
The Negro and
263
Omitting names of men which have been previously mentioned in other connections, there remains a total of two
hundred and fifty-four physicians and dentists who, if not in all cases the most prominent men in the professions, are
at least representative men and, in all cases, men of some note in the professional circles of the Negro Of group. these men sixteen are either very dark mulattoes or full-
blood Negroes, while two hundred and thirty-eight are persons of mixed blood. Among the leaders of these professions, then, the ratio of
mulattoes to Negroes of
full
lists
blood
appears to be approximately fifteen to one. marize as follows:
The
sum-
MEN
Black
Mul.
64
189
Total.
WOMEN
Black Mul. Total Totals
68
1
KenneytN.
in
Medicine
4
11
68
Miscellaneous
Totals
200 268
208 276
15
253
22
Names repeated
Corrected totals
15
22
246
1
22
7
231
254
There seems to have been published no list of the prominent Negro lawyers. As a practitioner no Negro lawyer has made anything more than a minor and local reputation.
The
exceptions that might be

of
would be
ticians.
in the case of
Many
made to this statement men previously listed among the polithese men are lawyers by profession, in
in few, if any,
some cases by training, but their reputation

cases rests
upon their legal learning or successful practice. Their prominence is rather due to the conspicuous political
offices
they have held. Reference to the book and magazine literature and an examination of some thousand of Negro newspapers and
re-
magazines extending over a period of eighteen months,
264
The Mulatto
Negro lawyers of some note who have not been mentioned previously. Classing as mulattoes only those who are conspicuously and unmistakably so, and as full-bloods,
all
suited in a compilation of names of
black
men
as well as those
where there could exist any reasonable doubt concerning the mixture of blood, it was found that the ratio of mulattoes to
ninety-nine
least
Negroes of pure blood was nine to one. Of the men in the list, ten were classed as black and
eighty-nine as
mulattoes. Of the latter group, four at have some Indian as well as white blood in their ethnic
composition.
teachers, more than any other professional group the American Negroes, are representative of all that among is best and most promising in the race. They are the men,
The
somewhat superior in training and education, who are in intimate daily contact with the best minds among the youth of the race and by precept and example, endeavor to improve the intellectual and moral status of the race. The Negro
teachers are, in general, persons of importance in the Negro group and enjoy a prestige which, aside from their profes-
makes them leaders among the people. It is, moreover, comparatively easy to select from the great number of teachers the men and women who are most prominent and presumably most influential in matters concerning
sional influence,
the welfare of the race.
Of the fifty-seven educational institutions listed in The 39 under the head of Universities and ColNegro Year Book
leges, twenty-six at least
have white men as presidents. Of the remaining thirty-one, the presidents of twenty-six are mulattoes ; the presidents of three are black men. Whether the remaining two have white men, mulattoes, or black men
as presidents was not determined.
*
This
list
of Universi-
1914-1915, pp. 246-47.
The Negro and

ties
265
and Colleges excluding the institutions with white at their heads is as follows:
Allen University Columbia, S. C.
men
W. W.
Beckett
Arkansas Baptist College Little Rock, Ark. Bennett College Greensboro, N. C.

Biddle University
Charlotte,
N. C.
Campbell College
Jackson, Miss. Central City College Macon, Ga.
Central Texas College
Waco, Texas Con roe College

Conroe, Texas
Edward Waters
College
Jacksonville, Fla.
Guadaloupe College Seguin, Texas Houston College Houston, Texas Jackson College
Jackson, Miss.
Kittrell College Kittrell, N. C.
Lampton College
Alexandria, La.
Lane College
Jackson, Tenn.
Livingstone College
Salisbury, N. C. Miles Memorial College
Birmingham, Ala. Morehouse College

Atlanta,
Ga.
University
Morris
Brown
Ga.
Atlanta,
266
The Mulatto
Payne University
Selma, Ala. Philander-Smith College Little Rock, Ark.
H. E. Archer
J.
mulatto
M. Cox
mulatto
Roger Williams University

Nashville,
A. M. Townsend
R. S. Lovingood
mulatto
Term.
mulatto
mulatto
Samuel Huston College

Austin, Texas
Selma University
Selma, Ala. Shorter College Argenta, Ark.
State University
M. W. Gilbert
O. L.
Moody
Amiger
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
W.
T.
Ky. Va. Theol. Sem. & College Lynchburg, Va. University of West Term.
Louisville,
R. C.
Woods
M. V. Lynk
H. T. Kealing
Memphis, Tenn. Western University Quindaro, Kansas

Wilberforce University Wilberforce, Ohio
W.
S.
Scarborough
mulatto
mulatto
Wiley University Marshall, Texas
M. W. Dogan
A
lists.
number of
these
men have been mentioned
in previous
Omitting these and the two whose ethnic composition is unknown, the new names are in sixteen cases of mulattoes and in one case that of a full-blooded Negro.
In the sixteen institutions for women, 40 the president or principal in all cases except two seems to be a white man
or woman. Miss M. M. Bethune, a dark mulatto, is at the head of the Daytona Training School for Girls at Daytona, Florida. Miss Nannie H. Burroughs, a mulatto woman, is
at the head of the National Training School for Women and Girls at Washington, D. C. The former institution enrolls
about three hundred pupils

40
41
the latter, about one hundred. 41

p. 248.
Negro Year Book, 1914-1915,

Ibid., p. 248.
The Negro and
267
The various schools of theology are for the most part conducted by white men. So far as known, those not conducted by white men are under the direction of mulattoes.
In general, these schools of theology are in connection with one of the universities or colleges just listed. 42
What
tions for
is
women,
true of the theological schools and the instituis equally true of the professional schools
44
45
and pharmacy. dentistry, They are generally departments of the universities or colleges and, if not in charge of white men, seem in every case to be
under the direction of men of mixed blood. It would seem that in no case is a black man in administrative charge of
one of these schools.
of law, 43 medicine,
46
The State Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges, on the other hand, are for the most part under the presidency of men of the Negro race. Of the seventeen such schools listed
The Negro Year Book,* 7 one has a white president, 48 one a Negro president, and fourteen have mulatto presiin
Omitting the institution under the presidency of a white man, the list is as follows:
dents.
Agricultural and Industrial State Normal School
Nashville, Tenn. Agr. and Mechan. College for the Colored Race
W.
J.
Hale
mulatto
James B. Dudley
mulatto
Greensboro, N. C. Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes
W.
S.
Buchanan
mulatto
Normal, Ala.
"Ibid., pp. 248-49. "Ibid., p. 250.
44
Ibid., p. 250. Ibid., p. 250.

Ibid., pp. 250-51.
45
46
47
Issue for 1914-1915, pp. 251-52.
"Hampton Normal and
Va. Agricultural Institute, Hampton,
268
The Mulatto
in
tlie
United States
mulatto
Alcorn Agr. and Mechanical College
J.
A. Martin
Alcorn, Miss.
Branch Normal College

Pine Bluff, Ark. Colored Agricultural and Normal
University
F. T. Venegar
black
Inman E. Page
mulatto
Langston, Okla. Colored Normal, Industrial
and
R.
S.
Wilkinson
mulatto
Mechanical College
Fla.
Orangeburg, S. C. Agr. and Mechan. for Negroes

Tallahassee, Fla. St. Ind. College
College
Nathan B. Young
mulatto
Ga.
Richard R. Wright
Insti-
Mandingo
mulatto
Savannah, Ga.
Ky. Normal and Industrial

tute for Colored
G.
P.
Russell
Frankfort, Ky.
La.
Agr.
and
Mecharticajl
Col-
J.
S.
Clark
mulatto
lege
Baton Rouge, La.

Lincoln Institute
Jefferson City, Mo. B. F. Allen
mulatto
Md. Normal and Agricultural Institute
G.
H.
C.
Williams
mulatto
Prairie
Sandy Springs, Md. View State Normal and
E. L. Blackshear
mulatto
Industrial College Prairie View, Texas
State
College dents
for
Colored
Stu-
W.
C. Jason
mulatto
Dover, Del. West. Va. Colored Institute Institute, West Va.
Byrd Prillerman
mulatto
Three men in the above

tioned in
have been previously menother connections. Omitting these, there is menlist
tioned in this group thirteen new names, one of which is that of a pure-blooded Negro and twelve are names of men of
mixed blood.
The Negro and
269
It may be objected, however, that, inasmuch as an administrative position in a college or a university is a political position, the presidents and principals of schools are not fairly representative of the educational leadership. In
a sense, this
is
true.
There
rank and
file
of the race and
everywhere among the among a large percentage of

exists
the more enlightened classes, a prejudice against admitting mulatto superiority and a conscious policy of advancing
black
men to conspicuous figure-head positions simply because of their color. Consequently, it may be well to look at the intellectual part of tfie teaching force as represented
by the faculty membership. Tuskegee Institute, as the largest and best known of the Negro schools, may be taken as an example. The present 49 The school has a teaching force principal is a black man. of approximately two hundred. Of this number, nine, none of whom are in high positions, 50 are Negroes who generally 51 One hundred and eighty-four are perpass as full-bloods. Of the nine full-blooded Negroes, sons of mixed blood. 52 one is a woman and eight are men. Of the one hundred and
"R. R. Moton.
60
".
Indeed,
saw no one
. .
in high position at
not, with a very small lightening of hue,
Tuskegee who would have been taken without quesThro

Afro-America,
tion
p.
for
a white man.
."
William Archer,
108.
M G. W. Carver, Agriculture John H. Palmer, Registrar

J. L.
Whiting, Teacher of Mathematics F. L. West, Shoemaking R. S. Pompey, Assistant in Dairy Husbandry
W. A. Tate, Swine Raising John W. Goiens, Clerk Willie M. Hendley, Matron W. M. Rakestraw, Negro Conference Agent "This analysis is on the basis of the faculty
Catalogue for 1909-1910.
listed
in
the
Annual
270
The Mulatto
in th*
United States
eighty-four mulattoes, one hundred and sixteen are sixty-eight are women.
men and
various miscellaneous sources, there was made a compilation of Negro teachers in various schools and colleges
From
who
are mentioned in the race literature as
men
of
prominence and influence in the affairs of the race.
After
removing from
this
included in other
compilation the names of individuals lists, there remained two hundred and
sixty-three names. Again calling all black who are not obviously and noticeably of mixed blood and classifying the remainder as mulattoes there were found to be twenty-two
black and two hundred and forty-one persons of mixed Of those classified as black, six are men and sixblood.
teen are women.
Of those
classified as
mulattoes one hun-
dred and eighty-four are men and fifty-seven are women. The thing that is true in respect to the teachers in the schools and colleges, is true also of the student body. Ac5B the degree of Doctor of cording to The Negro Year Book, has been conferred upon eleven Negroes by repuPhilosophy
table Universities.
54
In
all cases,
with possibly one excep-
tion, the recipients were men of mixed blood. as follows: Yale 1903 T. Nelson Baker Yale 1876 Edward A. Bonchet William L. Bulkley Syracuse 1893
The
list is
black
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
R. L. Diggs W. E. B. DuBois
J.
George E. Haynes Lewis B. Moore

Pezavia O'Connell
C. C.
Wesleyan 1906 Harvard 1895 Columbia 1912

111.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Pennsylvania 1896 Pennsylvania 1898
H. Turner
G.
Chicago 1907
mulatto
mulatto
Woodson
Harvard 1912
Pennsylvania 1911
R. R. Wright, Jr.
64
mulatto
"1914-1915, p. 231. E. V. Just, a light mulatto, received the Ph.D. degree from the University of Chicago in 1916.
The Negro and
the
Mulatto in Pursuits
71
It has been pointed out already that the college grad-
uates are for the most part individuals of mixed blood. Of the one hundred and fifty-seven pictured in certain copies of
The
Crisis examined, not above one-seventh
can be classed
as black even
when
all
who are not conspicuously of mixed
blood are placed in that category. In Chicago, the Negroes for the most part are segregated within the boundaries of one high school district. 55 Consequently, most of the Negro high school students in the city attend the one school and constitute about twenty per cent
of
its total enrollment. Enquiry concerning the relative number of mulattoes and pure-blooded Negroes enrolled, disclosed the startling fact that every Negro student in attendance was of the mixed-blood class. 56
addressed to administrative
obtain further information along this line, letters were officers or teachers in the principal Negro schools bearing the name of college or univerInformation was received in regard to twenty-five of sity.
the leading schools. Generally the information was accompanied by the request that the name of the individual fur-
To
nishing the information be not divulged. In most cases, the figures are based on estimation rather than on actual count.
tabulation of the data received gives the following:

IN
BLACK AND MULATTO STUDENTS

Arkansas Baptist College Little Rock, Ark.
Atlanta University Atlanta, Ga. Benedict College
LEADING NEGRO SCHOOLS

Enrolled Mulatto Black
350
430 700
315 409 694
35
21
6
Columbia, S. C.
"Wendell Phillips. M The date of this inquiry was
10-3-1916.
272
The Mulatto
IN
LEADING NEGRO SCHOOLS

Enrolled Mulatto Black
(Confirmed)
Chaflin University
413 126
241
172
33 100 40
Orangeburg,
S. C.
Ingleside Seminary Burkeville, Va.
93
Knoxville College Knoxville, Tenn.
400
300
Lane College
Jackson, Tenn. Lincoln University Lincoln Univ., Pa.
Livingstone College
Salisbury, N. C.
300
260
156
231
216
289 340 312
for
60 58
Montgomery Industrial School Montgomery, Ala. Morgan College Baltimore, Md.

National
300
312
40
Women
Training School and Girls Washington, D. C.
100
67
33 37 26
12
Paine University Augusta, Ga.
219
182
Rust University Holly Springs, Miss. Scotia Seminary Concord, N. C. Selma University
Selma, Ala.
260
287 483
485
234
275
323
395
160
Shaw University
Raleigh, N. C. Spelman Seminary Atlanta, Ga.
90
703
555
503
421
200
134
68
Straight University New Orleans, La. Swift Memorial College

Rogersville, Tenn.
205
137
The Negro and
73
IN
LEADING NEGEO SCHOOLS

Enrolled Mulatto Black 4 71 67
(Continued)
Talladega College Talladega, Ala.

Tillosten College
250
765
190
60
Austin, Texas
Walden University
Nashville, Tenn.
695
70
56 90
Wilberforce University Wilberforce, Ohio
450
394 373
Wiley University Marshall, Texas
463
9,172
7,567
1,605
The number of mulattoes

body
to black Negroes in the student of these schools stands thus, according to the informa-
tion submitted, in the approximate ratio of five to one. This tabulation, however, can be taken as giving only an indication of the facts.
on an actual inquiry.
the entire student
six students
In only two cases are the figures based One of these investigations showed
body to be mulatto ; the other showed only out of a total of seven hundred who did not
know
the case of
of any mixture of blood. An accurate statement in many of the other schools would reduce the num-
ber reported as full-blooded almost, if not quite, to the vanishing point and probably would reduce materially the proportion in the case of all. But the ratios as given may
perhaps be taken as indicating the approximate numbers who are dark in color say three-fourths or more Negro
blood and those who are so obviously of mixed blood as to permit of no question. Throwing the data in regard to the teachers and school
officials
who are not elsewhere mentioned
into tabular
form
we have the following:
274
The Mulatto
MEN
WOMEN
The Negro and
the
Mulatto in Pursuits
275
of the Negroes who gained prominence prior to the emancipation did so through their preaching. The NeYear Book 59 gives a list with brief biographical sketches gro
Many
of these "noted
The
list
Negro preachers" prior to the Civil War. contains the names of sixteen men and one woman.
it
Tradition has
that
five
of these
men were
full-blooded
Negroes; the evidence seems fairly conclusive that twelve Fifteen of the of the number were men of mixed blood.
seventeen have been previously mentioned in other connecThe two additional men are Jack, or Uncle Jack, tions.
and Joseph
ginia.
Willis.
"He was
Jack was an itinerant preacher in Vira full-blooded African and was licensed
Church."
60
to preach in the Baptist
Willis
was a
free
Ne-
gro in South Carolina. He "organized the first Baptist Church west of the Mississippi." 61 He was, probably, a
mulatto.
Among the present-day Negro clergy, the Bishops and the general officers of the principal religious denominations may perhaps be taken as typical of the Negro preacher at
his best.
The Negro Year Book* 2

R. A. Carter
gives the Bishops of the Col-
ored Methodist Episcopal Church as follows:

N. C. Cleaves
Elias
Cottrell
Atlanta, Ga. Jackson, Tenn.
mulatto
mulatto
L.
H. Holsey M. F. Jamison
Isaac
0.
Holly Springs, Miss. Atlanta, Ga.

Leigh, Tex. Jackson, Tenn.
Nashville, Tenn. Birmingham, Ala.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Lane
Phillips
H.
G.
W. Stewart
R. S. Williams
Augusta, Ga.
mulatto
w Issue for 1914-1915, pp. 170-76. 90 Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, p.

"Ibid., p. 174. "Ibid., p. 179.
174.
276
The Mulatto
The General
A. Bray William Burrows A. R. Calhoun
J.
Officers of the
:
Colored Methodist Episcopal

63
Church are given as follows
Birmingham, Ala. Memphis, Tenn. Pine Bluff, Ark.

Birmingham, Ala.
Jackson, Tenn. Jackson, Tenn. Pine Bluff, Tenn.
mulatto
mulatto
64
John W.
J. J. C.
J.
Gilbert
mulatto
mulatto
A. Hamlett Martin
H. Moore
mulatto mulatto
L. E. Rosser
Stanton J. R. Starks R. S. Stout

J. C.
Jackson, Tenn. Pittsobo, N. Car.

Sedalia,
mulatto
mulatto
Mo.
Pine Bluff, Ark.
mulatto
The Bishops
are as follows
:
of the African Methodist Episcopal Church

65
S. C.
W.
D. Chappelle
Columbia,
Little
mulatto
James M. Conner
L. J. Coppin
J. S. Flipper
Rock, Ark.
black"
mulatto
Philadelphia, Pa.
W. H. Heard
J. Albert
Atlanta, Ga. Philadelphia, Pa.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
John Hurst Johnson Joshua M. Jones B. F. Lee H. B. Parks
Baltimore,
Md.
Pa.
Philadelphia,

mulatto
Wilber force, Ohio

Wilberforce, Ohio
Chicago,
Chicago,
111.
and Indian
C. T. Shaffer
C. S.
111.

black 61
Smith
Detroit, Mich.
B. T. Tanner
Philadelphia, Pa.
H. M. Turner Evans Tyree
Atlanta, Ga.
Nashville,
Tenn.
The
list
copal Church
of general officers of the African Methodist Epis68 is as follows

:
"Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, p. 179. "One correspondent called Calhoun a full-blood Negro. 68 Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, p. 180.
"Conner
91
88
is himself authority for this classification. Generally so considered.
p. 180.
The Negro and

G.
277
mulatto mulatto
black
69
W.
Allen
Nashville, Tenn. Nashville, Tenn.
Ira T. Bryant
J. C.
Caldwell
Nashville, Tenn.
J. R. Hawkins
A.
J.
S.
Jackson
Janifer
Washington, D. C. Waco, Texas

Chicago,
111.
mulatto
J. T.
I.
mulatto mulatto
black
Lowe
Philadelphia, Pa.
J. J.
Frank McDonald W. Rankin
Kansas
City,
Mo.
mulatto
mulatto
70
R. C.
B. F.
Ransom Watson
City Philadelphia, Pa.
New York
mulatto
Washington, D. C.
Philadelphia, Pa.
mulatto mulatto
R. R. Wright, Jr.
The Bishops
J.
of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion

71
:
Church are as follows

W.
Alstor G. L. Blackwell
J. S.
Montgomery, Ala.
Philadelphia, Pa. Philadelphia, Pa.
Charlotte, N. C.
mulatto
mulatto"
mulatto
black
Caldwell
Clinton
G.
J.
W.
C. R. Harris
Salisbury, N. C.
Fayetteville, N. C.
mulatto
mulatto
W. Hood
Alexander Walters
A. J. Warner
New York
Charlotte,
City
mulatto
C.
N.
black
Below are
odist Episcopal Zion

S.
listed the general officers of the 73
African Meth-
Church
G. Atkins
Frank K. Bird 74 Aaron Brown

G. C. Clement
Winston-Salem, N. C. Charlotte, N. C.
Pensacola, Fla.
Charlotte, N. C.
to question.
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto 75 mulatto
"This may be open

70
See photograph in A. M. E. Church
Review, Jan. 1916, p. 182.

All authorities agree in calling Rankin a mulatto. His photographs show a man of rather typical Negro features. See, for example, the A. M. E. Church Review, Jan. 1916, p. 177.
11
p. 181.
"One
78
74
authority called Blackwell a full-blooded Negro. Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, p. 181.
Deceased.
78
dark man.
278
J. C.
The Mulatto
Dancy
Goler
in
the United States

Pa.
Philadelphia,
mulatto
W. H.
J. S.
Jackson
Kyles
Salisbury, N. C. Birmingham, Ala.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
L.
W.
Mobile, Ala.
M. D. Lee John F. Moreland

T.
J.
Rock
Hill, S. C.
mulatto
76
Charlotte, N.
C.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
W. Wallace W. Wood
East St. Louis, 111. Philadelphia, Pa.
The only Bishop

Isaac B. Scott
77
of the Methodist Episcopal Church is of Monrovia, Liberia. Scott is a mulatto.
The general are as follows

J.
officers
78
:
of the Methodist Episcopal Church
N. C. Coggins
Topeka, Kan.
M. S. Davage Samuel D. Ferguson

C.
C.
New
Orleans, La.
S. C.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Cape Palmas, West Africa

Sumter,
Jacobs
E. M. Jones
Montgomery, Ala.
Robert E. Jones W. W. Lucas
New
Orleans, La.
mulatto
Atlanta, Ga.
Nashville,
George
I.
W. Moore
Tenn.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
G. Penn
L.
Cincinnati, O.
I.
Thomas
Baltimore,
Md.
S.
N. Vass
Raleigh, N. C.
J. P.
Wragg
officers of
79
:
Atlanta, Ga.
mulatto
The
follows
the National Baptist Convention are as
S. W. Bacote R. H. Boyd Miss N. H. Burroughs A. A. Cosey S.
City, Mo. Nashville, Tenn.
Kansas
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Washington, D. C.
Mound Bayou,
Selma, Ala.
Miss.
E. Griggs R. B. Hudson E.
Memphis, Tenn.
Nashville, Tenn.
mulatto mulatto
W. D.
79
77
Isaac
mulatto
One authority considered Lee a Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, p.

Ibid., p. 182.
full-blood Negro.
182.
"Ibid., pp. 182-83.

79
The Negro and

L. G. Jordan
279
mulatto
mulatto
Philadelphia, Pa.
Robert Mitchell E. C. Morris W. G. Parks A. J. Stokes
Bowling Green, Ky. Helena, Ark.

Philadelphia,
Pa
Montgomery, Ala.
The
tion
is
list
of officers of the
80
:
New England
Connecticut
Baptist Convenmulatto
mulatto
mulatto
as follows
W. W. W.
A. Harrod, Cor. Sec'y Bishop Johnson, President P. Lawrence, Vice-President Holland Powell, Rec. Sec. Robert D. Wynn, Treasurer
Washington, D. C.
New Jersey New York City New Jersey

officials
mulatto mulatto
of the preachers and church mentioned follows:
summary
thus far
Black
Mulatto Unknown Total
Noted early preachers Bishops C. M. E. Church Gen. Officers C. M. E. Church Bishops A. M. Church Gen. Officers A. M. E. Church Bishops A. M. E. Z. Church Gen. Officers A. M. E. Z. Church Bishops M. E. Church Gen. Officers M. E. Church
Officers
Officers
2 2 2
12 9 9 13 10 6 12
1
17 9 11 15 12 8 12
1
Nat. Bap. Conv. New Eng. Bap. Conv.

11
12 12 5 101 51
12 12
5
Totals
Names repeated
Corrected totals
57
57
50
officers
81
The two Negro
of
the
Episcopal Workers
Among
"Ibid.,
83
the Colored People are both mulattoes. 82

p.
The Ne-
182.
"Ibid., p. 182.
H. B. Delaney, President, and G. F. Bragg, Secretary.
280
The Mulatto
gro members of the Executive Committee of the International Sunday School Association already have appeared in
other connections in the previous lists. 83 so far as priests in the Catholic Church
lattoes.
The six Negro known are mu-
Father Augustus Tolton of Chicago, the first Ne84 gro Priest in the United States, was a dark man of mixed 85 Father Raphard blood. of Philadelphia, the one Negro
Priest in the Greek Catholic Church, 86
is
a dark man, but
not a full-blooded Negro. The Oblates of Providence, 87 a Catholic Sisterhood, was founded by Father Joubert, a SulThe four young women who compician Priest, in 1829.
posed
88 The original membership were mulattoes. under the direction of Father Rousselon, of the founders,
its
"free
Congregation of the Sisters of the Holy Family, were four women of color." All seem to have been mulattoes. 89
The Knights of Peter Klaver was founded by three white men and four Negroes. Three of the Negroes were mulattoes, the other of unknown ancestry. Among the International Secretaries of the Y. M. C. A. are six Negroes. 90 Four of these are known to be mulattoes and two are unknown.
these minor organizations of a religious or semireligious sort, then, there is mentioned but one man of presumably pure Negro blood though there are several who are
Among
unknown.
A
88
summary
:
of the organizations previously mentioned
is
as follows
Negro Year Book, "Died 1913.

86 86
1914-1915, p. 182.
Rev. Robert Morgan.
Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, pp.

Catholic Encyclopaedia,.
Ibid.
183-84.,
'"Ibid., p. 184.
88
89
"Negro Year Book,
1914-1915, p. 187.
The Negro and
281
Black Mulatto Unknown

Officers,
Episcopal Workers among
the C. P.
Afro-American Presbyterian Council N. Members, Intern. S. S. Association Negro Priests, Catholic Church Negro Priest, Greek Catholic Church Charter Members, Oblates of Providence Charter Members, Sisters of the H.
Family
Knights of Peter Claver
Y.M.C.A. International Secretaries

Totals
020 013 120 033 010 040 040 031 042

1
24
The foregoing lists of church bishops and other officials and functionaries would seem to be a fairly comprehensive and representative representation of the leadership among
the various churches and church organizations. tion as to the racial ancestry of the rank and
A
file
suggesof the
Negro ministry is given by the photographs in the books, magazines, and papers of the race. No class among the Negroes advertise themselves with more persistency and shamelessness than do the preachers. Almost every issue of almost every Negro publication has from one to a dozen or twenty photographic reproductions of preachers who have delivered, or are about to deliver, some masterpiece of
pulpit oratory. The current publications of the race, therefore, furnished a rather rich assortment of Negro divines.
compilation of Negro preachers from these current pub-
lications
and from the literature generally was made and

in preceding cases.
classified as
The tabulation included

Of these eight
in all
four hundred and ninety-five names.
were of women and four hundred and eighty-seven were of
The Mulatto
men.
Eighty-six of the men and three of the women were dark Negroes though not in all cases full-blooded. Four
hundred and one of the men and

mulattoes.
five
of the
women were
This study has brought together the names of six hundred and forty-three members of the Negro ministry. Six
hundred and
these are of
Ninety-eight of or for social purposes may be are, considered to be, full-blooded Negroes. Five hundred and twenty-six are men who are obviously of mixed blood. There
thirty-five of
them are men.
men who
lattoes.
are eight women, of whom three are black and five are muNine of the individuals listed are of unknown ancestry.
The
ratio of mulattoes to blacks
among
the edu-
cated and the better known members of the Negro ministry thus stands between five and six to one. When the names
previously mentioned are removed there remain the names of five hundred and eighty persons. Ninety-five of these are considered as full-bloods and four hundred and eightyfive
are
known
five
to be mulattoes.
The
ratio here stands
slightly over
to one.
In literature, the Negro has as yet produced little, if Much has been attempted anything, of permanent value.
and
in
many
lines,
but
little,
if
any, first-class work has
appeared so far.
In poetry and
fiction,
with rare exceptions, the Negroes
who have published works have been men ashamed of their own race and who have assimilated but imperfectly the white man's civilization. The works have been imitations of the
white man, an attempt to give artistic expression to a life that the writers did not share and but imperfectly underof the black man, and frequently unacwith him, the Negro writers have been unable, quainted The or unwilling, to give expression to real Negro life.
stood.
Ashamed
The Negro and

effort has been
tlw
Mulatto in Pursuits
283
made
with a colored skin. 91
to present the Negro as a white man In fiction, as in life, the effort to
make a white man
of a
Negro has
failed.
As a
result of
the failure on the part of the writers to understand either

the Negroes or the white people, the Negro in literature has been a creation that is like neither the one nor the other.
Aside from the slight work of Paul Laurence Dunbar, a frank interpretation of Negro life and Negro character by
a Negro who knows his people and

is
is
not ashamed of them
yet to be written. In other forms of writing, the Negro has been handicapped by a lack of training. Few Negroes are trained
men.
dozen names include

first-class
all
the
men
of the race
have received a
university training.
who Even the
number of college graduates is very small, and most of these are from so-called colleges or universities which are
generally not prepared either in equipment or faculty to The graduates of give a first-class high school training.
the best of these "Universities" at most are trained in two
years of college work. Consequently little is to be expected the surprise is that there of the Negro in a scholarly way
has been anything. Of real scientific study by Negroes, there has been almost nothing of first-class historical study, On the Negro question, to the discussion of very little.
;
which the Negroes have contributed more in volume than to any other question, no Negro as yet has been able to give
an unbiased, objective statement. The only attempt worthy of any serious consideration, by a member of the race, to evaluate the writing of Negroes is that of G. B. Brawley. In a small volume published in
The Negroes in fiction seem always to be mixed-bloods, octoroons or near-white, and only the rough and despicable and pitiable characters are black.
91
284
1910,
92
The Mulatto
he says
93
in
the United States
that he has attempted
to test in the light of critical principles the so far produced by the Negro people of America, and to review their achievement in every department of the fine arts. Much that has been written on the Negro Problem, while it may have some value in the search for truth, is, from the standpoint of polite literature, absolutely worthless; so that comparatively little of the writing on this large subject has been considered.
literature
...
He
discusses the
less
work of
five
writers of the race
who have
more or
claim to consideration as writers of literature.
of these, Phyllis Wheatley Peters and Paul Laurence Dunbar, were pure-blooded Negroes. The other three: C. W.
Two
Chestnutt,
W.
E. B. DuBois and
W.
S. Braithwaite,
are
men
of mixed blood. All of these persons have been mentioned in other connections in this or the preceding chapters.
These persons, according to Mr. Brawley, compose the list of Negroes who have produced anything in the way of literature. In a further chapter 94 on "Other Writers,"
whilst
making no claim that they have produced any literahe mentions nineteen other writers with more or less ture, claim to note. Three of these seem to be white persons, 95
so, and fourteen to be persons of All these persons, with the exception of Inez C. Parker, an imitator of Dunbar, and Mrs. A. E. John-
two to be black or nearly

mixed blood.
son, the author of a

in one or
Sunday School book, have been included more of the preceding lists. Both these women
seem to be mulattoes.
In this connection, perhaps, should be mentioned The Jour92
The Negro in Literature and Art.

Preface.
98
94
96
Chapter VII, pp. 35-38. William C. Frost, H. B. Frissell and Lidia Marie Childs.
The Negro and

nal of

first issue
85
Negro History, the

It
is
of which appeared in
almost exclusively the work of white January, 1916. men and women and mulattoes. The Executive council and
list
of associate editors as announced in the first issue in-
cluded the names of eleven Negroes, ten of whom are mulattoes. Omitting the names of white persons connected
with the publication and also the names of Negroes included These men are: in other compilations, four names remain.
A. Bigham Walter Dyson A. D. Jackson G. C. Wilkinson
J.
Atlanta
mulatto
Washington
Chicago
Washington
In a pamphlet reprinted from the Fourteenth Report of

the Atlanta Conference, under the title
Negro Literature,
are mentioned some sixty-five names exclusive of the white Forty-three of persons included apparently by mistake.
these
names have been mentioned
in other connections.
Of
the names remaining, twelve are of mulattoes and ten are names or pseudonyms of individuals concerning whom there
is nothing known. Of the total number, five seem to have been black. 96 The others so far as known were mulattoes.
mentioned
further compilation of the names of Negro writers in the literature includes almost every Negro who
has risen to any prominence. 97 But in relatively few cases does their best claim to distinction rest upon their published works. They have in most cases, therefore, been included
in other divisions of this
ters.
86
There
still
chapter or in the preceding chapremain, however, the names of forty-nine
Wheatley, Dunbar, Sinclair, Miller and Crummell. A list of 2,200 negro authors was once compiled by the Library of Congress and investigation showed that with very few ex87
".
ceptions these
Negro authors came from the mixed
stock."
C. A. Ell-
wood, Sociology and Modern Social Problems,
p. 206.
286
individuals
The Mulatto
who have published works of more or less importance and who are not elsewhere mentioned. Adding to these the two mentioned by Brawley, four men on the Editorial Staff of The Journal of Negro His tori/ and twelve from the pamphlet on Negro Literature, we have a total of
sixty-seven names of individuals whose reputations rest wholly or in part on their ability as literary artists, and who have not been mentioned elsewhere in these chapters. Fifty-
nine of these are names of men, and eight are names of women. All the women are mulattoes. Four of the men
mulattoes.
are full-blooded Negroes, while the remaining fifty-five are Of the total sixty-seven, four are pure Negroes
and sixty-three are of mixed ancestry

sixteen to one.
a ratio of nearly
In the field of Negro journalism, new ventures are made almost every week and old ventures fail with almost equal frequency. Most of the journals have a short and not very
prosperous existence.
since
in
Of the thousands of such ventures John B. Russwurm started The Journal of Freedom 1827, there was, in 1914, a total of four hundred and fifty
98
being published.
A list was made of the more important of these journals and their editors taken as representing one phase of leadergoodly number of these men are editors only incidentally and have been mentioned in other connections. Eighty-eight, however, have not been included elsewhere. Of
ship.
this list, seven
all
mulattoes
are black
are women.
men, twelve of
toes.
whom
men and
Eighty-one are sixty-nine, mulat-
Of the eighty-eight, seventy-six are mulattoes and a ratio of something over six to one. twelve are black
In the
field
of artistic
and
semi-artistic
endeavor, the
Negro
88
is
almost unrepresented.
p. 373.
The few
individuals
who
The Negro and
287
have made success already have been mentioned

nections.
in other con-
H. O. Tanner
rick
"
in painting
and Meta Vaux War-
in sculpture are the
most conspicuous examples of
artistic success.
Tanner
a
is
light
Both these persons are of mixed blood; and Miss Warrick dark. E. M. Bannister,
mulatto, was perhaps the first Negro to succeed as an artist. Brawley 10 mentions William A. Harper, a mulatto of Chicago, as among the more promising of As sculptors of success or promise the younger painters.
New England
should
be
mentioned
Edmonia Lewis and Bertina
Lee.
Both are mulattoes.
In addition to these six names men-
tioned by Brawley as worthy of serious consideration, mention was made in the literature of five other painters of
some note who have not been mentioned elsewhere. In each of these cases, the individuals are mulatto men. Five of the
six
names mentioned by Brawley have been mentioned
else-
where.
On the stage, in competition with the performers of the white race and playing before audiences of white people, very few Negroes have been able to make even a tolerable
success.
Whether due
to a peculiarly difficult apprentice-
ship through which the Negro with stage ambitions must 101 or to a relative absence from the race of any hispass
trionic
ability
of a high order, 102 the
number of Negro
con-
stage celebrities is
siderable following
very small.
The drama has had no
pending upon not been of a high order of merit.
among the race, and the productions derace patronage for support generally have
Brawley
103
names Ira
"Mrs. S. C. Fuller. 100 The Negro in Literature and Art, p. 44. 101 Brawley, The Negro in Literature and Art, p. 102 P. A. Bruce, "Race Segregation in the United
bvrt Journal, Vol. 13, p. 877. 108 The Negro in Literature and Art, pp. S9
ff.
39.
States,"
The Hib-
288
The Mulatto
Aldridge as the one Negro who succeeded in the legitimate drama. Aldridge was a mulatto. In musical comedy, he names Bert A. Williams and Aida Overton Walker as the
most successful.
Both are mulattoes.
From
the
various other sources, a compilation was
made
of
Excluding names previously mentioned, the list contained the names of one hundred and thirteen men and women with more or less claim
Fifty-nine of these names were of women, and fifty-four were of men. Four of the women and four of the men are dark-colored Negroes of approximately full
to distinction.
more popular Negro players. 104
blood.
Fifty-five of the
women and
fifty
of the
men are
ob-
a large per cent of cases very lightcolored mulattoes. Of the total number, one hundred and thirteen, one hundred and five are mulattoes and eight are
viously mulattoes, in
Negroes of pure or nearly pure blood, a ratio somewhat over thirteen to one. Most of the more talented and betterknown Negro actors have been mentioned in other compilain every case persons of
and so are excluded from this summary. They are mixed blood. To include them in the summary would slightly raise the proportion of mulattions,
toes.
their
Several Negroes have been more or less justly famed for 105 names Frederick Brawley ability as orators.
most conspicuous.
were mulattoes.
Douglass, J. C. Price, and Booker T. Washington as the Price was a black man; the other two
Oratory, however, is an abdominal rather than cerebral exercise, so there seemed no reason for making a special category to include men gifted in this way.
Such men,
1<M
in case
they seemed to be of some consequence,

in this
few readers not elsewhere mentioned are included

in Literature
com-
pilation.
106
The Negro
and Art, pp.
41-42.
The Negro and

have been placed in other

lists.
289
The plantation melodies were the Negro's first efforts in a musical way and his reputation for music rests for the
most part upon this crude, primitive music. These melothe Afridies seem to be distinctly an American product can had no music and largely a product of the latter days of slavery. They express in a simple way the joys and sorrows of an untutored people.
music that the Negro excelled.
origin
It
was in the rendition of
this
and of no literary value,
unknown without sense. The generally

are of
The words
plantation melodies were very close to wordless music. Later the Negroes adopted and sometimes adapted the
simple church hymns ; they sometimes excel in the production of this sort of music. relatively small and untrained
able to produce effective church The "coon songs" so far as composition was conmusic. cerned were largely the work of white men. In "rag time" the Negro had a minor part though the assertion that it
congregation frequently
is
is
a racial product has about the same claim to credence as has the claim that it is music.
in a mu"There are scattered indications," says Kelly way. 106 "that the Negro possesses ambition and capacity Miller, A few vocalists have apfor high-grade classical music." whose reputation rests upon something more than peared A small number have a musical the prestige of color. 107
sical
However the Negro already has done something
education, several are successful writers of popular songs, while others have made some reputation as performers. But
on the whole,
109
107
it
must be recognized that the Negro

p. 241.
in music
Race Adjustment,
There
is is
the
Negro
a popular myth more or less current in both the races that a natural musician and the audience finds in the most
the
barbarous
performance by Negro talent

call.
thing
for
which
their
prepossessions
290
Lldndr~'~<?
The Mulatto
in the
United States
ô
rather than a reality. 108 critical study apparently has been
made
of the Ne-
gro musicians, and no compilation of any considerable number of the leading ones. Johnson 1()9 names seven composers,
performers, or teachers of music.
110
Brawley mentions twen-
success in a musical way. Elsewhere throughout the literature, other individuals of talent or promise are mentioned. From the various sources,
ty-four
who have made some
a compilation was made without an attempt on the part of

the present writer to evaluate the compositions, the vocal power, or the technical skill of the persons mentioned. The miscellaneous list thus secured included in all, exclusive of
those mentioned elsewhere in this study, the names of one hun-
One hundred and ten of these are names of men and sixty-one are names of women. Of the men one hundred were mulattoes and ten were black men. Of the women, three were found to be black and fifty-eight to be mulattoes. Of the one hundred and seventy-one, one hundred and fifty-eight are mulattoes and thirteen are Negroes of full blood. This is on the basis of
dred and seventy-one musicians and composers.
classing as
full-blooded all individuals
mately
so.
This
is
who are approxia ratio of slightly over twelve to one.
recapitulation of the various lists of men and women whose ethnic composition has been analyzed in this chapter shows a total of 2,129 names. Of these, 1,844 are names
of
108
men and 285 are names No account is here taken
of women.
The 1,844 men
divide
of the indecent songs as they are for
For their number and variety and for the the most part unwritten. extent to which they are generally known by the children as well as by the men of the race, as well as for their minutely detailed vulgarity and lascivious indecency they are perhaps not equaled by the lewd literature of any people. 109 James W. Johnson, "The Negro of To-day in Music," Charities,
Vol. 15, pp. 58-59.

110
The Negro in Literature and Art, pp. 53
ff.
The Negro and
291
00
OOOOOO^CDOOfc'OOii-i
OO*>Ot-5fc-o
Q g
o
w
gooor-<fc-coooo
3
3 ^ ^ 8
EH
00
5
5
Ci CO
?O
O O
5
CO CO
,M
o o p CO
M
s
3
.2
-3
b5 t
292
into
The Mulatto
206 Negroes of pure or nearly pure blood and 1,( of mixed blood. The 285 women divided into 18 pure and 267 of mixed blood. The total number of black Negroes is 224; the total number of mulattoes is 1,905. The ratio of mulattoes to Negroes of full blood is slightly more than eight and one-half to one. The relationship existing in the different groups is best shown in the tabulation (see p. 291).
CHAPTER XI
THE NEGRO AND THE MULATTO
IN BUSINESS
AND INDUSTRY
the business and economic world, the Negro has not as yet been able to enter into successful competition with other more energetic and commercially-minded peoples.
IN
since the Emancipation has seen the race crowded out, little by little, from many of the occupations in which it formerly held a virtual monopoly. There are, however, numerous instances of Negroes who
The half-century
have made a success in a larger or smaller way in the business life of the community. Where the Negro has been sufficiently isolated
from competition with other peoples,
indi-
viduals have been able to build
up
successful business enter-
In general, this has been by building up a business prises. within the race, though there are numerous instances of
successful business enterprises that do not depend entirely upon race patronage. In fact, the United States Census
figures
seem to bear out the statement
that there
is little
possibility of a Negro business from the patronage of the race.
man making
a living solely Two-thirds of his patron-
age must be white in order for him to succeed. The accuracy of such a generalization varies with the section of the
country and the nature of the business enterprise. Booker T. Washington has brought together a large group of inconspicuous Negroes who have made some de*The Colored People of Chicago: Juvenile Protective Association, 1913.
293
An
Investigation
Made
for the
294
The Mulatto
in
the United States
2 gree of success in the business or industrial world.
The
group
includes farmers, grocers, barbers,
and men
of that
general type. The men mentioned, then, are, for the most part, of no particular individual concern, but as a whole they represent what is best and most prosperous among the
attempt to find the racial ancestry of many of these men would require an amount of work out of all proportion to the significance of the find-
Negro middle-class group.
To
No attempt has been made, therefore, to make the information concerning this group of men complete. Considerably over half the number, including all the more conspicuous ones, have been determined and the findings given
ings.
for what they may be worth. There is no reason to believe that the relative ratios of blacks and mulattoes would be
materially altered,
ness.
if
the data were brought to completein the
The
total list of
men and women mentioned
volume
in other connections
all.
contains the names of some persons previously mentioned and a larger number, including nearly
of any real importance, will appear in a later and more 3 The list of names, therefore, is not representative list.
reproduced here, but a summary is given showing the distribution into mulattoes and full-blooded Negroes of those not elsewhere mentioned. This list includes the names of
twenty-three women and one hundred and thirty-five men. Of the men, eleven seem to be black and one hundred and
twenty-four are mulattoes. Twenty-two of the women are mulattoes and one seems to be a full-blooded Negress. Of
the
one hundred
classed as black
toes.
9
and fifty-eight individuals, twelve are and one hundred and forty-six are mulatlist. is
The
ratio of mulattoes to blacks in this
slightly
The Negro in Business. 'Pages 298 ff. below.
Negro and Mulatto

over twelve to one.
Business and Industry
295
Of the successful business enterprises carried on by Negroes, the most conspicuous, perhaps, are the Negro banks. These institutions in most cases are small but their presidents form,
if
not the best, at least the most conspicuous,
class of successful
men
in the
Negro business world.
They
are the business aristocracy. For this reason, the group of Negro bankers has been selected for analysis into the black and mixed elements for the light that it may give in
determining the relative success of these elements in the economic and commercial life of the community. The Negro Year Book 4 gives the list of Negro banks and,
where known, their presidents. The total names of fifty-eight separate institutions.
list
includes the
In seven cases,
Of the fiftythe president of the .institution is not given. one presidents named, the ancestry of twelve was not determined.
Of the thirty-nine
institutions
whose presidents
are known, four seem to be black men and thirty-five mulatSeventeen of the fiftytoes, a ratio of about nine to one.
one have been mentioned in other connections.
Of the seven-
The list of teen previously mentioned, all are mulattoes. banks, omitting those whose presidents have been mentioned
in other connections, is
is
taken from the Year Book.
There
here added information, where the facts are known, in regard to the ethnic composition of the presidents of the
institutions.
Alabama Penny Saving and Loan
J. O. Diffay
mulatto
Company
Birmingham, Ala.
Alabama Savings Bank

Selma, Ala.
Henry A. Boyd
mulatto
American Bank
Chicago,
4
Wm.
D. Neighbors
mulatto
111.
Issue of 1914-1915, pp. 311-13.
296
The Mulatto

C.
Anderson Tucker and Company, Bankers

Jacksonville, Fla.
H. Anderson
black
Anniston Penny Savings Bank Anniston, Ala. Atlanta State Savings Bank Atlanta, Ga.
T. J. Jackson
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
J. O.
Ross
Bank Boley and Trust Company

Boley, Okla.
Johnson
J.
Bank of Mound Bayou
W.
Frances
Mound Bayou,
Miss.
Brickhouse Savings Bank Hare Valley, Va.
B. T. Coard, Jr.
Crown Savings Bank Newport News, Va. Delta Penny Savings Bank
Indianola, Miss.
E. C.
Brown
mulatto
mulatto
W.
A. Attaway
Dime Bank
Kinston, N. C.
T. B. Holloway
Enterprise Savings
Springfield, IlL
Bank
Savings
John M. Mosby
E. M. Griggs
black
Farmers'
and
Citizens'
Bank
Palestine,
Texas
Farmers' and Mechanics' Bank

Tyler, Texas
W.
A. Redwine
Forsyth Savings and Trust Com-
J. S. Hill
pany
Fraternal
Winston-Salem, N. C. Bank and Trust ComFort Worth, Texas
W. H. McDonald,
Cashier
pany
Fraternal
Savings
Bank
and
J. J. Scott
mulatto
Trust
Company
Melvin
J.
Memphis, Tenn. Houston Savings Bank

Salisbury, Md. Industrial Savings
Chisum
Lewis
mulatto mulatto
Bank
John
W.
Washington, D. C. Isaac Smith Trust Company
Isaac H. Smith
black
Newbern, N. C.
Negro and Mulatto

Mechanics' Investment Co.
Savannah,.
in Business
and Industry
897
mulatto
mulatto
A. L. Tucker
Ga
N. H. Alexander
Montgomery Penny Savings
Bank
Montgomery, Ala. Mutual Aid and Banking Company Newbern, N. C. Mutual Savings Bank Portsmouth, Va.
Nickel Savings
J. P. Stanley
mulatto
J. F.
Riddick
Bank
R. F. Taniel
F. L. Lights
Richmond, Va.
Or gen Savings Bank

Houston, Texas
black
Penny Savings Bank

Columbus, Miss.
People's
W.
L. Mitchell
Bank and Trust Com-
L. A. Bell
mulatto
pany
Muskogee, Okla.
People's
Dime Savings Bank and
Samuel Lindsay
Trust Co.
Staunton, Va.
People's Savings
Bank and Trust
J.
M. Townsend
mulatto
Company
Nashville, Tenn.
Solvent Savings
Bank and Trust
J.
M. San ford
mulatto
Company
Memphis, Tenn. Sons and Daughters of Peace Penny, Nickel & Dime Savings
S.
A. Howell
Bank
D.
Newport News, Va, Southern One Cent Savings Bank

Waynesboro, Va.
W. Baker
This
list
includes the
names of thirty-four men not here-
tofore mentioned.
In twelve cases, the ancestry of these men was not determined. In the twenty-two remaining cases, four are names of men of full blood and eighteen are
names of mulattoes.
Of the various organizations
of
Negro business men, the
298
The Mulatto
largest is the National Negro Business League. This organization was founded in 1900 and, with its subsidiary state
organizations, numbers among its members almost every Negro of business or of professional importance anywhere
in the country.
The
life
the most representative
list
members of the organization form of successful and leading Ne-
groes anywhere available. The officers elected for 19141915, the Executive Committee and the list of Life Members as given in the Report of the Fifteenth Annual Convention of the League have been arranged in alphabetical
order and are here reproduced. To the lists as given in the report, is here added the fact of mixed or pure blood in all
cases where the facts could be obtained.
The
officers elected
for 1914-1915 were as follows:

President
First Vice-President
Booker T. Washington
Tuskegee, Ala. Charles Banks
mulatto
black
Mound Bayou,
J.
Miss.
E.
Bush
Rock, Ark.
Second Vice-President
Third Vice-President
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Little
John M. Wright Topeka, Kansas

P. J. Allston
Fourth Vice-President
Fifth Vice-President
Boston, Mass. Charles H. Brooks

Philadelphia, Pa. Emmett J. Scott
Secretary
Tuskegee, Alabama Charles H. Anderson

Jacksonville,
Fla.
Treasurer
F.
H. Gilbert
Registrar
Assistant Registrar
Official
Brooklyn, N. Y. R. C. Houston
mulatto
Fort Worth, Texas William H. Davis Washington, D. C. E. A. Robinson Kansas City, Mo.
mulatto
mulatto
Stenographer
Sergeant at
Arms
mulatto
Negro and Mulatto
299
The
W.
S.
executive committee was given as follows

Sumpter, S. C. Houston, Texas Boston, Mass.
Wilmington, Del. Muskogee, Okla.
St. Louis,
T.
Andrews

mulatto
J. B. Bell
E. Courtney S. G. Elbert
T. J. Elliott
mulatto
and Indian
W.
C.
Gordon
Mo.
111.
George C. Hall T. H. Hayes Algernon B. Jackson J. C. Jackson R, E. Jones Scipio A. Jones J. C. Napier, Chairman Logan H. Stewart
Chicago,
mulatto mulatto
Memphis, Tenn.
Philadelphia, Pa.
New
Lexington, Ky. Orleans, La.
Little
Nashville,,
Rock, Ark. Tenn.
Evansville, Ind.
mulatto mulatto
The
M.
list
of
life
members was given as follows

Chicago, 111. Millard, La.
Little Rock, Ark.
Cyrus Field Adams S. Alexander William Alexander

Phillip J. Allston
mulatto
black
mulatto
mulatto
Boston, Mass.
Charles
W. Anderson
New York
Sumter,
City
mulatto
W. T. Andrews W. A. Attaway
Henry Avant
S. C.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
black
Greenville, Miss.
Helena, Ark.
W. H.
Ballard
Charles Banks
Mrs. Charles Banks

Charles T. Bass
Ky. Mound Bayou, Miss. Mound Bayou, Miss.

Lexington,
Sullivan,
mulatto
Ind.
mulatto
mulatto
Mme.
I.
B. Beale
West Newton, Mass.

Houston, Texas Athens, Ohio
Chicago,
111.
J. B. Bell
mulatto
mulatto
E. C. Berry
Jesse Binga
JT.
H. Blodgett James A. Bond

Theophilus
J.
Jacksonville, Fla.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Bond Bowen
Williamsburg, Ky. Madison, Ark.
Eugene P. Booze
Mound Bayou,
Atlanta, Ga.
Miss.
mulatto
mulatto
W.
E.
H. A. Boyd
R. F. Boyd
mulatto
mulatto
300
The Mulatto

mulatto mulatto
R. H. Boyd Charles H. Brooks W. H. Brooks
Nashville, Tenn. Philadelphia, Pa.
New York
St.
City
D. H. Brown
Ira T. Bryant
Augustine, Fla. Nashville, Tenn.

Louisville, Ky. Memphis, Tenn.
mulatto' mulatto mulatto

mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Nannie H. Burroughs
W. M. Burroughs
Chester E. Bush Mrs. Cora E. Bush J. E. Bush
J.
Little Rock, Ark.
Little Rock, Ark.
Little Rock, Ark.
A. Cabaniss R. C. Calhoun
Washington, D. C.
Eatonville, Fla.
T. J. Calloway Richard Carroll
James G. Carter H. M. Charles R. R. Church

George W. Clinton J. A. Cobb Walter L. Cohen N. W. Collier
Bishop E. Cottrell Samuel E. Courtney John Covington A. C. Cowan W. Alexander Cox
Washington, D. C. Columbia, S. C. Tamatave, Madagascar New Orleans, La. Memphis, Tenn. Charlotte, N. C. Washington, D. C.

mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
black
New
Orleans, La.

mulatto
Jacksonville, Fla.
Holly Springs, Miss. Boston, Mass. Houston, Texas Brooklyn, N. Y. Cambridge, Mass.
Indianola, Miss. Indianapolis, Ind.
mulatto
black
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
W. W. Cox
Mrs. Belle Davis
Charles T. Davis
mulatto
mulatto
George W. Davis Wm. H. Davis A. C. Dungee

S.
Council Bluffs, Iowa Muskogee, Okla.
mulatto
mulatto
Washington, D. C.
Montgomery, Ala.
Wilmington, Del. Wilmington, Del. Muskogee, Okla.
G. Elbert
S.
mulatto mulatto
Mrs.
J.
G. Elbert
T. J. Elliott
mulatto mulatto 6
black
Wm.
C.
Emanuel P. Evans E. Ford
New York
City
Laurinburg, N. C. Buffalo, N. Y.
Chattanooga, Tenn.
Indianapolis, Ind.
mulatto
mulatto
black
G.
S.
5
W.
One
Franklin
A. Furniss
mulatto
authority calls Brooks a full-blood.
mixture of white, Negro and Creek Indian.
Negro and Mulatto

James E. Garner J. H. Garner
George A. Gates Mifflin W. Gibbs F. H. Gilbert
C.
in Business
and Industry
301
New York
City Columbia, S. C. Nashville, Tenn.

Little Rock, Ark.
mulatto mulatto
7
W.
Gilliam
Brooklyn, N. Y. Okolona, Miss.

Jacksonville, Fla.

mulatto mulatto
W.
L. Girideau
James H. Gordon W/C. Gordon

A. A. Graham
Bishop Abraham Grant F. A. Gray Miss Mary A. Gray C. A. Groves
J.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
St.
Louis, Mo.
Pheobus, Va.
City, Kan. Greenwood, Miss.
Kansas
Paris,
mulatto
111.
mulatto
Edwardsville, Kan. Edwardsville, Kan. Philadelphia, Pa.

Raleigh, N. C.
G. Groves
Walter P. Hall J. A. Hamlin James R. Hamm Mrs. Carol V. Harris

Gilbert C. Harris
J.
Boston, Mass.
Chicago,
111.

mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Boston, Mass.
H. Harris Henry A. Hatcher
Allen Hatter
John R. Hawkins Thomas H. Hayes Wm. V. Hewitt John A. Kibbler

George Hoagland
England, Ark. -V. Waterbury, Conn. Little Rock, Ark. Washington, D. C. Memphis, Tenn.
mulatto
mulatto
Muskogee, Okla. Little Rock, Ark.

Bloomington,
Utica, Miss.
111.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
W. H.
Holtzclaw A. C. Howard Alexander S. Howard

P.
S.
New York
City
Washington, D. C.
Jackson, Miss.
Clarksdale, Miss.
W. Howard
P.
Hurst G. M. Howell J. C. Jackson

E. B. Jefferson A. N. Johnson C. F. Johnson
mulatto mulatto
Atlanta, Ga.
Lexington, Ky. Nashville, Tenn.

Nashville, Tenn.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Mobile, Ala.
Baynesville, Va.
W. H. Johnson W. I. Johnson
E. P. Jones
Richmond, Va.
Vicksburg, Miss.
is
mulatto
One
authority says that Gates
a white man.
302
The Mulatto
in
the United States

mulatto
Miss Hazel K. Jones R. E. Jones Scipio A. Jones T. W. Jones L. G. Jordan Mrs. Mary Josenberger C. W. Keatts W. A. Kennedy Willis A. Kersey
Little Rock, Ark.
New
Orleans, La.
mulatto
mulatto
Little Rock, Ark. Topeka, Kansas Louisville, Ky. Fort Smith, Ark. Little Rock, Ark.
Boley, Okla. Indianapolis, Ind.

Nashville, Tenn.
H. W. Keys H. H. King D. L. Knight J. A. Lankford

J.
Yazoo
City, Miss.

black
8
Louisville,
Ky.
Fla.
Jacksonville,
mulatto
mulatto
R. Levy A. L. Lewis
Florence, S. C.
Jacksonville, Fla.
mulatto
mulatto
J.
H. Lewis
Boston, Mass.
M. N. Lewis Warren Logan
Newport News, Va.

Tuskegee, Ala.
St.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
black
W.
M.
L. Majors C. B. Mason
Louis, Mo.
Cincinnati, Ohio
U. G. Mason
Birmingham, Ala.
,New York City Muskogee, Okla.
S. McAlester, Okla.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Anthony McCarthy
J.
B. McCulloch
E. E. McDaniel
D. McDuffy D. C. McGilbray
J.
Ocala, Fla. Boynton, Okla.
mulatto
E. H. McKissack Moses McKissack
Holly Springs, Miss. Nashville, Tenn.
mulatto
black
Kelly Miller
T. J. Minton
I.
Washington, D. C.
Philadelphia,
Pa.
Miss.
mulatto
T.
B.
T.
Montgomery Morgan Clay Moore

J.
Mound Bayou,
Nashville, Tenn.
Indianapolis, Ind.
mulatto' mulatto
mulatto mulatto
black
E. C. Morris R. R. Moton
Helena, Ark.
Hampton, Va.
Atlanta, Ga.
W.
O.
Murphy
Napier
mulatto
J. C.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Mrs. J. C. Napier W. D. Neighbors
Chicago,
111.
Dave Nelson
8
Scotts, Ark.
so.
Or nearly
'Often incorrectly called a full-blood Negro.
Negro and Mulatto

F.
in Business
and Industry
black
303
M. Nesbitt
Memphis, Tenn.
Haughville, Ind.
Charles
Nunn
Berry O'Kelly R. C. Owens Mrs. R. C. Owens
Method, N. C. Los Angeles, Cal. Los Angeles, Cal.

Langston, Okla.
Inman E. Page Thomas F. Parks

H. Parrish Fred D. Patterson
C.
mulatto mulatto
10
Ky. Ky. Greenfield, Ohio

Louisville, Louisville,
St. Denis,
mulatto u mulatto
Spenser Patterson F. A. Payton, Jr.
Md.
mulatto
A. C. Perdue
E. S. Peters
City Muskogee, Okla. Mobile, Ala.

Mobile, Ala.
New York
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
James T. Peterson
W.
L.
R. Pettiford
Birmingham, Ala.
Little Rock, Ark.
M. Porter
Porter
mulatto
Wm. M.
Cincinnati, Ohio
Paris,
111.
Troy Porter Harry T. Pratt

S.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Baltimore, Md.
D. Redmond
Jackson, Miss.
Mrs. Leila Walker Robinson W. E. Roberson
New York City New Orleans, La.

Prairie View, Texas
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
mulatto
Wade
J.
C. Rollins
O. Ross
Atlanta, Ga.
Little
P.
C. Roundtree H. A. Rucker
Rock, Ark.
Atlanta, Ga.
Shelbyville, Tenn.

mulatto
mulatto mulatto
Mrs. Daisy Saffell
Sanford M. P. Saunders G. W. F. Sawner Mrs. Lena Sawner

J. S.
Memphis, Tenn.
Brooklyn, N. Y. Chandler, Okla.
Chandler, Okla.
Bennettsville, S. C.
E. J. Sawyer W. A. Scott
Scott,
S.
mulatto
mulatto
mulattoes
Edwards, Miss.
Wilkerson and Scott
R. Scottron
Memphis, Tenn. Brooklyn, N. Y. Memphis, Tenn.

Guthrie, Okla.
mulatto
T. J. Searcy
G.
W. Shadwell
C.
mulatto
mulatto
Shepherd W. H. Sims Alfred Smith

10
H.
Memphis, Tenn. Muskogee, Okla. Oklahoma City, Okla.

called
mulatto
One authority
Page a full-blood Negro.
"One
authority considered Parrish a full-blood Negro.
304
The Mulatto

Bern, N. C.
black
Isaac H. Smith R. L. Smith Wilford H. Smith

C. C. Spaulding
J. B.
New
Paris, Texas
mulatto
New York City Durham, S. C.

Olive Branch, Miss. Greenville, Miss.
mulatto
mulatto
black
Stephenson
Taliaferro
J.
M. Strauther
T.
C.
Perry, Okla.
mulatto
H. A. Tandy
Milliard Taylor
Lexington, Ky. Boley, Okla.

Nashville, Tenn.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Preston Taylor Holmes Terrs
Watt Terry James C. Thomas J. W. Thomas

E. G. Tidrington
Holly Springs, Miss. Brockton, Mass.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
New York
City
Bennettsville, S. C.
black"
mulatto
mulatto
Indianapolis, Ind.
John S. Trower E. D. Tucker Mrs. Pope Turnbo M. W. Turner N. T. Velar W. T. Vernon Mrs. C. J. Walker A. G. Wallace
E. E.
J.
Germantown, Pa.
England, Ark.
St. Louis,
Mo.
mulatto
mulatto mulatto
black mulatto "
Indianapolis, Ind.
E. Pittsburg, Pa.
Washington, D. C.
Indianapolis, Ind. Okmulgee, Okla.
mulatto
Ward
Columbus, Ohio
Tuskegee, Ala. Marlin, Texas Yazoo City, Miss.
Chicago,
111.
B. T. Washington
W. Washington John L. Webb John W. Wells

Matthew Welmon
R.

mulatto
W. Westberry
Brooklyn, N. Y. Sumter, S. C.
Chicago,
111.
black
C. P. Williams
G. G. Williams
A. Williams J. S. Williams
J. S.
Tampa,
Philadelphia, Pa. Fla.
mulatto
black
Shreveport, La.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto
Laing Williams
Chicago,
111.
E. D. Willis
T. J. Wilson
T. J. Wilson, Jr. B. L. Windham T. C.
Lexington, Ky. Memphis, Tenn.
mulatto mulatto
mulatto mulatto
New York
City
Windham
Birmingham, Ala. Birmingham, Ala.
"Probably.
"One
correspondent called Mrs. Walker full-blood.
Negro and Mulatto

L. Winter
S.
in
305
Nashville, Tenn.
W. Wood
John M. Wright John T. Writt

Mrs. M. L.
Lonewa, La. Topeka, Kan.

Pittsburg, Pa. Edwards, Miss.

mulatto
Young
mulatto
contains a total of two hundred and thirty-five separate names. Of these, eighteen are of women and two hundred and seventeen are of men. The eighteen women
list
The
seem in every case to be mulattoes. Of the men, seventeen seem to be of pure blood, while in sixteen cases the facts were not discovered. In one hundred and eighty-four cases,
the
men
are
known
to be mulattoes.
Of the
total
two hun-
dred and thirty-five, sixteen are not known, seventeen are

black,
and two hundred and two are mulattoes.
The
ratio
of mulattoes to full-blooded Negroes stand approximately at twelve to one.
From
made
all
other sources, an additional compilation was
of successful business men.
This
list
was independent
of particular business connections.
It contained real estate
men, undertakers, farmers, merchants, and men in dozens of other lines of business. The criterion for selection was the
known or
list
alleged special success in an economic way.
The
secured on this basis represents, naturally, a much more mixed group than either of the preceding. It includes, on
the one hand, some of the most wealthy and highly successful Negroes in the country and, on the other, a goodly numis only nominal. It is, however, believed to be a representative list of successful American Negro business men.
ber whose success
This compilation contained a total of three hundred and eighty-nine names. Twenty-eight of these were names of women and three hundred and sixty-one were names of men.
The women were
in every case mulattoes.
Three hundred
306
and
The Mulatto
six of the
question of mixed blood. muFifty-five were either full-blooded Negroes or very dark lattoes. Of the total three hundred and eighty-nine, fifty-five
men were beyond
were classed as full-blooded Negroes and three hundred and thirty-four as Negroes of mixed blood. The ratio of mulattoes to full-blooded
in the
Negroes stood, in
this compilation,
approximate
ratio of six to one.
analyses of the compilations of men and women successful in business and industry show, in each case, similar results, though with considerable variation between the dif-
The
Business contains the Washington's Negro two hundred and twenty-six persons whose racial names of ancestry in one hundred and fifty-eight cases was determined.
ferent
lists.
Twelve of these were classed as black and one hundred and

a ratio of slightly over forty-six were classed as mulattoes twelve to one. The thirty-nine bank presidents were in four cases classed as black and in thirty-five cases as mulattoes a ratio of nearly nine to one. The two hundred and nineteen of the total two hundred and thirty-five officers and life-members of the National Negro Business League were
found to be in seventeen cases black and in two hundred and two cases individuals of mixed blood a ratio of approximately twelve to one. The list compiled from the miscellaneous sources contained the names of three hundred and
eighty-nine persons, fifty-five of whom were found to be black and three hundred and thirty-four to be of mixed This gives a ratio of slightly over six to one. The blood.
total
number of names
in the four compilations
is
eight hun-
dred and twelve.
Eighty-seven are classed as black and
seven hundred and twenty-five as mulattoes, giving a ratio of something over eight to one. The first three of these lists contain names elsewhere
mentioned and in a few cases the same name
is
mentioned
Negro and Mulatto

in
In Business
and Industry
307
more than one of the compilations. By removing all duplicates and all names of men who have been mentioned in other connections, the number of names is considerably reduced though the ratios found to obtain between the muand full-bloods is not materially altered. The ninetynames in Washington's Negro in Business not elsewhere eight mentioned are in seven cases names of black men and in
lattoes
a ratio of nearly ninety-one cases the names of mulattoes thirteen to one. The twenty-two bank presidents not else-
where mentioned are four black and eighteen mixed-bloods a ratio of four and one-half to one. The one hundred
life
and twenty-four names appearing exclusively in the list of members of the National Negro Business League are in
eight cases of black men and in one hundred and sixteen cases names of mulattoes a ratio of fourteen and one-half
compiled from the miscellaneous sources contains no names elsewhere mentioned. In the four lists,
to one.
list
The
there
is
found
of
in
a total of six hundred and thirty-three names not any other compilation. Seventy-four of these are
classed as Negro,
men who are
and
five
hundred and
fifty-
nine are classed as mixed-bloods.
This
is
a ratio of some-
what under eight to one. It is thus seen that by removing from the lists the names of men of sufficient importance to
be mentioned in
more than one connection we have reduced
slightly the ratio of mulattoes to Negroes of pure blood. tabulation of the names appearing exclusively in these
four
lists
follows:
MEN WOMEN TOTALS Black Mul. Total Black Mul. Total Black Mul. Totals
Negro Banks
in Business
70
18 101
76
21
22
15
91
18
98 22
124 389 633
4
8
22
109
15
4 8
N. N. B. League
Miscellaneous
Totals
116
55
73
306
495
361
28
1
28
65
55 74
334
559
568
64
308
There
The Mulatto
still
remain a number of influential and important men and women of the Negro race who do not fall natu-
There are individrally into any of the preceding groups. uals whose influence among their own people is shown by the
positions to which they have been advanced in the various There are lodges and other strictly racial organizations.
a considerable number of individuals who have gained some notoriety and exercise some influence on the thinking and
acting of the members of the race through professional agiOther important and leading persons are engaged tation.
in
Young Women's
Christian Association and
Young Men's
Christian Association work and various other sorts of upThere are prominent club lift work among the Negroes.
women, church and
men, newspaper men other than
and scientific farm demonstration editors, agents, and various other successful and influential men and
social workers, professional
women who have not been
heretofore mentioned.
final
These individuals were brought together in a
com-
The total pilation of a more or less miscellaneous nature. number of names in this list was six hundred and thirty-five. Analysis of this list showed the names of five hundred men
and one hundred and thirty-five women. Sixty-four of the men and five of the women were classed as black; though,
who
the
here as elsewhere, this category contained the names of men are by no means pure-blood Negroes. Four hundred and thirty-six of the men and one hundred and thirty of
women who were obviously and unmistakably of mixedblood origin were classed as mulattoes. The classification of the six hundred and thirty-five names thus showed sixtynine to be names of Negroes and five hundred and sixty-six to be names of mulattoes. This is a ratio of something over eight to one.
combination of this
list
of
names with the
lists
of busi-
Negro and Mulatto

ness
in
309
men previously tabulated, gives a total of 1268 names of men and women considered in this chapter and not elsewhere included. Of these, 1068 are names of men and 200 The men classify as 137 black and are names of women. 931 mulatto; the women, as 6 black and 194 mulatto. The
total
1268 divide into 143 black and 1125 mulattoes
ratio of nearly eight to one.
Throwing
the data into tabular
form we have the following
MEN
Black Mul.
WOMEN
Total Black Mul.
Total Black
65
TOTALS Mul. Totals

559
Businessmen Not classified

Totals
73
64
495 436
931
568
64
74
69
633
500
1068
130 194
135
566
1125
635
1268
137
200
143
The inquiry into the relative status of the mulattoes and the full-blooded Negroes in the United States has taken into consideration a total of 4267 men and women. Summaries
distribution into mulattoes
showing the sex of the persons considered, as well as their and Negroes of full-blood, have
been given in
connection with the various compilations. Recapitulations of these summaries have been given at the close of the chapters. Bringing together in a single table
the partial findings separately arrived at, we have the fol-
lowing
MEN
Black
Chapter VIII Chapter IX Chapter Chapter XI
14
WOMEN
TOTALS
Mul.
205
57
465
1638
931
Total Black Mul. Total Black Mul. Totals 219 2 22 24 16 227 243 522 7 98 105 64 563 627
1844
1068
18
6
206
137
267 194
581
285 200 614
224
143
1905
2129
1125
Totals
414
3239
3653
33
447
3820
4267
We
tailed
are
now
in possession of a sufficient
and
verified
data to
amount of deexpress something more than mere
310
The Mulatto
in
the United States
opinion concerning the relative success of the Negro of pure and the Negro of mixed blood. The list of 4$67 Negroes before us includes every member of the race who has made
any marked success

ance;
it
in life; it includes every
member
of the
race mentioned in the histories as an individual of importincludes the
men who
are, in the opinion of
some
thirty-odd of the best informed
Negroes
in the country, the
foremost living members of the race; it includes the names of those men and women who are, or have been, considered
enough importance to have received mention in the biographical and intimately personal accounts with which the literature of the Negroes abounds it includes the names
of
;
of those
position,
men who have attained any high civil or political or have made any particular reputation, either
national or local, either within or without the race, in any professional or artistic pursuit; it includes the men who
have made any particular success in business or industral

lines
;.
it
includes, in short, as nearly complete
and exhaus-
tive a compilation as could be made of that relatively small group of Negroes who have risen superior to their fellows. It is believed that no Negro of first-class importance has failed to be included in some one of the various lists or sum-
It is believed that in very few cases individuals have been included whose accomplishments do not entitle them to some special mention when the criterion is, as here, unusual
maries.
success within the Negro group. But granting that there may have been some few individuals omitted who should have been
included
and some few individuals included who should

the
list
have been excluded

of error
tains the
granting, that is, a reasonable margin here brought together and analyzed con-
names of the members of the race who because of
education, opportunity, special talent, superior native ability, exceptional industry or for other reason have made a
Negro and Mulatto

noteworthy success
other lines of
in
in Business
and Industry
artistic,
311
or
business,
professional,
human endeavor and so have become the exceptional and the important men of the race. The list is composed of that group of men and women who compose the intellectual, social, .and economic aristocracy of the Negro
world.
In the analysis of this group of exceptional Negroes,

effort
was made to follow the same

the
line
of demarcation
Bureau of the Federal Census. In the group adopted by of full-blooded Negroes, were placed those who so consider themselves or are so considered by other Negroes who know them, as well as those individuals of undoubtedly pure Negro ancestry.
individuals
who claim
In the group of mulattoes, were placed those to be mulattoes or who so pass in the
live,
communities in which they
as well as those whose color
and features show clearly and unmistakably that they are of a mixed racial origin. No individuals were placed in the mulatto group where the evidence of mixed ancestry did not appear to be conclusive. Many questionable and border-line cases were placed with and counted as Negroes of full blood.
Consequently, in the full-blooded group, there are doubtless many individuals of mixed blood; probably a goodly per-
centage of them are in some degree of mixed ancestry ; possibly there are in this so-called full-blooded group more
tion
individuals of mixed than of pure blood. stricter definiof the terms full-blooded and mixed-blood would
decrease the number classed as full-blooded and increase the
mixed-blood group by an equal number.
But
case, the persons placed in the full-blooded
almost every group are darkin
skinned individuals, of say three-fourths or more Negro blood, who consider themselves and pass among their fellows as Negroes of pure blood and, inasmuch as we are concerned with social conditions rather than with biological
312
The Mulatto
facts, there is
no essential fallacy in so classing them. Classified on this basis of distinction, 447 names fall into
the full-blooded
group and 3820 names

full
fall into
the group
of mulattoes.
The 614 women The
included in the total are in
33 cases classed as Negroes of

as mulattoes.
blood and in 581 cases
ratio of mulattoes to black
stands at seventeen and six-tenths to one.
women thus The 3653 men
are in 414 cases classed as Negroes of full blood and in 3239 cases as mulattoes. The ratio of mulattoes to black
men thus stands at seven and eight-tenths to one. The higher percentage of mulattoes among the list of women than among the list of men is due on the one hand
to
being a smaller group and so representing a higher average of ability and, on the other hand, to the fact that
its
many
of the
women owe
their prominence to the fact that
they are the wives of Negroes of importance. To the extent that the latter is the case, the preponderance of mulatto
tion
women
is
periority
among among mulatto
the
indicative of the tendency of marriage selecNegro males rather than of intellectual sufemales.
They
are selected by the
men because
of their relative absence of color and owe their
prominence to the fact of that selection. In many of the lists, a very much higher ratio than eight and one-half to one was found to prevail. In a few large
generally of a miscellaneous sort, the ratio was somewhat lower. The rise above, or the fall below, this ratio of eight and one-half to one, it will have been noticed, depended
lists,
compilation of any size upon the degree of importance and real distinction of the men whose names comin every
posed the
list.
The
ratio of blacks to mulattoes, for ex-
ample, in the compilation of doctors
and dentists was apthe
proximately
fifteen
to one;
while
in
preachers, the ratio was approximately five to one.
compilation of In the
Negro and Mulatto
in Business
and Industry
313
one case, membership in the profession implies at least a minimum of training and native ability; in the other case,
membership in the profession implies the minimum of training and ability. The ratio of eight and one-half to one is
thus the ratio prevailing between the mulattoes and blacks in a list of about four thousand of the most prominent
individuals
of
the
race.
If
the
list
be reduced in
size
by the elimination from it of the less important persons, the ratio of mulattoes to Negroes of pure blood would be correspondingly raised.
By
lowering the standard so as to in-
clude a yet larger number of persons in the compilation, the relative number of mulattoes to full-blooded Negroes
would be correspondingly decreased.
The
ratio of eight
and one-half to one, therefore, is the ratio prevailing when a standard is used, which draws the line between the mass
of the race
and the four thousand who are the
race's fore-
most men.
ratio of mulattoes to Negroes of full blood among the four thousand leaders of the race is eight and one-half to The ratio of blacks to mulattoes in the general Negro one.
The
population, on the basis of the same definition of the terms, If the standard be raised is approximately four to one.
so as to exclude the individuals of the lower degrees of ability and success, the proportion of mulattoes to Negroes
to one.
of full blood will very greatly exceed the ratio of thirty-four If the definition of full-blooded Negro be made to
exclude those mixed-blood individuals of brown skin
who
pass as full-blooded Negroes, there will be a further increase, perhaps about a doubling, in the ratio of mulattoes to fullin
blooded Negroes among the leading men of the race. Stated another way, the relative chances of a black child and a
child,
mulatto
chosen at random from the members of the
race, attaining to a position
among
the elite of the race
314
The Mulatto
are from thirty-four to fifty, or perhaps a hundred times as great in the case of the child of mixed blood. The relative chances of the mulatto child over the black child de-
pend upon the standard of success
called for
and the degree
of accuracy with which the terms ftdl-blooded and mixedblood are defined. On the basis accepted for the purposes of this study, the chances of the mulatto child developing into a leader of the race are thirty-four times as great as are the chances of a black child.
We
tion
have arrived then at the facts
in
regard to the asser-
it was the purpose of this This assumption was that the Negro people in America have produced as many superior individuals of pure Negro blood as superior individuals of mixed
and the assumption which
section to investigate.
blood. 14
is
investigation has shown that the assertion unsupported by the slightest basis of fact. Not even by accepting the loosest possible definition of terms, can it
The
to appear that the full-blooded group even approaches within a measurable distance of the mixed-blood group in the production of men even slightly superior to
be
made
the racial average.
The
full-blooded
Negro group has not
produced
as
According
as has the mulatto group. to the strictness or the looseness of the definition
many superior men

Negro that
is
is
of full-blooded
gree of superiority that per cent of mixed-bloods

perior men.
14
used, and the high or low deaccepted as the test, the twenty among the American Negroes have
su-
produced eighty-five per cent or upwards of the race's

See
p. 186 above.
CHAPTER
THE ROLE OF THE MULATTO
role that a
XII
IN
THE INTER-RACIAL SITUATION
THE
control.
mixed-blood race plays in an interracial situation in which it is placed is dependent for
the most part on facts and forces outside the race itself and over which its members are able to exercise little or no
the same everywhere ; their opportunity to realize their ambition varies with different The part they play in a social situation social situations.
Their ambition
is
much
is
dependent upon the attitude of the dominant group which,

turn,
is
in
largely dependent
upon the
exigencies of the
man is always and everywhere to be a white man; to be classed with and become a
part of the superior race.
general social situation. The desire of the mixed-blood
The
ideal
the center of gravity
of the hybrid group is outside itself. The ideal o.f beauty, of success, of all that is good and desirable is typified by the
superior race. The ambition of the man of mixed-blood is to be identified with the superior group ; to share its life, its work, and its civilization. Certain mixed-blood groups,
as groups, have been able partly to realize this ambition. In individual and exceptional cases, persons of mixed-blood
are able in most urban communities to escape from their group and pass as members of the advanced race. Every-
where, were
it
possible, the mixed-blood
group would break
with their darker relatives, hide their relationship to them, and, through marital relations, obliterate from their off315
316
The Mulatto
spring the physical characteristics which mark them as members of a backward and despised race. Where this may not be, where an intolerable racial consciousness on the part
of the superior race assigns individuals of all degrees of intermixture and of all stages of cultural advancement to
the status of the backward race, the individuals of mixed
ancestry tend to form a separate caste and to approach as near as may be to an equality with the superior group. There would seem to be no exception to this among groups
despise the Indian, separate themselves from him and endeavor to approach, in habits, customs, and manner of life, the dominant
of
mixed-bloods
anywhere.
The Eurasians
British group. 1 They bitterly resent a special racial designation which sets them off from the English; they claim to
be "European" and demand that they be so classed and 2 recognized. Among the Eskimos of the Greenland West
Coast, the native's social standing is fixed according to his degree of approximation to the characteristic features of his
Danish superiors. 3 The lighter the individual's color, the more eligible he is as a matrimonial possibility. The upper
selves
strata of Jamaica's "coloured" population separate themfrom the other mulattoes, call themselves "white," ad-
vocate intermarriage and, opportunity presenting, prac4 tice it. The metis of Brazil draw a more or less rigid social
Helen Lee, The Eurasian: A Social Problem, pp. 12-13. Ten Years in Burma, p. 117. Lee, The Eurasian, p.
.
2 8 4
J. Smith,
14.
among the hybrid population of Jamaica a marriage selection against the dark males. They have less opportunity to become husbands of light-colored women than do light-colored males and hence they have a smaller chance of becomand Bermuda there
is
See p. 32 f above. Davenport shows that
ing fathers.
cessive
This selection, he thinks, must have a real effect, in sucC. B. generations, in causing the hybrids to become lighter.
ff.
Davenport, Heredity of Skin Color, pp. 27
See, also, William Thorp,
Role of Mulatto in Inter-Racial Situation

color line against the
317
en-
more highly colored groups and

will,
deavor to form such matrimonial unions as
they hope, 5 The bring their offspring yet closer to the white type. Spanish half-breeds everywhere show a similar tendency.
as a white
"Every one wishes to be reckoned
man."
The
mixed-breed Indians in the United States tend to intermarry 7 In the among themselves and not with the full-bloods.
United States almost every Negro of prominence from Frederick Douglass to Jack Johnson has married a white woman
or a light-colored mulatto. 8 There is no intention here to criticize the mulattoes or
"How Jamaica
Solves the
Negro Problem," World's Work, Vol.
8, p.
4912; and Charles K. Needham, "A Comparison of Some Conditions in Jamaica with those in the United States," Journal of Race Devel-
opment, Vol.
5
4,
pp. 189-203.
Brazil,'*
Jean Baptiste de Lacerda, "The Metis or Half Breeds of
Inter-Racial Problems, p. 382.
James Bryce, South America,

ama,
p,
p. 460.
E. A. Ross, South of Pan-
168.
'About four-fifths of the 88,030 persons of mixed Indian and white blood are one-half or more than one-half white. Indian Population in
the
United States and Alaska, United States Census, 1910, Supple1915, p. 35.
. .
ment
8
Whereas we do not put our individual stamp of approval on but we still point to the many Johnson marrying a white woman notable cases of black men who have married white women and the multitude of prominent colored individuals who barely miss committing the heinous crime by invariably marrying the near-white women of
".
. . .
What is so commonly practiced by the higher ups in every community should not be so highly censurable in Mr. Johnson's action simply because his matrimonial fitness largely looms up to the colored woman from a standpoint of financial healthiness of purse." C. A. See, also, W. H. Stokes, Kansas City Sun, a Negro paper, 4-3-1915. Thomas, The American Negro, p. 408; Maurice S. Evans, Black and White in the Southern States, p. 33; R. W. Shufeldt, The Negro: A Menace to American Civilization, p. 196; Ray Stannard Baker, "The Tragedy of the Mulatto," American Magazine, Vol. 65, pp. 582-98;
their race.
Bert Williams as quoted in the Chicago Defender, 12-26-1914.
318
other
The Mulatto
in the
United States
men
of mixed blood
quite the contrary.
To
recognize
their desire to be white, their ambition to associate themselves

is
through marriage or otherwise with the white race,
but to recognize their ability to appreciate the superior 9 An opposite tendency on culture of the white group.
their part
would go far towards establishing the thesis of
the congenital inability of the lower group to assimilate It would show a deliberate preference white civilization. on their part for the inferior in the presence of the superior.
In contrast to the social ambition of the mixed-blood
group, racial antipathy on the part of the dominant group 10 Actual social equality between is everywhere present.
divergent racial groups in a population is found nowhere. Whether it be right or wrong, natural or artificial, this caste
feeling exists
and
is it
always a factor
manifests
itself,
in the racial situation.
The way
in
which
varies with the people

It
in contact
and the conditions of their association.
may
find its expression in
a good-natured tolerance of the short-
comings of an inferior group; it may show itself as contempt for a weak and backward race ; it may show itself as
disgust at the strange manners and customs of a degraded people; it may be expressed as an intense and bitter hatred
for the opposite race; it may take any one of a great number of forms; but it is nowhere wholly absent. In general, the wider the difference in physical and cultural traits
between the two races in contact, the more intense and

always the lighter race that puts the taboo on is everywhere eager to mix with the whites, is only an evidence of the general trend of choice towards the higher efficiency of the white race." U. G. Weatherly, "A World-Wide Color Line," Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 79, pp. 474-86.
it
9
"The fact that
is
the colored, and that the latter
10
B. L.
Putnam Weale, "The
Conflict of Color," World's
Work, Vol.
19,
pp. 12327-29.

bitter
is
319
11 It is more the antipathetic feeling between them. intense between the North Europeans and the blacks than
It is usually, though not between any other two races. always, less marked between the Mediterranean races and
the primitive peoples of America than between any other culture and nature peoples who have come into contact with
each other. 12
The number
of members of the lower race
in the social situation is also

tha-t their
a factor conditioning the
feel-
few individuals of a presence arouses. ing divergent type may excite interest and curiosity; they may even enjoy a prestige simply by virtue of their unlikeness.
But
present in greater numbers and especially if their presence is felt to constitute a menace to the superior culif
ture, the feeling against

ical
them may
rise to a pitch of fanat-
barbarism.
Political
conditions
may
be such as to
compel the disavowal of this race prejudice, business reasons may counsel its concealment, individual isolation from
racial contact
may
old of consciousness
even prevent its rising above the threshbut consciously or subconsciously it is

;
an ever-present and active force wherever two races are in

contact.
It is the desire for social equality on the part of the mixed-blood group in conflict with the caste feeling of superiority on the part of the dominant group which fur-
nishes the key to an understanding of the place that the mixed-blood man occupies and the role which he plays in different racial situations. These are the factors which
are always present and operating wherever a mixed-blood
"James Bryce, The Relation of Advanced and Backward Races, pp.

18-19.
"However, ihe
Castilian Spaniards in Spanish
America gave an ex-
hibition of caste feeling and of contempt for inferior peoples perhaps nowhere else equaled in colonial history.
320
The Mulatto
race has appeared between two groups distinct in appearance and divergent in culture, occupying the same territory
in
anything
It
is
like equal numbers. the conflict of these two factors which determines
As a the role of the mulatto or other hybrid population. consequence of the variability of the factors among different racial groups and of their intensification, modification or disguisement in conformity to the peculiar needs of the
particular situation, the mixed-blood populations are found

to play quite different roles in different inter-racial situations. They may be allowed to identify themselves with,
and to become an integral part
of, the culturally superior or race. They may occupy a place apart, form an group outcast group with a social status inferior to that of either
of the parent races. They may be a connecting link between the white and the colored elements in the population.
They may
in
be used as a buffer between the extreme racial
the community. types They may identify themselves with, and become the leaders of, the lower race of the population.
There may also be various combinations of these
roles
and numerous transitional stages from one to another.
it
the hybrid race has been granted the opportunity, has identified itself with the advanced group. The mixed-
Where
blood race of white, Indian, and Negro ancestry in Brazil

affords perhaps the best illustration of this tendency. The social advance of the metis began during the regime of slavery. "As they were more active and intelligent than
the blacks, they soon
made
their
way
into the
homes and
were occupied in domestic service. Many of them won the esteem of their masters and those about them. Some of
them, giving proof of real intelligence and devotion to their employers, were, from a feeling of gratitude, emancipated
by the
latter
and were given the rudiments of an
artistic

education.
. .
."
13
Many
of those
who were
freed contin-
ued to
live
under the same roof with their former masters
and their advance continued "in accordance with the laws

14 of intellectual selection."
the time of the Emancipation, 15 the separation that already existed between the metis on the one hand and the
At
16 The Negroes and Indians on the other began to widen. metis, who were already found for the most part in the
towns, became more exclusively an urban population. The class differences that had been accentuated for political
purposes among the lower classes
17
gave them a profound
"contempt for productive employments." They imitated the classes above them, ceased to labor, and formed a pseudoleisure class.
18
The Negroes from the moment of their emancipation became enamored of the leisure life. Neither they nor the Indians would longer engage in laborious occupations with
The Negroes began to withany degree of regularity. draw from the centers of civilization and to find more congenial associates
19
among
the Indians of the interior with

p.
379.
See, also, Sir
Harry H.
Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p. 99. "Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 379.
"
1888.
"The
emancipation.
importation of slaves continued in Brazil to almost the date of Over sixty thousand were imported in 1848. T. C.
Dawson, The South American Republics, Part 1, p. 457. 17 A. G. Keller, Colonization, p. 313. ""But the mestizo runs to oratory and politics; not to labor." W. H. Koebel, The South Americans, p 97. 19 ". the efforts which have been made in Brazil to attract the Indian or the mixed Indian and Negro population to the mines have not. ... on account of the indolent nature of the colored inhabitants." Sir Charles W. Dilke, "Forced and Indentured Labor in South AmerNationalities and Subject Races, p. 106. ica." "The negro, no longer a slave but a free and occasionally a some.
.
The Mulatto
whom
they readily intermixed and into whose ranks they 20 tended to disappear. At the time of the Revolution and the establishment of
Brazilian independence, the mixed-blood group was suffia recognition ciently numerous and powerful to compel
of social equality
21
and secure an equal place
in the affairs
of the government. Consequently, the mixed-bloods came into closer contact with the culture group, while the gap
22
between the mixed-bloods and the Negro-Indian group widAt the present time, the metis are sloughing off ened. 23
more and more the customs and habits of the colored races and conforming more closely to the manners of life of the
white
group.
By
marriage
selection,
they endeavor to
make their children more like the Portuguese and less like Economic and profesthe members of the lower groups.
sional success, or the achievement of political position ad-
mits them to the lighter grades of Brazilian society. Poverty, atavism, or failure may throw individual members into
what arrogant person, works only when he The South Americans, pp. 92-93.
.
feels
inclined."
Koebel,
". . owing to the large proportion of negro blood among the working classes and the luxurious vegetation by means of which life can be at least supported with a minimum of effort, the people are inclined
." The South American Year Book, 1915, p. 216. ^Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 381. Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p. 100 f. n. It is to be remembered that conditions differ very radically in North and South Brazil. The great bulk of the Negro population is in the tropical regions of the North. Between the North and South Brazil "There is very little in common save the language." Koebel, The South Americans, p. 9. "So mixed is the blood of the lower classes that it is very difficult to tell who or what many people are, ." South American Year Book, p. 216. 21 All races and classes are recognized by the constitution as equal.
to be indolent.

"Ibid., p. 382.
p. 381.
323
the lower groups between which and the mixed-blood group there is coming to exist the same impassable barrier which
in the United States, Jamaica, and South Africa exists between the whites and the mulattoes.
Of course in general mode of life, social customs, etc., the educated coloured people of Brazil are scarcely distinguishable from the Portuguese middle or upper classes, according to their means and social status. The
peasants, however, away from the towns lead a more African existence, and except that the house or hut may be a little superior to the average negro home in Africa, manners and customs in domesticity are little changed from the standard of the Gold Coast or Da24 homey not a very low standard, by the by.
The mixed-bloods
are,
therefore,
for
all
essential
pur-
poses, a part of the advanced group, and tend to become more arid more so. They have considerable influence in the
governmental affairs of the country. All offices and honors are open to them. In the solution of the racial problem,
so far as the above
is
true, they simply have no part.
They
escaped from it, and by every means in their power endeavor to conceal and obliterate their former connection with and relationship to the primitive
have
left the race,
25
group.
"Johnston, The Negro in the
26
New
World,
p. 105.
The idea that the Brazilian Negro is being absorbed into the white race and transformed into a white man without essentially changing
the physical type of the population is hardly to be taken seriously. It represents a "hope and the belief" rather than a rational judgment.
Mr. Roosevelt says that the men and women "with whom I closely associated were in the great majority of cases pure white, save in the comparatively rare instances where they had a dash of Indian blood"; that the men and women of high social position are as unmixed as the
corresponding classes in Paris or Rome, and that they will continue to
624
. . .
The Mulatto
He is now a "Homem Brazileiro," and the word negro, even when applied to one of pure negro race, has come to be used only as a term of abuse, which may be made still further offensive by supplementing it with the words "de Africa." This has come to be one of the most offensive terms one can apply to a Brazilian citizen, even though he be of unmixed negro deIf you must discriminate as to colour in conscent. 26 versation, you speak of a "preto."
Under other
conditions,
the bastard race
may
be the
connecting link which holds together the divergent racial and This seems to be the cultural elements in a population. role of the mixed-blood group where they are a numerically
important part of the population, and where there is a relatively weak sense of nationality on the part of the white
group.
Stated in other words,
in process
it is
their role in those inter-
racial situations where there
gamation
is a more or less rapid amalbetween the divergent elements of the
will continue to receive a small
be pure white; that the classes immediately below have absorbed and amount of Negro blood while in "the
ordinary people" the absorption of Negro blood will be "large enough make a slight difference in the type." And finally he quotes a Brazilian "statesman" to the effect that the Negro is disappearing by
to
absorption into the white race and "his blood will remain as an apprebut in no way a dominant, element in perhaps a third of our people, while the remaining two-thirds will be pure whites." When it
ciable,
is remembered that an eighth and frequently a sixteenth or even less of Negro blood in a Negro-White cross is sufficient to "make a slight difference in the type" it is readily seen that, even if there should be no further increase in Negro blood, the population of the country will need to be increased by from one hundred and fifty to two hundred
million white persons in order that the present ten million Negroes and mulattoes may be absorbed into the lower third of the population with-
out producing more than a slight change in the type. The utterances of Mr. Roosevelt are often taken seriously. See T. R. Roosevelt, "Brazil and the Negro," Outlook, Vol. 106, pp. 409-11.
"Johnston, The Negro
in the
New
World,
p. 100.
Role of Mulatto
population.
in
in Inter-Racial Situation
It
is
Cuba,
in
many
the part played by the mixed-blood group parts of Spanish America, and in certain
regions of Brazil. In Cuba, the mulatto occupies much the position of a connecting link between the pure-bred Spaniard on the one
Negro on the other. There is no sharp break between the whites and the mulattoes, nor between the mulattoes and the Negroes. The different shades
hand and the
full-blood
of the hybrid group serve to connect the opposing cultural and physical types. They grade almost imperceptibly into
the whites above them and into the blacks below them.
The
color line, in the sense in which that phrase is understood in the United States, Jamaica, and South Africa, is neither
hard nor fast
27
and the mulatto
is
free to associate
and to
In pro-
28 intermarry with the members of the white group.
portion to his success in life and his approximation to the Spanish cast of countenance, he is able to get himself accepted into the less exclusive grades of white or nearwhite society. 29 All this does not imply any lack of prejudice or caste feeling on the part of the Spaniards. Caste does not center at any one point; it is diffused feeling
30 throughout the population.
27
Color
is
a badge of
inferi-
Negro is losing ground, politically and socially, and content with his present status of farmer, laborer, petty tradesman, minor employee, and domestic servant, there will arise a 'colour question' here as in the United States." Johnston, The Negro
"Yet
the
is
unless he
in the
38
New
World,
p. 60.
The one thing that makes the relations of the races more friendlly in Cuba than in the United States is that there their desire to mix with the whites is granted. R. L. Bullard, "How Cubans Differ from Us." North American Review, Vol. 186, pp. 416-21. Note particularly
p.
417.
29
R. L. Bullard, "The Cuban Negro," North American Review, Vol.
184, p. 624.
"Ibid., p. 628.
326
31
The Mulatto The men

32
ority.
bottom are black. colors lighter than himself and contemptuous of those more
highly colored.
at the top are white; the men at the Every man between is envious of the
The
ferent.
racial situation on the
mainland
is
not markedly dif-
The mixed-blood race

socially,
stands, industrially, politi-
cally
and
between the white on the one hand and
native on the other.

there
is
Except where Negro blood
is
present,
generally no sharp breach between the mixed-blood and the white race and no definite breach between group The mixedthe mixed-blood group and the mother race.
bloods envy the white and endeavor to marry into the white or near-white society. I'n proportion to the difference in
their social status, they despise the Indian
and the Negro.
in appearance from the near-white to the near-Indian type and so forms a physiological tie between the mixed-white and white group and the Negro and Indian group.
The mixed-blood group, however, ranges
ish
In general, the role of the mixed-blood individuals in SpanAmerica seems to be that of a connecting link between
the extremes of the population. It is their part to mix with the whites and the blacks and to serve as a tie be-
tween the two. Racial amalgamation goes on between the whites and the mixed-bloods, and between the mixed-bloods
and the Natives. The hybrid population is increased by both unions as well as by mixture among themselves, and the population approaches more and more to that of an
exclusively hybrid one. 81 Bullard, North American Review, Vol. 184, p. 629. 82 Many of the Negroes are no further advanced than those in the Congo. William Inglis, "The Future of Cuba," the North American Review, Vol. 183, pp. 1037-40. Note especially p. 1039. 33 In some of the more advanced states it seems already to have reached this stage. Chile has, more than most South American coun33
327
outcome of these racial arrangements is dependent simply upon the relative numbers of the racial groups in the population. Where the hybrid is the numerfinal
The
ically
dominant group, as
future
in
Mexico,
the
34
it
represents the
36
probable
type
35
is
of
country's
population.
Where
where
is
more numerous and especially reinforced by immigration, as being constantly the case of Southern Brazil, the hybrid group tends to
the white group
is
the
it
37 and a single approximate more and more the white type, color line to separate the mixed-white group from the mixed-
inates
Indian and black groups. Where the native group predomand where there is no appreciable immigration and no effective caste feeling on the part of the mixed or su-
perior groups to save them from a further infusion of native blood, the population is gradually reverting, in appearance
Indian type. The racial problem American countries finds its expression in Spanish periodical revolutions and a more or less chronic state of
and
civilization, to the
in the
tries,
been able to draw the line between the whites and the various
Keller, Coloni317.
grades of pure- and mixed-blood natives below them.

zation,
p.
Bryce says "there are no longer any pure Indians" and that most of the aristocracy have remained pure white. South America, p. 232. See, also, p. 478. 34 Seventy-five per cent mixed; 15 per cent Indian; 10 per cent European descent. 88 If one may speak of a "type" in a hybrid population. "Sir Charles Bruce, "The Modern Conscience in Relation to the Treatment of Dependent Peoples and Communities," Inter-Racial ProbJames Bryce, "Migration of the Races of Men," lems, pp. 291-92. Contemporary Review, Vol. 62, p. 130. J. H. Van Evrie, White Supremacy and Negro Subordination, pp. 157-58. Friedrich Ratzel, His-
Mankind, Vol. 2, p. 27. "Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 378. Luis Cabera, "The Mexican Revolution Its Causes, Purposes and Results," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Supplement, Jan.
tory of
1917, pp. 4-5.
328
The Mulatto
in the
United States
guerilla warfare. Where there exists a strong sense of nationality or of
racial pride
in
on the part of each of the two parent races
the situation, the mixed-blood individuals usually are without a respected position in the society of either. Each
race having a civilization in which it believes and which it considers the superior of any other, there is no natural or place for the half-castes except within the ranks of one
the other of the parent races. There is no middle ground. If they are rejected by both races or refuse to cast their
lot with one
outcasts.
and are rejected by the other, they are simply They may form or be formed into a special caste,
but
it
is
a caste with an inferior social status within one
or the other of the parent races, and not a class intermediate The Eurasians are perhaps between the parent groups.
the best present-day example of a group rejected by both the races of which their ancestry is composed. In the Asiatic situation, the colored races have their own
civilization to
to that which the white

in culture in kind.
is
which they hold with a tenacity at least equal man shows for his. The difference
;
It
is
other, as
not merely a matter of degree it is a difference is not that one is so much higher than the the case where the Negro and most of the lower
races are in contact with the whites, as that they are different civilizations. To depart from one is not to approach
the other;
it is simply to decline in that civilization. In this situation, the mixed-blood individuals must be either Europeans or Orientals. They cannot occupy a status
above the one race and below the other.

are not so serially arranged. one and part the other. They
The cirflizations The hybrids cannot be part
may occupy an
inferior sta-
tus in either group, but this is not an indication that they, for that reason, stand nearer to the other. They cannot
329
European
break connections with the white group without discarding civilization to go over to the colored group
;
would be to accept the civilization of the Indians. But to the Orientals, the Eurasians are as much outcast as they are to the Europeans; they can no more be Hindus than
they can be Englishmen. They must give up one civilization or the other, and content themselves as best they may with the status assigned them by the group with which they
elect to be identified.
The
older Portuguese Eurasians have
for the most part reverted to the Indian civilization and accepted a special status therein. The English Eurasians
or "Indo-Europeans" have endeavored to be English 38 and have received some recognition from the British rulers,
though they are nowhere accepted by the Europeans on

terms of social equality.
They occupy subordinate
clerical
positions in the government service and are almost wholly dependent upon the English patronage for the means of
existence.
He occupies an unenviable position. too proud to mix with the natives, who will, indeed, have none of him, and the European shuns him. He is a sort of social neutral stratum, regarded as foreign and looked upon with suspicion by the brown race, and looked down on with contempt by the white. Popularly supposed to inherit all the vices and none of the virtues of his parents, there is little ever said in his favor. I fear you cannot call the Eurasian trustworthy or truthful as a class, though of course there Certain it is he selare many honorable exceptions.
The Eurasian
is
dom
and is chiefly engaged in an unconquerable aversion to The Eurasian physical work or energy of any sort.
rises
to high employ,
clerkly duties, for he has

88
".
they cling to their connection with the ruling class with a
pride
and persistency that is almost pathetic." Indian Life in Town and Country, p. 210.
Herbert Compton,
330
The Mulatto
society is one apart and unique, and its etiquette and manners are often a fine burlesque on those of the white race, with which its members are proud to claim Their womenfolk affect gaudy colours, connection. and a Eurasian ball will display as many rainbow tints 39 ." as a mulatto one.
. .
They are a
sensitive, generally discontented,
and trouble-
some element in the community. 40 Their presence creates the most difficult of the minor problems in India. They
stand in the presence of two civilizations and two race They are comgroups, but they are members of neither. pelled to remain a special group accepted by neither race
and despised by both. 41 They are neither a connecting link between the races nor a harmonizing group between the extreme racial types. They are no more the spokesman
representative of the Hindus, than they are of the They are simply outcasts from both races with English.
or
no natural role or dignified
social status in the
Indo-Euro-
pean
situation.
Elsewhere in the East, the Oriental-European half-breed has developed much the same type of mind. He has no
part to play in the inter-racial situation ; he is himself a 42 "The East seems to me to teach emphatically problem.
that the crossing of different races
is
always and every-
where a bad thing."

39 40
43
Compton,, Indian Life in Town and Country, pp. 208-9. At the time of the Sepoy mutiny the Eurasians cast their
lot with
Europeans and for a time a certain solidarity was established between them but the friendly feeling scarcely outlasted the time of
the
danger.
"filisee Reclus, Asia, Vol. 3, p. 389.
43
65,
See James A. LeRoy, The Americans in the Philippines, pp. 26, 68 ff. Charles E. Woodruif, "Some Laws of Racial and Intellec-
tual Development," Journal of

48
Race Development, Vol.
3,
p.
175.
President Eliot, Chautcmquan, Vol. 70, p. 285.
See, also,
Wu
Ting-
331
Under certain other

latto population
is
conditions, the presence of the
mu-
utilized to lessen the friction
between
the pure-blooded races. The natural tendency of its members to form a separate parasitic caste when denied social
equality with the dominant race tered, and a caste developed in the
either the white or the black,
upon and foscommunity separate from

is
seized
and standing between the two. In this position, they lessen the amount of contact between the extreme types of the population and so may lessen the clash between the races. They are used as a buffer between
It
is
the pure-blooded groups.

in
about this role that the mulatto seems to figure in
the racial situation in the British colony of Jamaica. The 44 but here, as elsegroup of ruling whites is very small,
where, the English have refused to debase their civilization by compromising with the colored element in the formation
of their national institutions.
ively English.
The
civilization is distinct-
But the governmental

45
policy, dictated
by
the
home
office,
has been devised with a view towards har-
mony between the races. The mulattoes are not a

Negro population, but their possibilities for harm
the
the blacks.
numerically important part of the white rulers have realized
group
as dissatisfied agitators among also have realized the possibilities of the They as a harmonizing factor in the racial situation. As
as
a consequence, they have utilized the mixed-bloods
means of control of the lower and more numerous group,

Fang, "China," Inter-Racial Problems, pp. 128-29, and Moh. Sourour
Bey, "Egypt," Inter-Racial Problems, p. 170. 44 About 2 per cent. See p. 66 above. "That English opinion, not local opinion, must be the ultimate judge of local affairs is the conscious policy of British Colonial rule. See
Gilbert Murray,
"Empire and Subject Races,"
Nationalities
and Subject
Races, pp.
7-8.
The Mulatto
in the
United States
friction between the ex-
and as a means of lessening the
treme types of the population on the Island.
By
nition
catering to the mulattoes' desire for special recog-
and by fostering their caste feeling of superiority to the blacks, 46 the English have built up a middle-class group
between the white aristocracy and the black peasantry. This group includes the educated and professional classes
of the
Negro group and the more

all lines
successful colored indi-
viduals in
of
human
endeavor. 47
The mulattoes
be-
48 Black by right of birth. if endowed with special men occasionally gain admittance natural ability, or if they have been exceptionally successful
long to the intermediate class
in the
accumulation of property. 49 This mulatto class has been separated in sentiments and
48 The pride of the Jamaican in his white blood is shared by the other "The Native Bermudians (brown) conmixed-bloods of the Islands.
sider themselves
much
superior to the (black) Jamaicans."
See Flor-
ence H. Doneilson, Appendix

Color, p. 105.
(a) in Davenport, Heredity of Skin
47 Earl Finch, "The Effects of Racial Miscegenation," Inter-Racial Problems, p. 111. tt "There is a considerable element of the Jamaica population which is known as 'sambo,' an element with about one-fourth of white blood; this Caucasian or Semitic mixture shows itself plainly in their color
or their
'coloured.'
features,
and they should,

.
strictly
But very few members of

.
this section
.
speaking, be classed as of the people have
the term coloured, having by custom come to be applied to persons of a distinctly brown or clear H. G. de Lisser, Twentieth Century Jamaica, p. 44. complexion." Quoted by Charles K. Needham, "A Comparison of Some Conditions in Jamaica with those in the United States," Journal of Race Developso classified themselves in the census
ment, Vol.
49
4, p.
192.
Catering still further to the mulattoes' desire pp. 191-92. to be white certain members of the mulatto group of less than oneIbid.,
Negro blood are allowed to designate themselves "whites by Membership in the latter group is conditioned by the whiteness of skin. They are the social aristocracy of the mulatto group though by no means necessarily the men of superior ability.
fourth
law."

interests
333
by a deliberate and thor51 ough-going application of the "divide and rule" policy. By a judicious distribution of petty political offices and from the black group
the whites secure their loyalty and cooperation in the affairs of government in spite of the rigid color line
50
honors,
52
who shows
which they draw against them in social affairs. Any Negro ability or talent for leadership is diplomatically
separated from the black group and his loyalty to the government and to the ruling whites assured by a political or
other honor proportional to his danger as a disgruntled Such political honor or the agitator among the blacks.
accumulation of a considerable amount of property will allow him entrance to "colored" society and, if the honor
or the fortune be
sufficient,
assure him a mulatto wife. 53
The
larger the fortune, the whiter the wife. In this way the black race is separated from
its
natural
leaders
and remains a black and happy, a contented and
54 helpless mass.
The mulatto, dependent upon
the white
aristocracy for his political position and business opportunities and flattered by a racial designation that separates
him from the peasantry and implies

80
his superiority to it,
A. Fronde, The English in the West Indies, pp. 24-25. 51 See Sir Henry Cotton, Nationalities and Subject Races, pp. 46-47, and Lala Lajpat Rai, "The Present Condition in India," Nationalities
J.
and Subject Races, pp.
32, 39.
The
discussion here
is
in
regard to
the Indian policy. Compare the "divide and rule" policy of Spain's early colonial policy. H. C. Morris, The History of Colonization, Vol. 1, pp. 252-53. 82 ". . 'colored' men occupy most of the subordinate, and some of
.
W. P. Livingstone, "The the higher positions in the public service." West Indian and American Negro: Contrast," North American ReSee, also, Johnston, The Negro in the New view, Vol. 185, p. 647.
World, pp. 280, 268. "Thorp, World's Work, Vol. 8, pp. 4912-13. M Encyclopedia Britannica: Jamaica; Thorp, World's Work, Vol. p. 4910; Froude, English in the West Indies, p. 50.
8,
334
The Mulatto
in
the United States
maintains that obsequious and respectful attitude of mind
toward his superiors which is a universal characteristic of the dependent and the unfree. 50 Harmony between the races is maintained at the price of a helpless peasantry and an
intellectually prostituted middle-class group.
56
This temporizing policy adopted in Jamaica is in strong contrast to that followed where the group of the white
race in actual daily contact with the Negroes has been allowed to dictate the relationship of the races. 57 In all
55 The mulattoes are not in all cases satisfied with the arrangement. " 'I've often Davenport quotes "An olive-skinned man" as saying: said I'd change the British flag for the American flag any day. In America they are prejudiced against all colored people. You may be
a millionaire, but if you're colored you can't marry into white families or associate with them. Here with the English, if you are colored and have money you are all right, they associate with you; but if you
money you are nowhere. The English aren't as honest as the American, for they (English) hate the color just the same and only .'" accept it for the money. Heredity of Skin Color, Appendix B See, also, Livingston, North American Review, Vol. 185, (b), p. 106.
haven't
.
.
pp. 646-47. 68 H. E. Jordan, "Biological Status and Social Worth of the Mulatto," Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 82, p. 573, stresses the absence of politi-
Jamaica not being a self-governing colony, in accounting for the difference in the race problem in Jamaica and the United ". But perhaps the perfect adjustment between the races States.
cal contention,
.
Jamaica and the elimination of any 'problem' of this kind finds its explanation in a more rational and a more consistent political treatment made possible by the absence of any constitutional prescription. We may well suspect that the inconsistency of according to the negro legal (constitutional) equality and withholding it practically (politically and socially) has had a morally harmful effect upon both black and To stultify oneself as between one's theory and practice is white. ." always subversive of high moral tone. 67 It is also very different from the German native policy. The Germans, believing that an educated native of any shade of color is necesin
. .
sarily a rascal, have avoided the complications produced by a semieducated native population by conforming their native educational policy to the industrial needs of the situation. Keller, Colonization, p. 589.
335
these cases, the mulattoes are definitely excluded from social equality with the whites and forced to find their associates either with the colored
group or among others of
their
own
kind.
No
special provision has been
made
for
them and they are dependent upon their own exertions favored by the prestige their color gives them for their No self-governing, North European group success in life. ever has been willing to compromise its civilization by admitting the lower race to an equal hand in the affairs of government. The more numerous the individuals in the colored group and the more their presence endangers civilized standards, the more unyielding has been the policy of exclusion.
is
In the self-governing colonies of South Africa, no efforF\ made to follow a policy toward the mulattoes that will
insure
line is
An impassable color harmony between the races. drawn by the whites between the races. The white
58
man
recognizes no difference between the various grades of Negroes and Negro intermixtures below him in the social
scale.
59
Consequently, the mixed-bloods cannot form a buffer between the races as in Jamaica. Intermarriage does
not occur and the refusal of the whites to recognize the

mixed-bloods as being on a higher social plane than the natives, prevents them from being either a physiological or
a social connecting link between the races.
The mulattoes, superior here as elsewhere, to the black element of their ancestry, resent the refusal of the white
man
to recognize their superiority and grant them special 60 privileges and a special status. They are a discontented
and troublesome element

68
in the
community.
61
They cannot
H. E. S. Freemantle, The New Nation, pp. 217-18. James Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, p. 375. 60 M. S. Evans, Black and White in South East Africa, 61 Freemantle, The New Nation, pp. 319-20,
59
p. 289.
336
The Mulatto
break with the white group and identify themselves with the black without discarding all the essential elements of
white civilization. 62
like
Their situation
is,
in
many
respects,
that of the Eurasians.
races having a strong sense pride. Both groups have to choose between the civilizations.
Both groups stand between of racial integrity and race

as part-
The South African mulattoes can no more stand

native and part-white, than the Eurasians
can be part-
Hindu and part-European. The South African mulattoes,
to play in the racial situation. The numbers, insignificant part of the native population. the organization, and the better developed sense of national
then, are without a part Numerically they are an
pride and racial integrity among the natives prevent the mulattoes from enjoying great prestige among the black group. Their importance in the native group depends upon
their
worth rather than on the whiteness of their
skin.
Con-
sequently, the mulattoes are slow to go over to the native population and identify themselves with _ the native group.
They play no
63 dignified role in the racial situation.
It remains to note in
somewhat more
detail the role that
the mulatto has played and now plays in the racial situation in the United States. This falls more or less naturally into three pretty distinct parts: I. his role under the
63
The mulatto of course has no

is
desire to
do
so.
His contempt for
as great as is that of the white man. The prejudice between different groups for example, is so great that there are in Natal
the native
separate schools for natives, natives of St. Helena, Indians, Natal halfbreeds and Mauritians. See M. S. Evans, Black and White in the South-
ern States, p. 262.

63
mantle, The
4,
so-called Ethiopian movement see FreeNation, pp. 184-85; "The South African Natives," Ch. Report of the South African Native Races Committee; Current Liter-
For a discussion of the
New
ature, Vol. 39, pp. 63-64.
337
slavery and reconstruction regimes ; II. the present day "intellectuals" or "radicals," and III. the present day "conservatives" or "middle-class" group. consideration of these in the mulattoes' role in the United States will be the stages
task of the following chapter.
CHAPTER
THE ROLE OF THE MULATTO
XIII
IN
THE UNITED STATES
B
soil,
the
IETWEEN been always has

At
Negro and the white American there

absolute social separation on the basis first contact on American
of color.
the time of their
the two races differed in language, customs, and habits of life ; in moral, mental, and religious development, as well
as in ethnic origin, historical tradition, and physical appearance. black skin, therefore, very quickly came to signify
an inferior culture and, only a

badge of a could be no
(
little later,
came
to be the
servile
condition.
;
Between these races, there
there was not even a possibility of a harmonious working relation except on the basis of superiority and subordination.
social equality
individuals of mixed ancestry presently appeared, there was manifested no disposition to treat them as essentially
When
different
from the Negro.

different
Their physical appear-
ance, though markedly
blooded race, was sufficiently peculiar people. In large part, they were the offspring of a class of whites whose degraded status was not markedly
superior to the status of the Negro ; when such was not the case, the bastard origin of the mulattoes shocked the
from that of the puremarked to set them off as a
conventional moral sense of the community and militated against a community recognition of them as socially supe-
This attitude presently found formal expression in the legislative enactments which
rior to the Negroes of full blood.
338
Role of the Mulatto
in the
United States
339
assigned the mulatto to the status of the mother. But the individual mulatto was, or what amounted to the
same thing was believed to
be, intellectually superior to the
full-blooded Negro. Consequently, the occupational differentiation within the race everywhere operated to his advantage. The favored classes among the slaves, as the numbers
of the mulattoes increased, came
more and more to be
light-
The trained mechanics and the trusted were drawn from the most intelligent; these were servants always assumed to be the mulattoes. Moreover, the mulattoes made a better appearance than the black Negro
colored classes.
and were
and so gravitated to those house and personal duties which brought them into
less offensive in close association,
personal association with the master class. The plantation slaves and the rough laborers in the cities and the towns
were the black men.
The
division was, of course, not every-
where equally marked and it was seldom a sharp and comThere were many full-blooded blacks plete separation.
among
the favored classes and there were mulattoes in con-
siderable
numbers among the lower
classes
of slaves, but
the tendency was toward a more and more complete separation of the colors. Manumission further widened the breach
that existed in bondage. The free Negro group at all times contained a preponderance of mulattoes; in some places it was, to all intent and purpose, a mulatto group. Such education of the
entirely
Negro
as existed before the

*
;
war was almost
mulatto education
it
was limited to the free
Negroes and to certain favored individuals and groups among the slaves. All things tended to make the mulatto
a superior man and to make the superior groups among

1 A failure to recognize this fact is a glaring defect in the most important recent study of this subject by a mulatto. See C. G. Woodson, The Education of the Negro Prior to
340
the
The Mulatto
Negro
race, mulatto groups.
On
their side, the mulattoes were not slow to recognize
their superiority
and to exaggerate
it.
The
lack of sym-
pathy, for example, between the house servants largely mulatto and the field hands mostly black men was
throughout the slavery period a characteristic feature of the institution. 2 As freemen, the mulattoes formed separate societies, where they existed in numbers sufficient to permit it, and held themselves aloof from the slaves and In the North, the free Negroes came to the black men. the slavery of slaves, but claimed special recogrecognize
nition for themselves as free men. 3
During the slave regime, the free mulatto society of Charleston became an elaborately
organized and highly exclusive institution. It still exists in much of its pristine glory. 4 In Louisiana and especially in
Mobile and
New Orleans,
the free Latin-Negro Creoles were so
far separated in fact and in sympathy from the Negroes and the slaves, that they volunteered their services to the ConElsewhere, federacy at the outbreak of the Civil War.
though the break was generally not so obvious nor so wide, the same caste feeling separated the mulatto and the free
Negro from the black man and

This potential mulatto
cial recognition
the slave.
class,
however, received no spe-
from the dominant
as the mixed-bloods
8
may
race. However, much have been favored as individuals
E. Atkinson,
'The Negro a Beast,' " North American Review, Vol.
181, p. 209.
W. E. B. DuBois, Souls of Black Folk, p. 49. *"In places like Charleston they had (and still have to some extent) an exclusive society of their own which looked down on the black Negro with a prejudice equal to that of the white man." Ray Stannard Baker, "The Tragedy of the Mulatto," American Magazine,
Vol. 65, p. 588.
See, also,
p. 93.
Maurice
S.
Evans, Black and White in th
Southern States,
Role of the Mulatto in the United States
541
while in bondage and helped as individual freemen, the dominant group everywhere refused to recognize mixture of
blood as sufficient basis for special class recognition.
The
dominant group classed all Negroes, regardless of color, as members of the black race, and made divisions among
them on other
lines.
Their classification was an economic
and not an ethnic one; they, for example, separated the Negroes into slave and free, into house servants and plantation hands, and in various other
special situation.
ways according to the
these legal and industrial divisions to the division of the race into mixedcorresponded largely bloods and pure-bloods was, from the white man's point of
view, incidental.
That
He
refused to countenance the mulatto
group as a superior class in the community. The mulattoes, therefore, had only the pride of their white blood to
sustain them as a separate and superior caste. Throughout the slavery period, the mulattoes were usually not the leaders of the race; if indeed,
one can speak
of leaders before the Emancipation. 5 They were, in most 6 cases, the superior individuals among the race ; they were
tion of the
hardly in a position to be leaders, they lacked the recognidominant race. Those who were free were equally
far from leadership. "They were, for the most part, in^the North and consequently they were generally without per-
sonal acquaintance with the real Negro and, in most cases, \ without any accurate knowledge of Southern life and cou-J
ditions.
They
felt
man and
6
believed themselves to be superior to the"BTack themselves to be inferior to the white man. 7
"... The great mass of the Negro people in the United States were dumb. In the plantation states, the black man was a chattel; in the Northern states, he was a good deal of an outlaw." Booker T. Washington, Frederick Douglass, p. 98.
T
'See p. 190 ff. above. J. R. Ficklin, History of Reconstruction in Louisiana, p. 127.
The Mulatto
They formed, or tended to form, separate groups somewhere between the two and out of touch and sympathy with both.
It
was a matter of
class
separation on horizontal lines
rather than a matter of leadership. In the anti-slavery propaganda, the Negro or the Mulatto had little part. 8 He was the object about which the fac-
most part, not himself an Certain Negroes were exploited by actor in the drama. 9 the abolitionists for campaign and demonstration purposes,
tions contended, but was, for the
but so far as this was not the case, they were a quiescent
and non-participating group in the national struggle. Baker 10 gives an accurate summary of the situation
:
In the antebellum slavery agitation Negroes played no consequential part; they were an inert lump of humanity possessing no power of inner direction; the leaders on both sides of the struggle that centered around the institution of slavery were white men. The Negroes did not even follow poor old John Brown. After the war the Negro continued to be an issue rather than a partaker in politics, and the conflict continued to be between groups of white men. Even in Reconstruction times, and I am not forgetting exceptional Negroes like Bruce, Revels, Pinchback and others, the Negro was a partaker in the government solely by vir. . .
A complete list of the Negroes who took any active or important part in the propaganda is given on page 192 above. Washington, Frederick Douglass, pp. 154-55, names twelve, all of whom are included
8
in the list above.
"William Lloyd Garrison was quick to discern that the cause needed more than any other man or thing, as an argument and an illustration of the further work of the anti-slavery society."
this fugitive slave,
Washington, Frederick Douglass, p. 72. He is speaking here of the anti-slavery people using Douglass as an exhibit. See, also, p, 144. 10 Ray Stannard Baker, "Problems of Citizenship," Annals of the
American Academy of
Political
and Social
Science, Vol. 49, p. 93.
Role of the Mulatto
in the
United States
343
tue of the power of the North. As a class the Negroes were not self-directed, but were used by the Northern reconstructionists and certain political Southerners, who took most of the offices and nearly all the pilferings.
After the emancipation of the slaves, many Northern mulattoes presented themselves and were advanced by the abolitionists as the logical leaders of the
newly freed race;
11
they assumed the role of spokesmen for the people of their The fact that they were members of the Negro race color.
was accepted by themselves and by many of their Northern

friends as evidence of sufficient qualification for the delicate and arduous task of leading and representing the liberated
blacks.
12
But
aside
from the caste
feeling of superiority
due to
and their these Northern mulattoes were somewhat superior education,

their white blood, their longer period of freedom,
in
other ways disqualified for any real leadership.
The
mulattoes and free Negroes were for the most part city men,
while the Negroes were, and
lation.
had always been, a rural popuThe natural arrogance and naive assumption of
superiority which seem everywhere to be persistent traits of the city-bred men, served to widen the gulf that caste feeling made between the freedmen and their proposed
leaders.
They did not understand the country men. The was still further widened by their lack of knowledge gap of the South and the conditions prevailing there. Many of
them had been associated directly or indirectly with the
abolitionists who,
generation in agitation,
11
though engaged for the better part of a knew nothing about the Negro, 13
See Washington, Frederick Douglass, p. 270-71. T. Washington, "Negro Disfranchisement and the Negro in Business," Outlook, Vol. 93, p. 311. 18 Mr. Washington would include the whole North as well as the abo-
"Booker
344
and but
The Mulatto
little
about his condition. So, in addition to the and misconceptions common to their locality, prejudices the mulattoes were handicapped for any real leadership by the possession of a whole body of sentimental doctrine which
when not
false
seldom had any relation to the objective facts.
The
abolitionists,
and consequently their followers, saw
everything in terms of their propaganda; their zealous devotion to their cause obscured their perception of reality.
Facts were made to

the
fit
theory.
They
Negro
as a primitive
man whom
slavery
raising to a higher cultural level; as an individual whom slavery had degraded to his present condition ; 14 and attributed to him all the desirable traits
upon had been slowly they looked upon him
did not look
of
human
nature.
The Negro
a
idealized abstraction;
of their conception was an glorified creature of the imagina-
and of the Uncle Tom's type of literature. 15 The refrain of the abolitionists that the Negro was "half a century ahead of the poor white man of the South," was accepted by their mulatto disciples as a fact. They rarely had anything more than a superficial comprehension of the
tion
meaning of the anti-slavery propaganda

part; they were
litionists.
".
.
.
in
which they took
full
of words, abstractions and misconcep.
the people of the North had

.
.
little
knowledge of
the Negro's character.
Frederick Douglass, p. 248. 14 "The Negro inherits a brain which work has cultivated for four The white generations, and added to it the skill of a practical hand.
."
man
inherits a brain
sodden by the idleness of four generations, and he

. . .
has improved his birthright by a life of soddenness. sidered, the only class ready for suffrage in the South
is
Fairly conthe Negro."
Wendell
Phillips,
1865.
Quoted
by
F.
A.
Bancroft,
Negro
in
Politics, p. 10.
"This idea
do not think
persists
it
among
the Northern mulattoes even to-day.
"I
claiming too much to say that 'Uncle Tom's Cabin' was a fair and truthful panorama of slavery; ." James W. Johnis
. .
son,
The Autobiography of an Ex-colored Man,
p. 40.

tions,
345
and, at the close of the war, they were dominated the fixed determination to reverse the economic and soby cial status of the two races in the South.
When
these
men went
into the
South after the war to
become leaders of the newly-freed race, many of them for the first time came into contact with the real Negro. They had
known an
his
life
abstraction.
The Negro and
the conditions of
were so unlike their expectations, and their own
training was so pitifully inadequate that, in the crisis of their disillusionment in regard to the Negro's character and
conditions, they were in general unable to accommodate themselves to the real conditions in such a way as to make
them valuable men
in the
situation.
The
disillusionment
brought a reaction in their sentiments and their attitudes toward him and toward themselves. 16 They became resentful toward the Negro. 17 They were unwilling or unable to
18
".
We
passed along
until,
finally
we turned
into a street
and here I caught my first sight of colored people in large numbers. here I saw a street crowded with them. They filled the shops and thronged the sidewalks and lined the curb. I asked my companion if
. .
the colored people in Atlanta lived in this street. He said they did The unkempt appearance, the shambling, slouching gait and loud talk and laughter of these people aroused in me a feeling of almost
all
not,
repulsion.
."
Johnson, The Autobiography of an Ex-colored Man,
pp. 53-54.
"The most bitter arraignment of the Negro which at the same time keeps accurately to the facts is the volume of W. H. Thomas, The American Negro, a mulatto who went South after the War to be a
leader of the race.
attitudes
it
As a
disclosure of the mulattoes' sentiments
and
the most valuable single document in Negro literature. Said one It states the things that others deny or endeavor to conceal.
is
of the most widely known mulattoes of the race in discussing the book: "Of course it's true; every word of it is true. But, damn it, we don't want those things told." The chief value of the document, however, It lies in the treatis quite aside from the facts with which it deals.
ment of the
facts, in the naive disclosure
of the psychology of the
dis-
illusioned mulatto.
346
The Mulatto
the United States
par with the freedman and to attempt to help him. They became more and more ashamed of their race and of the color which associated them with 18 it. Their contempt for the blacks, combined with their general ignorance of what to do or how to do it, made them
put themselves on a
social
for the most part
men
of no value in the situation.
Instead
of leaders, the mulattoes from the
North tended to become
in the already difficult
agitators and so to become an additional race problem withone of readjusting the relationships
of the races.
The
political reconstruction of the
South gave a brief
19 In opportunity for the mulatto and Negro politicians. of the War and the Emancipation, the bulk of the spite
Southern Negroes remained loyal to their Southern whites and willing to be led by them. 20 In order to insure the per-
manent supremacy of the Republican party in national politics, it was deemed necessary to use the newly-freed blacks. 21 But to do this, it was necessary to separate them
"The
for the
repulsive reaction of the Northern trained mulatto in contact time with the real Negro has found its best expression to
first
is
date in the book of Mr. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk. This book the outcome of the brief period of bitter exile which the author spent as a teacher in a Negro school in the South. Aside from the
subject matter of which they treat these essays are an illuminating disclosure of the psychology of a timid and unpractical man, white in training, association, and thought and nearly white in appearance, with real knowledge of his race and with only an academic sympathy for
no
it,
who
is
thrown for the
first
time among a body of blacks, classed with
them, compelled to find his associates among them and who refuses,
subconsciously, to accept the classification.
"These Negro
Negro
20
politicians
were very largely recruited from the free
class
of the South.
Mr. Washington says that the Negro would have followed the leadof the Southern white "as willingly, if not more willingly, than that which he did accept." Frederick Douglass, p. 254. 21 "As you once needed the muskets of the blacks, so now you need
ersliip

in
347
sympathy from
their late masters.
The
first
agency in
the destruction of this loyalty was the Freedman's Bureau. To complete the work of alienating the sympathy of the
Southern whites and blacks, and to anchor the black vote to the Republican party, was a task of the Reconstruction
means known to venal murder was employed politics without scruple or hesitation by a group of men debased beyond the power of common language to describe. Both races suffered from the policy.
policy in general.
this end, every
official
To
from simple theft to
In this period, the Negro and mulatto leaders were simply

tools in the
hands of the vandals.
The independent part

was not an im-
they had
in the political life of the time
portant nor a creditable one. A few men of ability ap22 The majority of these peared and also a few honest ones.
men and
of these
all
of
any
ability were mulattoes.
The great mass

su-
Negro
politicians,
however, was not markedly
perior to the rank

24
and
file
23 of the newly enfranchised race,
and even the best were moved by no conceptions of

public policy.
their votes."
p. 50.
81
unselfish]
In nearly
all cases,
they were wholly un-
Charles Sumner, Speech in the Senate, Works, Vol. 11,
See,
Washington, Frederick Douglass, pp. 278-80. also, Negro Year Book for lists of these Negro politicians
of Reconstruction days. 28 "Beverly Nash, for many years the leader in the Senate and on the Bancroft, The stump, had been a boot-black and a hotel porter." Negro in Politics, p. 30. Nash was known as "a five thousand dollar
man," that being the amount he always asked for

bills.
.
.
his vote
on important
if the Negro knows enough to fight for his country, he knows **"'. enough to vote; if he knows enough to pay taxes to support the government, he knows enough to vote; if he knows as much when sober as an Irishman knows when he is drunk, he knows enough to vote.'" Fred-
erick Douglass.
Quoted by Washington, Frederick Douglass, pp.
258-59.
348
educated,
25
The Mulatto

26
without responsibility,
and devoid of any sense
of public or private honesty. They were, just as they were intended to be, simply a convenient means by which the
white politicians could more easily rob and steal: the Negro was frequently allowed the questionable honor of holding a
political position, while the white politician
27
collected the
plunder.
The end
of the
of the Reconstruction Period
marked an end
Negro as a participant in the local political situation The withdrawal of the Federal in the Southern States.
troops and the restoration of law and order, left them without a vocation or a support ; they had no work or place in In large measure, they left the the life of the society. the period. The Federal government, South at the close of
however, always has been liberal in the bestowal of political offices on the Negro politicians, and a few continued to
exist
throughout the South. The reaccommodation of the races after the war and the
Emancipation, and especially after the period of political reconstruction, took place in accordance with local conditions.
The
difference in different regions was, in the main,
due to the presence of larger or smaller numbers of the unIn regions where assimilated element in the body politic.
the numbers were not great, they could be ignored; the
In the South Carolina Legislature of 1873 for example, many of members could neither read nor write. In Mississippi "the County supervisors were often black, only a few of whom could either read
the
26
or write."
26
Bancroft, The Negro in Politics, pp. 30, 39-40. In the South Carolina Senate 1868, "Only four of the Negro Senators were on the tax books; and they together paid only $2.10. Fiftyeight of the colored representatives paid no taxes." Ibid., p. 22, 27 "After a session or two of apprenticeship under white leaders, many of the Negro officials became adepts in the shameless practices of the
time."
Ibid., pp. 29
ff.
349
greater percentage of Negroes in other regions colored the whole subsequent growth of the community life. At no time or place, however, were the Negroes able to exercise any
marked
influence
on the course of events
they were nowhere
able to modify the attitudes or even the overt acts of the dominant group. The policy or lack of policy was everywhere dictated by the white race. On the side of the Ne-
groes,
it
was marked by their accommodation to a
social
policy which they were not able to control or modify. The policy has varied from time to time and from place to place,
but
it
has done so without consulting the wishes of the Ne-
The single universal fact has been the consistent groes. denial of social equality to members of the race.
In the South, the emancipation of the Negro was followed by a prolonged period of unfortunate doctrinaire experi-
mentation which retarded a reaccommodation between the

races that held
faction.
any promise of permanence or mutual

its
satis-
The
first effect
groes realized
of the emancipation, once the Neactuality, was a complete and profound
economic, social, and moral disorganization of the Negro people. The white South was confronted with the problem
the
of adjusting the relations of the races in conformity with There was changed economic and legal conditions.
no precedent to guide them.
Nowhere had two such races
ever arrived at mutually satisfactory working relations on any other basis than that of superiority and subordina-
Slavery of the one by the other was the only adjustment that ever had worked. The natural difficulty of the problem was made yet more
tion.
difficult
by the period of punishment
visited
on the South
in
the decade following the
War.
The promise
grants of land and other property by the property of the white South and its redistribution
of government the confiscation of
among
350
The Mulatto
the late slaves, intensified the general economic disorganization resulting from the war and the emancipation of the
slaves, and spread among the Negroes a general discontent with their condition and a disinclination to improve it by
any
real
and continued
effort.
28
The
efforts to
improve
the Negroes' condition by means of a fashionable literary education, diverted some of the best energies of the race
from the simpler and more important forms of education,

produced a
class of superficially educated
any useful work among their people. number of these, like the increase of the uneducated
riff-raff,
men unfitted The increase in
for
the
idle
29 The aggravated the friction between the races. efforts of the missionaries and others to bring about a revo-
lution in the Negroes' character and in the inter-racial social life, inflamed their social ambitions and alienated the sym-
pathy of the whites. The enfranchisement of the blacks prevented any normal division of opinion on matters of a
public social nature. The paramount need of bending every effort toward the preservation of their civilization retarded
progress toward a permanent and mutually satisfactory ad30 The result of this period was justment between the races.
the almost complete destruction of the mutually sympathetic feelings which so generally had characterized the relations
of the races during the slave period. 31 As time went on, such friendlly association as survived the Reconstruction
days
88
principally that between the older slaves
and the
W.
L. Fleming, "Forty Acres and a Mule," North American Review,
Vol. 182, pp. 721-37.

ffl
McCord, The American Negro as a Dependent, Defective and DelinBruce, "Race Segregation in the United
States,"
quent, p. 65.
80
Hibbert Jour-
nal, Vol. 13, p. 868.
"McCord, The American Negro

quent, p. 18.
as a Dependent, Defective and Delin-

older slave masters
351
became
generation of both races
The younger less and less. had not the body of sentiment to
it
withstand the
32
crisis
those of a later generation lacked
After a decade, the mechanics and skilled altogether. workmen in all industrial and domestic lines who had received their training under the slave regime, began to disappear or to become too old for further effective employ-
ment. 33
The new education had
trained no younger ones
to take their places.
decline in the Negroes' condition
was inevitable;
cial
all through the period of political and soand of classical education, the race lost agitation ground. It was in the eighties that the Northern political,
educational, and religious tutelage of the post-bellum period was coming to fruitage. 34
In the meanwhile, however, there were other forces at
work making for an adjustment of the races in accordance with the character of the two races and in response to the
entire body of Negroes, under middle age, have not even a tradition among them of that kindly intercourse between the master and his bondsmen which did so much to smooth away the harsher features of slavery in its practical working. They cannot understand the feeling of loyalty which made their fathers the faithful protectors of the Southern white women and children when all the white men had been
M "The
enrolled in the armies of the Confederacy." Bruce, Hibbert Journal, Vol. 13, p. 870. This loyalty of the slave to his former master is a
thing that frequently does not fall within the comprehension of the present generation of mulattoes. Benjamin Brawley, one of the most capable of the present generation of mulattoes, discussing with considerable insight the recent fiction dealing with Negro characters, is
unable to grasp the fact that a Negro of exceptional type should have preferred to remain with the old master. See, "The Negro in American
Fiction," Dial, Vol. 60, pp. 445-50, especially the criticism of
"Abraham's
Freedom" (Atlantic, 9-1912), pp. 448-49. 88 Booker T. Washington, The Future of

ter 3.
84
the
American Negro, ChapWorld,

p. 40S.
Sir
Harry H. Johnston, The Negro
in the
New
352
The Mulatto
influences of the
common environment.
There was slowly
growing up a body of industrious, law-abiding, and selfrespecting Negroes, and with their increase in number, in
wealth, and in self-respect, they were assuming a growing importance in the affairs of the race. Previous to the Emancipation, there was throughout the South a goodly number of property-owning free Negroes with a respected position
in the life of the
community.
of
emancipation following government distributed among them a considerable amount of property and, in addition to this Federal aid, there was
the plunder which in many of the states came to the race 33 during the period of Negro domination in political affairs.
the
In the decades immediately the Negroes, the Federal
M or had settled down elsewhere and had plantations, begun to lead a frugal and industrious life, to educate their children
and otherwise to make a common
their
After the war, and especially after the Reconstruction Period, a goodly number of Negroes had returned to their
condition. 37
38
The
conditions
sense effort to improve of life were absurdly
easy.
Any
industrious and sober
man
could, as the re-
sult of a few years' labor, become possessed of sufficient 85 In only a few cases, however, were the Negro politicians sufficiently shrewd to save the fortunes accumulated through theft and corruption
during the period of Negro domination. "Nicholas Worth, Autobiography, p. 14. * For the most part these were men who had received an industrial education under the slave regime. See Washington, "The Story of the Negro," Outlook, Vol. 93, p. 311. 88 "It was easy to live in the South. The mild climate and fertile soil, the abundance of game in forest and stream, the bountiful supply
of wild
fruits, the accessibility
of forests with firewood free to
all,
the
openhanded generosity and universal carelessness of living made it possible for the average Negro to idle away at least half his time and yet live in tolerable comfort." G. S. Winston, "The Relations of the Whites to the Negroes." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, July, 1901.
Role of the Mulatto
in
the United States
353
land and other property to make him independent of the
wage system. An honest, industrious, and useful Negro citizenship was the desire of the white South and every Negro who showed a disposition to improve his condition received the encouragement and assistance of the better
39 class of white men.
In spite of all this, however, the growth of the middle-class was abnormally slow 40 but there gradually emerged a body of men within the race possessed
;
of a
little
property and of an ambition to accumulate

forces chiefly responsible for the rise of this
more.
The two
racially
independent middle-class, and a consequent new adjustment of the races, were the growth of the agricultural and industrial education for the Negro and the segre41 gation of the Negro by the whites.
The whole movement
to develop an industrially-educated, land-owning, law-abiding, and decent-living Negro group among the blacks, usu-
thought of in connection with the name of Booker T. Washington, was the result of an effort on the part of the
ally
South and some of the saner leaders among the Negro people to make the Negro see and grasp his oppor42 The movement was based on the wreck of the tunity.
white
So general was the assistance of Southern white men to the amand law-abiding Negro that Mr. Washington, himself the best representative of this growing middle-class, says that almost every successful man of the race can trace his success to the assistance of some white neighbor or friend. The Story of the Negro, Vol. 2, pp. 35 ff. 40 Ibid., Vol. 2, Chapter 2, "The Rise of the Negro Land-Owner," gives the most favorable statement of the case that can be made. 41 These two main forces were, of course, assisted or modified by various minor factors operating locally. 43 "A very weak argument often used against pushing industrial training for the Negro is that the Southern white man favors it, and therefore, it is not best for the Negro." Washington, The Future of the American Negro, p. 64.
bitious
89
354
The Mulatto
to
earlier efforts
improve the condition of the Negroes. Classical education for the race was everywhere recognized
43 to have failed.
The
citizenship that
had been given them
had proved their detriment. 44 The campaign for social equality had been even more injurious to the Negroes and had proved even more of a failure. 45 The discussion of the Negroes' political status had served only to alienate the
sympathy of the white man without resulting in any gain to the Negroes. 46 Antagonizing the white man, bewailing the fate of the Negroes, and blaming others for their pitiable
47 The industrial condition, did not improve the situation. movement was based on a recognition of the facts and a
knowledge of the conditions.
There was a frank recognition of the failure of the earlier program, an honest admission 48 an honest admission of the Negroes' defects of character,
of the fact that the Negroes lacked not opportunity so much as energy and intelligence to take advantage of their
opportunities; there was a recognition that cooperation between the races was necessary if the Negroes were to
48
where failed to produce satisfactory
Just as the ideal of literary training for primitive people has everyresults. "The defect of a primarily
literary training lies in the fact that it distracts attention from the real intellectual needs of a race. ... It ordinarily leads to a dangerous half-
education implying a well-trained memory but an undeveloped judg." ment, together with an overweening self-confidence and vanity.
. .
Paul
44 45
S. Reinsch, Colonial Administration, pp. 49-50.
Washington, The Future of the American Negro, p. 65. Booker T. Washington, "Let Down Your Buckets Where You Are," Address delivered at the Cotton States Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia, September 18, 1895. Reprinted in Booker T. Washington, Up From
Slavery: Autobiography, pp. 217-37. "Hubert H. Bancroft, The New Pacific, pp. 606-7.
4T
48
Evans, Black and White in the Southern States, pp. 205-6. See Edward Ingle, The Negro in the District of Columbia, Evans, Black and White in the Southern States, pp. 204-5.
p. 42.

)rove themselves desirable
355
members of society. 49 It was a novement from within the race and the section of the counry affected.
Washington and Tuskegee were selected to symbolize the novement which has come to be the most important factor
Forking for the development of the Negro. The movement iclped to build up a self-respecting and useful group of
and the work or of their color. 50 t did, in a constructive and positive way, what the policy 51 if The Negro segregation was doing in a negative way. To to buy land and to assume a fixed habitation. >egan ;he extent that he did so, he became an independent and iclf-respecting man and an asset to the community in which
uccessful farmers, mechanics, tradesmen, teachers,
ike
who were not ashamed
of their
le lived.
52
As
this self-respecting class

it
vealth,
;he
and importance,
grew in numbers, formed the nucleus about which
\s the spirit of race pride
was the basis for a nationality. and race consciousness and pride >f accomplishment increased, there was an increasing tend:ncy to race separation and consequently to the developrace could unite.
It
nent of the bi-racial type of adjustment.

;he
Meanwhile, and from a diametrically opposite direction, policy of segregation operated to build up an independ-
)f
nt Negro group. The segregation of the Negroes in many the relations of life had, at the desire of the Negroes
48
McCord, The American Negro as a Defective, Dependent and Delin125.
\uent, p.
80
The opponents of Mr. Washington deny
that there
is
"scintilla
evidence to show that the increase in these ventures and in property >wning by Negroes is due solely or even mainly to the influence of in>f
lustrial
and agricultural education." V. P. Thomas, The Crisis, July, 913, p. 145. 51 Booker T. Washington, The Story of the Negro, Vol. 1, p. 31. 82 See Evans, Black and White in the Southern States, p. 204.
356
The Mulatto
themselves, taken place long before the Emancipation. With the freedom of the slaves came more voluntary segregation
of the
in
and, as the South began to recover from the financial effects War and the Reconstruction, came legal separation
more and more
lines.
With
the disappearance of the
older generation of slaves and slave-masters and the appearance of a newer generation containing many idle, insolent,
tion of the races

tion.
and dangerously criminal Negroes, the legal separawas adopted as a matter of police protecavoid the constant conflicts resulting
It served to
from the contact of the rougher classes of the two races. 53 It kept apart the ignorant and the vicious of the two races and so made for harmony in the racial life of the com54 Residential segregation always had been the rule, munity. but the desire to get away from the rougher and more ig-
norant classes and to be among the whites led certain prosperous and ambitious Negroes and mulattoes to move into
white residential districts.
Whether
the motives impelling
such actions on the part of the Negroes was a desire to assert their equality with the whites, or the perfectly laudable desire to live in better localities and to get their children away from the moral dangers which surrounded the
predominantly Negro
districts, their presence
was equally
offensive to the white residents.
The uniform
result of such
actions on the part of the Negroes was the withdrawal of

the whites, the consequent depreciation in the value of the property, and the section becoming a Negro settlement.
Legal residential segregation grew up
in
order to restrain,
63 In New Orleans, for example, where there existed a large number of free mulattoes, separate accommodations were provided long before
the
War. McCord, The American Negro as a Dependent, Defective and
Delin-
quent, p. 273.
357
mulattoes
not the mass of the race but the ambitious Negroes and who desired to escape from the race and associate with,
and
live
among, the whites.
the practice of racial segregation spread, it was presently seen that, in some ways at least, it was proving a It kept the race together, prereal help to the Negroes.
individuals.
As
vented the loss by the race of its superior and talented It forced the Negroes back upon themselves,
forced them to rely more upon themselves and less upon the whites, and it forced them to develop and to manage
their
own
institutions
life.
economic
55
As they were forced
and to develop their own social and to become more self-
dependent, they gained in self-confidence and consequently In a negative way, the practice of segrein self-respect.
gation combined with the industrial and agricultural educational policy to build
up an independent and
self-reliant
peasantry and middle-class group. Before the Negroes lay the greatest economic opportunity ever offered to the peasantry of any country in the world. sought to impress this fact
The educational
the race
;
leaders
upon
the segregation
policy forced the Negroes to embrace the opportunity before them. To the extent that the Negroes became settled
and industrious, they became prosperous. As they became prosperous they became contented, law-abiding, and valuin the community. Consequently, the segregation was further extended and advocated, 56 not alone as policy a defensive measure and because of the harmony it gave in
able
men
the affairs of the races, but as the most effective legal

M E. G. Murphy, The Schools of the People. Evans, Black and White in the Southern States, p. 156. "Frequently by the Negroes. For example: "Let us as a race not
wait for the Caucasian to force us but
let
every particular.
The white man has suggested
us segregate voluntarily in it and now let us fol-
358
The Mulatto
method, so far discovered, to help the Negroes to help themselves.
the growth of a middle-class, chiefly through the operation of these two factors, and its increase in numbers
With
in
and
importance
in the affairs of the race, there is
coming
to be a
new and a radically
different type of adjustment
between the races in the South. 57
This new adjustment

lines.
tends to be a bi-racial one: a vertical division on race
The two
races are separate in all those relations where opportunity for conflict seems likely to arise between indi-
vidual members, and in
all
things social or that remotely
imply
social equality.
They have separate
Their residence districts are apart. accommodations when they travel.
Their schools, churches, lodges, and places of entertainment

its
and amusement are separate and distinct. Each race has own organizations, and manages its own affairs. They
cooperate or oppose each other as races on matters affecting the relations of the races. In matters of mutual concern, a conference between the representatives or leaders
of the
two races arranges for cooperative
action.
Each
is
held responsible for the individual behavior of the members of its own group. They may work for the same ends, inde-
pendently but cooperatively

low
it
except, however, in the strictly
to get together, if
His prescription [proscription?] and boycotting will help us we have an ounce of race pride." The Conservative Counselor, Waco, Texas, 9-2-1915. See, also, "Editorial Comment," The
up.
Afro-American, Baltimore, Maryland, 12-11-1915. This view is of course almost as superficial as that of the militant mulattoes who violently oppose every tendency toward segregation. Both are surface views. The real ground on which the policy is to be defended, from the Negroes' point of view, is indicated below. See pp. 390 if. Residential segregation was declared unconstitutional by a ruling of the United States Supreme Court 11-5-1917.
67
The
bi-racial
adjustment
is
of course not anywhere complete;
it
is
in the process of becoming.
359
business relation of employer and employee, the races need not come into contact ; they remain separate groups. They
live
a life apart, beside each other and yet separate in all the affairs of social and community life.
The
bi-racial
arrangement
from the whites and

affairs of life
the separation of the Negroes their independence in many of the
superior
men
of the race.
created a need and supplied a place for the Under the earlier conditions, the
Negroes had looked to the whites as the superior and educated class and depended upon them for advice and leadership; they uniformly preferred the services of white professional and business men to the services of the professional
and business men of their own race. To the extent that the races became separated and the Negroes gained in independence and developed a sense of racial pride and selfreliance, there was a place for an educated class within the
race
teachers and preachers, for physi; there was a need for cians and lawyers, for business men and entertainers, and for all the host of other parasitic and semi-parasitic classes
that go to make up a modern community. With the rise of a middle-class, the race was able to support a profes-
and leisure class previously the educated Negro was and a parasite. The isolation of the race forced the Negroes to depend upon their own educated men and
sional
;
an
so
idler
made a place
for such men.
Within the Negro group and catering to their own people, the men superior by nature, by virtue of education,
because of special training, because of natural shrewdness, because of the possession of property or by virtue of the possession of the elements of natural leadership, became the
leaders of the race.
The separation of the races freed the professional and business men from the competition Negro of the better trained and more efficient white men and con-
360
The Mulatto
sequently gave them an opportunity to rise out of all proportion to their native ability and training. The plane of
ceed.
competition became one on which they could hope to sucThe older the slave and reconstruction plan of ad-
justment
white
man was
It
was an accommodation on horizontal lines. The at the top, the black man was at the botrise of
tom.
was a caste distinction that prevented the
In the newer arthe capable individual out of his group. rangement, the opportunity to rise was limited only by
the ability and the industry of the individual man.
There
was no superior caste above him.
As has been previously pointed out in detail, the superior men of the race are, with scarcely the proverbial exception, The segregation of the Negroes, the rise of mulattoes. 58
a middle-class, and the consequent bi-racial adjustment of the races thus have made a place and furnished a vocation
for the mulattoes.
Unable to escape the race and unable
to constitute a caste above the race, they remained with the race and became its real leaders. 59 They are the professional and business men of the race. They are the
leaders in all the racial
racial
and
inter-racial affairs.
The
bi-
arrangement gives the mulatto the opportunity for a useful life and, at the same time, it allows him to remain
R. Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, p. 94. Although resenting a classification which they consider illogical and unnatural, they have never been given any choice in the matter
J.
".
68
and they have,

is
at last,
come to acquiesce
in the
the result?
'colored'
no personal have done. The (mulatto) class, which contains the most intelligent and ambitious men of the race, has deliberately thrown its lot with the black, and set itself to the task of educating and training them for the great ." W. P. Livingstone, "The struggle which they believe is to come.
. .
It is leading to the unification of all inclination or mutual persuasion could
arrangement. What A fro- Americans as
West Indian and

185, p. 646.
the
American Negro," North American Review, Vol.
Role of the Mulatto

superior to his black fellows.
in
the United States
361
These Southern mulatto leaders, however, are men who,

at least outwardly, consider themselves Negroes. 60 They are men who have given up, in practice if not in theory, the hopeless struggle for social recognition by the whites
and
identified
is
status
fixed
themselves with the black group. 61 they are members of the Negro race.
Their
Social
equality with the whites is out of the question and the deThe success they make nial of it ceases to disturb them.
in life is in
another direction and the amount of
it
depends
if
upon
themselves.
They are men who have
concealed,
they
have not succeeded in overcoming, their aversion for the black man. They do not openly flaunt their superiority
because of their white blood, and they find their life and their work among their darker and more backward fellows.
The
in this
mulattoes, for the most part Southern mulattoes, have, new adjustment of the races, found their place as
the real and natural leaders of the race.
They are
and
pulpits,
rise to
the
men who teach
the black
man
in the schools
in the
Negro colleges, who preach to him from the manage his banks and business enterprises, who
inence in
all
who
prom-
the social, political, and economic affairs of
80 "I love my people and prefer to live among them. I am not ashamed of being a Negro." C. V. Roman, "Racial Self-respect and Racial Antagonism," Atlanta Congress, 1913, p. 445. 61 The condition of the mulatto or educated Negro who has not yet
reached this point in his development appears everywhere in the writings there is to my mind no more of the mulattoes. For example: ". pathetic side to this many sided question than the isolated position into
. .
which are forced the very colored people who most need and could best appreciate sympathetic cooperation; [the educated and upper classes] and their position grows tragic when the effort is made to couple them, whether or no, with the Negroes of the first class I mentioned [the lower classes]." Johnson, The Autobiography of an Ex-colored Man,
p. 78.
The Mulatto
the race.
They, too, are the men who rob and defraud him
in the lodges,
who grow wealthy, through appealing
to the
Negro's desire to be like the white man, with nostrums to blanch the skin and straighten the hair, who gain wealth
to,
and distinction among their race by fostering, and catering the Negro's morbid interest in and superstitious feai But whethe of death and love of vulgar funeral display. they guide and help the black man or fatten on his gulli
bility,
they are in every respect the prominent men of th race and the leaders in the race's social affairs. Whethe:
they are engaged in robbing the black man, preaching t( him, healing his sick or burying his dead, and in spite o
their concealed dislike
and
their
contempt for the degradec
black man, the mulattoes are endeavoring to raise him t< a higher mental, moral, and industrial plane. The organization takes on the form of a primary grou]
relation.
From
the similarity of
life
and
activities,
come
a similarity of sentiments and ideas. The mulattoes am other superior men become an integral part of the race, de sirous of a respected place in the thoughts of the grouf
and ambitious for an honored place

mulatto
feels
in its counsels.
Th
cooperation of
himself in alliance with the group and in th common activities there arises a sympa
thetic understanding
latto, in sentiments
and appreciation which
fuses the
mi
and attitudes, with the larger whoL He is identified with the black group, feels the mute lon ing of the common folk, feels himself a part of it, is moulde by it, and comes, little by little, to realize himself as factor in the common life and purpose of the group. H
ceases to be, in thought and feeling, a stranger among h people; he learns to appreciate them, ceases to be ashame
of his relationship to them, ceases to resent being classe
with them.
Their problems become
his
problems
their
lif

his life.
363
The mulatto
thus ceases to be a problem within

life
a problem; he becomes a functioning unit in the social

of an evolving people. In the South, as elsewhere
among
the
Negro people, the
mulattoes enjoy a prestige because of their color; the NeThe condigroes readily accept them as superior men.
Negroes are decidedly easier in the other sections of the country and this is especially the case for the mulattoes and other men of busi62 To the extent that they ness and professional training.
tions of life for the
South than
in
do a work for the good of the race and live an honest and industrious life, they are helped by the white man and do not have to meet his competition. Race prejudice and discrimination are less clearly manifested than in sections of the country where the struggle for professional existence is somewhat more severe, and where the tolerance of
racial shortcomings
42
'
63
is
less
evident.
There
is
no lack of
Southern Northin
It is to be
remembered, of course, that
in competition, the
trained
Negro has proven
his equality if not his superiority to the
ern trained Negro. See G. E. Haynes, The> Negro at York City, pp. 50 if.
63
Work
New
E. R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, p. 149. Editorial, The Free Lance, 11-6-1915. "Despite evidences of racial friction which crop out here and there,
the relations existing between the individual Negro and the individual white man are often closer and better understood and more sympathetic than
those obtaining in any community outside of the South." Booker T. Washington, The Southern Workman, quoted from the Chi-
cago Defender, 12-19-1914. "For years after the war the North went into a frenzy, especially during political campaigns, over outrages, real and alleged, upon their
In the North to-day the Negro colored fellow-citizens in the South. has less chance to gain a livelihood above the very humblest levels than he had twenty-five years ago, and only in rare instances does education
beyond the prime essentials Boston Traveller, 11-15-1915.
benefit
him
in
his
struggles
upward."
364
The Mulatto
in
the United States
opportunity. There are fewer men in proportion to the number of the race who are trained and it is proportionately
easier for the men of a little training and ability to rise to positions of importance within the group. The superior education of the mulattoes qualifies them for leadership;
their superior ambition
them to the
front.
The
and greater self-confidence pushes mulatto, even though only slightly
superior, is assured of success once he has cast his lot with His role on the Southern situation is the Negro people. the role of leadership.
The
one ;
The
of course, a peculiarly difficult the Negroes do not readily follow their own best leaders. mass of the Negroes are ignorant, untrained in selfrole of leadership
is,
direction,
and not awake to the importance of
self-help
and
cooperative association.
liable
They
are pretty generally unre-
bitter
and subconsciously recognize their own unreliability; experience has made them more suspicious and dis-
trustful of their
ousies
own race than
of the white.
Petty jeal-
the leaders themselves are continually breakout into factional strife. Public spirit and pride of race ing is still more a hope of certain individuals than a realiza-
among
the problem of the leaders of the race to organize this ignorant and distrustful peasant people, replace a bizarre idea of education by saner ones,
tion of the masses.
It
is
teach them the need of industry and morality, and lead them to a respect for, and a belief in, their own race.
In those sections of the country where the Negroes are relatively less numerous, they have in general not been
legally assigned a definite racial status in the
life.
community
No
special provisions have been
made
for their edu-
cation.
dence.
There are no restrictions on their place of resiThey are free to intermarry and otherwise associate
diff erent racial
with individuals of a
extraction to the extent
365
There has been a refusal of their desire and opportunity. on the part of the white people to recognize publicly the presence of the Negroes as constituting a problem distinct
from other
social
problems of the community
life.
64
The
policy has been rather to ignore their presence and to leave
them to accommodate themselves individually as best they

Ostensibly at least, they stand on the same legal and social footing as other members of the population.
may
to the social situation.
As a consequence of the absence of any restrictive or other legislation applying particularly to the Negro people, their greater individual freedom of choice and action, there
is
less definite
and uniform accommodation between the
races and more of individual variation from the usual mode.
The
conditions of
is
There
however, are markedly more difficult. more of prejudice and active discrimination in
life,
economic and industrial relations.
The
individual relations
between members of the races are in general marked by less of personal friendliness ; there is not the good-natured
expectation of inefficiency and toleration of shiftlessness which marks the relations of the races in the South. 65 The
Negro
ard of
is
in individual competition with
men
of the other
race, and, in general, he has to

efficiency
and
reliability
measure up to their standin order to secure and
retain employment. therefore, there is
more
bitterness,
Among the Negro people of the North, more failure, dissatisfaction, complaint, more enforced idleness, more distress, pov-
erty, and crime than in those sections of the country where the Negroes do not come into direct individual competition
64
It has not,
of course, been possible to
live
up
to
any such theory.
See the Negro Year Book, pp. 365-67. 65 This is due in large part to the fact that in the North the Negro is in the city, whereas in the South he is more generally a rural man.
366
The Mulatto
in
the United States
with better trained and more energetic and ambitious rivals. Among those who have succeeded, however, there are more
examples of conspicuous individual success, as measured by white standards, than where the competition is racial and not individual. The struggle for success is more difficult, the failures are more numerous, but the rewards of
success are greater.
There
is
among
the Negroes in the
North an absence
of
unity and race solidarity.
The numbers
of the race are
relatively small, widely scattered, unorganized,
and without
predominantly an urban population and stands for the most part as a population of unskilled laborers dependent for the means of livelihood upon
interest.
a common
It
is
Their tendency to congregate in one white employers. 66 or a few sections of the cities and towns gives an appearance
of unity which in reality does not exist; the residential segregation is a matter of economic necessity rather than a matter of choice. The race is divided into innumerable
antagonistic groups, societies, orders, factions, cliques, and
what not, endless in number and puzzling in complexity, whose mutual jealousy and distrust prevent any united, cooperative action. There is no leadership that has any considerable following and no program for racial progress that has the assent of more than a faction of the Negro group;
there
is
the group
nothing to hold the various factions together and is without any semblance of organized unity.
The superior men of the race, even more than in the There is not, certainly, always a South, are mulattoes. and complete separation; there are occasional blacks sharp
among
68
the educated section and by no means
all
the mu-
See, for example, A. P. Comstock, "Chicago Housing Conditions: VI. The Problem of the Negro," The American Journal of Sociology,
Vol. 18, pp. 241-57.

lattoes are in the non-laboring classes.
367
But
the occupa-
tional differentiation
is pretty complete. Speaking generthe successful group is a light-colored group, while ally, the great uneducated mass is dark. Moreover, the individ-
uals
who have
any
risen
cess in
line are,
markedly above their fellows in sucwith rarely an exception, mulattoes.
successful professional and business man are in almost every case men of mixed blood and generally men of relaThe same thing is true of tively little Negro admixture.
The
the men prominent in every line of work. In education, the mulattoes are almost the only members of the Negro community who avail themselves of the school opportunities
beyond the legal minimum.
The prominent and educated

and
intellec-
men and women

group
of the race are mulattoes and the mulatto
as a whole occupies a higher economic
tual status than do the darker colored groups.

are, however, in spite of their education and position, without a definite role in superior the inter-racial life of the community. More than in the
The Northern mulattoes
in fact
Southern section of the country, the mulattoes are separated and in sympathy from the mass of the race. They
their "better" hair
are proud of their European blood, their smoother features, and their higher economic status ; they
are not always careful to conceal the fact. Frequently live apart from the Negro community, find their social they
life
among
others of their kind, attend white churches or
form congregations of their own class and color. 67 The upper class mulattoes are frequently without much acquaintness
ance with the real Negroes. In their professional or busilife, they are separated from the mass of the race and
into very little contact with them even in a busiw See E. H. Abbott, "The South and the Negro," The Outlook, Vol. 77, pp. 367 ff.
come often
368
ness way.
The Mulatto
in
ilie
United States
Their idea of the Negro and their attitude tois
ward him,
the idea and the attitude of the white man.
The attitude is one of more or less kindly toleration and mild contempt which changes to active discrimination and positive hatred when the Negro assumes the attitude of an
In their equal and seeks the privilege of social equality. public utterances the Negro may be idealized, but there is
no desire or disposition on the part of the mulatto to have
any intimate association with him. Yet the mulattoes assume the role of spokesman for the race; they undertake to represent the Negro and to speak
Their superior education, their higher economic for him. status as well as their greater individual success, and their more prominent position give plausibility to their assumption of leadership
closer to the race
and allow them, rather than men who are and better able to voice the feelings and
attitudes of the inarticulate mass, to get themselves accepted as representatives of the Negroes. They appear as chamof the Negro at all times when there is profit or notopions
by so doing. They make incendiary draw up petitions and protests, appear before legislative and executive committees as the representatives of a people they only imperfectly represent. They are the men Mr. Washington had in mind when he wrote: 68
riety to be gained
speeches,
there are others who claim that the Negro is The latter insist that, if he had the too submissive. to stand up and denounce his detractors in the courage same harsh and bitter terms that these persons use toward him, in a short time he would win the respect of the world, and the only obstacle to his progress would be removed.
.
. .
It
88
is
interesting, sometimes amusing,

1,
and sometimes
The Story of the Negro, Vol.
pp. 190-91.
369
even pathetic, to note the conception of "bravery" and "courage" which some colored men, who put their faith in this solution of the Negro problem, occasionally apply to other members of their race. For a long time after freedom came, and the same is not infrequently true at the present time, any black man who was willing, either in print or in public speech, to curse and abuse the white man, easily gained for himself a reputation of great courage. He might spend thirty minutes or an hour once a year in that kind of "vindication" of his race, but he got the reputation of being an exceedingly brave man. Another man, who worked patiently and persistently for years in a Negro school, depriving himself of many of the comforts and necessities of life, in order to perform a service which would
no reputation for courage. On the contrary, he was likely to be denounced as a coward by the "heroes," because he chose to do his work withuplift his race, gained
out cursing, without abuse, and without complaint.

of the present-day discussion of interrace matters, the agitations for social and political rights and privileges, the fulminations against discriminations,
The larger part
the exaggerations of real and fancied wrongs, is not the work of Negroes. It is a small, widely scattered, lightcolored and largely deracialized group of mulattoes who have
not found their place in the bi-racial community life who refuse to be Negroes and are refused the opportunity to be white whose sentiments and attitudes find expression in
the present-day agitations.
The
bitter, abusive tone of so
much present-day Negro

tude of the Negro
bitterness.
;
literature does not voice the atti-
the real
Negro
The rank and
file
remarkably free from are intimately concerned with

is
the daily problem of earning a living; they accept the social situation and their place therein more as a matter of fact
than as a hardship.
The abstract
rights for which certain
370
individuals
The Mulatto
and groups within the race contend interest them very little or not at all. The Negroes have given very 69 A nalittle support to the so-called radical movements.
tive
common
sense leads
of the futility
them to a half-conscious recognition of systematically antagonizing the race upon
which they are so largely dependent. The trend of sentiment has been away from, rather than towards, an advocacy of rights and privileges which they are not in a position to
demand and which the opposite race seems less and less inThere has been a pretty genclined to bestow upon them. eral acceptance by the more intelligent Negroes in all sections of the country of the Southern point of view. The agitations of the mulatto groups and individuals
are,
70
for obvious reasons, carried on in the
name
of the
Negro, not in the name of the mulatto. The ends to be reached are such as concern the real Negroes very little. The agitations voice the bitterness of the superior mulattoes, of the deracialized
men
of education, culture,
and
re-
finement
edict that
resent and rebel against the intolerant social excludes them from white society and classes them with the despised race. The demands resolve themselves in last analysis into
who
a demand that
all
race distinc-
tions be blotted out

basis
and that each man be accepted on the

race or
of his
individual merit irrespective of his
*The
and the
9,500.
National Association for the Advancement of the Colored Peosocial ambitions
ple, the chief
present-day association concerned with the political rights of the Negroes, claims a membership of only
persons.
this membership many, perhaps the great majority, are white Certainly the organization has always been financed and largely managed by white persons. See The Crisis, 3-1916, p. 225. 70 Many leading Negroes who were earlier identified with the move-
Of
ment
in opposition to the policies of Booker T. Washington, later went over to the constructive point of view. See, for e.g., John Daniels, In
Freedom's Birthplace,
p.
128.

color.
71
371
The result of the adoption of such a policy would of course, to allow the exceptional men of the race, that be, is the mulattoes, to escape from it and be accepted by and
absorbed into the white race.
The demands
of the militant
mulattoes thus amount to a plea for special privilege; it is a plea for themselves and not for the Negroes. They ask the opportunity to escape from the race toward which they
much the same prejudice as does the white man. They are Negroes only by compulsion. The inter-racial situation in the North is thus, in very The mulattoes are the large part, a caste arrangement.
feel
superior
clusive
men and form, or tend

above the race.
class
to form, a separate and exThey assume the role of
it
spokesman for the race but they are not an integral part of as are the mulatto leaders of the South. The Negroes resent, more or less, the mulattoes' assumption of superiorand their presuming to speak for a race with whom they neither live nor associate. At the same time, it is the
ity
desire of every ambitious
Negro to secure admittance
to
the more exclusive circles and to escape from the black group. The mulattoes are rather outside the race, above
it.
whites
life
the hope of equality with the are not satisfied to be Negroes and to find their they and their work among the members of the race. They
They have not given up

;
are contemptuous of the blacks who are socially below them and envious of the whites who are socially above them. The
accommodation of the races

blacks and the whites.
is
on horizontal
lines
with the
educated and light-colored mulattoes standing between the
of permanence.
71
The arrangement, however, seems The realization of

See, for example, "Editorial,"
to lack the elements
the mulattoes' ambiAlso,
The
Crisis, 2-1914, pp. 186-87.
Katherine B. Davis, The
Crisis, 6-1914, pp. 83-84.
372
tion
is
The Mulatto
dependent upon a change of attitude on the part of Their recognition of the mulatto the white population. as superior to the black Negro would insure the permanence of the mulatto caste; it would give it a recognized 72 Their granting of the demands for place in the society.
a complete removal of all distinctions based on race or color would allow the escape from the race of the superior
and light colored individuals. 73

rebellious
But curiously enough the

against the
attitude
of
the militant mulattoes
habitual attitude of the white group and their agitations against discriminations, whether carried on by themselves
or by their white sympathizers, which have for their real though seldom openly avowed and sometimes not consciously
understood purpose the allowing of the superior, educated mulattoes to escape from the Negro race and to be absorbed their protests and complaints and caminto the white race paigns of bitterness and abuse have an effect quite different from that desired.
It tends to defeat its
profijt
and works ultimately to the
of
own object 74 the Negro group as a
whole rather than to that of the protesting group. Instead of influencing the white man to recognize the mulattoes as
a superior type of man and to accept them on a rating different from that on which he accepts the mass of the race as an individual regardless of race or color the effect
is
to identify the complaining individuals
more
closely with
the masses of the race; it tends to solidify the race and, in the thinking of the white man, to class the agitators with it. Its effect is not to break down the white man's antipathy
and prejudice, but to make the

72
feeling
more acute and

See pp. 331-35
to
T3
The Jamaican The Brazilian
solution of the race problem.
alcove.
74
solution of the problem. See pp. 320-24 above. fact frequently recognized by the Negroes themselves. See, for
2-2-1916.
e.g.,
The Kansas (City) Elevator (A Negro Paper),
373
make more conscious and
distinct the determination of the
white people to preserve their ideals of racial and social 75 It results in a stricter and a more conscious purity.
and purposeful drawing of the color line and a drawing of In the the line where it had previously not been drawn. effort to escape the race, the mulattoes become more than
ever identified with
ists
it.
76
The segregation
policy which ex-
in all lines everywhere in the South and less openly and frankly but frequently not less effectively in the North wherever the Negroes are numerous and troublesome, is in
large part a reaction on the part of the white people against the militant mulattoes' efforts to achieve social equality
with the whites.
Both the mulattoes and the Negroes stand to profit in the end by the agitation of the radical mulatto group for
social
and
is
class
recognition.
The
struggle for abstract
not productive of any important results in the rights of removing racial prejudice or social discrimination; way it has rather the contrary tendency. But it serves to identify the
mulatto with the race and
this is
an advantage
both to the black and to the yellow man.

are
the
The black Negroes
gainers by having their natural leaders thrust, even though it be against their will, back upon the race. The mulattoes are gainers in that they are thus forced to
and to embrace the great opportunity which the presence of the people of their own race affords them for a useful and a valuable life of real leadership. The horizonsee
75
78
"Race Separation Without Discrimination," Outlook, Vol. 86, p. 576. Evans, Black and White in the Southern States, p. 208. "... I am in grave doubt as to whether the greater part of the fricis
tion in the South

to
Negroes as a
p.
78.
race, or
caused by the whites having a natural antipathy an acquired antipathy to Negroes in certain
Johnson, The Autobiography of an Ex-colored
relations to themselves."
Man,
374
tal
The Mulatto
accommodation
in
the United States
the caste system
of the
North seems
destined ultimately to transform itself, as the earlier caste system of the South has already largely done, into a vertical
accommodation
a bi-racial system.
CHAPTER XIV
SUMMARY: PRESENT TENDENCIES
summarizing
the fact that
this
it
on IN
study, emphasis should be placed has had to do with the mulatto as a
social group rather than as a biological type. Mixture of blood, however important or unimportant it may be in itself, has not been the subject of inquiry and there is no assumption concerning its good or ill effects. But mixture
of blood has been

tions.
made
the basis of class and caste distinc-
and possibly because of their mixed ethnic origin various groups, physically distinguishable because of their mixed ancestry, have appeared, manifest a peculiar psychology and play a disa result of these distinctions
It is with
As
tinctive role in various inter-racial situations.
the status of one of these groups the mulatto in the United with which this study has had principally to do. States
Without predicating or assuming anything with regard to

the inherent mental superiority, inferiority, or equality of members of the mixed-blood group, as compared with either element of their ethnic ancestry, inquiry was made
the
concerning their origin and increase in numbers, their status in the general social situation, and their role in the So far as there has been any inter-racial community life.
unavoidable presupposition concerning inherent mental rahas been the presupposition of approximental possibility among the various human mately equal
cial capacity, it
types and that such inequalities as

375
may
be found existent,
376
The Mulatto
on the culturally or otherwise, are rationally explainable of inferior racial opportunity. assumption
As preliminary to was made of the chief

appeared
in
the main topic of inquiry, a survey

of the mixed-blood groups which have
other bi-racial situations.
This survey was
necessarily brief and,
cerning In general, however,
owing to the scanty, defective and frequently contradictory nature of the data available conthese groups, the conclusions are highly tentative.
it
may
be said that mixed-blood indi-
viduals have appeared everywhere when two racial groups representing different -cultural stages have been brought The size of these mixed-blood groups seems into contact.
to have been dependent upon the races in contact, the relative numbers of the advanced and backward groups, the
presence or absence of women of the advanced group and the class of the advanced in contact with the backward
These mixed-blood groups are everywhere the result of illicit relations between the men of the superior and the
race.
women of the inferior group. Everywhere the women of lower races, if not actually seeking sexual relations with the men of the advanced race, nowhere show any pronounced
The mixed-bloods as a repugnance to such association. have formed, or tended to form, or been group everywhere
formed, into a separate class or caste standing somewhere between the two parent races. Judged from the point of
view of the superior race, they have reached everywhere a social position superior to that of the mother race and
nowhere have they achieved a position of equality with the advanced group. The superior individuals who have appeared among the lower racial groups have been, almost without exception, members of this mixed-blood class. The
ambition of the mixed-bloods seems everywhere an ambition
to be accepted into the advanced race and to escape from
Summary: Present Tendencies

the lower group.
377
Their actual role
in the inter-racial sit-
consequently dependent upon the attitude of the dominant group. Where no social color line has been formally drawn against them, they have tended to identify themselves with the superior race and themselves to draw a
uation
is
color line against

tie
the lower race or else to
serve as a
between the extremes of the population physiological during the process of its reduction to a mongrel unity.
Where
a color line has been drawn against them by the superior group in the population, they everywhere have
tended to form an intermediate caste in the population. Where this caste has been more or less frankly recognized,
it
serves as a harmonizing
group between the population
extremes.
has not been recognized by the superior the caste seldom has been able to maintain itself and race,
it
Where
the
mixed-blood individuals tend to unite their interests
and become an upper-class among, the lower group. Passing, then, to the mulatto in the United States, it was found that the intermixture of the races had gone on during
with,
the whole period that the races have been in contact on
American
This mixture was particularly rapid during soil. the colonial era owing to the scarcity of women of the white race and owing to the fact that the lack of any intolerant
racial prejudice allowed the lower classes to associate,
and
freely intermix, with the Negro women. The mixture probably somewhat decreased during the period of national slavery owing to a bitter hatred that grew up between the
Negroes and the lower-class whites and to the fact that the Negroes were under a stricter control. The intermixture
by statistical measurement to have gone on at a rate somewhat slower than was actually the case owing to the fact that much of it was with the mulatto rather than
also appears
with the black
girls.
Since the Emancipation there has
378
The Mulatto
continued to be a rapid increase in the number of mulattoes. The intermixture of the races in the United States has
been almost exclusively outside the bounds of the marriage .There has been a little intermarriage between the
union.
races, generally between lower-class white
women and Negro
The number of such marriages, however, has been so small as to be entirely negligible in the consideration of race mixture. There has been a much larger
or mulatto men.
amount of concubinage of Negro girls by white men. This form of sex relation was common in some sections during the slave regime and still exists to some extent. The great amount of the intermixture, however, has been of the nature of temporary associations implying absolutely nothing in the way of sentimental attachment on either side and
being in point of fact nothing more than a satisfaction of the physical appetite of the individuals concerned. This
form of association at present is most frequently between girls, on the one hand, arid between 'white men and mulatto girls, on the other.
mulatto men and black
As individuals, the mulattoes always have enjoyed opportunities somewhat greater than those enjoyed by the rank and file of the black Negroes. In slavery days, they were most frequently the trained servants and had the advantages of daily contact with cultured men and women. Many of them were free and so enjoyed whatever advantages went with that superior status. They were considered by the white people to be superior in intelligence to the black Negroes and came to take great pride in the fact of
their white blood.
They developed a tradition of superiThis idea was accepted by the black Negroes and ority. consequently the mulattoes enjoyed a prestige in the Negro
group.
Where possible, they formed a sort of mixed-blood caste and held themselves aloof from the black Negroes and

the slaves of lower station.
379
times in the history of the Negro in America, have been the superior individuals of the race.
all
The
mulattoes, at
Of the score or so of men of first-rate ability which the race has produced, not more than two at the most were Negroes of pure blood. Of the two hundred or so who have made the most noteworthy success in a business or profesall, with less than a dozen exceptions, are Neof mixed blood. Of some two hundred and forty-six groes the most successful and the best known persons, presumably
sional way,
men
the race has produced, at least thirteen-fourteenths of
them are men of mixed blood. Of the list of six hundred and twenty-seven names of persons compiled from the historical and biographical literature and including men of
a distinctly lesser degree of note, only about one-ninth were even of approximately pure blood. The same condition was found to prevail in the examination of compilations
men in the various professional and semipursuits; the professional men of the race are professional nearly all mulattoes as are the men who have succeeded in
of the leading
some form of
artistic or semi-artistic endeavor.
In the
in-
dustrial and business world the same condition prevails ; the men who have made any marked success are found to be
in nearly every case
from the mixed-blood group. It was further found that by taking large numbers of cases from any profession or pursuit and consequently tapping lower
ranges of ability and success, the ratio of black men to muwas increased. The higher the standard of success,
lattoes
This was the lower the per cent of full-blooded Negroes. the case as between different professions and within the ranks of the same profession; the ministry has a much
higher per cent of full-blood Negroes than does the medical or the teaching profession; the higher positions in all the
380
The Mulatto
professions have been reached by mulattoes, very seldom by black Negroes. Speaking generally, the intellectual class of the race is composed of mulattoes; a black man
rather rare exception. The role which these mixed-blood individuals have played in the inter-racial situation has varied with the time and
in the class is a
the place. During the slavery period, they were the superior individuals ; but they were not leaders. In the decade
just preceding the Civil War, a few persons of Negro blood took a minor part in the anti-slavery agitation. During the
Reconstruction Period, they were in some cases used by the white politicians, but had little independent part. After
the
War and the Reconstruction, there was a further separation between the superior mulattoes and the mass of the race; the tendency for them to form a caste within or just
above the Negro group continued. In the North, the mulattoes of education have tended
to be agitators for equal social, civil, They consider the ballot an inherent
and
political rights.
human
right rather
than an earned responsibility; consequently, they do not endeavor to fit the Negroes to meet the requirements of
suffrage, but strive to force the
abandonment of suffrage
In social and civil affairs, they insist that requirements. of treatment is synonymous with identity of treatequality
one of complaint and bitterness. They represent a grievance rather than a policy of constructive work. They emphasize what the law can do for the Negro
ment.
Their
spirit is
and concern themselves very

do for himself.
man
with what the Negro can They assume, moreover, the role of spokesfor the race though, as a whole, they neither understand
little
nor represent the Negro. They do not live with the Negroes; they do not know the Negroes, and, in general, they
do not know the condition of the
race.
They
are widely
381
of the
separated in appearance and in sympathy from the mass Negro people. They are not even in close touch with
the mass of the Negroes in the Northern States. They have not, as yet, found themselves nor their place in the general
social life of the
community.
In the South with the growth of industrial education and the rise of a middle-class within the Negro group, the mulattoes have taken their place as the natural leaders of the
race.
The
bi-racial
adjustment of the races has allowed
of superior ability and of training and has a place for them. These men are, in all but the exprovided ceptional cases, mulattoes and generally men of more white
the rise of
men
than black blood.

latto leaders
is
The teaching
service.
of these
Southern mu-
work and
They emphasize what
the Negroes can do to improve their condition and recognize that they will gain in efficiency and in strength of char-
acter by overcoming obstacles. They are close to the Negro; they are content to be classed with the race. They
have abandoned any hope they may have entertained of They have their work and their place. being white men.
Their social and consequently their psychological status is fixed, and there is, therefore, an almost entire absence of the bitterness which characterizes the Northern division of
the mulatto group. * *
*
race, which
is
subjected to discrimination or persecution tends to take on the form The natural bonds of union within are of a nationality.
Any
race, or
group within a
strengthened by the opposition from without. A race consciousness and a race pride tend to develop as a defensive The struggle of races and of race groups is reaction. not so
much an economic
struggle as
it
is
self-respect
and race preservation.
As
the
a struggle for group or race
382
The Mulatto
in contact with one of superior culture itself
advances to
a degree of culture, the innate desire of the members to isolate themselves from unpleasant stimulation and to enjoy
the association of others of their kind, becomes strength-
ened by their consciousness that their presence is an unwelcome intrusion upon the desires of the other race. A developing consciousness of worth reinforces the innate tend-
and the prideful reaction. The ostracized group develops a pride of accomplishment in an effort to offset the feeling of inferiority which the rejection by the supeency
group necessarily creates. The race or group escapes the unpleasant stimulation given by the latent or active hostility of the superior group by retiring within itself
rior
be the tendency of the ent decade.
and endeavoring to become self-sufficient. This seems to American Negro group in the pres-
The
obstacles to racial solidarity
among
the American
real.
Negroes, however, are very numerous and very

isolation
tled
is
;
Their
nowhere complete geographically they are setamong a more numerous white population on which,
in very large measure, they are economically ally dependent.
and cultur-
lack a distinctive language, one of the most valuable focal points for the growth of such a
They
sentimental complex, and, in the
common language,
there
is
no body of literature by members of the race that is in in any way distinctive, or in which a pride of achievement can center. Their religion is but a recent acquisition and
in creed differs in
no
essential
way from
the religion of the
white race.
are in
Their manners, customs, and habits of life no way distinctive. The race is without a history,
or even a tradition of past greatness. Consequently, there are no historical names about which a popular tradition
can grow.
The only accomplishments
of the race are mod-
383
ern ones; a generation into the past brings them against the bleak fact of slavery and beyond that lies the age-long
condition from which enslavement by a civilized race was Color, the peculiarity of physical type, is the obvious basis for their But color is nationality.
a mighty step.
it is
everywhere correlated with primitive and degraded people; a thing from which to escape, not a thing of which to
be proud. In spite, however, of the apparently insuperable obstacles in the way of a Negro nationality in America, the present
tendency
is
clearly in that direction.
tification of the various creeds
It is toward an idenand a union of the various
classes in the race
; toward a feeling of pride in the growing accomplishments of the race and a consciousness of unity
Whatever may be the limit that the tendency may finally reach, it is being promoted both designedly and undesignedly by both the whites and the blacks, and by forces from within and from without the race.
of interest.
The
its
isolation of the race
through voluntary action on
part and through legal action on the part of the white race, is the most important single fact making for class
consciousness and race solidarity. This isolation of the race It is the legal recognition and is not a recent phenomenon.
enforcement of the separation and the extension of it to include every line of contact and every individual of the race
which
is
The degree
somewhat
the characteristic feature of the present policy. to which the races are admittedly separate is
different in different regions. Where the numbers and their activities have not conflicted
of the race are small
with the white man's idea of what the Negroes' attitude and behavior should be, they have, except in the proscription against social equality, met with no serious difficulty beyond the contempt-to-hatred attitude of their white neigh-
384?
The Mulatto
But wherever
in
tlie
United States
bors.
their
numbers have become consider-
able, or their attitude has become assertive, the Negroes have met the non-intercourse policy of the dominant white
man.
is toward an increased application and extensively of this segregation policy. Resiintensively
The present tendency
In the South, is well-nigh universal. enforced by state laws and city ordinances ; generally, in the North, by various means depending upon the local 1 In the school, the Negro child is separated from conditions.
dential segregation
it is
the white in
ulation.
cities of
all
The number
the North.
the states having a considerable black popof Negro schools is increasing in the
schools are not specially provided, the residential segregation in the Northern cities usually confines the Negro children to one or a few
schools.
2
Where separate
The churches and church
organizations are gen-
erally separate
their development.
and tend to become more independent in The membership of most of the wellis
known
ing in
secret societies
limited to white men.
The
clande-
stine lodges of the
Negroes under similar names have nothso-
common
3
with the white organizations except the
names
1
and the Negroes have organized many secret
In Chicago the most effective technique seems to be a gentleman's agreement among the real estate men. A recent ruling of the United States Supreme Court November 5,
1917
will
holds all residential segregation laws to be unconstitutional. It be of interest to note in how far this decision will modify the
present tendency.
3
scientifically,
is
an open question and one just beginning to be investigated whether or not the difference in mental ability of the races sufficiently great to warrant their separate education as a matter of
It is still
economy and educational policy. See, for e.g., M. J. Mayo, The Mental Capacity of the American Negro. 'See G. W. Crawford, Prince Hall and His Followers, for a recent
effort
by a mulatto
to prove the legitimacy of
Negro Masonry.

cieties
is
385
under distinctive names.

its
The
social life of the races

4
everywhere separate and
distinct.
Slowly the race
is
business and professional men evolving who cater exclusively to their own race while the white business and professional men tend to avoid the patronage
own group of
of the Negroes. 5 In all lines and in all sections of the country, the tendency of the white people seems to be to force
the
Negro people back upon themselves and to allow them or to force them to develop their own institutions and racial
This policy on the part of the whites is supplemented by the desire of the rank and file of the Negroes themselves.
life.
An
overwhelming majority of the Negroes accept racial 6 It selseparation as a simple and natural matter of fact.
little
dom
concerns them in any concrete way and they are but interested in abstract considerations. They live in
settlements as a matter of social choice and of eco-
Negro
nomic necessity.
They
avail themselves thankfully of what-
ever school facilities are offered them; other things being 7 They equal, they generally prefer the separate schools.
4
See O. Madden,
"A
Color Phase of Washington," The World To-day,
Vol. 14, pp. 549-52.
The largest department store in Chicago, for e.g., endeavors attentive treatment to discourage Negro patronage.
316.
by
in-
See reference to Hartman Furniture Company in the Crisis, 4-1915, p. White bankers frequently refuse deposits of Negroes and direct them to institutions managed by members of their own race.
a
144-45.
See Maurice S. Evans, Black and White in the Southern States, pp. What the Negro resents is, frequently, not so much the fact
of segregation as the humiliating way in which the policy is enforced and the abusive tone of many of its advocates. 7 "There is not the slightest doubt but that separate school systems, by giving colored children their own teachers and a sense of racial
more colored children in school and take them through longer courses than mixed systems. The 100,000 Negroes of Baltimore have 600 pupils in the separate high school; New York, with
pride, are enabled to keep
386
The Mulatto
The
seek and prefer the society of their own class and color. fact that they are unwelcome in the hotels and restaurants, in the theaters
and other places of amusement and
entertainment open to the whites, never comes within the experience of any but the very exceptional Negro. The exclusion policy of the whites is in line with the natural tendency of the blacks ; it affects and offends the small class
of educated and cultured individuals
who have more
in
com-
mon, intellectually and otherwise, with the cultured whites, than they have with the mass of the Negro people. 8
On
the part of the leaders
among
the Negroes, there
is
an increasing amount of voluntary segregation in more Separate schools are advocated places and in more lines. and petitioned for: they open positions for the teachers. Professional and business men see it more and more to their
9 To advantage to promote a spirit of race solidarity. the extent to which this exists, they cease to be in competition with the business and professional men of the other
In increasing numbers they are going South, identhemselves with the race, and finding their life and tifying work among the black group. The opportunities for the
race.
10
educated and ambitious Negro or mulatto
is greatest among the people of his own race. 11 Competition there is not so keen and the slightly superior individual can become an important and influential person. The matter of self-inter-
a larger colored population, has less than 200 in

Editorial, Crisis, 2-1912, p. 184-85.
8
its
mixed high
schools."
See E.
W.
Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race, pp.
168-69.
9
Editorial,
"Segregation
Let Her Come," The Conservative Coun-
selor,
10
Waco, Texas,
9-2-1915.
"Booker
See Editorial, "Paying for a Name," Chicago, Illinois, Idea, 9-9-1915. T. Washington, "Why Should Negro Business Men Go
15, pp.
South?" Charities, Vol.
17-19.

est
387
ranges them on the side of the segregation policy where the rank and file always have been as a matter of choice.
acquisition of these men increases the feeling of importance on the part of the group and so increases its tend-
The
ency toward unity.
the increase of racial unity, the opportunities for educated men in the race increase in number and importance, and this, in turn, attracts with in-
With
creasing force the mulatto and other superior

race.
men
of the
The
self-respect as well as the self-interest of the educated
Negro tends to the same end as the proscription of the white and the temperament of the blacks. Speaking generally, no Negro, regardless of color or training, is welcome
in
any
social organization of cultured white people any-
where
in
America.
ganizations, the
Negro
is
In the semi-social and professional orsame thing is in general true. 12 If the not barred from the medical, bar, teaching, and
other professional associations, he never is made to feel As a consequence, the Negro, to the that he is welcome. extent of his culture and education, stays away when he
finds that
he
is
not wanted.
It
is
the only action he can
allowed to forget that he is denied privileges granted to others, that the race These are is looked upon as inferior and treated as alien.
is
take and preserve his self-respect. By going South, the educated Negro
13
Aside from things which concern the individual very little. distress the Negro not at the professional agitator, they
"The action of the American Bar Association in regard to certain near-white Negroes who had been accepted into membership without the fact of their race being known to the Association is a case in point. See "The American Bar Association and the Negro," Outlook, Vol. 102, Vol. 45, p. pp. 1-2; "Lawyers and the Color Line," Literary Digest,
361
;
"
Editorial,
"The Color Line at the Bar," The Nation, Vol. 94, pp. 509-10. The Voice of the People, Birmingham, Ala., 3-13-1915.
388
all.
The Mulatto
In the North, however, they are the constant refrain from which the only escape is an escape from the race. In the South, the educated Negro can escape this ever-
lasting agitation about his status and his rights. There his social status is fixed and once he realizes and accepts this
has his own group and he The treatdefinitely excluded from white society. ment in the matter is at least consistent and the mulatto,
fact, it ceases to trouble him.
is
He
recognizing the impossibility of achieving a position of social equality, ceases to be concerned about it and loses his
He is able to stop "thinking bitterness at being excluded. black." The morbid brooding over real and fancied wrongs
gives place to a healthy thought about actual problems. The attitude of slavish dependence the childish wail for
others to right his wrongs is replaced by an attitude of a determination to face the world and manly independence,
to play a manly part therein.
Agitation gives place to work; self-reliance replaces self-pity. He no longer lives "behind the veil"; he is dealing with objective reality. He
becomes a useful
leader
man
and, in proportion to his ability, a
among
his people.
Another thing making for the increase in this spirit of nationality is the growing literature of the race. This is a focal point about which the sentiments of the race can As it increases in volume and in quality and crystallize.
comes to be more widely read, the sentiment of pride corThere is also some effort being respondingly increases.
made by
the Negroes themselves to create a Negro history. 1 * tradition of musical genius already exists among the race
and, outside musical circles,

whites.
is generally accepted by the which so many Negroes have for effective gift public speaking is another thing of which the race is ex-
The
14
See p. 216 above.
389
The point here is that regardless of the ceedingly proud. slender basis of fact upon which many of these things rest, have an immense effect upon the thinking of the race. they
the opinion that a race has of itself that counts in the growth of a nationalistic spirit, 15 and the opinion of the
is
It
best thinkers of the race
is
coming more and more to be
the Negroes desire really to reach a full manhood must reach it by being Negroes rather than by being they weak imitations of white people.
if
that
Whether
it
be because of compulsion on the part of the
whites or because of voluntary action on the part of the Negroes, there is an increasing segregation on the part of the Negroes and consequently an increasing tendency toward
racial solidarity.
In this growing nationality, the mulattoes who have gone over to the race and cast their fortunes with it are the aris-
Broadly speaking, they are the only members of who are educated. Consequently, they now form the professional classes. For the most part, they are the 16 and most of the property-owning members of the race who have made any conspicuous success in a busiNegroes ness or industrial way are members of the mulatto division. They are, then, the important men in the commercial and
tocracy. the race
business affairs of the race.
Their color or rather absence
of color helps to qualify them for a social position among the elite. They have a confidence, born of their pride in their
color and their
15
more or
less successfully
concealed contempt
The belief of the modern Greek, for example, and his boundless pride in the belief, that he is descended from the ancient historical race is not of any less social significance because of the mythological nature of the belief. Similarly, the Irish National movement is chiefly centered in religion, reinforced by myths of ancient greatness.
18
See Booker T. Washington, "Negro Homes," Century, Vol.
76, pp.
71-79,
390
The Mulatto
the United States
for a black skin, that the black
man
seldom attains.
They
Their
have, and tend to maintain, an exclusive social status that

is
the despair and the envy of the black man. 17
superior economic position, their superior training, their light color and the tradition of superiority, all combine to
make them the important and superior

racial group.
individuals in
any
Certain consequences of this movement are fairly obvious. According as one judges these to be desirable or undesirable,
one will be disposed to approve or oppose the nationalistic

tendency. Racial solidarity means
an increased
isolation
of
the
Negro group.
races apart.
The bi-racial adjustment tends to keep the The further the Negroes develop a sense of
nationality, the further do they voluntarily separate themDirect individual competition selves from the white world.
between the members of the races tends to diminish.

receive less stimulation
They
from the culture of the other race;
18 To the extent they are isolated from that stimulation. that this becomes true, the Negroes cease to measure their
talents
and accomplishments by the standards of the supeThey do not compete with the white man. The isolation narrows their interests and their conceptions, for there is little with which to compare them and weigh their value. They do not need to measure up to the white man's standard; they can live and succeed on a lower plane of efficiency. They are more or less out of the stream of social advancement and the strenuous competition of modrior race.
ern
1T
life.
This isolation means, of course, a slower advance

"Don't Blame All," The Bee, Washington, D.
C., 1-30-
See
J.
editorial,
1915.
18
Boston Reliance, 3-13-1915. H. DeLoach, "The Negro as a Farmer," Atlanta Congress, 1913,
See, also,
p. 381.
391
on the part of the Negroes toward the standards and accomplishments of European civilization; but it also means a more normal development, a more gradual accommodation to ideas and standards that, by the great mass of the race,
are at present neither appreciated nor understood. gradual elevation of the race means less disorganization
vance are
of the individual and of the group. The crises in the adless radical and the chances for a normal ac-
commodation are greater. In brief, it means a slower but a more normal advance toward the ideals and standards of
the white group. The isolation consequent
tionality tends, in
upon the formation
of a na-
many ways, to inferior educational opportunity for the members of the race. To the extent that the schools are separated and the Negro schools in the hands
mulatto teachers.
perficially
of the race, the black children will get their schooling from These mulattoes are themselves but su-
and imperfectly trained men. The highest estimate would hardly place the number of college trained 19 They, for the most part, are Negroes at five thousand.
As the product of miserably inefficient Negro colleges. long as these colleges exist with their present low standards
and the nationalistic tendency is to put them more and more in the hands of the race the graduates, so far
schooling is concerned, will be equal, perhaps, to the graduate of the ordinary white high school. The teachers of the race will, at best, be graduates of these inferior colas
leges,
and the masses of the race
will be defectively trained
just to the extent that they are isolated from the white
19 C. H. McCord estimates the number of Negro college graduates from 1840 to 1909 as 3,853, and from 1910 to 1914 inclusive as 1,147, a total of 5,000 in all for the period of 75 years. The American Negro ca a Dependent, Defective and Delinquent, p. 14.
392
race.
20
The Mulatto
man
will
Under the nationalistic system, therefore, the black not make very rapid strides in educational advanceof a nationality means the increasing comperacial lines and the decreasing competition of in-
ment.
The growth
tition ori
dividuals of the two races.

is
Here, as elsewhere, competition a selective process. The fact that individual differences are everywhere greater than race differences makes compe-
tition act against stratification on the basis of race and tends to put the individual, regardless of race, into the place for which he is best fitted. The racial competition results in forcing the mass of the race into the occupation, or small
in which they are best fitted to suror for which no other group will compete. The disvive, placement of the race from many vocations on which they once had a virtual monopoly has already gone very far.
group of occupations,
Mrs. Fannie Barrier Williams, 21 writing in 1905 to the Negroes of Chicago, says on this point 22
:
in
regard
... In the matter of employment, the colored people of Chicago have lost in the last ten years nearly every occupation of which they once had almost a monopoly. There is now scarcely a Negro barber left in the business district.
20
Nearly
all
the janitor
work
in the large
entirely apart
"If such segregation led to the formation of Negro communities from the life of the state and the current civilized life
around them, with the prospect of personal and communal deterioration, But I can see no reason why it should be so. I should be against it. The best of the race would join the movement, the educated and trained would be available to keep the community life at a high standard, while the highest voluntary assistance and advice of the philanthropic whites ." would be willingly given. Evans, Black and White in the South. .
ern Stales, p. 259. 21 See p. 223 above.
""Social Bonds in the 'Black Belt' of Chicago," Charities, Vol.

p.
43.
15,

buildings has been taken
393
away from them by the Swedes.
White men and women
as waiters have supplanted colered men in nearly all the first-class hotels and restaurants. Practically all the shoe polishing is now done
by Greeks.
Negro coachmen and expressmen and team.
sters are seldom seen in the business districts.
Negroes still further lost but throughout the country, Chicago ground. the Negroes have been forced out of every occupation in. which they have come into competition with another race.
following,
in
In the decade
the
Not only
Only as roustabouts and rough laborers
in the cities,
and
as agricultural laborers in the South, have the Negroes been 23 able to hold their own.
The growth
sening of
of racial solidarity probably means a lesThe segregation and the racial intermixture.
voluntary isolation prevent, in large measure, the opportunity for it to take place. So long as the races are not isolated
will
and remain on
different cultural levels, intermixture
go on to the extent of the desire of the males of the

it
superior race. intermix;
lessens the opportunity.
Segregation does not lessen the tendency to On the other hand,
24 the developing sense of race pride tends to the same end. The Negro woman ceases to desire such relations when they
When the Neprestige. for his wife as the white man does for gro provides as well his black or yellow concubine, there is also less disposition
come to mean disgrace instead of
25 on the part of the race women to form such unions.
The
23 E. C. Branson, "The Negro Working Out His Own Salvation," Atlanta Congress, 1913, p. 390. The exceptions to such generalizations In some cases the Negroes have- been are of course very numerous. forced up instead of out.
24
28
Thomas Nelson Page, The Negro, p. 291. See Editorial "Enemies Within Our Camp," The Chicago Defender,
4-22-1916.
394
The Mulatto
the United States
vicious elements of the race, moreover, will be restrained
by a sense of public disapproval and casual intermixture

will decrease.
The growth of a nationalistic spirit may very conceivably mean an increase of friction between the races. 26 The increase of race pride and personal self-respect, until it
reaches a stage beyond mere bumptiousness and braggadocio, has a tendency to bring the man into conflict with his
The mulattoes going over to the Neand becoming their leaders contain a large per cent groes of disgruntled agitators. 27 So far, also, as the mulattoes
social surroundings.
acter and with the conditions of
are Northern men, they are unfamiliar with the Negro charlife in the South. That they
Their are not always wise leaders may well be supposed. mistakes may increase racial strife unless restrained by
the
common
sense of the
members of the two
races.
28
Some
opponents of the segregation policy even predict race wars and revolutions analogous, apparently, to the situation
in the
Latin-American countries which has been brought
about, partly at least, by the adoption of an opposite policy as the final outcome of the segregation policy. 29 Except for the placid disposition and the native common sense of
the black man, the anarchistic teachings of some of the malcontents doubtless would result occasionally in rioting and the growth of a spirit of racial
28
ill-will.
S.
D. McEnery, "Race Problem in the South," Independent, Vol.

is,
55, p. 426.
27
"There
tion to the
indeed, rather a tendency to racial solidarity in opposiwhites on all questions whatsoever; . There is, more. .
over, a not rare belief
the whites that the preachers and leaders contribute to increase these tendencies and teach hostility rather than try
among
to uplift the race morally."

29
Page, The Negro,

p.
p. 304.
See, also, p. 307.
"McCord, The American Negro,

"Segregation," Crisis, 12-1913.
109.

The mulattoes
895
and the indication
at present are the leading men of the race is that they will become more and more
so as time goes on. They have an immense start of the blacks and, granting that they have an equal amount of native ability, there is no immediate prospect of their losing
the lead they
now
gap
will
tend to widen.
have, but every reason to believe that the It is certainly being widened at the
present time. The mulattoes are the property-owning class among the Most of the business is conducted by them. They race.
are the ones
who own homes and other property.
Whatever
the mulatto
be the advance that the black
man may make,
group with the aid of the accumulated capital is advancing in economic prosperity at even greater strides.
are at present the educated and the professional classes among the race. Moreover, at present they make the greatest use of the schools of a secondary and college character
race.
The mulattoes
which provide education to members of the This means that, for a generation at least, the mucontinue to be the intellectual group of the
lattoes will
race.
The
ideal of the
Negro
is
a light-colored man.
So long
as the overwhelming majority of the notables of the race are yellow or near-white rather than brown or black, the
ideal of the race will continue to be light rather
than dark.
With
color
the growth of racial solidarity, these individuals are more and more included within the race where their light
is
30 a distinct asset to them.
The
ideal of the race
tends to perpetuate the mulatto as a superior type. The mulattoes are everywhere proud of their white re30
This
is
black
men
true in spite of a species of "race pride" which seeks out for high positions and show purposes instead of seeking
competence.
396
The Mulatto
lationship and anxious to preserve it. Nearly every man of the group marries a woman lighter than himself. The number of prominent mulattoes with wives who are black,
or even noticeably darker than themselves,
are
scarcely
more numerous than those who have married white wives. The tendency, then, from generation to generation is for the intellectual part of the race to become lighter and
lighter in color.
very small number of very light mulattoes each year desert the race and become incorporated into the white race.
This number tends to increase as successive generations of admixture of white blood lighten the color, straighten the
hair,
and smooth the features of the

illicit
race.
ever, the intermarriage of white
women
present, howwith mulattoes, as
At
well as the
counterbalances
admixture of white blood, far more than the losses to the group through such
changes of racial status. Furthermore, the mulatto group continually is being improved by the addition to it of the best blood of the Negro
of ability, in almost every case, marries into the mulatto caste; and his children, with whatever
race.
The black man
lattoes.
of their father's superior mentality they inherit, are muSo far as his superiority is inherited, it becomes
an asset to the mulatto group.

ability,
The black man
of greatest
perhaps, of any black
man
in the race is
married
to a light-colored mulatto woman. black man of the race has a wife
The most widely known who is near white. The
black
man
rule
nearer to genius than any other The the race has produced, married a light mulatto.
man who approached
almost without an exception that the black man of consequence marries into the mulatto caste. The mulatto
is
group thus, on the assumption of the transmission of superior mental capacity, tends to become not only a cultur-

ally
397
but a biologically superior group.

the vital point in the whole race
It
is
The mulattoes are thus

problem.
their ideas, their sentiments,
and their
atti-
tudes, in so far as they identify themselves with the race, that tend to prevail. The fact needs to be recognized in
any dealing with the race, or in any efforts for race betterment.
In any study and discussion of the race problem, scien-^J
tific
accuracy as well as a decent regard for simple truth requires that the writer indicate whether his discussion has
to do with full-blooded Negroes or with the men of mixed blood. The failure to make this simple and elementary distinction, more than any other one thing, has made the vast
bulk of the literature relating to the Negro in America either worthless or vicious.
INDEX TO NAMES OF MEN WHOSE ETHNIC ANCESTRY IS ANALYZED

Abbott, A. R., 228, 238. Abbott, A. W., 247, 259. Abbott, Granville S., 217. Abner, David, 265. Adams, Mrs. Agnes, 234.
Antoine, C. C., 220, 252.
Appo, William, 231. Archer, H. E., 228, 266.

Archer, Mrs. Henrietta M., 228. Armisted, E. H., 234.
Adams, Cyrus Field, Adams, John, 217. Adams, J. W., 222. Adams, Lewis, 238.
Adger, Robert, 229.
299.
Armstrong, William Arnett, B. W., 232.
O., 234.
Atkins, S. G., 225, 277.
Attway,
W.
A., 296, 299.
Aldridge, Ira, 196, 198, 288. Alexander, John H., 228, 247. Alexander, J. N. W., 254. Alexander, M. S., 299. Alexander, N. H., 297. Alexander, William, 299. Alexander, W. G., 222, 259. Allen, B. F., 268. Allen, G. W., 277. Allen, Isaac B., 234.
Allen, Macon B., 234. Allen, Richard, 191. Allen, William G., 238. Allensworth, Lt. Col. A., 247. Allston, J. H., 234. Allston, Philip J., 234, 298, 299. Alstor, J. W., 277.
Attucks, Crispus, 197, 200. Attwell Ernest, 238. Attwell, Joseph S., 238. Attwood, L. K., 238.
Augusta, A. T., 232, 247, 260. Augustin, Peter, 229. Avant, Henry, 299.
Bacote, S. W., 278.
B agnail, Powhattan, 234. Bailey, Grandmother, 229. Bailey, J. B., 234. Bailey, L. C., 257.
Baker, D. W., 297. Baker, Gertrude M., 234. Baker, Harry E., 225, 256. Baker, T. Nelson, 270. Baldwin, Maria L., 238.
Ballard, W. H., 299. Banks, Charles, 208, 298, 299. Banks, Mrs. Charles, 299.
Ambush, James Enoch,

Amiger,
217.
189.
W.
T., 266.
Amo, Anthony William,

253, 299.
Anderson, C. H., 296, 298. Anderson, Charles W., 203, 208,

Anderson, Anderson, Anderson, Anderson, Anderson, Anderson,
Banks, J. B., 222. Banks, Walden, 234. Banneker, Benjamin, 189, 190, 196,
198, 199, 257.
Duke William,
John
J.
C., 232.
217.
H., 225.
Bannister, E. M., 220, 287. Baptiste, George de, 239.
Louis B., 228. Osborn Perry, 231.
Barbadoes, James, 219. Barnet, Mrs. Ida Wells, 201.

Barnett, Ferdinand L., 228. Barrier, Anthony, 229. Barrier, Miss E*lla D., 222. Bass, Charles T., 299.
Andrews,
W.
Major W.
T., 299.
T., 247.
Annibal, 189. Annibal, Son of, 189.
399
400
Basset, E. D., 217, 251. Beale, Mme. I. B., 299.
Index to Names
Bragg, Fellow, 239. Braggs, Geo. F., Jr., 225. Braithwaite, William S., 200, 203,
208, 284.
Beaman, Amon C., 229. Beaman, Jehiel C., 234. Beams, Charlotte, 217. Beckett, W. W., 265.
Becraft, Maria, 217. Bell, George, 232.
Bell, J. B., 299. Bell, James M., 231. Bell, L. A., 297.
Benjamin, Edgar P., 234. Benjamin, L. W., 257. Benjamin, Miss M. E., 257. Benson, John J., 238. Benson, William E., 238.
Bergen, Madam Flora B., 201. Berry, E. C., 238, 299. Bethune, Miss M. M., 266. Bethune, Thomas, 220. Bibb, J. D., 225.
A., 285. Binga, Jesse, 238, 299. Bird, Frank K., 277. Bishop, H. C., 203. Black, Henry, 222.
Brawley, B. G., 203. Brawley, E. M., 225. Bray, J. A., 276. Brooks, Charles H., 298, 300. Brooks, Paul C., 234. Brooks, W. H., 225. Brown, Aaron, 277. Brown, A. M., 239. Brown, D. H., 300. Brown, E. C., 296. Brown, E. E., 234.
Bentley, C. E., 203, 209.
Bigham,
J.
Brown, Brown, Brown, Brown, Brown, Brown, Brown, Brown, Brown,

239.
Henry, 257.
Henry
E.,
239.
Miss H. Q., 201, 203. John M., 217.

Nellie, 220.
Richard Roscoe
S.
L., 220.
C.,
260. N., 225. William Wells, 192,
200,
Blackshear, E. L., 225, 268. Blackwell, G. L., 277.

Blair,
Henry, 258.
Blodgett, J. H., 299. Blue, L., 257. Bluitt, B. R., 260.
Browne, Hugh M., 229. Bruce, B. K., 196, 199, 250. Bruce, Mrs. B. K., 203. Bruce, John E., 203. Bruce, Roscoe C., 203, 209, 252. Bryan, Andrew, 19. Bryant, Ira T., 203, 209, 277, 300. Bryant, W. W., 234.
Buchanan, Noah, 252. Buchanan, W. S., 267. Buckner, George W., 253, 254. Bugg, J, H., 239.
Bulkley, W. H., 203. Bulkley, William L., 270.
Blyden, Edward W., 199. Bogle, Robert, 229. Bonchet, Edward A., 270.
Bond, James, 239. Bond, James A., 299. Bond, Theophilus, 299. Booker, Joseph A., 224, 265.
Booze, Eugene P., 299. Boss, Hon. Harry, 200.
Ariel, 225. E., 203, 208, 299. Bowler, Jack, 239. Bowser, Mrs. Rosa D., 225. Boyd, B., 239. Boyd, Henry, 217. Boyd, H. A., 299. Boyd, Henry A., 295. Boyd, R. F., 260, 299. Boyd, R. H., 203, 208, 278 300. Bradford James, 232.
Bundy, Richard W.,
253.
Bowen, Mrs. Bowen, J. W.
Burkins, Eugene, 220, 257. Burleigh, Harry T., 200, 203, 208. Burns, Anthony, 220, 229. Burr, Seymour, 234.
Burrell,
W.
P., 239.
Burroughs, George L., 239. Burroughs, Miss Nannie H., 203,

266, 278, 300.
Burroughs, W. M., 300. Burrows, William, 276. Burwell, L. L., 239, 260. Bush, Anita, 200. Bush, Chester E., 300.
Index to Names
Bush, Mrs. Cora E., 300. Bush, John E., 209, 239, 254, 298,
300.
401
Clark, Peter H., 229. Cleaves, N. C., 275.
Clement, G.
Clinton,
C., 277.
Bush, Mrs. Olivia Ward, 234. Bush, William H., 203.

Butler, H. R., 225, 260.
George W., 209, 277,
300.
Cabaniss, Cain, R. Caldwell, Caldwell,
J.
A.,
300.
H., 217, 251.

J. C., 277. J. S., 203, 277.
Coard, B. T., Jr., 296. Cobb, J. A., 253, 300. Coggins, J. N. C., 278. Cohen, Walter L., 300. Coker, Daniel, 232. Cole, Bob, 200, 234.
Cole,
Collier,
Calhoun, A. R., 276. Calhoun, R. C., 300. Calloway, T. J., 300. Campbell, J. B., 239.
Rebecca J., 260. N. W., 300.
Cannon, George E., 260. Capitien, James Eliza John, 189. Cardozo, F. L., 232. Cardozo, T. W., 252.
Carey, Lott, 217. Carey, Mary A. S., 217. Carney, William H., 217. Carr, James L., 203.
Carroll, Jacqueline, 234. Carroll, Richard, 239, 300. Carson, Simeon L., 260. Carter, Rev. E. R., 222. Carter, H. C., 252. Carter, James G., 253, 300. Carter, Lt. Louis A., 248. Carter, R. A., 210, 275. Carter, W. J., 203. Carver, G. W., 210, 269. Cato, 220. Chappelle, Julius B., 234. Chappelle, W. D., 225, 276. Charles, H. M., 300. Charlton, Melville, 220. Chase, William Calvin, 224.
Conner, James M., 276. Cook, Elijah, 239. Cook, Eliza Ann, 217. Cook, George F. T., 199. Cook, George W., 203, 210. Cook, John F., Jr., 199. Cook, John F., Sr., 199. Cook, Will Marion, 203, 208.
Coolidge, J.
S.,
257.
Cooper, Mrs. Anna J., 228. Cooper, E. J., 228. Copeland, John Anthony, 231. Coppin, Fanny M. Jackson, 199. Coppin, L. J., 203, 209, 276. Coppin, Thomas, 229. Corbin, J. C., 232. Cornell, A. C., 222. Cornish, Alexander, 217.
Corrothers, James D., 220. Cosey, A. A., 278. Coshburn, Walter M., 222. Coshburn, Mrs. W. M., 222. Costin, Louisa Parke, 217. Costin, Martha, 232. Costin, William, 217. Cottrell, Charles, 253.
Cottrell, Elias, 239, 275, 300. Council, W. H., 222. Coursey, Robert F., 234.
Chavis, John, 191.
Cheatham, H.
Cherry,
P., 251. A., 257. Chester, T. Morris, 232. Chestnutt, C. W., 194, 195, 203, 208, 284. Chiles, Nick, 210. Chosum, Melvin J., 296. Chretien, Paul, 239. Church, R. E. Jr., 209. Church, R. R., 300. Clark, Jonas, 234. Clark, J. Milton, 234. Clark, J. S., 268.
M.
Courtney, S. E., 210, 260, 299, 300. Covington, John, 300.

198,
Cowan A.
C.,
300.
Cox, J. M., 226, 266. Cox, W. Alexander, 235, 300. Cox, W. W., 300. Craft, Henry K., 239. Crafts, William, 229. Crafts, Mrs. William, 229. Crawford, Joshua, 235. Crogman, William Henry, 203, 209. Cromwell, J. W., 226.
402
Crowdy, William, 235.
Crowther, Samuel, 239.
Index to Names
Dickinson, J. H., 257. Dickson, Rev. Moses, 239. Diffay, J. O., 295. Diggs, J. R. L., 270. Dillon, Dr. Sadie, 239.
Crum, W. D., 239. Crum, W. E., 235. Crummel, Alexander,

285.
196, 197, 199,
Dogan, M. W.,
210, 266.
Crummell, Boston, 239.

Cuffe, John, 218. Cuffe, Paul, 196, 199.
Dorsett, C. N., 239, 260.
Cugoano, Ottobah, 189.
Cummings, Harry S., 203. Curtis, Bishop, 239. Curtis, A. M., 203, 259, 260. Curtis, James L., 200, 203. Curtis, J. Webb, 228. Custalo, William, 222.
Dabney, Austin, 239. Dailey, Sam, 239. Dailey, U. G., 260. Dalton, Thomas, 235. Dancey, J. C., 203, 209, Dandridge, Ann, 218.
Dorsey, Thomas L., 230. Dossen, Vice-President, 240. Douglass, Charles R., 230, 240. Douglass, Frederick, 192, 196, 197,
Douglass, Douglass, Douglass, Douglass,
198, 199, 200, 210, 252, 288. H. Ford, 230. J. H., 203. Lewis H., 230.
W., 257. Downing, George T., 230. Downing, Thomas, 230. Doyle, James, 258.
Draper, Garrison, 232.
Drew, Howard
278.
P., 200.
Drury, Theodore, 235. Du Bois, W. E. B., 195, 197, 198,

200, 203, 207, 270, 284.
Dangerfield, Newby, 231. Daniels, Jim, 231. Darden, J. H., 222.
Darden, John W., 260. Davage, M. S., 278. Davidson, Shelby, 257. Davis, A. K., 220, 252. Davis, Mrs. Belle, 300.
Davis, Davis, Davis, Davis, Davis, Davis, Davis, Davis, Davis,
Dubuclet 240. Duckery, Henry, 235. Dudley, James B., 267.
Dumas, Alexandre, 188, Dumas, A. W., 260.
197, 200.
Dunbar, Chas. B., 260. Dunbar, Paul Laurence,
B. J., 209. B. O., 209, 248. Charles T., 300.
194, 195, 197, 198, 199, 200, 210, 224, 284, 285.
D. W., 226. George W., 300. Henrietta Vinton, 201.

I.
D., 226.
R., 257.
Mrs. L. A., 222.
W.
Dunbar, Mrs. Paul Laurence, Dungee, A. C., 300. Dunlop, Alexander, 240. Dunn, Oscar J., 220, 252. Duprey, William, 235. Durham, James, 189, 191, 196, Dyson, Walter, 285.
Earnest Louis, 222. Easton, Hosea, 235. Easton, Joshua, 235. Edmonds, T. H., 257. Eggleston, E. F., 240.
Elbert, S. G., 299, 300. Elbert, Mrs. S. G., 300. Ellerson, L. B., 226.
Elliot, R. B., 196, 199, 251. Elliott, J. T., 299.
226.
260.
Day, J. Howard, 229. Day, William Howard, 239. Dean, Jennie, 239. De Grasse, John V., 218, 260. Delancey, Martin R., 230.
De De De
Large, R.
C., 220, 251.
Mortie, Louise, 218, 235. Mortie, Mark, 235. Dennison, F. A., 203, 209. Derrick, W. B., 224. Dett, R. N., 203. Deveaux, John H., 239. Dickerson, William F., 218.
Elliott, T. J., 300.
Emanuel,
J.,
300.
Index to Names
Europe, James Resse, 200, 203. Evans, Henry, 191. Evans, Matilda A., 240. Evans, Mrs. S. J., 228. Evans, Wm. P., 300.
Ferguson, John C., 260. Ferguson, Joseph, 260. Ferguson, S. D., 203, 278.
Gibbs, Miffin Wistar, 192, 301. Gibson, G. W., 240. Gilbert, F. H., 298, 301.
Gilbert, J. W., 226, 276. Gilbert, M. W., 226, 276. Gillian, C. W., 301. Girideau, W. L., 301. Gladden, Lt. W. W., 248. Cleaves, R. H., 220, 252. Gleed, Robert, 252.
403
Fields, W. R., 240. Fisher, D. A., 257. Fleet, John H., 218. Flipper, Henry O., 247. Flipper, J. S., 204, 276. Floyd, Silas X., 220. Ford, C. E., 300. Ford, J. E., 210.
Gloucester, John, 191. Goddard, Julius B., 235.
Goiens, John W., 269. Goler, W. H., 204, 265, 278.
Forten, Miss Charlotte, 218. Forton, James, 192, 258. Fortune, T. Thomas, 195, 204, 208. Fountain, W. A., 265. France, Joseph J., 260. Frances, J. W., 296.
Francis, J. R., 226, 228. Francis, William, 189. Franklin, G. W., 300. Franklin, Nicholas, 218. Frence, John B., 228. Frierson, A. U., 226. Fuller, S. C., 204, 208, 260. Fuller, Mrs. S. C., See Meta
Gomez, General Maximo, Goodwin, G. A., 226. Gordon, Henry, 240. Gordon, James H., 301. Gordon, Nora A., 222.
228, 248.
Vaux
Warrick.
Fuller, Thomas, 189, 190. Furniss, Henry W., 204, 254. Furniss, S. A., 300.
Gordon, Sarah, 240. Gordon, W. C., 299, 301. Graham, A. A., 301. Grant, Bishop A., 224, 301. Grant, George F., 235. Gray, F. A., 301. Gray, Miss Mary A., 301. Gray, William, 240. Green, Benjamin T., 240. Green, Charles Henry, 232. Green, E. E., 260. Green, John, 224. Green, Lt. J. E., 248. Green, John P., 218. Green, Shields, 231. Green, S. W., 210. Greener, R. T., 196, 197, 208, 220. Gregory, J. M., 204.
Grigg, John A., 265. Griggs, E. M., 296. Griggs, Sutton E., 210, 278. Grimes, Leonard, 218. Grimke, Archibald H., 204, 208.
Gabriel, 218.
Gaones, John S., 240. Gamble. H. F., 260. Ganes, John F., 230. Gardner, Eliza, 235. Garland, C. N., 235, 260. Garner, James E., 301. Garner, J. H., 301.
Garnett, H. H., 196, 197, 199. Garrett, Thomas, 220. Gaskins, Nelson, 235. Gates, George A., 301.
Cell,
Grimke, F. J., 194, 204, 208. Gross, F. W., 265. Gross, William E., 240.
Groves, C. A., 301. Groves, J. G., 301. Groves, Marjory, 235.
Monday,
220.
Geoffray, L'Islet, 189. Gibbs, Miss Hattie, 222. Gibbs, J. C., 319,
Hackley, Mrs. E. A., 220. Hale, W. J., 210, 267. Hall, Mrs. Anna M., 218. Hall, Charles H., 235,
404
Index
to
Names
Hewlett, E. M., 240. Hibbler, John A., 301. Higgins, W. H., 260.
Hall, G. C., 204, 208, 240, 259, 260,

299.
Hall, Hall, Hall, Hall,
Primus, 230.
Prince, 240. R. M., 240.
Higiemonde, 188. Hill, James, 252.

Hill, J. S., 296. Hill, Mrs. L., 240. Hill, L. P., 240. Hills, J. Seth, 260. Hilton, John T., 235. Hilyer, A. F., 226, 257.
Walter
P., 301.
Hamilton, R. T., 260. Hamlett, J. A., 276. Hamlin, J. A., 301.
Hamm, James
R., 301.
Hansberry, E., 223. Haralson, Jare, 240, 251. Hargrave, F. S., 260. Harlan, Robert, 232. Harllee, N. W., 226. Harper, Fenton, 240. Harper, Frances E., 201. Harper, Mrs. F. E. W., 192. Harper, William A., 287.
Harris, Charles E., 235. Harris, C. R., 277. Harris, Mrs. Carol V., 301. Harris, Gilbert C., 235, 301. Harris, J. H., 301, Harris, T. N., 240. Harrison, Hazel, 220.
Hoagland, George, 301. Hodges, M. Hamilton, 235. Hogan, Ernest, 200. Holloway, Richard, 240. Holloway, T. B., 296.
Hollowell, William, 230. Holly, J. T., 240.
Holmes, William E., 223, 265. Hood, J. W., 204, 209, 277.
Holsey, L. H., 204, 275. Holtzclaw, W. H., 301. Hope, John, 204, 208, 265. Hort, Mrs. Emma T., 223.
Harrod, W. A., 279. Hart, Mrs., 228. Hart, W. H. H., 204. Hatcher, Henry A., 301.
Hatter, Allen, 301. Havis, Ferdinand, 210.
Hawkins, J. R., 204, 209, 277, 301. Hawkins, Mason A., 204. Hawkins, T. S., 240. Hawkins, W. Ashbie, 204. Hayden, Lewis, 192. Hayes, Alexander, 218. Haynes, George E., 209, 270. Haynes, Lemuel, 191, 196, 198. Hayes, Roland W., 204. Hayes, Thomas H., 299, 301. Hazel, William A., 235. Heard, W. H., 226, 276.
235. Hendley, Willie M., 269. Henry, Sam, 252. Henson, Josiah, 232. Henson, Mathews, 200, 240. Herndon, A. F., 210. Hershaw, L. M., 204. Hewin, J. T., 226. Hewitt, W. V., 301.
Horton, George, 232. Hosier, Harry, 240. Houston, R. C., 298. Howard, A. C., 301. Howard, Alexander S., 301. Howard, E. C., 260. Howard, P. W., 301. Howell, G. M., 301. Howell, S. A., 297.
Hubbard, A.,
Hubert,
Hull, D.
240.
Z. T., 265.
Hudson, R.
B., 278.
J., 265.
Hunt, A. H., 235. Hunt, H. A., 226. Hunt, William H., 224, 253. Hunter, John E., 260. Hunton, W. A., 204, 210. Hurst, John E., 204, 209, 276.
Hurst, S. P., 301. Hyer, The Sisters, 220. Hyman, John, 240, 251.
Isaacs, E. W. D., 204, 278. Ish, I. G., 224.
Hemmings, Robert,
Jackson, A. B., 260, 299. Jackson, A. D., 285. Jackson, A. S., 277.
Index to Names
Jackson, Deal, 240. Jackson, George H., 254. Jackson, Jennie, 240. Jackson, J. C., 299, 301. Jackson, J. S., 278. Jackson, Miss Lena T., 226. Jackson, Mary C., 228. Jackson, T. J., 296. Jackson, William L., 232. Jacobs, C. C., 278. Jacobs, H. P., 252. Jack, Uncle, 275. Jamison, M. F., 275.
Janifer, J. T., 277.
405
Jones, Jones, Jones, Jones, Jones, Jones, Jones, Jones, Jones,
J. H., 226.
Joshua M., 276. John W., 261.

Miles B., 260. R. E., 204, 208, 278, 299, 302.
Scipio A., 210, 299, 302.
Sissieretta, 201. T. W., 226, 302. Wiley, 241.
Jason, W. C., 268. Jasper, John, 240. Jefferson, E. B., 301.

Jenifer, J. T., 204, 210. Jenkins, O. C., 240. Jenkins, S. J., 223. Jennings, Cordelia A., 240. Jennings, Mrs. Mary F., 240.
Jordan, D. J., 226. Jordan, L. G., 204, 209, 279, 302. Josenberger, Mrs. Mary, 302. Juan, 229. Just, E. E., 204, 209.
Kealing, H. T., 195, 204, 209, 266. Keatts, Chester W., 224. Keatts, C. W., 302. Kelly, James, 223.
Kennedy, W. A., 302. Kenney, J. A., 241, 261.

Kerr, S., 226. Kersey, Willis A., 302. Keys, H. W., 302. King, G. H., 223. King, Horace, 223. King, H. H., 302. King, J. T., 223. King, M. N., 223. King, W. E., 209. King, W. W., 223. Knight, D. L., 302.
Johnson, Johnson, Johnson, Johnson, Johnson, Johnson, Johnson, Johnson, Johnson, Johnson, Johnson, Johnson,
209.
296.
Mrs. A. E., 284. A. N., 301.

Billy, 235. C. F., 210, 301. Elijah, 220. Harvey, 204.
T., 210. J. A., 204, 210, 276. J. O., 226. J. Rosamond, 200,
H. H.
L., 204.
Knox, George
204,
L., 226.
Kyles, L. W., 278.
Johnson, John Thomas, 232. Johnson, James W., 201, 204, 208,
226, 254.
Lafon, Thorny, 220.
Lambert family,
241.
Johnson, L. E., 240. Johnson, Peter A., 260. Johnson, Sol. C., 241. Johnson, W. Bishop, 279. Johnson, W. H., 301. Johnson, W. I., 301. Jones, Mme, (Black Patti), 201. Jones, Absolom, 220. Jones, A. D., 260. Jones, E. M., 278. Jones, E. P., 301. Jones, Miss Hazel K., 302.
Jones, Henry, 229.
.Jones, John, 230. Jones, J. G., 241.
Lambert, William, 219. Lane, Isaac, 241, 275. Lane, J. F., 265. Lane, Lunsford, 192, 193. Lane, W. C., 235. Laney, Lucy, 204.
Lank ford,
251.
J. A., 302.
Langford, Sam, 207. Langston, John M., 196, 197, 199,

Lattimore, Andrew E., 235. Latimer, George, 235.
Lavalette,
W.
A., 257.
Lawrence, W. P., 279. Lawson, R. Augustus, 204.

Leary, John,
S., 232.
406
Leary, Lewis S., 231. Leary, Matthew, 241. Leary, Matthew, Jr., 241. Lee, Bertina, 220, 287. Lee, B. F., 204, 208, 276. Lee, Joseph, 235, 254.
Index to Names
McDonald, J. Frank, 277. McDonald, W. H., 296. McDonough, David K., 261. McDuffy, J. D., 302.
McGilbray, D.
C., 302.
Lee M. D., 278. Lehman, M. J.,
McKane, Cornelius, McKee, John, 220.
236.
223.
Leile, George, 191. Levy, J. R., 261, 302. Lewis, A. L., 302.
Lewis, Edmonia, 201, 287. Lewis, James, 204. Lewis, J. H., 235, 302. Lewis, John W., 296. Lewis, M. N., 302. Lewis, W. H., 201, 204, 207, 254. Lewis, W. I., 226. Lights, F. L., 297. Lindsay, Samuel, 297. Livingston, Lemuel W., 254.
McKinley, J. Frank, 228. McKinley, Whitfield, 254. McKissack, E. H., 241, 302. McKissack, Moses, 302. Majors, W. L., 302. Margetson, G. Reginald, 236. Marshall, John R., 205. Marshall, Napoleon B., 236.
Martin, Martin, Martin, Martin, Martin,
J. A., 268. J. C., 276.
John Sella, Martha and
236.
sister, 232.
William M., 228.
Logan, Warren, 205, 210, 302. Logan, Mrs. Warren, 226. Loguen, Bishop, 218. Long, Jefferson, 241, 251. Loudin, F. J., 257. Lovett, William C., 236. Lovinggood, R. S., 266. Lowe, J. I., 277. Lowry, Samuel, 232. Lowther, George W., 236.
Lucas, Sam, 201. Lucas, W. W., 223, 278. Lugrade, S. L., 241.
Mason, Cassius, 205. Mason, Mrs. Lena, 226. Mason, M. C. B., 226, 302. Mason, U. G., 241. Mathews, William E., 230. Matthews, James C., 205. Matthews, Victoria E., 241. Matthews, W. Clarence, 236.
Matzeliger, J. E., 220, 257.
Maxwell, Leigh R., 223. Merrick, John, 241. Middleton, Charles H., 218. Miles, Alexander, 228.
Miles, Mary E., 232. Miller, Kelly, 194, 195, 201, 205, 207, 285, 302. Miller, T. H., 241, 251. Minton, F. J., 302. Minton, Henry, 229. Mitchell, Charlie L., 218. Mitchell, John, 205. Mitchell, John, Jr., 208. Mitchell, Mrs. Nellie B., 236.
Mitchell, Robert, 279. Mitchell, S. T., 232. Mitchell, W. L., 297. Mollison, W. E., 205. Montgomery, Ben, 241.
Lundy, Benjamin, 230. Lynch, James, 252. Lynch, John R., 205, 208, Lynk, M. V., 266.
Lytle, Miss Lutie A., 228.
248, 251.
McCarthy, Anthony, 302. McCarty, Owen, 241. McCary, William, 252. Maceo, 248. McClennon, A. C., 261.
McClellan, G. M., 226.
McCord, Sam, 241. McCoy, Benjamin M., 218. McCoy, E., 205, 257. McCoy, Elijah T., 198. McCrorey, H. L., 265.
McCulloch, J. B., 302. McDaniel, E. E., 302.
Montgomery,
302.
I.
T., 205,
208, 252,
Montgomery, Thornton, 241. Moody, O. L., 266. Moore, A. M., 261,
Index to Names
Moore, Alice Ruth, 220. Moore, Fred R., 209, 254. Moore, G. W., 205, 278. Moore, J. H., 276. Moore, Lewis B., 205, 270. Moore, T. Clay, 302. Moorland, J. E., 205, 208. Moreland, John F., 278. Morgan, B. J., 302. Morgan, Clement G., 236. Morgan, J. H., 226.
Morris, Morris, Morris, Morris, Morris, Morris, Morris,
Albert, 241.
407
J. E., 231, 251.
O'Harra,
O'Kelly, Berry, 303. O'Kelley, C. G., 265.
Olandad, 189.
Olney, D. W., 226. Oncles, Father, 205. Osborn, Perry Anderson, 231.
Ossie, Keebe, 241. Othello, 189. Otis, Joseph E., 241. Outlaw, John S., 261. Owens, Mrs. R. C., 303.
E. C., 205, 208, 279, 302. E. H., 194, 205, 208.
Pace, Dinah, 241.
Freeman, 241.
J.,
232.
Robert, 232.
W.
R., 205.
Mosby, John M., 296. Mossell, N. F., 205, 209, 261. Moten, Lucy, 205. Motoh, R. R., 201, 205, 207, 269,
302.
Page, Inman E., 268, 303. Palmer, John H., 269. Palmer, Loring B., 261. Pamphlet, Gowan, 232. Parker, James B., 224. Parker, Inez C., 284. Parks, H. B., 205, 276. Parks, Thomas F., 303. Parks, W. G., 279.
Parrish, C. H., 303. Partee, W. E., 226. Patrick, Thomas W., 236. Patterson, Fred D., 303. Patterson, Spenser, 303. Paul, Thomas, 236. Payne, Christopher H., 254.
Mott, Lucretia, 229. Moultry, Francis J., 241.
Murphy, W. O., 302. Murray, Daniel, 205. Murray, G. W., 226, 251,
257.
Murray, J. L., 223. Muse, Lindsay, 218. Myers, Cyrus, 223. Myers, George A., 241. Myers, Stephen J., 230.
Nance, Napier,
302.
L., 257. J. C., 205, 208,
254, 299,
Napier, Mrs. J. C., 302. Nash, Charles E., 241, 251.

Neighbors, W. D., 295, 302. Nell, William, 232, 236. Nelson, Dave, 302. Nelson, Ida Gray, 228. Nesbitt, F. M., 303. Newby, Dangerfield, 231.
Payne, D. A., 196, 199. Payne, G. A., 265. Payton, F. A., Jr., 303. Pelham, R., 258. Penn, I. G., 205, 209, 241, 278. Penn, W. F., 261. Pennington, J. W. C., 196. Perdue, A. C., 303.
Perry, Christopher, 210. Perry, C. W., 241. Peters, "Dr.", 236. Peters, E. S., 303. Peters, John, 220.
Peters, Phyllis Wheatley, 189, 190, 196, 198, 199, 201, 202, 210, 284. Peterson, B. H., 226. Peterson, James T., 303.
Newton, Osborn
Nickens,
A.,
236.
T. B., 241. Norman, M. W. D., 223. Nunn, Charles, 303.
Owen
O'Connell,
Pezavia,
270.
O'Connor, 257. Ogden, Peter, 241.
Peterson, John, 241. Pettey, Mrs., 226. Pettiford, W. R., 303. Phelps, Mrs. Mary Rice, 223. Phillips, C. H., 205, 275.
Phillips,
Henry
L., 205.
408
Pickens, William, 208. Pierce, Charles, 218.
Index to Names
Redmond, Sarah, 232. Redmond, S. C., 241. Redmond, S. D., 303.
Redwine, W. A., 296. Reed, L. S., 242. Reed, William L., 236. Reeve, J. B., 205.
Reid, Dow, 242. Reid, Frank, 242.
Pinchback, Napoleon, 241. Pinchback, P. B. S., 205, 209, 252,

253.
Pihheiro, Don T., 236. Pitts, Coffin, 236. Platt, Miss Ida, 223. Pledger, William A., 224.
Plummer, "Elder," 236. Poindexter, James, 218. Pollard, L. M., 241.

Pompey, R. S., 269. Ponton, M. M., 265. Pope, James W., 236.
Porter, J. R., 226. Porter, L. M., 303. Porter, Maggie, 241. Porter, Troy, 303. Porter, W. M., 303. Powell, B. F., 223. Powell, Clayton, 201. Powell, Holland, 279. Pratt, Harry T., 303. Price, J. C., 199, 241, 288. Prillerman, Byrd, 268. Prioleau, G. W., 248. Procter, H. H., 209. Prosser, 229. Prout, John, 232. Purcell, I. L., 226. Purvis, C. B., 241, 261.
Remond, C. L., 192, 196. Revels, Hiram R., 220, 250,
253.
Reynolds, H. H., 257. Rich, William, 230. Richards, Fannie, 233. Richardson, A. St. George, Richey, C. V., 258. Riddick, J. F., 297. Ridley, Mrs. U. A., 242.
Rischer, H. K., 242. Roberts, E. P., 209, 261. Roberts, D. R., 233. Roberts, Isaac L., 236. Roberts, Thomas Wright, 218.
226.
Purvis, Robert, 192, 196. Purvis W. B., 220, 257. Pushkin, Alexander, 188.
Roberson, W. E., 303. Robinson, David R., 236. Robinson, E. A., 298. Robinson, G. T., 226. Robinson, J. P., 224. Robinson, Mrs. Leila, 303. Robinson, Mrs. M. A., 223. Robinson, R. G., 227. Rock, David, 236. Rock, John S., 242.
Rollins,
Wade
C.
V.,
C.,
303.
Quinn, William Paul, 218.

Rainey, J. H., 220, 251. Rakestraw, W. M., 269. Rankin, J. W., 277. Ransier A. J., 220, 251, 252. Ransom, R. C., 205, 209, 277. Raphard, Father, 280. Rapier, James T., 220, 251, 261. Ray, Charles M., 230.
209, 261. Rosell, David, 261. Ross, A. W., 230, 242.
Roman,
Ross, John, 85. Ross, J. O., 296, 303. Rosser, L. E., 276. Roundtree, P. C., 303.
Rucker, H. A., 205, 303. Ruffin, G. L., 230. Ruffin, Mrs. J. St. P., 205.
Ruffin,
Stanley,
236.
Ruggles, David, 242. Russell, G. P., 268.

Russell, James S., 242. Russwurm, J. B., 192, 196. Rutling, Thomas, 242.
Saffell, Mrs. St. Benedict,
Ray, Charlotte. 241. Ray, E. P., 257. Ray, Peter Williams, 261. Raymond, John T., 236. Raymond, Theodore H., 236.
Reason, Charles L., 232.
Daisy,
The Moor,
303. 242.
Index to Names
St. Pierre, John, 242. Salem, Peter, 242.
409
Sampson, Benjamin, 242. Sampson, B. K., 233. Sampson, George M., 242. Sampson, James D., 242.
Sancho, Ignatius, 189. Sanders, D. J., 223. Sanderson, Thomas, 242. Sanford, J. M., 297. Sanford, J. S., 304. Sanifer, J. M., 242. Saunders, M. P., 303. Sawner, G. W. F., 303. Sawner, Mrs. Lena, 303. Sawyer, E. J., 303.
Singleton, Huston, 223. Slater, T. H., 261. Smalls, Robert, 205, 251, 255. Smiley, Charles H., 242.
Scarborough,
266.
W.
S., 198,
205, 208,
Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith,
261.
Albretta Moore, 223. Alfred, 242, 303. Mrs. Amanda, 202. B. S., 205. Blanche, V., 236.
C. S., 205, 209, 276. Eleanor A., 236. Harriet, 237. H. C., 205. Mrs. Hannah G., 236. Isaac H., 296, 304. . Joshua B., 237.
James McCune,
196,
242,
Scarlett, Scott, 298.
John
E., 236.
J.,
Emmett
205,
207,
Scott, I. B., 205, 210, 278. Scott, J. J., 296." Scott, Lt. O. J. W., 248. Scott, Walter, 242. Scott, W. A., 303. Scott, Wilkerson and Scott, Scott, William E., 205. Scottron, S. R., 303. Scruggs, B. E., 223. Searcy, T. J., 303. Sejour, Victor, 242. Selika, Madam, 202. Seme, Pixley Isaka, 242. Shadd, Mary Ann, 233. Shadwell, G. W., 303. Shaffer, C. T., 205, 276. Shaw, M. A. N., 236. Shaw, Mrs. Mary E., 242. Shepard, C. H., 261. Shepherd, H. C., 303. Sheppard, Mr., 242. Sheppard, Ella, 242. Sheppard, W. H., 242. Shirley, Thomas, 229. Shorter, James, 218. Shorter, Mrs. J. A., 242. Sidney, Thomas, 233. Simms, S. William, 236. Sims, W. H., 303. Sinclair, 285. Sinclair, William A., 220. Singleton, David, 253.
303.
Wilford H., 195, 304. Smythe, John H., 227, 242. Snow, Benjamin, 218. Snowden, John Baptist, 233.
Spaulding, C. C., 304. Sprague, Mrs. Rosetta D., 227.
Stafford, A. O., 220. Stanley, Alexander, 242. Stanley, Charles, 242. Stanley, John, 242. Stanley, John C., 242. Stanley, J. P., 297.
Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith, Smith,
Mary
E., 237.
Mrs. M. E. C., 227. R. L., 209, 304. R. S., 227. Stephen, 229.
Stanton, J. C., 276. Starks, J. R., 276.

Steele,
Carrie,
242.
Stephenson, J. B., 304. Sterrs, Alexander, 242.

Sterrs, Willis E., 261. Stevenson, William, 237. Steward, T. G., 206, 209, 248. Stewart, Austin, 218. Stewart, F. A., 242, 261.
Stewart, G. W., 275. Stewart, Logan H., 299. Stewart, T. McCants, 233. Still, Charity, 223.
Still,
Still, Still,
James, 237.
Peter, 242.
William, 192.
Stokes, A. J., 279.
410
Storum, James, 227. Stout, R. S., 276. Straker, D. A., 223.
Strauther, J.
Index
to
Names
Troumontaine, Julian, 233. Trower, John S., 243, 304.
Truth,
Sojourner,
192, 192.
196,
197,
M., 304.
199, 202.
Street, H. Gordon, 237. Stringer, T. W., 253. Strong, J. W., 265. Stubbs, Julian, 237. Suggs, D. C., 243.
Tubman, Harriet,
Sutton, E. H., 257.

Talbert, Mary B., 227. Taliaferro, C. T., 304. Talley, T. W., 227.
Tucker, 261. Tucker, A. L., 297. Tucker, E. D., 304. (Tucker, T. de S., 227. Tulane, Victor H., 243.
Tunnell,
W.
V., 206.
Tandy, H. A., 304. Taniel, R. F., 297. Tanner, B. T., 198, 206, 210, 276.
Tanner, Henry O., 194, 197, 198,
i
199, 287.
200,
201,
206,
208,
210,
Turnbo, Mrs. Pope, 304. Turner, Benjamin S., 243, 251. Turner, C. H., 206, 210, 270. Turner, H. M., 218, 247, 276. Turner, M. W., 304. Turner, Nat, 218. Twe, Dihdwo, 237. Tyler, Ralph W., 210, 255. Tyree, Evans, 206, 210, 276.
Tate, W. A., 269. Taylor, Milliard, 304.

Taylor, Taylor, Taylor, Taylor, Taylor,
Taylor Major, 201. Marshall W., 218.

Preston, 304.
Vachon, George
B.,
233.
Valladelid, Juaji de, 239.
R. R., 243.
S.
Coleridge, 197, 201.

L., 194. T., 237.
W.
Vass, G. W., 206. Vass, S. N., 278. Vassa, Gustavus, 189. Velar, N. T., 304.
Teamoh, Robert
Terrell, Terrell, 206.
Father of R. H., 233. Mrs. Mary Church, 202,
Venegar, F. Vernon, W.
304.
Villa,
T.,
268.
T.,
206,
209,
265,
Terrell, Terrell, 258.
Mother of Mary
R.
H.,
206,
C.,
233.
Vesey, Denmark, 218, 243. Panco, 248.
208,
253,
Terrs, Holmes, 304.
Terry, Watt, 304.
Thomas, Alex S. 218. Thomas, I. L., 278. Thomas, James C., 243, 304. Thomas, J. W., 304. Thomas, Lillian J. B., 223. Thompson, R. W., 227. Thurman, Mrs. Lucy, 243. Tibbs, Roy W., 220.
Tidrington, E. G., 304. Tolton, Father Augustus, 280. Francois Toussaint, Dominique,
189, 197, 248.
Walder, Walter F., 237. Waldron, J. Milton, 210. Walker, 237. Walker, Aida O., 201, 202, Walker, Mme. C. J., 201, 304. Walker, David, 192, 196. Walker, Edwin G., 237. Walker, George, 201. Walker, H. L., 227. Walker, John W., 261. Walker, Maggie B., 206.
288.
Townsend, A. M., 261, 266. Townsend, J. M., 297. Trotter, William H., 208. Trotter, W. Monroe, 206, 237.
Wall, Josiah T., 243, 251. Wall, O. S. B., 243. Wallace, A. G., 304. Wallace, J. E., 265. Wallace, T. W., 278. Wallace, W. N., 227. Waller, O. M., 227. Walters, Alexander, 206, 208, 277.
Index to Names
Walton, L. P., 261. Ward, E. E., 304.
411
Ward, S. R., Ward, T. M.
218, 243. D., 218. Warfield, W. A., 206, 210, 261. Waring, J. H. N., 243. Warner, A. J., 277. Warrick, Meta Vaux, 220, 287.
Washington, Booker
T., 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 210, 304. 288, 298, Washington, Mrs. Booker T., 202. Washington, J. W., 304. Washington, Mrs. Margaret, 223. Washington, Mrs. S. I. N., 237. Watson, B. F., 277. Wayman, A. W., 218. Webb, John L., 304. Wells, John W., 304. Wells, Nelson, 218. Welraon, Matthew, 304. West, F. L., 269. West, W. B., 223. Westberry, R. W., 304. Westons, 243. Wharton, Heber E., 243. Wheatland, Marcus F., 206. Wheaton, J. F., 228. Whipper, William, 192. Whitaker, J. W., 227. White, Clarence C., 206. White, Fred, 206. White, G. H., 206, 210, 251. White, T. P., 233. White, W. J., 233. Whiting, J. L., 269. Wier, Felix, 220. Wilder, J. R., 227. Wilkinson, G. C., 285. Wilkinson, R. S., 268.
Williams, George H., 198. Williams, G. H. C., 268. Williams, George Washington, 243. Williams, J. A., 304. Williams, J. B. L., 227. Williams, J. M. P., 253. Williams, J. S., 304. Williams, P. B., 257. Williams, R. S., 275. Williams, Mrs. Sylvanie F., 223. Williams, S. Laing, 304. Williams, W. T. B., 206, 210. Willis, E. D., 304.
Wilson, Wilson, Wilson, Wilson, Wilson, Wilson,
Willis, Joseph, 275. Butler R., 237. Edward, 228. James H., 261. J. M., 253. T. J., 304. T. J., Jr., 304. Windham, B. L., 304. Windham, T. C., 304. Winter, L., 305. Wolff, James G., 237. Wolff, James H., 237. Wood, J. W., 278. Wood, N. B., 228. Wood, S. W., 305.
Woods, Granville
257.
T., 194, 195, 198,
Williams, Bert, 196, 201, 206, 209,

288.
Woods, Lyates, 258. Woods, R. C., 266. Woodson, Ann, 233. Woodson, C. G., 206, 209, 270. Woodson, Emma J., 233. Woodson, J. W., 206. Work, Henry, 243. Work, Monroe N., 206, 210. Wormley, James, 233, 257. Wormley, Mary, 218, 233. Wormley, William, 218. Wragg, J. P., 278.
Wright, Wright, Wright, Wright, Wright, Wright, Wright,
277.
Williams, Williams, Williams, Williams,

207,
C. P., 304. C. T., 209.
Elizabeth E., 243. E. J., 237.
Charles W. M., 237. Daniel H., 194, 198, 206,

261.
Herbert R., 254. John M., 298, 305.

Mrs. Minnie T., 237. R. R., 206, 218, 268. R. R., Jr., 206, 208, 270,
S.,
259,
Williams, Mrs. D. H., 223. Williams, E. C., 206. Williams, Miss Emma Rose, 223. Williams, Mrs. Fannie Barrier,
223.
Wright, Theodore
230.
Writt, John T., 305.
Williams, G. G., 304.
Wych, A.
A.,
261.
412
Wyche, R.
P., 227.
Index to Names
Young, Major Charles,
247,
248.
228. 305. 206,
Wynn, Robert
D., 279.
Yates, lola D., 237. Yerb, William J., 254.
Young, James H., Young, Mrs. M. L., Young, Nathan B.,
210, 268.
GENERAL INDEX
Abantus,
71.
Bi-racial, 355, 358-360, 373-374.
Abolitionists,
193.
342-344.
Boston Negroes, 233-237.

Brazil, 27, 88.
Achievement of Negroes, 183-184,
Admixture of blood.
gamation.
See Amal-
Brazilian 323-324.
Negro,
Roosevelt
on,
"Advance Guard,"
194.
Business, Negro in, 293-307. Business League, Negro, 289, 298306, 307.
Africa, South, 71-77; Bastaards, 74-75; classes in, 75-76; color line in, 75; illicit sex relations, 75; intermarriage in, 75; mixedblood people in, 72; mixture of races, 71; population of, 71; race prejudice in, 76; race separation in, 75.
of, 371-374. Agitation, Agitators, mulatto, 346, 380-381. See, Amalgamation, 17, 77, 86.
Cannibalism, 63. Cascos, 13. Caste, basis for, 19; accommodation to, 360, 371; in primitive
society, 21.
effect
Cherokee, 85. Children, treatment of half-caste,

95-96. Civilized
also, Intermarriage, intermixture
of races. Ambition of mulatto, 315-318. America, South, 33-51, 88. American Indians. See Indians. See Eurasians. Anglo-Indians. Antipathy, race, 25, 317-319. See,
also,
Class
Tribes, 81, 82, 84. distinctions; in Cuba, 59; in Jamaica, 68; in Philippine Islands, 52-53; in Spain, 24; in
Spanish America, 44-49;

Africa, 73.
Classes, influence of, mixture, 90-92.
South
on race inter-
Race prejudice.
propaganda, 342.
Color line;
among American In-
Anti-slavery
Apache, 78. Arabs, half-caste, 28.
Arawak
Indians, 65. Art, Negro in, 286-292. Assimilation in ancient times, 26. Attitude; of Northern mulattoes, 368-374; of races in Spanish America, 40-41; toward first American Negroes, 166-168. Auxiliary wives, 22.
dians, 85; among Negroes, 177179; in Brazil, 36-37; in Cuba, 57; in Haiti, 63; in Jamaica, 67; in South Africa, 75; in Spanish
America, 47. Color prejudice; in Spanish

erica,
also,
AmSee,
50;
in
Cuba,
14.
60.
Race prejudice.
defined,
Coloured,
Coloured peoples, 27; of Jamaica, 316; of South Africa, 27.
Backward
race,
Banks, Negro,
definition of, 295-297, 307.
18.
Comanche, 78. Communication, effect on race
in-
Bastaards, 71-75. Biography of Negroes,

237-245.
221-231,
termixture, 16. race as affecting Competition, prejudice, 101, 338. Concubinage, 28-29; 139-144; 378.
413
414
General Index
Half-breed; as a separate caste,
in,
Croatans, 81, 85. Cuba, 57-60; color inferiority 325-326; mulatto in, 326.
Dance,
60, 88; orgiastic, 62.
Dentistry,
Negro
in,
262-263, 291.
slaves, 169-
Determination of racial type, 327.

Differentiation
172.
among
328-331; illegitimate origin of, 88; increase in numbers, 93-94; psychology of, 19; treatment of 95-96. childjren, See, also, Eurasians. Hindu. See Eurasians. Histories of the race, 216-220. Hopi Indians, 80, 81.
Disorganization in South, 349. Distribution of mulattoes, 113,

122-124.
Hybrid, variability of,

Hybridization, 28.
12.
Divide and Rule, policy of, 333. Douglass, Frederick, 317.
Ideals of the Negro, 180-181. Illicit sex relations, 145-155, 378;

classes involved, 145-155; during colonial times, 144-155; effect of freedom on, 160-161; effect of
Early American Negroes, 190-192.
Educated classes, 395. Education of Negro,
339,
350;
Woodson's, 231-233. Eminent Negroes, 197-199. Enfranchisement of Negroes, 350.
slavery on, 158-160; indentured servants, 146-150; white women and Indians, 155; white women and slave 153-155; Negroes,
Escapement from the Eskimo half-castes, 27,
race, 396. 31-32, 316. Ethnological distinctions, 47. Eurasians, 26-31, 316. Exclusion policy, 334-335.
owners and slaves^btSê. Immigrants in Spanish America,

38.
Indentured servants, 146-150.

India, 88. Indians, 77-85; as slaves, 82; white crosses, 28; fertility of, 83; halfbreed, 78-85, 317; Hopi, 81-82; 77-79 ; intermixture, Iroquois, 77-78; Navajo, 81; Negro intermixture, 82-83; Oklahoma, 81; Osage, 85; race problem among,
Exogamy,
21.
Famous colored women, 201-202. Famous Negroes, 199-201.

Fertility of mixed marriages, 83. Foremost men of the race, 207210.
Formation of primitive
98.
state, 97-
84-85;
St.
Regis,
81;
Wyan-
dots, 84.
Free mulattoes, 176-177. Free Negroes, 112-113. Freedman's Bureau, 347.

French-Canadians,
Greeks, 22. Greenland, 31, 88.
Griffe, 12.
77.
Inquisition,
25.
Griquas.
See Bastaards.
Industrial education, 381. Intermarriage, 69, 94-95, 127-139, 316, 378; classes involved, 130131; 136-137; in Brazil, 36; in Greenland, 32; in South Africa, 75; in Spain, 24; in Spanish America, 48-50; laws concerning, 128-130, 134; Negro and Indian, 155-158. Intermixture of races, 15-16, 393-
Haiti, 61-65; civilization of, 61-62; classes in, 64; color line in, 63; dress, 65; education in, 63-65; marriage in, 62-64; political conditions, 62; population of, 63; presidents of, 65; race hatred in, 65; religion in, 62-63.
394; among American Indians, 78-79 ; conditions determining,

88-93; effect of, on civilization, 17; in ancient world, 22-23; in Brazil, 33-38; in Cuba, 57-60; in Greenland, 31-33; in Haiti, in in 27-31; India, 61-65;
General Index
Jamaica, 65-71; in North American Indian group, 77-85; in
Philippines, 51-54; in primitive society, 21-22; in Spain, 23-26; in Spanish America, 38-51; in
415
in Greenland, 31-33; in India, 28. See, also, Intermarriage. Amal-
gamation.
races.
Intermixture
of
South
17-18.
Africa, Indies, 55-71;
71-77;
in
West
Mixed-blood caste, 376. Mixed-blood race. See

breed.
Half-
when a problem,
Mixed-bloods as a cohesive force,

22.
Inventors, Negro, 256-259, 291. Iroquois, 77-78. Islam, policy of, 24. Isolation, 359, 383, 390-391.
Mixed marriages.
riage.
See Intermar-
Mixture of blood, 22, 375. Mongrel type, 28.

Moriscos, 24. Mulattoes; as leaders, 341, 360364; caste, 316; children of white women, 175-176; definition
Hall, 110; improve396-397; increase of, 118-122; key to race problem, 86-104; militant, 371; number of, 116-118; pride in color, 395396; problem of, 19; sentiments of, 341, 343; societies, 340; suof,
Jamaica, 65-71; classes, 66; education, 67; population, 66; relation of sexes, 67; separation of colors, 67-68; Spanish occupancy of, 65. Johnson, Jack, 317. Journalism, Negro in, 286, 291.
11-14;
of,
ment
Key
Kafirs, 73. to race problem,
86-104.
periority of, 339, 395.
Law, Negro
Leadership,
395.
263-264, 291. Negro, 364, 366-367,

in, in,
Music, Negro in, 289-291. Musical tradition, 388-389. Mustifee, 13.

Mustifino, 13.
Literature,
Negro
282-286, 291;
of Negroes, 388. L'Ouverture. See Toussaint.
See South Africa. National Association for the Advancement of the Colored
Natal.
Mango,
13.
in,
People, 370.
77.
Manitoba, mixed-bloods Manumission, 339.
Nationalities,
Marabon,
12.
Meainelouc, 12. Medicine, Negro in, 259-263, 291. Mestizo, 27, 33; Chinese, 27, 51in 54, Spanish America, 40; social position of, in Spanish America, 46-49; in Mexico, 44; Spanish, 27, 51-52. Metif, 12. Metis, 27, 33-38, 316-317; advance of, 320-323; characteristics of,
34-35.
composition of, 16. Nationality; effect of, on economic competition, 392-393; effect of, on education, 391-392; effect of, on intermixture of races, 393; effect of, on isolation, 390-391; effect of, on race friction, 394; tendency toward, 383; sentiment
of, in
Roman
policy
81.
Native
26-27.
colonies, 23. in ancient times,
Navajo,
Negro aristocracy, 389-390. Negro; Brazilian, 321; business

league,
of, in
Mexico, races
in,
43-44.
298-305 ;
disappearance
Middle-class, growth of, 3^8. Migrations, 14-15. Ministry, Negroes in, 274-282, 291. Miscegenation, 22; in Brazil, 33;
Brazil, 38; Indian intermixture, 82; in history, 188-189;
middle
class,
353-359; politicians,
347-348.
416
General Index
ing,
Obstacles to race solidarity, 382383.
13;
distribution
of,
in
Occupational differentiation, Octoroon, 13.
339.
Spanish America, 42-43. Reconstruction policy, 347.

Rizal, 53.
Oklahoma,
81.
Role
of
mulatto,
104,
380-381,
Opportunities of mulattoes, 378. Origin of mixed-bloods, 88, 376. Osage, 85.

Persistence of negroid
istics,
338ff., 377, 315ff., 320.
Romans,
Sacrata,
mixture
with
subject
peoples, 23.
12.
character-
105.
Philippine Islands, 51-54. Phoenicians, 22. Physical appearance, as basis for

class distinctions, 18-19. Politicians, Negro, 346-347. Politics, Negro in, 249-256, 291. Polygamy, 62, 64. Porto Rico, 56. Portuguese, 88; in Brazil, 33ff.; in India, 28. Prestige of mulattoes, 363.
St. Regis, 81. Sambo, 13.
Sang-mele, 12. Santo Domingo,
56.
Segregation, 355ff., 384-385. Self-interest, 387-388.

Self-respect, 387.
Separation of colors in Jamaica,

68.
Sexual selection, 38. Slave traffic, 106-107.

Slavery; domestic, 27; effect on race in intermixture, 92-94; Cuba, 57; in ancient times, 27; in West Indies, 55 ff.; of Indians
in Spanish
Presuppositions, 375-376. Professional classes, 395.
Property-owning class, 395. Psychology of mixed-bloods,

102-103.
19,
America,
39.
Slaves; classes among, distribution of, 108.
172-173;
Quadroon,
Quarteron,
13.
Snake worship,
63.
12.
Social; classes in Cuba, 58-59; distinction in Jamaica, 68; equal319-320, 349; ity, separation,
Race;
competition,
392-393;
de-
See Color
line.
fined, 14; friction, 76, 394; harmony, 100; hatred, 48, 65; inter-
mixture
(see
Intermixture
of
Soldiers, Negro, 246-249, 291. Southern mulatto leaders, 361 ff. Southern policy, 353ff.
races); pride, 21; repugnance, 28; separation, 75, 385-386. Race prejudice, 70; basis for, 18; as affected by numbers, 99-100;
Spain;
mixture of races
in, 24-25.
in,
23;
race problem
growth
of, in
American
colonies,
167-168; in Philippines, 53; in South Africa, 76. Race problem, 85; defined, 18-19; in Jamaica, 70; in Spain, 24.
Spanish America, 33 ff. Spanish half-breeds, 317. Statistics of mulattoes, 106. Status of mixed-bloods, 96, 335336; as affected by physical appearance, 98; as affected by cultural differences of races, 99; as slaves, 174-177; in Brazil, 3338; in Cuba, 325-326 ; in India,
'
Race
solidarity, absence of, in North, 366-368; consequences of,
390ff.
Races
Races,
See, also, Nationality. and classes in Spanish Amrelative
erica, 40.
tendency
toward
intermixture, 88-90.
Races; biological effect of cross-
316, 328-330; in Greenland, 316; in Spanish America, 326-327; in Jamaica, 331-333. Status of Negroes in North, 364ff. Status of slaves, 167-168. Students, Negro, 270-274.
General Index
Superior mulattoes, per cent of,
311-314.
417
Voluntary segregation, 386-387. Voodooism, 62.

Waltz.
Superiority of mulattoes, 101-102,

181,
187-188, 379.
"Talented Tenth," 196-197. Teachers, Negro, 264-274, 291.

Toussaint, 64. Tradition of mulatto superiority, 378-379.
See Dance. Washington, policy

ern policy.
of.
See South-
West
Indies, 55-71, 88.
"Whites by Law," 27. "Who's Who in Colored America,"
Tuskegee.
See Southern Policy.
Women,
"Uncle Tom's Cabin," 344.

Variability
84.
202-206. influence of, on race intermixture, 91-92.

84.
Wyandots,
83-
of
mixed-bloods,
Zambos,
33.

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w

THE MULATTO IN THE UNITED STATES

THE GORHAM PRESS

COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY RICHARD G. BADPFR

American people for

the country's population. The future of by the treatment which

in progress, as well as the

the problem of checking the fusion problem of establishing

for the most part

arouses emotion rather than

gram looking toward a more harmonious

not a brief in behalf

made upon that

ligent dealing with that problem.

whole and that unfortunate and avoidable discord in interracial relations

promoted by the concealment of truth and

the denial of fact.

writer takes this

known Negro newspapers.

here acknowledges his in-

Palo Alto, California

North American Indians

NATURE OF RACE INTERMIXTURE IN THE UNITED STATES

Intermarriage with Indians Intermixture During Slavery and at Present

127 127 139 144 155

OF THE NEGRO RACE

SUMMARY: PRESENT TENDENCIES

MEN WHOSE ETHNIC

those members of the

used in this study, includes Negro race with a visible adis

mixture of white blood.

in this sense that the

the fact that the definition of the term 'mulatto'

Census Report 1910: Population, Vol.

in the United States

mango, sambo, quadroon, octoroon, musttfee and the

The offspring here may show

.mulatto and griffe

white and mulatto

white and meamelouc

white and quarteron

Journey in the Seaboard Slave States,

each of which connotes a specific type of racial cross. 6

Negro and white

C. B. Davenport, Heredity of Skin Color in

course, differs in certain

marked ways from other

hair, black skin

the United States

term more satisfactory than mulatto

has been suggested.

The word coloured

used in this sense

The term mulatto

always has been a restless animal moving to and fro

in search of food or adventure, to escape his enemies or

9 Again he says that "It would hardly be possible