Proceedings of 1st National Workshop on Scaling-up of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Farming Strategies in Nepal
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Proceedings of the workshop on scaling-up of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming strategies in Nepal.
August 2008
Edited by: Tek Bahadur Gurung
Organisers: Fisheries Research Division, Godawari (NARC) Japan International Cooperation Agency Directorate of Fisheries Development (DoA) Nepal Fisheries Society
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NARC- Nepal Agricultural Research Council 2008
Published by: Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur of NARC
Copyright: 2008, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal Agricltural Research Council
The printed materials in the proceedings may be reproduced for education, research and other non-profit uses with acknowledgement of the source.
Citation: Gurung T. B (2008) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming strategies in Nepal. Proceedings of the workshop on scaling-up of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming strategies in Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal
Available from: Fisheries Research Division, Godawari PO Box 13342, Lalitpur, Nepal
Disclaimer: Opinions expressed by the authors and editor in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of NARC or JICA or the organization they represent. There might be several grammatical errors in this publication; those are not of authors but of the editor.
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Foreword
Technological development of rainbow trout farming in Nepal is one of the most appreciable technologies generated by Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC). The present stock of rainbow trout, one of the excellent fish for cultivation in cold water was introduced from Japan. Presently several aspects of trout farming have been accomplished by scientists of Fisheries Research Division, Godawari and Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli of NARC. The present technology generation on rainbow trout farming has been well applauded by Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok.
Trout farming technology has been well received by the farmers in hills. As a result, several trout farms in private sector have been emerged. Now onwards, the commercial production technological package for increased production is highly desirable. Visualizing this fact a workshop on further strategies on scaling up of rainbow trout farming in Nepal was organized in January 2007. This workshop has recommended several important aspects for enhancing commercial farming of rainbow trout production in the country. I hope these recommendations would be highly useful for planners, extensionist, NGO's, media, students, researchers and farmers for rapid expansion of trout farms in different parts of the country. So the market demand of this commodity in country as well as abroad could be fulfilled in affordable price in the market for consumption.
I wish to thank and congratulate all fisheries related scientists who actively participated in trout research, develop the technologies and also played significant role in expansion of trout farming in the country. I also wish to extend my sincere thanks to all donors and stakeholders without whom this technology would not have been developed and extended in the country.
Dr. Nanad Prasad Shrestha Executive Director Nepal Agricultural Research Council
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Abbreviations ADB Agriculture Development Bank BMP Best Management Practices cm centimeter CF Crude Fat CP Crude Protien CO 2 Corbon di-oxide DO Dissolved Oxygen DoA Department of Agriculture DoFD Directorate of Fisheries Development FCR Feed Conversion Ratio FE Feed Efficiency FRD Fisheries Research Division FRCT Fisheries Research Center, Trishuli GR Growth Rate IU International Unit
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency LI-BIRD Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Conservation and Development NARC Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NO 2 +NO 3 ) Nitrate +Nitrite OVOP One Village One Product PUFA Polyunsturated fatty acid KJ Kilo Joule kg Kilogram m meter mg miligram mt Metric ton MoAC Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative MoF Ministry of Finance Ropani Nepali unit of land measurement (1 Ropani =500 m 2 ) SAARC South Asian Association Regional Countries o C Centigrade or Celsius NEFIS Nepal Fisheries Society sqm Square meter SLC School Leaving Certificate SR Survival Rate TL Total Length WTO World Trade Organization
6 Contents
Contents Page No. Foreword Abbreviations Contents Acknowledgment Program Highlights Few words Inaugural Address Chairperson remarks Closing Session Field Trip Report Vote of Thanks Summary Report of the Working Groups
Technical Papers History of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) introduction in Nepal: 1 Deep Bahadur Swar
Status and prospect of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in Nepal: 5 Ash Kumar Rai, Tek Bahadur Gurung, Sadhu Ram Basnet, Raja Man Mulmi
Breeding performance of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in northeastern hills, Nepal 12 Sadhu Ram Basnet, Gopal Prasad Lamsal, Raja Man Mulmi, Tek Bahadur Gurung
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) larval rearing methodologies in Nepal: 17 Neeta Pradhan, Asha Raymajhi, Sant Kumar Shrestha
Nutrition and feed formulation for Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal: 23 Jay Dev Bista, Suresh Kumar Wagle, Neeta Pradhan, Nanda Kishor Roy
Raw material, storage, equipment & accessories for rainbow trout feed 41 preparation in private sector in Nepal: Resham Raj Dhital, Nand Kishor Roy
Water Quality parameters for Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming: 46 Raja Man Mulmi, Neeta Pradhan, Ram Prasad Dhakal
An evaluation on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) diseases and their control 52 measures in Nepal: Asha Raymajhi, Resham Raj Dhital Market Channels of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) products in Nepal: 57 Devendra Gauchan, Narendra. Thakur, B. Shrestha, Asha Raymajhi, S. Gautam, Gopal Prasad Lamsa
Socio-economic study of rainbow trout farming in Nepal: A case study of 63 Kathmandu - Trishuli - Rasuwa road corridor: Naresh Singh Thakur, Devendra Gauchan, Asha Raymaghi, Gopal Prasad Lamsal
Prospects of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming commercialization in relation to global 71 context in Nepal: Tek Bahadur Gurung, Neeta Pradhan, Dharni Man Singh, Tek Bahadur Thapa
7 Linkage need among research, development and private institutions for 80 commercializing rainbow trout farming in Nepal: Kiran Raj Joshi, Sudha Sapkota, Gopal Prasad Lamsal, S. Gautam
GIS based evaluation on potential sites of cold water fish, 83 Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in Nuwakot, Nepal Suresh Kumar Rai, Tek Bahadur Gurung, Gopal Prasad Lamsal
GIS based potentiality of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming 89 innorthern high hill Rasuwa, Nepal: Saroj Prasad Aryal, Mahendra Nath Paudel
A case study on integrated trout farming in hill terrace with other developmental activities: 95 Gopal Prasad Lamsal, Sadhu Ram Basnet, Padam Bahadur Rumba
Recipes for dish preparation of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): 106 Bharati Moktan
Best management practices (BMP) for aquaculture of rainbow trout 110 (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal: Surendra Prasad, Jay Dev Bista, Suresh Kumar Wagle
Extension strategies for Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) aquaculture 116 development in Nepal: Dharni Man Singh, Bikash Chand Shrestha Shanker Prasad Dahal, Ramanand Mishra
Constraints and potentialities on scaling-up of Rainbow trout farming 120 practices in mid and high hills of Nepal: Farmers Perspective
: Aditya Raj Khanal, Resham Gautam
Role of media for scaling up of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) 125 farming technologies among stakeholders: Bhola Man Singh Basnet
"One Village One Product" (OVOP) program with special reference to 132 Rainbow trout farming and marketing perspective in Nepal: Kiran Raj Pandey Rainbow trout farming in hills of Nepal in relation to gender perspectives: 137 Sudha Sapkota, Kiran Raj Joshi
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Acknowledgement
Sincere gratitude to the farmers for their perseverance and active involvement in participatory trout cultivation research in hills and mountains of Nuwakot, Kathmandu, and Rasuwa districts. Thanks to Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) for continuous encouragement and support. We are grateful to JICA for financial support to conduct the workshop on scaling-up of rainbow trout farming in Nepal. Thanks also to the people and the former Governor of Miyazaki Prefecture Mr. Matsukata for providing rainbow trout seed to Nepal and several other Japanese friends, Mr. Tatsuo Morimoto and Mr. Utaka Nakagawa for their support and encouragement by which present endeavor of rainbow trout cultivation in Nepalese mountains could be possible. All authors are thankful for their thoughtful papers. The resource personnel involved in the workshop are also appreciated for extending their cooperation, Mr. Bhola Man Basnet, Mr. Jay Dev Bista, Mr. Suresh Wagle, Mr. Raja Man Mulmi, Mr. Krishna Murari KC, Lalit Tamang, Mr. Shiv Lal Adhikari, Ms. Neeta Pradhan, Ms. Asha Raymajhi & Ms. Renu Aryal are gratefully acknowledged for their support. We expressed our gratitude to Professor, Dr. Sena De Silva, Director General idea for his encouragement. Special thanks to the "One Village One Product" Program of Agro-Enterprise Center (AEC) under Federation of Nepal Chambers of Commerce and Industries (FNCCI) for providing financial support to publish this proceeding.
9 Programme Highlight and Objective of the Workshop
I would also like to thank Prof. De Silva, Director General, NACA, who has come all the way from Bangkok to attend this Workshop, =-= == =s= +---- =-==-=-, + -~=+ =+ =--+=-, -+= + =- =+- ++ -+=-, s =++-=-, s --+=-, -= === === |- ++ =- -~- ==-= +-- ~|+ =-= - ==- , ++++-, -~- =:== +-- ~|+ =+- - ==+- =- =-~= ==: -+ += +--- ++= =- =-c +=
15 Directions for Field Trip Report Term of Reference to Group No. 1 (Extension strategies) ==- + == += =~ + = ---
Review the existing fisheries extension agencies and structural set up in Nepal (government, NGO, INGO service centers, human resource, policy, strategies) -+== -=- =-= += -+=-+ == =+, ==+ == =-==, += =- +, =--= -, = =-, --- ==- Recommend appropriate approaches, process, systems of extension strategies (government, NGOs, CBO, cooperative and other private farms) covering above all aspects to promote trout aquaculture and cold water fisheries in Nepal =+ = +=: ===- = === =c - == +-= -- =c+ =~ : =- += += ---+ === ++ = -++ =+= =+, ==+, --= =-- Review geographical, social, gender, financial, marketing constraints and advantages of resources ~==+, ===+, ==+, =+ - =-+- =+ = ==-= - = =-+- =+ +--=+- Recommend appropriate extension strategies for production enhancement of trout in potential areas in hills of Nepal =~-- +-: += === =c+ =+- =~- : =- ==- += += ---+ =+=
Fingertips for group exercise in trout farming extension === - + = += =: ==-=- c=+=+ =r= =r= -
Horizontal scaling-up +-== --- Expand trout farming in feasible areas =~- += === =c -+ -- Establish trout hatcheries in private sector -=++ === =c= +=-- +=+ -+- Provision of subsidy in interest on loan for the capital investment = ==-= =- === =- ==-+ =- Develop code of conduct for responsible aquaculture at national level ===-++ =-=+=- =- = = -- --=+ -== =- Enforcement of Aquatic Life Protection Act === =- |-=: == =- Credit scheme for trout should include an enterprise as collateral and land (steep land) should be valued in accordance with the annual turnover of the trout farm. === +=+ + ==-+ =+= ==+ =-=+-+ +:- -+- =- +- Promote commercialization of trout through public-private partnership (farmers' cooperative, NGOs, INGOs) approach =-~=-==+ +=+=+ =+= ===+ === =c -=: t- - Expand domestic and explore abroad market for the trout. === =c+ --= =+ --- + =++ = ~=- Develop input delivery mechanism in trout growing pocket areas === =c =+- += =+- === t--+ -+ Initiatives on establishment of fish feed industry in private sector
16 -=+= =c+ - =+=+ -+-+ -- =- Prepare database on fish production, demand, consumption , export and import =-= =+-, == , +-, -=- ==-+ -=: -= +- Develop training curriculum for farmer level training ++-- -==+ + -=+ -= +- Develop human resources, infrastructure, facilities required for the rapid expansion trout === =c+ - +=: ==+ =-+- ,~-+ =++ + =- Develop/strengthen feedback mechanism and communication system for all stakeholders = =+-=: ==- =- +- -- = -++ + =-
17 Term of Reference to Group No. 2. (Research Strategies) ==- - + == += =~ =-=+- ---
Review existing research facilities, human resource strategies, organizational and institutional strength and weakness setup in Nepal =-=+-+ == ~ -+ = +, =-+- ---, ==s-=+ =-=- ++ + += +==+ +--=+- =- o Lack of national level research program to address researchable issues in coordinated approach in wider ecological region ~- --+- -+ += =-=+-==+ ==-=+ +-=- = ==+- =- = =--+ =-=+- += +=+ =~- o Inadequate human resource (only five research personal) =-+a+ =~- =- =- =+-+- =+ ~|+ Review present status of linkage among research institutes at national, regional and int'l level for the advancement of research support to trout growers/industry === =+= -- + == ~- == =-== --+ =-=+- =- ==+ ==++ =+ Recommend possible research strategies (technical, post harvest, market, social, policy etc). =~- =-=+- ---+ =+= +++, ~-:-, = =-+-, ===+ -- = Recommend appropriate organizational and institutional frame to enhance research capability =-=+-+ =- -: =- ==- == s-=+ =-=- -- -++ =+= Recommend approaches to strengthen linkage among research/ academic/ development/ private sector =-=+-, + =-, + -=-- = ==-=-+ ==-- === -+- =- =+= =-
Fingertips for group exercise in research === - =-=+-+ ==-=- c=+=+ =r= =r= -
Research on the year round supply of trout seed ~ === ~ =+=+ -- =+- =-=+- Feasibility study in different development regions from commercial and livelihood prospective ~- + += =++ =+=+=-+ == === =c ++ =~-- ===- Research on quality feed based on local ingredients --= ==== =---= - =+-+ =-=+- Technology on Low cost pond/raceway construction += =-== + - - -=- ++ Maintenance of genetic variation, genetic purity -=- --+- :- +== r- Participatory trout farming research in new locations -= += =-~=- ==+ === =c -+ =- =+- Mitigation research with trout establishment in hydel reservoirs impounded in cold water regions ==+- += +-=- -=-= -=- -- ==== === =c = -- ===+ == =-=+- Fish health management research =-= --= =-+- =-=+- Research to increase reproductive performance of trout ===+ +=-- =~ : ===- Research on delayed maturity of female
18 + =c =: == == == t= +++- ==- =-=+- Establishment and study on different strain of rainbow trout ~- +=-+ === =c+ ===- + -s+- Environmental impact study on effluent of trout farm in recipient water (water quality and biodiversity perspective) === =c -= - +- -++ ----= + ~-+ ===- +-+ =--- =-+ --+-= Improve survivability of allevins ~=- -+ -- =+ =- Socioeconomic impact of trout farming === -+ ===+ =+ + ~- Market and marketing = = =--+- o Research on meat quality of trout grown in high altitude Himalayan water =-= +-: -=== ++ +-= =+- -- === =c+ == = ---= ===- o Study on fish processing and value addition =c+ +=+- =--- : ===- o Study on post harvest technology (transportation, smoking, frozen, etc.) ~-:- ++= ===- t-- , =+=-, == +- = o Surveillance of consumer preference =+~a -= =c - =~=+ ===- o Market behavior and interaction with other meat products = + ++ - == == =+- -= ===-= Study of social behavior on natural resource (land and water) use for trout farming ++-+ - ===- +- +== ===+ + ~-+ ===- Research institution should undertake trainers' training programs =-=+- =--= +, + + -== =- +-
Summary Report of the Working Groups Group A The existing fisheries extension activity is not enough to promote One Village One Product slogan in Rasuwa and Nuwakot District: No SMS (cold water) No JT/JTA (cold water) It needs specialized extension agents in cold water Participatory extension Use of NGOs/INGOs/CBOs Integration with micro/macro hydropower Ensure Seed Production and supply Participatory Government Import of fertilized eggs Inventry preparation of most potential area in Rasuwa and Nuwakot District Inventry preparation of most potential area in Rasuwa and Nuwakot District
Horizontal scaling-up Expand trout farming in feasible areas: Rasuwa and Nuwakot District particularly focused and other Mid-hill and High-hill general
Establish trout hatcheries in private sector: Partnership mode
19 Broods, Technical Service - FDC Venue, Labour and operating cost - Farmer's field
Provision of subsidy in interest on loan for the capital investment: As for Coffee, Tea, Cold storage subsidy for interest should be provided Ist year 100% 2nd year 75% 3rd year 50% 4th year 25% 5th year no subsidy Loan Secure scheme for total capital Government Sector 60% Private Sector 40%
Develop code of conduct for responsible aquaculture at national level: Water user's right Farm Registration Water Resource conservation Effluent water monitoring
Enforcement of Aquatic Life Protection Act: Escape of trout in natural water body monitoring
Credit scheme for trout should include an enterprise as collateral and land (steep land) should be valued in accordance with the annual turnover of the trout farm: Land Valuation on the basis of total Investment Re-valuation after infrastructure Promote commercialization of trout through public-private partnership (farmers' cooperative, NGOs, INGOs) approach: Expand domestic and explore abroad market for the trout. Develop input delivery mechanism in trout growing pocket areas. Initiatives on establishment of fish feed industry in private sector Encourage to local manufacturers Prepare database on fish production, demand, consumption , export and import Develop training curriculum for farmer level training Develop human resources, infrastructure, facilities required for the rapid expansion trout Develop/strengthen feedback mechanism and communication system for all stakeholders Group B: Recommendations for research strategies of trout scaling up
Based on TOR provided to the group, the following research needs are recommended Fisheries and aquaculture as national commodity research programme needs to be established
Human resource: o Discipline wise inadequate number o Regular recruitment of researchers o Utilize available resources/experts
Research facilities o Upgrading of lab facilities o Seed research facilities
20 o Production research facilities
Research needs o Genetics and breeding Genetic improvement, Brood management (Fecundity improvement, Maturity alteration, Alevins survival) o Feed and nutrition Feed standardization, Digestibility improvement, Cost effective feed o Health management Regular monitoring for site specific protocol; Research tie up with other research fields, Virology research o Production research Economic harvest size, Stocking density versus water flow, Alternative production systems o Post harvest Value addition, transportation (Quality maintenance) o Socio economic - Consumer preference, Marketing cost o Environmental Effluent discharge, Effluent utilization o Site characterization GIS and Remote sensing
Research linkage o Networking with national and international Institutions o Collaborative research o Participatory research
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History of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) introduction in Nepal
Deep Bahadur Swar, PhD Department of Agriculture, Harihar Bhawan, Pulchok, Lalitpur, Nepal Email: [email protected]
Abstract This paper gives a brief description on the history of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) introduction, status of trout farming and perspectives, especially in high hills where abundant cold and unpolluted water are available.
Key words: Trout, Asala, fry, introduction
1. Introduction Nepal has an area of 147,181 km 2 , which can be divided into three physiographic regions, from south to north: the Terai plain, the mid hills, and the Himalayas. The Terai lies between 65 m and 500 m elevation, the lower hills up to 2700 m, the upper hills up to 4000 m, and the greater Himalayas are located above tree line (>4600 m). Mountain and hills make 77 percent of the area of Nepal, while the Terai occupies only 23 percent. The Himalayas in the north strongly influence the climate of Nepal. The country may be divided into three climatic zones according to altitude: sub-tropical in the Terai, temperate in the hills, and alpine in the mountain. These geographical zones are endowed with many water resources, approximately 5% of the total area, in the forms of river and stream, lake, reservoir, pond and swamp. Among these, the rivers represent about 49 percent of the total water area. 2. Fishery Resources Cool and cold water streams and rivers in Nepal extending from the Himalayas offer excellent habitat to 76 native (Rajbanshi 2002) and 3 exotic cold water species (including Brown trout and Amago trout: perhaps do not exist in Nepal; and Rainbow trout). The native cold water fisheries resource offers vast scope for development of cold water aquaculture; however, at present this sector is predominant by subsistence and recreational fisheries only. Cold water native species for their aquaculture promotion is still in its infancy. It is only few indigenous species that have been domesticated and propagated for cultivation purposes. Their culture has yet to be adopted by the private sector. Among the exotic species, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) formerly known as Salmo gairdeneri is widely cultivated cold water salmonid throughout the temperate world (Bardach et al. 1972). In Nepal, its farming practices has recently been started to adopted (Rana 2007a, 2007b). 3. The Snow Trout (Schizothorax spp) There are about 14 species of 'snow trout' (colloquial Asala), cold water riverine native fish in Nepal. The 'snow trout' is English vernacular name of Asala (Nepali name). These Asala belongs to Cyprinidae family and do not have any relation with Salmonidae, however, they are called snow trout due to their appearance from dorsal side which closely resemble with trout, in general. Chuche Asala (Schizothorax plagiostomus) is found in a range of 345 m to 3,323 m altitude, whereas, Buche Asla (Schizothorax progastus) is found in 300 m to 1,820 m altitude. These are high value food fishes with its importance for sport also; available in most mountainous rivers and streams in Nepal.
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a cold-water carnivorous sport fish of North America, which was taken to California, Alaska, Asia and Europe during different periods of 19 th century. Among which, Japan is one of the largest producers of rainbow trout, where this species was introduced in
22 1877. Rainbow trout requires high protein feed and well oxygenated water for its cultivation. In natural habitat it feeds on aquatic insects, small crustaceans and small fish. Nevertheless, it can be cultured using artificial feed containing high animal protein. Trout can survive within a temperature range of 0-25C. However, it grows best at the water temperature range of 10-20C. Normally, the trout attains commercial size of 200-300gm within 14 to 20 months. Its growth depends on the quality and quantity of feed, suitable temperature and dissolved oxygen concentration in the water body. 4. Introduction of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Considering the suitable climatic condition and abundance of cold water, juvenile brown trout (Salmo trutta) were introduced from India for the first time during late 1969; and Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) from the United Kingdom in 1971. They were distributed in two places. Few hundred juveniles were kept in Godawari in a cement tank and the rest of them were transported to a newly established Trishuli Trout Hatchery (which was established in Nuwakot district on the bank of the river Trishuli). Its objective was propagation, rearing and releasing of trout into suitable hill streams to establish sport fishery for tourism development. However, mass mortality was occurred in Trishuli within the few months of their arrival. Since the Trout Hatchery was established in the king's interest, the mass mortality of trout created a big issue for the Ministry of Agriculture along with Department of Agriculture. A high level commission was constituted. Mr. K. G. Rajbanshi and Mr. J. C. Gautam were the members of that investigation team. The team, after a through investigation of all possible reasons of mortality came to a conclusion that the trout was introduced without proper preparation of physical facilities such as: ponds were leaking with earthen bottom, proper pellet high protein feed was not available, only buffalo meat/liver was fed, and The water was highly silted. The trout commission recommended that the existing facilities (ponds, water resources, human resources, and feed) were not suitable for trout culture; and the trout farming program was dropped until rehabilitation of Trishuli Fisheries Station. Activities in Trishuli station were resumed as usual from 1974. Exotic carps were breed and distributed for pond culture and paddy cum fish culture for few years. In the beginning of 1990s, Nepalese government requested a mini project from Japan International Cooperative Agency (JICA) under the leadership of a Senior Volunteer Mr. Kiyoshi Masuda. Under which, the JICA supported rehabilitation of Trishuli Fisheries Station. for trout hatchery and raceway construction Technical support was provided through Japan Overseas Cooperative Volunteer. Realizing the importance of trout for cold water in Nepal, 50,000 eyed-eggs of Oncorhynchus mykiss were again imported form Miyazaki Prefecture of Japan. These eyed eggs hatched out in Godawari Fish Farm (Gurung & Basnet 2003) where more than 80 percent of the eyed eggs were successfully hatched. These fry were grown in Godawari and Trishuli Fish Farms for several generations. Several fisheries scientists were trained with Japanese counterparts in Nepal and Japan. Afterward, studies on its culture and breeding technologies were conducted in Trishuli and Godawari Fish Farms. Research on effectiveness of local feed on growth and spawning behavior of trout in Nepalese waters were carried out. Participatory research and development trials were also conducted in farmers' ponds with encouraging results (Rana 2007a, 2007b). In addition to aquaculture, rainbow trout fingerlings have been introduced in one of the isolated rivers in high hills (Modi Khola). Studies were carried out to assess the survival rate of rainbow trout and its impact on native fish fauna. Nevertheless, trout farming is gaining popularity among the farmers of high hills region due to its high value and excellent taste. Besides these accomplishments, trout seed has also been exported to Thailand. Nepalese experts under Technical Cooperation program sponsored by JICA providethe technical assistance.
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Fig 1: Trout production in Nepal. 5. Present status of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal Rainbow trout culture in Trishuli is being practiced in water coming down from glaciers, whereas spring water is used in Godawari station. The area of trout farm at Trishuli is about 2,000 sqm whereas it is nearly 300 sqm at Godawari. The breeding of rainbow trout was initiated around 1990. The experiment on rainbow trout cultivation started around 1993. At present, production technology has been developed and verified in farmers' raceways. To date private sector involvement is limited. However, the private farmers are attracted towards trout farming in Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts. Number of trout farmers is being increased every year and production is also increasing. Mr. Purna Bahadur Lama (Mr. Gopal Lama) of Kakani VDC-4, Ranipauwa, Nuwakot District is the first private trout culturist in Nepal. He started rainbow trout culture in 1998 on the trial basis. Presently, he has been growing 10,000-20,000 fingerlings of rainbow trout each year in an area of 136 sqm (Nepal et al. 2002).
Total production of trout in Nepal is estimated about 17 mt in the year 2006 (Fig 1), where production from private sector contributes 60 percent. However, total annual fish production in Nepal is estimated to be 42,463 Mt, of which captured fishes accounted about 47%. Majority of the production came from private sector. At present annual trout production in Nepal ranged between 10-15 mt. Trout production in Nepal in 1993 was about 318 kg which was 1565 kg in 2005.
6. Constraints A major constraint for expansion of trout culture is the availability of adequate seed and year-round supply of clean and cold water at suitable site where motorable road, electricity and other infra structure are well developed. The trout is a high value but perishable food product, thus, should be marketed as soon as it is harvested. Post harvest handling in trout farming in near future, therefore, would be important aspect of trout production management. Transportation network, cold storage facilities, fish dryers are considered as pre-requisites for efficient marketing of trout. The domestic market for rainbow trout may be not wide and simple as that of carp due to its lower production and higher price. Nonetheless, record shows that over the last four years demand for trout in Nepal has been increasing.
24 7. Way forward Trout farming provides a great opportunity for utilizing the abundant source of cold water in Nepal. From technical point of view, it can survive and grow in flowing water with temperature range of 0 to 25 0 C. As Nepal has several rivers and their tributaries of glacial origin, suitable to grow trout using their waters, such sites suggest high prospect of further expansion of trout farming. Despite of its low production, trout fetched very good market price, thus, trout farming has been one of the highly profitable agricultural commodities. Research conducted on small-scale trout private farm indicated that farmers do not have any problems in selling trout.
Feasibility survey for the expansion of trout farming is being carried-out in various parts of Nepal. Some of the probable sites identified are Modi Khola of Parbat district, Khimti Khola of Dolakha, Khokundol of Sindhupalchowk, and Naubise of Dhading District. Department of Agriculture is proposing additional projects on promoting rainbow trout farming in private sector of hilly areas of central and western development regions. Above all trout culture not only generates entrepreneurs' income but also help establish recreation site for tourism.
Acknowledgement I am indebted to the organizing committee of the workshop for providing me to present this work. Thanks are also to all of concerned personal involved in rainbow trout farming in Nepal. I wish to express my sincere thanks to all farmers for providing information on rainbow trout farming activities.
Reference Bardach J, J. H. Ryther & McLarney W. O (1972). Aquaculture: The farming and Husbandry of Freshwater and Marine Organisms, Wiley Inter-Science, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 868pp. Gurung T. B & Basnet S. R (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss in Nepal; Constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia. No. 4. p 16. Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnyat, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002) Economics of rainbow trout farming in Nepal. In: Petr T & Swar D. B edited "Cold water fisheries in the trans- Himalayan countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 431 Rome FAO, p 376. Rajbanshi K. G (2002) Zoo-geographical distribution and the status of coldwater fish of Nepal. In: Petr T & Swar D. B edited "Cold water fisheries in the trans-Himalayan countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 431 Rome FAO, p 376. Rana C (2007a) Rainbow trout: an agricultural breakthrough. The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 97-99. www.readtheboss.com Rana C (2007b) No, fishy business! The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 76-77. www.readtheboss.com
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Present Status and Prospect of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Farming in Nepal
Ash Kumar Rai, Tek Bahadur Gurung 1 , Sadhu Ram Basnet 2 , Raja Man Mulmi 1
1 Fisheries Research division, Godawari, Lalitpur 2 Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli, Nuwakot
Email: [email protected] Abstract Intensive studies on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming started after its introduction in 1988. As a result farming package of the fish was developed in two research stations of Nepal Agricultural Research Council, namely, Godawari and Trishuli. Presently, altogether 12 farmers are involved in trout production, out of them 10 farms are in business with profit. In 1998/99, the production of trout in private sector was 0.8 Mt, but in 2006 trout production has been increased to 12 Mt from 1270 m 2 water surface area. The production rate calculated in average from the farms ranged 15-20 kg/m 2 /year The feed for trout containing 35% protein are prepared by farmers themselves. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) is about 2:1. Trout attains marketable size (about 200-300 g) from alevins stage within 12-17 months. The farm gate price of trout ranges Rs 300-700/kg. The demand of rainbow trout in market is high. Nepal, predominantly a mountainous country with rich cold-water resource possesses high potential for rainbow trout commercial cultivation. It can also supports eco- tourism development through opportunities like recreation by fishing. Key words: Trout breeding, fry, alevins, survival, growth rate, grow out
1. Introduction Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is one of the most suitable fish to cultivate in cold waters. It can survive in cold waters having a water temperature range from 0 to 25 0 C, but performs relatively well for growth in 16-18 0 C. The water temperature range from 9 to 14 0 C is considered suitable for maintaining spawners for breeding and incubation. To grow the trout at commercial scale water volume, quality and constant water temperature play important roles. Though trout farming in Nepal is a new endeavor, however, commercial rainbow trout cultivation was started as early as 1853 in the US and a little earlier in Europe (Bardach et al. 1972). Nowadays, cultivation of rainbow trout for both commercial production and recreational fishing purposes has been a well-established industry throughout the world (Barrington 1983).
Rainbow trout was introduced in Japan from USA in 1877. Now trout has become the third highest fish products of freshwater aquaculture in Japan (Yamaha Motor Co. Ltd 1991). Rainbow trout was introduced first time in Nepal in 1969 from India; and second time brown trout were brought from United Kingdom (Gurung & Basnet 2003, Swar 2007). Those fish were kept in Fish Farm, Godawari and later on in Trout Hatchery, Trishuli. These stocks could not survive due to lack of technical know-how and management practices. After few years in 1988, again 50,000 eyed eggs of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were brought from Miyazaki Prefecture of Japan. These eggs were hatched out in Fish farm, Godawari. Then some broods were taken to Trishuli for study. Now this stock is in cultivation in research farms as well as in private sector. After a decade of continuous efforts on research, a complete technology package of breeding, fry nursing, rearing and grow-out of rainbow trout with feed production technology has been developed by Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC).
26 Nepal is one of the major countries for having abundant cold freshwater resources in the world; however, these water resources have been poorly used. Rainbow trout being a cold-water fish has high potential to cultivate in Nepal particularly in hilly region where cold water streams prevailed well. People living in the hilly region have less opportunity to increase their income to better their livelihood. Rainbow trout farming could be an important source of their income and providing job to the people living in such regions. Rainbow trout can also supports eco-tourism through developing recreational based fisheries for fishing opportunities to tourist in hill streams. However, effort on that direction is required. Trout farming has bright prospects for expansion as Nepal is rich in cold water resources from east to west in the hilly region. Here, in this paper we aim to provide existing technological performance of rainbow trout farming and highlight some with issues possible solution for scaling-up of the developed technology in the country.
1. Introduction Fingerlings availability is the main bottle neck for trout production. Since, the trout fingerling production is an urgent need to enhance trout production nationwide. Therefore, trout breeding was initiated in private sector since 2005 with technical support of NARC. In the first year about 44,000 fingerlings were produced by two farmers of Rasuwa and Nuwakot.
Trout can breed after attaining two years. In general, a 3-4 years old single female can laid up to 3,000- 3500 eggs/kg (Morrissy 1973), however, breeding performance and quality egg depends on the quality of water, feed and other management practices. The brood fish should be fed at least 35% protein content diet at the rate of 2-3% of body weight once or twice daily. Two years old adult rainbow trout are bred artificially once in a year during December to March; and the same group of brood can be used for coming years. The older brood generally lays higher number of eggs/kg body weight. These broods also produce larger eggs. The smaller eggs might have low hatchability; contrarily larger size of eggs produce higher alevin. The eggs are stripped from females and the stripped eggs are fertilized with the milt obtained from males (Fig. 1). Normally, one male can supply enough milt for the eggs of two females. The fertilized eggs are incubated in incubation trays in Atkins incubators, where clean and cold water had been supplied @ 3-7 L/sec. The water used for incubation should contain the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) >7 mg/L. The eggs used for incubation hatch out within 20-30 days interval depending on water temperature.
Fig 1. Mature female rainbow trout (A) and milt mixing with the eggs for fertilization (B).
27 Nursing and rearing: The Newly hatched sac fry which are often called "alevin" weight about 0.08 g each and take about 2 weeks to attain swimming stage. At the beginning the alevin with a large yolk sac (reserved food) can not swim well. These sac fry attains swimming stage after absorption of the yolk sac. These alevin are fed with starter feed, which contains 35-40% crude protein. The feeding is carried at the rate of 15- 20% total biomass of fry. The feeding is generally performed at 2-hour intervals in day time till attaining 3 g size, which take about 10 weeks. After 3 g sizes fingerlings are fed @ of 8-10% body weight of fish at 2 hours interval till about 5 g sizes.
Alternatives to the starter feed for nursing frozen raw buffalo liver mixed with starter feed has been proved to be one of the best starter diets with healthy and better growth compared to other diets fish meal 30% mixed with local feed, 30% earthworm mixed with local feed and 100% earthworm (Fig. 2). Egg custard has also been found as a potential alternative to the starter feed (Pradhan 1998). According to Parova & Rehulka (1997), the growth of trout receiving 18.5% of fats was dynamic and faster. Basnet & Silwal (1995/96) have claimed that deformed alevins of rainbow trout might be due to high water temperature during the spawning season.
3. Rainbow trout cultivation Trout needs clean and cold water for its growth. Earthen ponds are not used but they can also be used for growing trout, if abundant year round cold water is available. Concrete raceways of various shapes and sizes are used normally for trout culture. Circular tanks typically range from 4 to 6 m in diameter but less suited to automated handling, grading or harvesting which have been used overseas to improve productivity (Bromage & Shepherd 1990) with a depth of about 0.75 m. Generally, water supply equivalent to 4 L.sec -1 can permit stocking densities up to 20 kg.m -3 .
3.1 Stocking density In worst conditions when water flow are not regulated negative correlation between stocking density and growth might occur. The stocking density can be increased up to 35 kg/m 3 water flow is sufficient (Bekiroglu et al. 1995). If the water supply is reliable, permanent, stable and adequate ponds can be constructed in parallel fashion to avoid contamination. But, if water source is limited then linear raceways for holding trout could be constructed. However, it needs a filter chamber to clean the used and polluted water before sending to other raceways.
Fig 2. An effect of different starter feeds for fry nursing (Source: FRD 1999/00; 2001).
28 3.2 Site selection and water quality The selection of suitable site for trout farming is one of essential part for successful business. The best site for trout farm establishment should have preferably a slope of 1-3% to permit adequate water flow and water quality. Easy access to road, availability of electricity, safety and security, free of poaching and no possibility of flooding are also important factors that need to be considered during site selection.
Adequate volume of cold water below 20 0 C throughout the year is the pre-requisite for a trout culture. Yamazaki (1991) has reported rainbow trout grow well at between 10-20 0 C but in Nepal it showed the best growth takes place in between 16-18 0 C (FRD 2001). Feed consumption decreases when water temperature increase above 20 0 C, resulting in slow growth and eventually death, if exposed to higher water temperature for longer period. Trout require more than 7 ppm dissolved oxygen (DO) in its water for proper growth and breeding. The growth could be retarded or fish could die, if dissolved oxygen remained below 7 ppm (Gibson's Limited 1998). The preferred pH range for trout is between 6.5 and 8.0 with optimum value between 7.0-7.5. At higher pH levels, relatively low levels of ammonia can also be dangerously toxic (Bromage & Shepherd 1990; Sedgwick 1985).
4. Grow out rainbow trout Trout can be stocked at 50-100 fish/m 2 depending upon water source the quantity, the quality and its flow. But the stocking density in government and farmers ponds at present is 50 fish/m 2 . At this stocking rate the marketable size of 200-300 g reach at 14-16 months of culture period. However, fish need to be graded timely to attain uniform growth and avoid cannibalism. Specific growth rate (SGR) decreases with the increasing size of fish. In general, if quality feed could be provided the feed conversion ratio (FCR) equals 2:1. So, it requires about 2 kg of feed to produce 1 kg of trout. Several other works abroad have also showed similar results (Bromage & Shepherd 1990, Gibson's Limited (1998).
For achieving success in trout farming fish of different sizes should be graded time to time. This management avoids competition and cannibalism. The size category for separation might be of 2-5 g; 10-20 g; 50-60 g; and >100 g sizes. Such management could also help to improve FCR and minimization of the cost of production. The trout diet formulation depends on the age and size of the fish. Rainbow trout needs high protein containing diet which might be obtained using dry shrimp/prawn and soybean products for feed preparation (FRD 1998/99). Other feed ingredients could be wheat, oil cake, rice bran, vitamin mixture and minerals to prepare trout feeds. With the success of research on feed formulation and testing in farmers field NARC has demonstrated viability of commercial trout feed production in the country.
Generally, the marketable body weight of trout is about 200 g. The longer culture period after 200g body weight might results in increase in the cost of production. Therefore, it is advised to harvest the fish right after attaining the size of about 200 each to get the best profit. Feed efficiency in trout in Japan ranges from 60-80% (Tasiro et al. 1974) but it has been found lower (43-46%) in Nepal (FRD 1999/'00). This suggests that there is still need research on trout feed efficiency improvement. The cost of rainbow trout production has been analyzed which shows that to produce 1 kg of marketable size (200-300 g each) of trout might cost nearly Rs. 170 (Joshi & Westlund 1996). Economic analysis of trout culture based on the experiences of the private sector in Nepal (Nepal et al. 2001; Rai et al. 2005) showed that annual rate of return could be nearly 43% of the total investment. The high initial investment for raceways construction could be a constraint for rapid expansion of trout cultivation, in general.
29 5. Prospect of rainbow trout farming in Nepal Efforts have been made to transfer the technology to the private sector with the help of various government and non-government channels. As a result, till now about 1175.2 m 2 areas of 88 raceway ponds have been used for trout production. The suitable size and depth of the ponds are 50-150 m 2
and 80-90 cm, respectively.
Trout farming has become a success in Nepal after more than a decade of continuous and untiring efforts. It generates not only the income to the farmers but also creates employment opportunities to the people living in the mountainous and hilly regions. In addition, it has potential to be exported overseas and earn foreign currency. Rainbow trout can also entertain tourists and provide fresh fish in restaurant as well. In order to expand the industry, government should initiate and take interest and support providing subsidy as well as technical support. To make the trout farming a successful business, further research and supports are also necessary.
People living in the hilly regions have limited income resources to improve their livelihood. Therefore, the introduction of trout and its culture technology in the hilly region could be supportive and encouraging to the people for income generating opportunity by utilizing rich cold-water resources. Out of about 6,000 rivers in Nepal most of them origin from the Himalayan snow peaked mountains. These rivers could be utilized for cold water aquaculture, if related infrastructures such as road and electricity are available. Pond fish culture in warmer region has limited area and should compete with other agricultural activities for land and water use. Therefore, to develop aquaculture in Nepal utilization of cold water resources in hilly terrain could be one of the best options. Therefore, cultivation of cold water fish could ascertain promising agriculture activities in Nepal. In addition, the development of cold water fisheries could also supports sport fishery based eco-tourism for income generation activities to local people.
The market for trout is enormous as it has high demand in and outside the country. Fresh trout can consume directly to the hotels and restaurants in towns within the country. The local influential communities as well as tourists are the main consumers of trout in these hotels and restaurants. Besides that trout has high demand outside the country, however, the quantity and consistent quality product is the main bottleneck. The production and supply should be regular, reliable and sizeable. Therefore, in order to be competitive trout should be produced on a commercial scale to take advantagese. Such managerial improvement is expected ton reduce the production cost. There is a great prospect of trout culture industry in Nepal but more private entrepreneurs and organizations should be attracted towards this business.
6. Recommendations and suggestions The most important and crucial part of trout farming is the hatchery to produce enough fingerlings. Therefore good hatchery should be established for mass seed production to supply sufficient quantity of quality fingerlings to the growers. Trout farming depends on quality and quantity of feed supply available. The feed production cost can be relatively higher, because trout requires high protein content diet. Therefore, government need to establish or subsidy the feed manufacturers of the trout so that they can supply quality feed at low cost to the trout growers. The mixture of different levels of defatted soybean meal, corn gluten meal and meat meal could replace up to 90% of the fishmeal to be used, if the combination of these ingredients produces the profile of amino acids comparable to the fishmeal diet (Juadee & Watanabe 1993).
30
However, the research needs to be continued to search locally available cheaper ingredients for fish meal so that manufacturers would be able to produce low-cost feed. Unlike other fish species, trout solely depends on quality feed and need skilled human resource to manage successfully. Due to these reasons, trout culture is normally costly than carp. Therefore, in order to encourage private farmers, government should make provision to get loans in low-interest for capital investment and subsidies on feeds or feed ingredients, related equipments, fry transportation etc. Acknowledgement We extend our sincere thanks to all of staffs working in Trishuli Fish Farm, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari and Private farms for providing information require for this study. Fund and support for this study was provided through Nepal Agricultural Research Council and Japan International Cooperative Agency. Reference Bardach J. E, J. H. Ryther & McLarney W. O (1972) Aquaculture: The Farming and Husbandry of Freshwater and Marine Organisms. Wiley-Inter science, A division of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NY. 868 pp Barrington R (1983) Making and Managing a Trout Lake. Fishing News Books, England, 135 pp Basnet S. & Silwal U (1995/96). Relationship between local environmental condition management and spawning efficiency of rainbow trout. Technical report, Fisheries Research Center, Godawari Bekiroglu Y, T. Sahin & Duzgunes E (1995) Assessment of optimal stocking density for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). General Directorate of Agricultural Research, Ankara(Turkey). 59 pp Bromage N. R. & C. J. Shepherd (1990) Fish, their requirements and site evaluation. In: Shepherd, C. J. & Bromage, N.R. (eds), Intensive Fish Farming. BSP Professional Books, Oxford. 17-49 FRD (1998/99) Annual Technical Report. Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari. 5-8 FRD (1999/'00) Relationship between specific growth rate and sizes of rainbow trout. Annual Technical Report, Lalitpur, Nepal. 51-54 FRD (2001) Development of starter feed for trout alevins. Annual Technical Report, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, NARC. 27-33 Gibson's Limited (1998) Feed Management Guidelines for Salmonids. Gibson's Limited, Tasmania. 150 pp Gurung T. B & S. R Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal: constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8 (4):16-18 Joshi P. L & Westlund L M (1996) Production Technology and Prospects of trout forming in Nepal, Proceedings of the National Symposium on the Role of Fisheries and Aquaculture Nepal, Nepal Fisheries Society, Kathmandu. 27-34 Juadee P & Watanabe T (1993) Replacement of fishmeal by alternative protein sources in rainbow trout diets. Proceedings of the seminar on Fisheries, Department of Fisheries. Bangkok, Thailand. 15-17 Morrissy N. M (1973) Comparison of strains of Salmo gairdneri Richardson from New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia. Australian Society for Limnology Bulletin, 5: 11-20 Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002). Economics of rainbow trout farming systems in Nepal. In: T. Petr and D. B. Swar (eds.) Cold Water Fisheries in the Trans- Himalayan Countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 431 Rome, FAO. P. 376 Parova J & Rehulka J (1997) The effect of dietary fat in market rainbow trout on growth dynamics, specific growth rate and trout health. Zivocisna-Vyroba-UZPI (Czech Republic). 42(12):547-551
31 Pradhan N (1998) Development of starter feed for trout larvae under local management. In Present Status of Fisheries, Research, Development and Education in Nepal. Eds. Pradhan, B.R., Wagle, S.R. Osamu, Y. and Masakazu, T. NARC & JICA, 170 pp Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & Lamsal G. P (2005) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal- A success story. Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, Thailand. 33 pp Sedgwick S. D (1985) Trout Farming Handbook. 4th ed. Fishing News Books, England, 160 pp Swar D. B (2007) History of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) introduction in Nepal. In proceeding "Rainbow trout farming initiatives in Nepal" edited by T. B. Gurung. p Tasiro F, W. Tachikawa, T. Kamata, E. Tamura, AOC II & Y. Yabe. 1974. Rainbow Trout Fish Farming Lecture Series, Vol 10, Midori shadow Co. Ltd, (in Japanese) Yamaha Motor Co, Ltd. (1991) Rainbow trout culture. Fishery Journal. 36 Yamazaki T (1991) Culture of foreign origin Fisheries, Farming Japan. 25 th Anniversary. 25(1):41-46
32 Breeding performance of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in northeastern hills, Nepal
Sadhu Ram Basnet, Gopal Prasad Lamsal, Raja Man Mulmi**, Tek Bahadur Gurung**
**Fisheries Research Division, Godawari Abstracts Research on participatory breeding of rainbow trout has been one of the main activities of Godawari & Trishuli Fisheries farms in past several years in Nepal. Under the breeding program 1 + and 2 + year's old broods were used for spawning. The main objective of this study was to examine the breeding performance of rainbow trout for fry production. The broods were stocked at experimental sites about three months prior to spawning. The hatchability and growth trends were affected by the presence of silt and humus in water used for eggs incubation. Variation on different parameters such as hatchability revealed that poor water quality and feeding management might affect dramatically on survivability of alevin. In general, the results showed that highest hatchability (45.32%) occurred in Rasuwa which might be related with water quality available during incubation period. This fact was further evidenced by higher hatchability of 2+ years old mothers in Kakani (45%) and Trishuli (24%) than 1+ female group. The lowest hatchability occurred in Godawari (8.08%).
Key words: Trout breeding, male female, fecundity, alevin, hatchability
1. Introduction Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss is one of the most popular fish for cultivation in cold water. For sustainable cultivation of trout pure seed are produced in hatcheries. However, trout breeding technologies need strengthening in both government as well as private farms in Nepal. To achieve this goal, first breeding of trout in hatchery was attempted in 1990. Rainbow trout require cold, clean and highly oxygenated water for ripening of broods for successful breeding and hatchery activities. Female rainbow trout spawn best at the age of four to seven years and males at the three to six years. The maximum longevity of rainbow trout is 11 years (Morrissy 1973). The fecundity of rainbow trout changes with the age of female brood (Martyshev 1983). Contrarily to these, Trishuli and Godawari research farms use females ranging more than one year to three years age group, male mostly less than three years old.
Feeding condition notably influence the fecundity of rainbow trout (Huet 1975). Shortage of quality feed reduces fecundity. Therefore, shrimp - , fish - and soybean meals had been recommended as the main source of protein dietary component of formulated trout diets. Shrimp and fishmeal are most expensive component, which cannot be fully replaced by plant originated protein for trout feed. It is known that feeding with high quality feed is one of highly important part of brood management for producing quality seed and table fish production. Recognizing these facts dietary composition of trout has been attempted to standardized, however, to make trout farming more economical further work is highly desirable.
To transfer the farming technology participatory approach is one of the best options. In this approach potential farmer locations are selected where researcher could perform the research activities in full participation of the farmer.
33 2. Materials and Methods Comparisons of breeding performance were examined in two government farms (Trishuli and Godawari) and two private farms (Kakani and Rasuwa). In the Trishuli fish farm, water was supplied through glacier originated Trishuli River, where the water remains turbid at least 4-5 months in a year from MaySeptember. In other location the source of water was spring for supply in the hatchery. Broods were selected from the farm stock and divided into two age groups, one was comprised of 2 years old and another 3 years old broods named as 1 + (first spawner) and 2 + age (second spawner). These broods were maintained in raceways having a dimension of 1:5 width and length.
The female and male broods were transported into the experimental areas at least three months prior to breeding period. The feeding regime to broods was twice a day in the morning and the evening at 2-3% of total body weight. Brood fish were fed 35% crude protein containing pellet feed (Table 1) at the rate of 1-2% of live weight before spawning or November first week. In all experimental sites quality of brood stocks were assessed on the basis of: general health condition, absence of deformities, good external appearance, good coloration, activity, and swiftness of reaction to stimuli. The stocking density of brood was 5-10 Kg/m 2 and water exchange were maintained to exchange at least 4-6 times within 24 hour.
The state of ripeness was examined two times at a week during breeding period from the end of October. The state of brood could recognize through external body appearance of males and females. Such as body coloration of males become brilliant, appeared darker but abdomen remains compressed. Along with these, lower jaw elongated; and curved upward like a hook. The maturity in females was verified by enlarged abdomen the presence of oocytes. The gravid broods were selected and brought into the hatchery. Gravid broods were gently wiped using dry and clean towel to clean the dirt and soak the water from body surface and avoid water mixing on extruded eggs and milt. Thereafter eggs were collected in the container by applying mild pressure first on lower part of the ovary (near the vent) and upward the ovary over the ventral side of fish. The eggs from mature female were obtained by simple hand stripping on a sieve and cleaned with 0.9% common salt solution. Immature female were kept and checked periodically an interval of 3-4 days.
Eggs were counted by weighing 5 g eggs separately. For fertilization, brisk milt was mixed in same container where eggs were stripped. Thereafter, eggs were stirred gently with a feather and stand for one minute. After that, 0.9 percent salt solution about was poured carefully from the side of the container for removing dirt and cleaning the fertilized eggs. Then the green eggs were washed continuously until the water becomes transparent. The green eggs were poured in the tray (local made 33*34 cm size). Then all trays were tied in stake together to put into the Atkins. Where, continuous and uniform water flow was maintained at the rate 2 lit/ minute for 10,000 eggs. The optimum dissolve oxygen required in the incubation apparatus was always about 6-8 mg litre-. During the whole incubation period the trays were cleaned twice from the Atkin to remove dead eggs.
2.1 Nursing and rearing After hatching sac fry were carefully removed from the tray into the mesh cage arranged into rectangular troughs where running water were maintained by protecting them from bright light. Water supply rate in the trough
34 were @ 0.3-0.5 ml/min/1000 larvae. The sac fry remained in the tray until the absorption of yolk sac and the fry become able to swim. After that the free swimming fry were fed 10 times a day. The feeding frequency was reduced to 2-4 times a day after the fry attain larger in size. The fry were fed every hour at the rate of 5-10 % of body weight with crumble feed. Along with the crumble, minced buffalo liver was fed to the fry.
2.2 Grow-out fish trials For analyzing the grow-out, 1-2g size fingerlings were stocked @ 50 fish m -2 . Continuous and uniform water flow was maintained @ 1 L/min /m 2 in raceway pond, containing more than 7 mg L. dissolve oxygen and pH range from 6.5 to 7.5. Locally prepared feed for grow-out were supplied after pelleting according to the feed composition given in Table-2. According to water temperature the feeding rate were maintained. The water temperature was measured daily using simple mercury thermometer, DO was measured by simple portable meter. For pH measurement simple Litmus paper were used. Specific growth rate decrease with increasing size of fish and feed conversion ratio has shown the 2:1. For more than 50 g of size fish 20% and less than 50 g size 30% animal protein containing feed to grow-out production 2-3 times at daily @ 1.5 -2% of total biomass were fed.
3. Results Water temperature ranged from 12 to 20 0 C in Trishuli, 13 to 22 0 C in Godawari, 10 to 17 0 C in Rasuwa and 9-21 0 C in Kakani. The water pH ranged from 6.5-7.5. Other detail of breeding performance is given in Table-3. The egg incubation period in Godawari and Trishuli were 325 to 350 degree days, respectively. The hatchability was low Godawari and Trishuli than private farms in Kakani and Rasuwa farms.
Breeding occurred from first week of November to the beginning of December. First breeding occurred in Godawari, then in Kakani, Trushuli and Rasuwa. Fully mature eggs were spherical, translucent and pale yellow to orange color. The egg diameters of 1 + female ranged from 3-3.5 mm, while those of 2 + ranged from 3.5-4.0 mm female. The extruded total 1500-2600 eggs per kg
of female. Body weight of each alevin at first day was about 40-50 mg, while total length ranged from 1.3-1.8 cm.
In Trishuli hatching occurred after 27 to 35 days when temperature ranged 10-13 C, while in Godawari it took from 25 to 30 days when temperature was ranged from 11 to 14C. Hatching period depends on the water temperature, and takes place 27 to 41 days when temperature remains 10-12C (Frost & Brown 1967). Marketable size of trout (200-300 g) reached within 15-17 months in Trishuli and 12-13 month of culture period in Godawari. Yolk sac got absorbed within 7-18 days and reached into free swimming stage.
35 Table 3. Fecudity, fertility and other characteristics of 1+ and 2+ years female in different locations.
Fig 1. Growth trend of trout fingerlings in two different stations.
3.1 Growth trend of grow out The growth showed that the body weight becomes double rapidly in smaller trout. This trend however decreased with increasing fish body wieght (Fig-1). The temperatures seemed to play important role in growing period. The initial stocking rate of 2-3 g fingerlings ranged 50-100 fish m -2.
The marketable size of 200-300 g achieved within 15-17 month in Trishuli and 13-15 month of culture period in Godawari. However, 9-10 months old trout with averaging 100 g body weight started to sell around November in private farms.
4. Discussion Breeding performance and success of rainbow trout highly depend on feeding, selection, maturation age, management disease occurrence and water quality. Good selection of brood fish is one of the important aspects to increases the rate of hatchability and decrease mortality rate of offspring. Trout becomes ready to spawn on second year of age. In Nepal both male and female broods are used for spawning after reaching 2 and 3 years old. Rainbow trout needs clean and high DO containing (more than 7 mg litre- 1 ) at normal condition and intensive management 10-11mg liter- for brood. Water pH normally should be 7.0-7.5. It is known that at higher pH, relatively low levels of ammonia can be dangerously toxic to trout (Bromage & Shepherd 1990, Sedgwick 1985).
Trout can breed after two years and spawn 2000 eggs kg- (Huet 1975); however breeding performance and quality egg development depends on the quality of the feed and water. A female weighing 1 kg gives an average of 1500 to 2000 eggs (Huet 1975) Based on our experience in two research (Trishuli and Godawari) centers trout can be bred artificially once a year from November to February.
36 Males of two to four years considered best for breeding (Pillay 1993). Quality milt plays an important role for successful breeding. High quality milt has a dense consistency with creamy colored appearance, while poor quality milt is watery with bluish tinge. The quantity of spermatozoa in the milt is considerable: 10,000 million in a cubic centimeter of the trout milt (according to Schlenk & Kuhmann, quoted by Dorier). It is not advisable to use eggs collected from females spawning for the first time, because the roe might be comparatively small and could yield higher loss during the period of embryonic development (Martyshev 1983).
In present study, the egg size varied from 3-5 mm. Many works suggest egg diameter should be about 5 mm (Range of 4.7 to 5.6 mm) for achieving good hatchability and low mortality with effective growth performance in rainbow trout. The quantity of eggs or milt and the egg size increase with increase in size of brood. It means larger the eggs size, larger alevins and more resistant young one. The size of the male however, does not influence the size of the alevins, but descendants of older females fertilized by young males is predominantly masculine (Huet 1975). Only 2-3 years old broods has been using for breeding in Nepal. This might be the reason of smaller eggs size. Conclusion We concluded water quality, feed and brood maintenance are main factor which directly play important role on achieving higher hatchability and production. To improve the life span of trout improvement in trout nutrition might be highly desirable. Further comprehensive study and data would require for concluding specific performance of trout breeding in prevailing ecological sites. However, the present results have demonstrated that participatory trout breeding in private farms are highly encouraging and commendable.
Acknowledgement We thank all the staffs of Trishuli & Godawari fish farm and private trout breeders for their cooperation. Funds for this research were provided through Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Japan International Cooperation Agency and from KR2 of Government of Japan. Reference Bromage, N. R. & Shepherd C. J (1990) Fish, their requirements and site evaluation. In, Shepherd, C. J & Bromage, N. R. (eds), Intensive Fish Farming. BSP Professional Books, Oxford. 17-49. FRC (2005) Annual Technical Report. Published by Trishuli Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli, Nuwakot Frost W. E & Brown, M. E (1967) The Trout. NMN. Pullin St. James Place London. Gurung T. B & S. R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal: constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8(4):16-18 Huet M. (1975) Textbook of fish culture, breeding and cultivation of fish. Fishing News (Books) Ltd, 23 Rosemount Avenue, West Byfleet, Surrey, England. Morrissy N. M (1973) Comparison of strains of Salmo Gairdneri Richardson from New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia. Australian Society for Limnology Bulletin, 5: 11-20. Martyshev F. G (1983) Pond Fisheries, American Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. Nomura, M. (1994). New Fishery Handbook. Koudansha, Tokyo. pp. 388-390 Pillay T. V. R (1993) Aquaculture Principles and Practices. Fishing News Books, A Division of Blackwell Scientific Publication Ltd. University press, Cambridge, The Great Britain. Sedgwick, S. D. (1985). Trout Farming Handbook, Fishing News Books Ltd., 1 Long Garden Walk, Farnham, Surrey, England.
37
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) larval rearing methodologies in Nepal
Neeta Pradhan, Asha Raymajhi & Santa Kumar Shrestha 1
1 Fisheries Research Center, Trishuli Abstract Sustainability of aquaculture highly depends on the availability of high quality robust and healthy seed. The larvae of trout accept feed from early stages after yolk sac are absorbed. Preparation of composite feed for early fry is a complex process. In earlier years in absence of appropriate modern technologies for the preparation of dried crumble feeds, several local methods were attempted in Nepal. Previous works suggest that in absence of well balanced appropriate dry starter pellet, boiled egg yolk and liver could be the best feed for larval rearing as starter feed. The growth pattern and survival of fry fed with egg yolk and liver were same as it was with dry pellet. These methods could be useful in remote trout hatcheries where transportation of dry pellet could be impractical.
1. Introduction Rearing fish larvae successfully is one of the most important parts of aquaculture enterprise, as its sustainability highly depends on survival of larvae (Bardach et al. 1972, Huet 1975). To guarantee the success of any aquaculture enterprise consistence seed supply mechanism is the most important step. Carp require natural food when larvae first start its feeding. However, larvae of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in hatcheries exclusively depend on external feed for their growth from the time larvae commence first feeding (Bardach et al. 1972). Therefore, trout larval rearing highly depend on quality feed.
In many countries, high quality commercial branded dry pellet known as crumble for larvae are available (Hinshaw 1999). However, in Nepal enterprises for commercial trout diets are not yet available. Thus, to initiate sustainable trout farming methodologies use of local feeds become essential. Rainbow trout being carnivorous obtain limited amount of energy from fat and carbohydrates; thus, need diets rich in animal protein (Nomura 1993, Hinshaw, 1999). Besides, the amount of water and seed the success of trout farming depends on the types of feed on which they are cultivated (Ghittino 1972, Maruyama 1983). Earlier, Japanese feed was used as initial feed for early fry in Nepal. Dry feed obtained from abroad was not only expensive but always bears risk upon unavailability. In earlier years before the methodologies were available for pellet feed, rainbow trout were usually fed raw feed of animal origin (Bardach et al. 1972, Sedgwick 1985). Since, these methodologies could be still appropriate for far remote places where modern technologies would not be available. Thus, our objective in present work was to review, examine and develop appropriate local feed to rear trout larvae from swimming to fingerling stage.
2. Some important feeding methodological trials and their results 2.1 Methodology for testing effectiveness of egg yolk (1 st experiment) Two feeding trial were conducted at FRC Godawari in 1992/93 (Gurung & Tamang 1992/93) to examine the effectiveness of various local feeds to find out simple methods, if pellet feed is not available. Fry of 0.92 to 0.11g in first trial and 0.23 to 0.35 g in second trial were reared with two types of feed for 30 days. The two types of diets were Trishuli farm made crumble feed (CP 32.59%, CF 6.38%, ash 15.23%, and moisture 6.48%) and boiled egg yolk (crude protein 12 % and crude fat 12 %).
38 In both trials, growth and survivability were higher in group fed with crumble than with boiled egg yolk. The growth rate (18.61 mg/day) of group fed with crumble was higher than fish fed with egg yolk (14.115 mg/day). But there was no significance difference in growth rate and survivability between treatments.
2.2 Methodology of fish meal replacement of by soymeal (2 nd experiment) An experiment was conducted from 1993 for 60 days at FRC Godawari in 1993/94 to find either fish meal could be substituted with soybean protein or not. The experiment was carried out in troughs of equal size (0.1463 m 3 ). There were two treatments each with two replicates. Each trough was stocked with 142 trout fry of approximately 45 days old (av. wt. 1.052 gm). In treatment-1, trout fry was fed with soybean based feed (soybean 72%, shrimp meal 10%, wheat 16%, multivitamin 1% and salt 1%) and in treatment 2 with pellet feed (soybean 40%, shrimp meal 42%, wheat 16%, multivitamin 1% and salt 1%).
The growth rate of trout fed with soybean-based feed was higher (0.155gm/day) than fed with pellet (0.151 gm/day) but there was no significance difference in growth rates between the two treatments. This might be due to the presence of abundant natural food (invertebrate population) in water supply. It might be possible that the animal protein deficiency could not be seen in the fry fed with soybean plant protein, if they had consumed the natural food. In a study fish meal replaced up to 75% by soybean had no adverse effect on overall performance of feed utilization efficiency in rainbow trout (Tacon et al. 1983). Except the protein level, the difference between fish meal and soybean meal is their origin. In farm made feeds, the protein level is about 35%. This level of protein can be derived from soybean. However, the cost of fishmeal is approximately 4 to 6 times higher than soybean.
2.3 Methodology testing for appropriateness of liver as initial feed A study was carried out in nine circular cemented tanks (1.4 m 3 each) for a period of 60 days in 1998 (Pradhan 1998). Three treatments each with three replicates were carried out for feeding early larvae of trout. The three different types of feeds were Japanese starter feed (control), liver and boiled egg yolk (Table 1). All tanks were stocked with 525 trout larvae of 0.35 g individual average weight. In the tanks water depths were maintained up-to 30 cm. The volume of circular tank up-to water level was 0.53 m 3 . In each replicates tank water flow was maintained at the rate of 6.0 L/m. Dissolved Oxygen, pH and temperature and mortality were measured everyday.
Table 1. Percentage composition of three experimental diets
*Composition as written on trade bag
The highest growth (0.096g.day -1 ) occurred for fish fed on Japanese starter feed followed by liver (0.066g. day -1 )
and egg yolk (0.06g.day -1 )
(Fig. 1). Mean individual body weight and total length at the end of experiment were not significantly different among and within the treatments. The condition factor for a normal fish was about 1, tending towards fatness. Computed values of condition factor for the experiment fish were in normal range (Table 2).
39
Fig. 1. Body weight of trout fry fed with three different feed
Result indicated that young trout could efficiently use and can rear with Japanese initial feed, frozen liver and egg yolk for their growth. This finding suggesting that liver and egg yolk are highly palatable and prescribed to use as initial trout feed. This result support the study by Brown (1951) who showed that fresh liver was the most satisfactory food than shrimp meal (2 parts dried meal, 1 part bemax and 1 part farex) and live tubifex. Based on these results it can be concluded that fresh liver may be equally good as standard starter feed meeting all the nutritional requirements of young trout.
Table 2. Growth of rainbow trout fry fed upon three different types
2.4 Methodological testing for appropriateness of liver as fry feed in Trishuli Three different diets based on protein percentage (Table 3) were fed to trout fry for a month to determine whether the liver can be substitute the high grade feed required of trout (Igarashi & Roy 1997). The tested diets were Japanese feed (control), raw frozen liver and boiled liver. The experiment was carried out in six circular plastic buckets (0.02 m 3 each) from 24 January to 23 February 1996, a period of 30 days. Each bucket was stocked with 100 free swimming fries of 99.4 mg sized.
Weight gain was higher for fish fed with Japanese feed (0.0173 g per day) and raw liver (0.0167g. day -1 ) than for fish fed with boiled liver (0.006g.day -1 ). It is clear that the group provided with first two types of diets exhibited high survival, over 90%, while group fed with boiled liver had 70% survival. Total length at the end of the experiment was not significantly different in first two treatments. Comparatively, growth of individual fish in the third treatment was fairly lower than first two treatments.
40 Table 3: Proximate analysis of feed of three experimental diets of trout alevins and fry
2.5 Growth studies using earthworm as feed Several studies reported that vermiculture has potential to supply earthworm as a substitute of fishmeal from fish diet because of earthworm meal contains all essential amino acids required for fish feed (Ismail 1997). Mitra (1997) reported that availability of methionine and lysine are recorded higher in earthworm than fishmeal. Considering these facts a comparison study was carried out on the effect in the growth of fish fed with diet contained 25% earthworm plus 75% farm feed only. Fish fed with farm diet showed better growth than fish fed with diet contained earthworm. The reason might be the earthworm powder was not accepted by fish due to earthworms unfavorable smell though contained high protein. (The reason might be the unfavorable smell of earthworm powder that was not accepted by fish though contained high protein)
3. General practice adopted for larval rearing in Nepal In FRD Godawari, after yolk sac absorption, the free swimming larvae are fed only with boiled egg yolk at the rate of 1.5% of the body weight for 7 days. After 7 days crumble feed (crude protein 35%) was supplied. While in FRC Trishuli and 6 private trout farms at Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts the free-swimming larvae were fed with crumble dry starter feed with 45% crude protein (Table 4). In all cases the source of animal protein was from shrimp (47%). Feed was supplied till satiation 7 to 8 times per day. Frozen liver was supplied to the fry as supplementary diet at the rate of 2% of body weight two times per day.
Table 4. Feed composition of rainbow trout fry (CP 45%)
The growth rate of rainbow trout at farmers field was higher (0.65g -1 ) than FRC Godawari 0.42 g -1 (Fig. 2). This might be due to better water quality in farmers field than FRC Trishuli. The water at FRC Trishuli had high silt. The fry reached 4.25 g after 5 months at FRC Trishuli. The growth rate was 0.03 g. D -1 after 150 days of culture.
41
Fig 2. Growth study of rainbow trout at Trishuli farm and farmers field
Recommendation and conclusion In absence of suitable dry pellet feed for trout during larval stage, most suitable starter diet could be egg yolk, followed by liver. Since, liver contains very high protein and several other vitamins and minerals; probably it is the best feed till the development of appropriate dry starter pellet feed in Nepal.
Acknowledgement We extend our thanks to Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung, Dr. Ash Kumar Rai, Mr. Sadhu R.am Basnet and Mr. Purusottam Lal Joshi for extending cooperation for the preparation of this paper. Partial fund for preparation of this paper is provided through Soft Type Follow-up Program of Natural Water Fisheries Development of Japan International Cooperation Agency.
Reference Bardach J. E., Ryther, J. H. & McLarney W. O (1972) Aquaculture-The farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine organisms. Wiley-Interscience, A division of John Wiley & sons, Inc. NY. 868 p. Brown M. E (1951) The growth of brown trout (Salmo trutta Linn.) The effect of food and temperature on the survival and growth of fry. Zoological Department, University of Cambridge. Ghittino P (1972) The diet and general fish husbandry; in fish nutrition; John E. Halver (ed.); Academic Press New York. Gurung T. B. & Tamang L. S (1993) Fingerlings of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) rearing with two different feeds. Annual Technical Report, FRC, Godawari. Hinshaw J. M (1999) Trout production feeds and feeding methods. South Regional Aquaculture Center Huet M. (1975) Text book of fish culture. Fishing news (books) Ltd. Rosemount, Avenue, West by Huet, Surrey, England. Igarashi M & Roy N. K (1998) Effects of buff liver upon the growth of free swimming larvae of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Eds. Pradhan B. R., S. K. Wagle, O. Yamada & M. Takano, Editor), Present Status of Fisheries Research, Development and Education in Nepal. Pp. 64-65. Ismail S. A (1997) Vermicology the biology of earthworms. Orient Longam Limited New Delhi, India. Maruyama T (1983). Inland aquaculture Kanagawa International Fisheries Training Center, Japan International Co-operation agency.
42 Mitra A (1997) Bioethics in India: Proceedings of the International Bioethics Workshop, Biomanagement of Biogeoresources, 16-19 Jan. 1997. Editors Jayapaul Azariah, Hilda Azariah, & Darryl R.J. Macer, Copyright Eubios Ethics Institute, Madras. Nomura, M. (1994). New Fishery Handbook. Koudansha, Tokyo. pp. 388-390 Pradhan N (1998) Development of starter feed for larvae under local management. In Present status of Fisheries Research, Development and Education in Nepal. Eds. Pradhan, B.R., S. K., Wagle, O. Yamada. and M. Takano. NARC & JICA, 170 p. Sedgwick S. D (1985) Trout Farming Handbook 5th edition. Fishing News Books (Blackwell Science), Oxford, England. 192 pp. Tacon A. G. J, J. V. Haastler, P. B. Featherstone, K. Kerr & Jackson A. J (1983) Studies on the utilization of full fat soybean and solvent extracted soybean in a complete diet for rainbow trout, Bull Jpn. Sot. Sci. Fish. 49: 1437-1443.
43
Nutrition and Pellet Feed Formulation for Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal
Jay Dev Bista, Suresh Kumar Wagle, Neeta Pradhan 1 & Nanda Kishor Roy 1
Fisheries Research Centre, P. O. Box 274, Pokhara, Kaski, Nepal Email: [email protected]
+ Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal
Abstract This paper reviews a number of specific issues in the fields of trout nutrition and feed formulation which are critical for sustainable trout production in Nepal, e.g. nutrient requirements of trout and their supply under practical farming conditions, availability and supply of feed resources and their implication on development of trout feeds, and maintenance of environmental quality and sustainability of trout aquaculture systems. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) was introduced in Nepal to use of vast cold-water resources for aquaculture in mountain region of the country. The other objective was import substitution of high valued fish and alike commodities. Recently, technological packages of trout farming in prevailing ecological condition had been developed and efforts are being made for up scaling of the technology among farming communities. Despite of huge potential for trout farming, quality feed is one of the major constraints hindering its rapid expansion. Shrimp meal is an essential component in the diet of trout. In view of the increasing cost and relative scarcity of these feed stuffs, a considerable research effort has been expanded in the country on evaluating the suitability of plant ingredients as complete or partial replacement of the fishmeal components in trout diet. A review of selected research literature on investigations into the use of plant feedstuffs in trout feed indicated that it is possible to utilize processed soybean meal at high level (up to 60%) in trout diet without impairing growth and environment. Dietary formulations, based on the use of high inclusion levels of locally available and known quality ingredients, are recommended for use within three distinct feed lines, namely starter, and fingerling and production diets. Emphasis has been placed on larval nutrition and need for refinement and improvement of buff liver to increase feed efficiency.
1. Introduction Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) prefer clean, cold and high oxygen water for their growth and survival, which are abundant in the hill and mountain areas in Nepal. Trout are well studied fish for cultivation in cold waters (Bardach et al. 1972, Huet 1975, Shetty et al. 1989). The wide distribution of rainbow trout in pond and raceway culture is explained by its low sensitivity and demands in terms of external environment, good growth, and high food qualities. The edible part of trout constitutes 78 to 80% of the fish and its muscle protein contains 18 amino acids, of which 10 are essential for man (Martyshev 1983).
Trout was successfully introduced in Nepal in 1988 to meet many needs including substitution of import, use of cold-water resources for aquaculture and promotion of fishing tourism in hill streams (Gurung & Basnet 2003). Despite of huge potential for the development of trout farming in the country, presently its expansion is limited to a few farmers of Nuwakot districts. Availability of fish seeds and quality feed are the major constraints hindering the rapid expansion of trout farming in cold-water region of the country. Rainbow trout is a typical high protein and high oxygen demanding carnivorous fish. In natural habitats trout depends on aquatic insects, small crustaceans and small
44 larvae. However, all stages of trout can be grown from larvae to adults feeding upon artificial food. Its farming is mostly characterized by intensive farming system elsewhere, using high-cost nutrient inputs in the form of nutritionally-complete formulated diets. In the formulated diets the most expensive ingredients are fish and shrimp meal which have been incorporated to meet the protein requirement of trout (FRCT 2004).
At present some problems associated with the development of pellet feed for commercial trout production could be delineated as maintenance of quality and quantity. Local feed stuffs tend to vary quality and quantity. Therefore, sustainable development of trout feed might depend on inputs based on local circumstances, and balance maximizing profitability with social and environmental costs. Therefore, this paper reviews several specific issues in the fields of trout nutrition and feed formulation that are critical for sustainable trout production in the country. These includes nutrient requirement for trout, availability and cost of feed resources, options to develop cost-effective feed in local conditions, and maintenance of environmental quality and sustainability of trout aquaculture system.
2. Nutrient requirement of rainbow trout Growth, health and reproduction of fish and other aquatic animals are primarily dependent upon an adequate supply of nutrient, both in terms of quality and quantity, irrespective of the culture system in which they are grown. Nutrition is the process by which an organism intake food and assimilates for metabolic activities. Nutrition involves the ingestion, digestion, absorption, and transport of various nutrients throughout the body where the nutrients in foods are converted into energy and body tissues. The nutrition of trout is similar to that of other animal species. Thus, trout require almost same nutrients as other animals for normal metabolic function. However, the specified amount of a particular nutrient needed by trout may differ from other animals. Qualitatively, 40 nutrients have been identified as necessary for the normal metabolic function of trout. The quantitative requirement of nutrients for rainbow trout has been given in Table 1 and Table 2.
Energy, which is defined as the capacity to do work, is essential to life processes during all stages of an animal's life. The energy needs might associate with the feeding standard in the organisms. On this aspect information on energy needs particularly of fishes is not adequate comparing to ruminants. In general, it is argued that energy needs in fishes are lower than warm-blooded animals because fish do not have to maintain a constant body temperature and they expend less energy to maintain their position in space. Gross energy, which is a measure of the heat liberated on complete oxidation of a compound, requirement for rainbow trout, is in between 19.1-20.8 KJ/g (Hasan 2001). Gross energy is not a practical indicator of usable energy because certain compounds are not as digestible as others. Digestible energy, defined as gross energy minus fecal energy losses, is often used to express the dietary energy of rainbow trout feeds.
2.1 Protein requirement A continual supply of protein is needed throughout life for maintenance and growth. Rainbow trout require rather high (40-50%) dietary protein. Trout including catfish require a source of nonspecific nitrogen and indispensable amino acids (Robinson & Li 1996). Usually, the most economical source of these elements is a mixture of proteins in feedstuffs. Ingested proteins are hydrolyzed to release amino acids that may be used for synthesis of tissue proteins or, if in excess, utilized for energy. Rainbow trout require 11.7% essential amino acids in the dry diet (Hasan 2001).
2.2 Lipid requirement Use of protein for energy is expensive, thus lipids are primarily included in formulated diet to maximize their protein sparing. Lipids are a highly digestible source of concentrated energy. Trout have natural diets rich in triglycerides and can adapt to high fat diets (Hasan 2001). Dietary lipid levels as low as 10% has been reported for rainbow trout (Tacon 1990). Generally, however, weight gain and
45 feed efficiency are depressed in aquatic species when fed diets containing 15% or more lipid (Robinson & Li 1996).
Table 1. Dietary protein, essential amino acid, energy levels, carbohydrates and lipid requirements of rainbow trout (adapted from NRC 1993, Hasan 2001, Tacon 1990, Steffens 1989)
* Amino acid requirement based on the essential amino acid composition of fish
Dietary lipids provide essential fatty acids (EFA-polyunsaturated fatty acid, PUFAs) that fish, like all animals, can not synthesize but require for the maintenance of cellular function. Coldwater freshwater fish have an exclusive requirement of linolenic series (n-3 or omega-3) PUFA (18:3n-3, 20:5n-3, 22:6n-3) in their diet (Hasan 2001). It is apparent from Table 2 that rainbow trout require a small amount (1% of dry diet) of n-3 fatty acids. Inclusion of too much dietary lipid, however, may result in excessive fat deposition in the visceral cavity and tissues that may adversely affect yield, product quality and storage of processed products (Robinson & Li 1996).
2.3 Carbohydrate requirement Carbohydrates are the least expensive form of dietary energy and are frequently used for protein sparing in formulated diets. The utilization of dietary carbohydrates appears to differ depending on the complexity or chemical structure of the carbohydrate source used. The ability of carnivorous fish species to hydrolyze or digest complex carbohydrate (glucose or sucrose) is limited due to weak amylolytic activity in their digestive tract. For trout, starch digestion decreases as the proportion of dietary starch is increased (Hasan 2001). However, commercial trout feed contains 15-25% soluble carbohydrates. An additional 1-2.5% carbohydrate is generally present as crude fibre. Fibre is considered to be indigestible by carnivores; thus, it is not desirable in carnivore's feeds because indigestible materials may pollute the water (Robinson & Li 1996). However, there is always some fiber inherent in practical feed ingredients.
46 Table 2. Dietary mineral and vitamins requirements of rainbow trout (g/kg or mg/kg dry diet) (Source: Hasan 2001, Tacon 1990, Hepher 1990).
2.4 Mineral requirement Minerals are required for metabolism, skeletal structure and, for osmotic balance between body fluids and their environment. Freshwater fish have greater demand for adequate mineral supplies than marine fish and shrimp (Hasan 2001). Dietary mineral requirement for rainbow trout are presented in Table 2. Since much of the mineral requirement is supplied by the food, potential mineral supplementation may be sufficient to meet dietary needs.
2.5 Vitamins requirement Vitamins are highly diverse in chemical structure and physiological function. They are generally required in small amounts in the diet for normal growth, health, and reproduction by animals. Pathologies related to vitamin deficiency in fish are well investigated, however, quantitative dietary vitamin requirement are available for few cultured species including trout (Hasan 2001). Vitamin deficiency mainly appears in formulated feed lot based intensive culture systems as applied to trout (Hepher 1990), the addition of sufficient levels of several vitamin in trout feeds are required (Table 2).
47 3. Feed formulation & ingredients for trout feed in Nepal In order to develop efficient and economic feed formulas for aquaculture, basic information is required on nutrient requirement of the species cultivated, the chemical composition and organoleptic properties of feed ingredients in relation to their acceptability and the ability of fish to digest and utilize nutrients from various sources. Although the knowledge on nutrient requirements for trout has been expanding in recent years (Lall 1991, Hasan 2001), quantitative and qualitative information on practical feed stuffs to supply required nutrients for trout in Nepal is limited. Availability of major fish feed ingredients in Nepal and their nutrient availability for trout are listed in Table 3 & 4, respectively. Amino acid profile and mineral composition of major fish feed ingredients (soybean, fish meal and shrimp) are given in Table 5 and 6, respectively.
Table 3. Production of agricultural feed stuffs by region which could be utilized in trout feed (source: CBS 2005)
3.1 Protein supplements Feedstuffs containing 20% crude protein or more are considered protein supplements. Protein supplements may be classified as animal and plant proteins. Full fat roasted soybean seed and meal constitutes major component of protein supplement (20-45%) in trout feed in Nepal (Rai et al. 2002, FRCT 2003, 2004). The national production of soybean was 17500 metric tons in year 2001 and most of the production comes from hilly areas of the country (CBS 2005). Solvent extracted and extruded soybean meal is particularly important for trout feed because of its high protein and low fat content. However, soybean processing plants are mostly located in Terai region with a production capacity of 750 metric tons of solvent extracted-extruded soybean per year (Roy 2006).
48 Table 4. Nutrient composition of feed ingredients commonly used for feed formulation of rainbow trout in Nepal (NRC 1993, Roy 2006, Smith et al. 1995).
3.1.1 Plant protein sources for trout feed in Nepal Several types of cake produced from oil seeds can be used in trout feed to substitute soybean meal. They include mustard oil cake, peanut cake, sunflower cake, sesame cake and linseed cake. The levels of oil cake used in trout feeds are restricted to 5 to 10% because of amino acid deficiency, high level of fibre and anti nutritional factors they contain. Mustard oil cake is formed by compressing left over after removing oil from mustard seed and generally called rapeseed cake. It contains harmful eric acid as its principal fatty acid. The production of mustard oil cake from several extraction mills in the country estimated to be 175 metric tons per year (Roy 2006). Peanut cake is obtained by removing oil either mechanically or by solvent extraction from dehulled peanuts. Solvent extracted cake contains 48% protein and the mechanically extracted product contains 45% protein and crude fat below 1%. Peanut cake contains no known anti-nutritional factors but deficient in lysine. However, peanut cake is seldom used in trout feeds because of its sporadic availability. Sunflower cake, sesame cake and linseed cake are formed by extraction of oil from dry seeds. Production of these cakes is meager in Nepal and mostly imported from India. Most of the oil seed cakes are deficient in lysine and methionine (Robinson & Li 1996), hence their use in trout feed requires supplemental lysine and methionine.
49
Solvent-extracted cottonseed meal is obtained by grinding the cake remaining after the oil has been solvent extracted. The product generally contains 41% protein but must not contain less than 36% protein. It is deficient in lysine, and contains free gossypol and cylcopropenoic acids, which can be toxic. However, levels of these chemicals in commonly available cottonseed meal are generally well below toxic levels (Robinson & Li 1996). The production of cotton seed in the country is limited to western Terai and the quantity is insignificant to use in trout feed. 3.1.2 Non-plant source of protein for trout feed Non-plant source of protein such as shrimp meal and fish meal contribute in significant proportion (20-50%) to supply protein in trout feed (FRD 2001, Gurung et al. 1994, FRCT 2002). Shrimp meal and fish meal are prepared by cooking and drying of undecomposed whole fish or cutting of fish. These products are imported from India for several other purposes including human consumption in various forms. Nutritional values of these feed stuffs may not always consistent as the feed stuffs are comprised of varying size of shrimp and different species of trash fish (Roy 2006). Bone meal, collected from the slaughter houses or meat shops and later processed in several processing plants, contain protein ranges from 24 to 29% (Roy 2006). Its protein quality is inferior to whole fish meal because it contains less lysine and the quality of the product may vary considerably (Robinson & Li, 1998). It could be good source of minerals and inorganic phosphorous. However, its high ash content (56 to 59%) may limit its use because of possible mineral imbalance. Blood meal is prepared by heating and grinding of clotted animal blood (buffalo, goat). It contains 80 to 86% crude protein and is an excellent source of lysine but deficient in methionine (Robinson & Li 1996). However, availability of blood meal is limited to urban areas of the country. Buff liver is one of the most important animal protein sources. Despite of low protein content and limited availability, moist or dry buff liver has proved to be good sources of digestible protein for early stage of trout grow out (Pradhan 1999). Silkworm pupae available in limited quantity but their performance has not yet been evaluated in trout feed in Nepal. 3.2 Energy supplements Energy supplements are feedstuffs that contain less than 20% crude protein. These include grain and grain byproducts, and animal fat or vegetable oil. Wheat flour and rice bran are the major source of energy and have been used in trout feeds up to 40% of the feed without adverse effects (FRCT 2004, 2003; FRD 2001). The availability of these ingredients and other sources of carbohydrates such as corn and millets are abundant and locally available in trout growing areas at comparatively cheaper price.
Wheat is a good source of energy for trout. Depending on cost, wheat flour are used to levels up to about 25% in trout feed. Wheat is produced all over the country and the national production in year 2005 was 1.44 million tons. Flour mills in Terai region of the country have a capacity of 40000 metric tons of wheat flour to process annually (Roy 2006). In humid areas, using levels greater than 25% may cause the feed to become sticky resulting in clumping of feed pellets and handling problems. Low levels (<15%) are often used to improve pellet binding. Wheat flour has a digestible energy value of about 1588 kcal/kg for trout (NPM 1993).
Corn grain and corn screenings can be used interchangeably in trout feeds as a relatively inexpensive source of energy. Corn grain (whole corn) is ground prior to use. Corn screenings are obtained in the cleaning of corn and include light and broken corn grain. Cooking improves energy digestibility of corn for trout. Corn grain is produced all over the country and the national production in year 2005 was 1.72 million tons. Quality Protein Maize (QTM), rich in lysine and tryptophan, recently introduced in Nepal for farming (RARS 2006) could be a good source of carbohydrate and amino acids for trout feed in future.
50 Table 5. Amino acid profile of several ingredients available in Nepal (% of dry basis) (Source: Toshida et al. 1993)
Rice bran is the bran layer and germ of rice grain with hulls or broken rice at levels only that are unavoidable in milling rice grain. Defatted rice bran pellet is also produced into cake in Terai by extracting fat from raw rice bran with organic solvent. Although national rice production (4.29 million tones) favors the use of rice bran, high fat and fiber content limits its use in trout feeds. However, rice bran has been used in trout feeds at levels of 15 to 25% in trout farms of the country.
Animal and plant fats and oils are highly concentrated sources of energy as well as a source of essential fatty acids. The use of soybean oil in trout feed at levels 5 to 10% have been tested on experimental basis in the country (Yamada et al. 1999). Animal fats such as buff tallow and poultry fat available in the country could be used in trout feeds, however warrants research on extents of their utilization in trout feeds.
3.3 Vitamin and mineral supplements Vitamin and mineral premixes are generally added (1-2% of dry feed) to trout feeds. However, mineral premixes include only macronutrients and vitamin premixes supplied are under requirement (eg. FRCT 2002, 2003). Usually vitamin and mineral premixes are commercial formulation to meet the requirement of poultry industry.
Table 6. Mineral composition of several ingredients used for feed formulation of trout in Nepal (% of dry basis, unless specified) (Source: Toshida et al. 1993)
4. Research status on feed development for rainbow trout in Nepal Animal protein is the main dietary component used in formulated diet for rainbow trout, since its introduction in Nepal (Roy et al. 1999). Although sidra (dried trash fish) produced in Nepal is the most important source of animal protein having high demand for human food and livestock feed industries. However, its bad smell due to saturated oxidized fat and poor milling quality limits its use as major source of animal protein for trout feed. Shrimp meal, procured from India, has been the main protein supplement for trout feed in Nepal (Nepal et al. 2002). Limited market accessibility with relatively high cost, the shrimp remains one of the major elements to raise production cost of trout farming (Roy et al. 1999, Pradhan 1999, FRCT 2004).
51 Feed alone comprised 76% of total variable cost and 40% of the total production cost of trout farming (Nepal et al. 2002) and this is one of the major constraints after seed supply to expand trout farming in Nepal. Therefore, most of the studies have been focused on finding alternate source of protein supplement in trout feed which are locally available at relatively cheaper cost without affecting the growth-production and quality of trout.
The requirements for proteins have been studied in trout for several years. Most of the studies on protein requirements of fish have been based on weight gain and feed efficiency. Data from those studies indicate that the dietary protein requirement for trout ranges from about 30 to 35% (Table 7). Recent studies have indicated that a protein level as low as 30% may be adequate for grow out of trout when the fish are fed full feed during the growing season. The rationale behind these studies is that the optimum dietary protein level is driven by economics as much as rate of gain and survivability. Thus, to maximize profits, the optimum dietary protein level should be changed as fish and feed prices change.
One of the major challenges in fish nutrition is to decrease the dietary amount of fish and shrimp meal without impairment of production and water quality. One of the most promising alternatives to fish meal seems to be soybean which is rich in protein and generally low in phosphorus (Rumsey et al. 1993; Tacon et al. 1983). Earlier studies with rainbow trout in Nepal led to the conclusion that soybean protein could be a partial substitute to fish meal (FRCT 1997, 2001, 2002, 2003). There is also evidence that the total replacement of fish meal by soy protein concentrate (SPC) without negative effect on growth performance and flesh quality of rainbow trout (Kaushik et al. 1995). However, studies conducted at Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli (Yamada et al. 1999) have shown that the 60% substitution of shrimp meal with soybean is possible which eventually reduce feed cost by about 40% without affecting the growth and feed efficiency (P>0.05) of grow out trout (Table 8). Inclusion of shrimp meal below 20% in carbohydrate enriched feed without soybean substitution, albeit low feed cost by10%, the percent growth rate/day is lower by 0.35% to that of the feed contained 55% soybean meal (Roy et al. 1999).
Table 7. Effect of different dietary protein level in feed on the yield attributes of rainbow trout.
* Major protein source at low protein profiles for juvenile was raw buff liver (30-50%), for advance fry and grow out trout was shrimp meal (20-25%) and soybean meal (18-42%). Response studies have been conducted on various proportions of shrimp meal and soybean meal in trout feed for corresponding increase of dietary protein percentage and their effect on growth and survival of different stages of trout (Table 9). Significant differences were not observed (P>0.05) among types of feed on the growth-survival attributes of fry and fingerling stage of trout, although an improved growth and survival was evidenced for trout fed upon a feed containing 45% crude protein and comprised of 35% shrimp meal and 48% soybean meal. Similarly, no correlation exist between
52 growth-survival of grow out trout fed on rations comprised of different proportion of shrimp meal and soybean meal with corresponding increase in dietary protein. Proximate analysis of fish flesh of trout fed upon these feeds revealed a narrow range of crude protein (19.3 20.4%) and crude fat (3.14.1%), and these differences are not significant (P>0.05). From Table 8, it is apparent that a feed formulation containing 3035% protein supplemented with 2030% shrimp meal and 1832% soybean meal may be appropriate for fingerling and growout trout.
Results from several experiments, Roy et al. (1999) concluded that inclusions of soybean oil in feed enhance the feed efficiency, growth and survival rate of trout. This is more important, to supply energy, especially when the supply of shrimp meal in feed is decreased (Yamada et al. 1999). Low protein and high calorie feed for fish relies on animal protein has been reported for increased hatchability and growth (Takeuchi et al. 1978). Use of oil in feed of carnivorous fish could economize 10% of shrimp meal (Takamatsu 1973 in Yamada et al. 1999), and provide concentrated source of energy which may virtually increase the protein sparing effect.
The transform from an endogenous to an exogenous food supply, which marks the onset of the larval stage is one of the most critical phages of the life cycle and is the period when much of the mortality of hatcheryreared stock occur (De Silva & Anderson 1995). In spite of the clear importance of nutrition influencing the survival, growth and development of trout larvae, however, relatively little is known about the absolute nutrient requirement and feed formulation of these stages of trout and most of the other fish species.
Japanese commercial starter feed was used at the beginning of trout farming in Nepal. Lacking due availability and high cost of commercial feed has triggered trout farms to develop its own formulation based on local materials. Although relative performance are poor, the use of buff liver, egg custard and several other formulations evaluated has shown their suitability for rearing trout larvae (Table 10). Trout larvae, fed upon fresh buff liver and egg custard, grew steadily at specific growth rate (SGR) of 4.2% with survivability over 99% (FRD 2000; Pradhan 1999). Encouraging results have also been obtained on survivability (>70%) and SGR (>3%) of trout larvae fed upon fish meal and milk powder based feed formulations (FRD 2000). Results of these experiments have implications that the buff liver and egg custard has been recommended as starter feed for trout farms in the country, as they are locally available at relatively cheaper price.
Table 8. Growth and feed efficiency of rainbow trout fed upon different proportion of shrimp and soybean meal for 60 days in raceway (Yamada & Roy 1997)
a Vitamin C was added 1% of the total feed composition.
53 5. Prospects of feed formulation for trout Solvent extracted soybean meal (SESM) contains 48% protein and could be the predominant protein source in rainbow trout feed. It has the best amino acid profile of all common plant protein sources and is highly palatable and digestible to trout (Table 5). Trout is a predatory fish, although it consumes and assimilates plant protein; however, its intensity of growth on such foods is much lower. This is partially explained by the fact that in the protein from plant sources, deficiency of the less important amino acids such as lysine and methionine usually occurs (Martyshev 1983). Trout suffer from cataracts when given a diet deficient in methionine (Peston et al. 1977). This is likely to occur only when animal protein sources are completely replaced by the plant protein (Mdale et al. 1998) and in such case methionine supplement is necessary. It was reported the protein digestibility reduced in salmonids when diet contains high level of soybean due to its anti-trypsin factor. Anti-nutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors are destroyed or reduced to insignificant levels (<0.32 mg/g) with heat that is applied during the solvent extraction (Robinson and Li 1996; Mdale et al. 1998). Heat treatment also reduce phytic phosphorous contained in soybean and consequently increase the retention of crude phosphorous (Mdale et al. 1998) and protein availability (Spinnelli et al. 1982). Levels of SESM up to 48% of the diet have been used for trout feeding in Nepal. Preliminary studies on trout feed development with plant protein sources conducted in the country (Roy et al. 1999; Yamada et al. 1999; FRCT 2003) and elsewhere (Tacon et al. 1983; Kaushik et al. 1995; Mdale et al. 1998) revealed that the high levels (up to 75%) inclusion of SESM is possible without impairing the growing environment and growth of trout.
Refinement of buff liver into microencapsulated feed and incorporation of nutrient supplement in egg custard is needed to improve the quality of these formulations, as feeding in raw form they would increase water turbidity (Pradhan 1999) and bent caudal fin of trout (Igarashi & Roy 1999), respectively. Poultry byproduct meal can be made up of ground, rendered or clean parts of the carcass (heads, feet, underdeveloped eggs, and visceral organs) of slaughtered poultry, since growing poultry industry scattered throughout the country could be a major source of protein in trout feed in future. At present it is seldom used in trout feeds because it is not available on a regular basis at a reasonable cost per unit of protein.
5.1 Guiding rules for formulation of trout feed All fish, including trout, require protein, vitamins, minerals, lipids and energy for normal growth and physiological functions. Because the nutrient contribution from natural food organisms is considered to be minimal in trout farming, nutrient and energy are provided primarily by prepared feeds. Feed formulation is a process in which feed ingredients and various vitamin and mineral supplements are blended to produce a diet with the required quantities of essential nutrients. Trout have a definite qualitative and quantitative need for various nutrients, some of them highly interrelated. These can be supplied by a large number of natural feedstuffs in a compounded ration; however no single feed ingredient contains all nutrients that are needed in the correct proportion. In order to increase the efficiency of trout production, both nutrition and feed cost must be taken into consideration. Supplying adequate nutrition for trout involves the formulation of diet containing 40 essential nutrients and proper management of numerous factors relating to diet quality and intake. The bioavailability of nutrients, diet palatability, feed manufacture, storage methods, and chemical contamination may have profound effects on fish performance (Lall 1991). It is important that feed formulas developed for trout are nutritionally and economically sound. To use a least-cost formulate feeds, the following information is needed: (1) cost of feed ingredients; (2) nutrient concentrations in feedstuffs; (3) nutrient requirements; (4) nutrient availability from feedstuffs; and (5) nutritional and non-nutritional restrictions. The primary constraint limiting the use of least-cost programs for formulating trout feeds is that relatively few feedstuffs are available that can be used in trout feeds. Many feedstuffs are unsuitable for use in trout feeds because of their poor nutritional content or because of manufacturing constraints. A limited form of least-cost feed formulation is to use soybean meal to replace a part of fish meal in trout farms in Nepal. However,
54 the lowest cost of feed per unit fish production is not necessarily synonymous with least cost production (Lall 1991). When protein levels are stated, in many case the daily requirement of some essential amino acids and protein nitrogen are not met, resulting in poor growth performance of fish. Since absolute amount of protein, vitamins and minerals ingested depend to a large extant on energy intake, the dietary balance is more critical than the absolute level of specific nutrients. To formulate feeds, it is important to know the digestibility of feedstuffs to a particular species of fish. The differences between the nutrient content of the feed consumed and the faces voided being the amount absorbed or digested. Attempts should also be made to measure digestible energy values, the gross energy of feed minus the energy in the faces, of locally available ingredients suitable for the formulation of trout diets. Digestibility data are only useful when ingredients do not contain antitrypsin and other inferring substances which may influence the digestibility of various nutrients. However, digestibility coefficient of various nutrients in local ingredients used for trout feed has not yet been measured in the country. Digestibility coefficients provide an estimate of the usefulness of feedstuffs and of finished feeds. Feed stuffs are of varied composition. Generally, the values given in composition tables are averages reflecting the concentration of nutrients most likely to be present. The protein content of grains may vary from batch to batch due to differences in soil fertility, time of harvest, genetic constitution, moisture content and several other factors. An inverse relationship between protein content and concentration of some essential amino acids occurs in cereal grains (Lall 1991). Animal protein sources are also subject to variation as a result of nature of raw material from which they are processed. Severe heating during drying will lower digestibility and cause some loss of essential amino acids. Proximate analysis of major fish feed stuffs collected from all over the country revealed considerable variation in major nutrients (Table 11). Hence, it is desirable to have each batch of feed ingredient analyzed for actual content prior to feed formulation. Although nutritional considerations are of prime importance, non-nutritional factors often influence the composition of the final product. The logistics of procuring and storing feedstuffs and feed additives are primarily non-nutritional considerations. In general, feed ingredients must be available on a consistent basis, be easily handled in the manufacturing process, and be economical. These characteristics are the primary reason that soybean meal, wheat flour and rice bran have been the main feedstuffs, except fish or shrimp meal, typically used in trout feeds in Nepal. Silkworm pupae and cottonseed meal are often priced economically and could be used in trout feeds, but their use is limited not only because of nutritional deficiencies but also because they are not available on required quantity and consistently.
5. 2 Feed processing Several forms of dry and moist trout feeds are produced locally for small-scale farm use in Nepal. Trout feed processing involves grinding, mixing, agglomerating, heating, drying, screening, pelleting, crumbling etc. Thus, the value of certain feedstuffs or feed additives may be lowered during feed processing. The variation in nutrient composition between formulated feed and the processed final product is not uncommon in trout farms of the country and trout fed upon gave erroneous result (FRCT 2004; Roy 2006). However, the overall process should result in a final product of proper form that meets nutrient specifications. The manufacturing process may also improve digestibility, inactivate certain undesirable substances present in feedstuffs, reduce the occurrence of molds and bacteria, and improve palatability. Nutritional and non-nutritional factors must be considered in manufacturing trout feeds as well as feed manufacturing practices and quality control.
55 Table 9. Growth rate (g/day-GR), percent feed efficiency (FE) and percent survival rate (SR) for different stages of trout fed on different proportion of soybean meal in trout diet. The feeding periods was 60 and 150 days, respectively, for fry-fingerling and grow-out trout. Data were averaged from the results of four different experiments conducted at Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli (source: FRCT 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004)
Table 10. The performance of trout larvae fed upon different formulation (FRD 2000, Igarashi & Roy 1999, Pradhan 1999).
Table 11. Range of nutrient composition of major fish feed ingredients collected from different parts of the country (Source: FRCP 1999)
56 When formulating trout feeds, the feed manufacturing process must be considered because there is an interrelationship between feed formulation and feed manufacturing. For example, at least 25% of the feed be composed of grains or grain milling byproducts for proper gelatinization and expansion necessary for good pellet stability and float. This is generally not a problem, but the type and amount of grain or grain milling byproducts that are used may be affected by humidity in the air (Robinson & Li 1996). High-fat feedstuffs, such as rice bran, should generally be limited to 10 to 15% of the feed because high levels of fat make the feed more difficult to pellet. Another consideration during trout feed manufacture is that the conditions of high temperature, pressure, and moisture encountered during pelleting destroy certain nutrients and improve the availability of others. Vitamins are particularly sensitive to destruction; thus, feeds are normally over fortified with vitamins to account for losses during feed manufacture. Highly fibrous feedstuffs must be limited to rather low levels because high levels of fiber reduce pellet quality. 6. Trout feed and the environment Given that feed is the biggest source of nutrient loading in trout production from intensive of semi- intensive system, clear understanding of its impact is essential for sustainable development. This will help reduce negative impacts and improve predictability of environmental effects.
It has been shown that a significant portion of animal protein requirement for trout can be replaced by soybean meal. However, low level of feed efficiency associated with soybean protein indicated that the large amount of waste of nutritional origin arising from uneaten feed, undigested matter and end product of metabolism could pollute the recipient environment. Since sustainable aquaculture is dependent upon minimal environmental loading, the effects of fish meal substitutes on waste production should be taken into consideration.
With respect to water quality, total substitution of fish meal or shrimp meal by soybean meal can not be recommended (Mdale et al. 1998). When fish are fed a ration containing soybean concentrate as the sole protein source, albeit an increased retention of crude phosphorous but induced an increase in ammonia excretion. However, up to 75% of fish meals can be replaced by soybean meal in solvent extracted or concentrate form without impairing feed intake, growth and feed utilization (Mdale et al. 1998); and thus should have a positive effect on the environment.
More environmentally friendly diets need to be produced by developing diets with reduced food conversion ratios (FCR) by improving palatability and digestibility of raw ingredients. Current research shows that feed performances and digestibility can be increased with the use of enzymes and balancing amino acid profiles that enhance plant protein use (Hasan 2001). Reduction of ammonia excretion can be enhanced by adding crystalline DL-methionine to the diet containing high level of soybean meal (Mdale et al. 1998). Therefore, more research on processing techniques and additives and enzymes for improving feed performances and digestibility are required.
7. Nutrition in relation to health and quality of trout Nutrition and farm management strategies play critical roles in fish health and disease outbreaks within intensive farming system and, to a lesser extant, in semi-intensive farming systems (Tacon 1997 in Hasan 2001). Trout nutrition and feed formulation research has received significant attention on the use of plant and animal by-products as fishmeal and shrimp meal substitutes in Nepal (FRCT 2004, Pradhan 1999, Igarashi & Roy 1999). The major emphasis of these studies was on optimizing growth, feed efficiency and general health condition. Pathology in relation to nutrient imbalance and the presence of toxic and anti-nutritional factors in feed ingredients, the possible effect of macro- and micronutrients on immunological parameters have mainly been overlooked. Toxic and anti-nutritional factors present in plant ingredients, nutritional imbalances of formulated feed, toxic compound (e.g. aflatoxins) formed during feed storages and processing can all severally affect the health status of trout and lead to increased susceptibility to disease. Gurung & Basnet (2003) reported fin rot disease in adult trout associated with vitamin deficiency and, commonly occurring hapatoma disease due to
57 development of aflatoxins in poorly processed and stored feeds in trout farms, Nepal. Appropriate precautions during feed formulation and processing can minimize these risks (Devresse et al. 1997). Trout like other fish species is a highly nutritious food, containing high amounts of protein with high biochemical value and, is a good source of polyunsaturated fatty acids known to be beneficial for humans. Improvement of feed and nutrition of trout may give the opportunity to further improve the nutritional quality for the benefit of consumer. Nutritional value, color and appearance, smell and taste, texture and storing capacity may all be affected by quality of nutrition and feed provided during culture of the trout (Martyshev 1983). Therefore, adequate consideration has to be given not only nutrient bioavailability but also to postharvest quality control in response to formulated feeds.
Conclusion and recommendations For small-scale farmers, the two dietary formulations are suggested for use within two distinct feed lines, namely starter, and fingerling and production diets. Table 9-10 shows dietary formulations for the two feed lines, respectively. The formulations are conservative in that emphasis has been placed on using high inclusion levels of locally available and known quality ingredients (i.e. such as, soybean meal, buff liver, shrimp meal) rather than experimenting with unknown cheaper alternatives such as oilseed cakes.
A major researchable issue is the high cost of manufactured pelleted feed due in part to conventional use of largely imported fish meal and shrimp meal in trout feed. The increasingly scare supply of fishmeal with its concomitant rise in price and the increased competition from other livestock feed manufacture has made it necessary to seek a cost-effective replacement to supply dietary protein in trout feeds. This aspect of fish feed development research is centered in the search for inexpensive, readily available and nutritious protein sources which can supply all the nutritional needs of the trout. One obvious approach involves the greater utilization of soybean meal.
Enhancement of nutritive value of commonly available ingredients by some means of processing to increase the bioavailability of nutrients, reduction or removal of anti-nutritional factors and the inclusion of appropriate additives to correct known deficiencies could result in non-conventional plant feed stuffs being incorporated at a higher level of trout feeds. The use of solvent extracted soybean meal and defatted rice bran are an example of the potential value of plant protein as trout feed which reveal the critical importance of a systematic approach in evaluating and upgrading other feedstuffs commonly used in trout feeds in the country.
The primary constraint limiting the use of least-cost formulation of trout feeds is the use of few feed stuffs which are common to current aquaculture setting of the country. Depending on availability, there is wide variation in the use of types of feed ingredients within and between trout growing countries. The use of buff liver, albeit limited access, as starter feed has shown promising results and it is nowadays the major source of protein for juvenile trout in all the trout farms of the country. An examination of the investigative steps into the development of buff liver into a major trout (juvenile) feed ingredient can serve as a model which can be applied to other feed stuffs available in cold-water regions of the country. Evaluation of barley, oat, millet and potato, which are commonly grown in high altitude areas of the country, as feed stuffs for trout will meet the feed shortcoming for trout expansion.
There is a need for understanding the variability in supply and composition of various ingredients and evaluation of the potential to increase use of these ingredients in trout feeds. Similarly, the capacity to evaluate nutritional requirements and the best way to utilize available ingredients for trout should be enhanced. There is a perceived need to improve nutritional research capacity in many areas and the initiation of a feed and feeding network, with a focused program of training and information exchange, is recommended.
58 Acknowledgement We wish to extend our thanks to all of our staffs in Fisheries Research Station, Pokhara for their cooperation on providing information related to the present topic. We are also thankful to Japan International Cooperative Agency for their kind assistance in providing facilities for nutritional analysis in Nepal, especially in Pokhara and Trishuli under the Grant Assistance Program, a collaboration between Government of Nepal and Government of Japan.
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60 Spinnelli J, C. R. Houle & Wekell J. C (1982) The effect of phytates on the growth of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) fed purified diets containing various quantities of calcium and magnesium. Aquaculture 30: 71-83 Steffens W (1989) Principles of Fish Nutrition. West Sussex, Ellis Horwood Ltd., 384 pp Tacon A. G. J, J. V. Haastler, P. B. Featherstone, K. Kerr & Jackson A. J (1983) Studies on the utilization of full fat soybean and solvent extracted soybean in a complete diet for rainbow trout, Bull Jpn. Sot. Sci. Fish. 49: 1437-1443 Tacon A. G. J (1990) Fish feed formulation and production. FI:CPR/88/077 Field Document 8, Rome: FAO Takeuchi T, T. Watanabe & Ogino C (1978) Optimum ratio of protein to lipid in diets of rainbow trout. Bull. Jpn. Soc. Sci. Fish. 44: 683-688 Toshida S, J. D. Bista, K. Nagakura & Roy N. K (1993) Feed Ingredients for Fish available in Nepal (in Nepali). Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)/ Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)/ Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteer (JOCV) 68 pp Yamada T & Roy N. K (1997) Partial replacement of shrimp powder by soybean to make cost- effective feed for rainbow trout. Annual Technical Report (1996/97). Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli (FRCT), Nuwakot, Nepal: 20-24 Yamada T, N. K. Roy & Thapaliya M. P (1999) Study on the utilization of soybean oil in the feed of rainbow trout, Onchorhynchus mykiss. In: B. R. Pradhan, S. K. Wagle, O. Yamada & M. Takano (eds.) Proceedings of the Present Status of Fisheries Research, Development and Education in Nepal, NARC-JICA: 59-61
61 Raw material, storage, equipment & accessories for rainbow trout feed preparation in private sector in Nepal
Resham Raj Dhital, Nand Kishor Roy 1
Chief, National Natural and Inland Aquaculture Development Programme, Balaju Email: [email protected]
1 Fisheries Research Division Godawari
Abstract Most of the trout farmers prepare pellet feed by themselves in their farms with the help of pellet feed mill. The quality of trout products highly depend on the storage facilities, equipments, and accessories used to maintain the quality of feeds. To analyze the present situation of type of fish meal, trout feed storage, equipments and accessories a field study was conducted. The study showed that many farmers further need training and education to improve the quality of their storage and feed.
1. Introduction Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is one of the most suitable fish for commercial farming in cold waters. Nepal basically a mountainous country (83% of its area covered by hill and mountain) is known to possess second largest fresh water resources of the world. To use vast cold water resources flowing through snow covered world renounced mountains, attempts of introducing trout for using such resources for fish farming were carried in 1969 and 1972, respectively. However, those stocks could not survive. Thus, trout were reintroduced in 1988 from Japan. This stock survived well and complete technological package suitable to Nepalese socio-economical condition was developed (Gurung & Basnet 2003, Rai 2005, Nepal et al. 2001).
At the beginning, feeds for trout were brought from Japan through personnel of Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Japan Overseas Volunteers (JOCV). However, for long term sustainability this approach was not suitable. Therefore, local technological package of trout feed was developed. Now, the feed preparation technology has been scaled up in private sector. For feed preparation various feed ingredients such as shrimp, soybean, wheat, rice bran, mustard oil-cake, pre- mix vitamin and minerals are used. These feed ingredients may vary in their quality. However, successful trout farming depends on quality of feed (Ghittino 1972). Adequate supply of balance diet enables fish to maintain health and grow well. A quality feed for trout must be consistent in its ingredients quantity and quality for marketing and result oriented outputs. The quality fish product not only depends on feed ingredients but also on storage management, quality, type of equipment and accessories used.
In Nepal, trout feeds are prepared by many farmers themselves. Trout production fully depends on diets supplied by owners. Therefore, the quality of fish would also depend on level of farmer's management. The quality of feed further may depend on varieties of ingredients, storage facilities, equipments used to prepare feed and other accessories. Therefore, in the present study, our main objective is to evaluate the status of quality of trout feed raw material, storage facility, equipment and other accessories in private sector.
62 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Study area The present study is carried out around Kakani Village Development Committee of Nuwakot district where small to medium level trout farms have been emerged recently. The location is roughly 40 km away from Kathmandu, connected with metallic road that takes about one and half hour drive. There are 6 farms located in the area. These farms are situated from 1160 to 1640 meter from the sea level. During the study period these farms were visited and owners were interviewed. Feed ingredients were collected from different farms in private sector on 14 th and 19 th December 2006. Fish feed ingredient samples were collected in dry conditions. Altogether seven samples were collected from each farm. All samples were categorized and visualized simply by eye vision and disk camera. Collected samples were ready for crude protein proximate analysis by calculating method. Generally, all farmers followed same type of feed composition for trout which is directed by Fisheries Research Division, Godawari and Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli.
3. Result 3.1 Feed ingredients storage facilities in the farmer's field In general, the feed ingredients were common among the farmers. The list of ingredients used in fish farms is given in Table-1. As a matter of practice the trout farmers purchase their ingredients from local market in Kathmandu. The tentative methods of the processing of feed ingredients before grinding are as follows:
Table 1. List of raw materials used and composition used for preparation of trout pellet feed for table purpose.
3.2 Feed analysis Altogether seven samples were collected from each farm. All samples were categorized and observed simply by naked eye and using photographic camera. Collected samples were analyzed using proximate analysis for crude protein. In spite of the proper management some varied quality is lost while processing and grinding. The required raw material and the cost of feed price per kg are tabulated below (Table 2).
3.3 Storage facility In private sector feed ingredients and prepared pellet feed had the proper storage problems. Farmers were not able to store ingredients and pellet feed in separate rooms, which is often necessary to manage separately. The store room for storage should be well ventilated and free from dampness. Jute sacs can be used for the packing in order to make ingredients last longer. A wooden flack may also be used to keep the ingredients on top of it. It is also necessary to store the ingredients away from rats as well as other insects which may destroy the stored materials. Generally, the storage facilities obserred the farmer's fields were as follows: i. The ingredients were not well store. They were kept in a scattered way.
63 ii. Jute bag: Generally, farmers brought materials in jute bag from the local market or Kathmandu, but they were not stored properly. iii. Ventilator: Room was not ventilated. iv. Drying: prepared feed dry in sun light, but due to cold environment pellet feed can dry hundred percent. If it is not dry complete fungus may grow in pellet feed. v. Moisture: Due to environmental condition ingredients and pellet were seen moist.
Table 2: Prices of some raw material in Kathmandu used to prepare trout pellet for table purpose in private sector in Nepal.
3.4 Equipments and Accessories Different equipments & accessories are required for preparation of high quality pellet feed. Grinder is needed for grinding the raw materials, mixture for mixing required raw materials in proper way, pellet machine for making pellet feed and balance for the measurement of the grinded raw materials in accurate quantity. The equipments which might require are as follows: i. Grinder: For grinding the raw materials ii. Feed mixture: For mixing the raw materials iii. Pellet machine: Pellet machine for pelleting feed iv. Pelleting accessories: Dye, pellet cutters, hamper and different kinds of L-keys etc v. Balance: For the measurement of raw materials
4. Discussion Fish feed management in private sector by farmers themselves is a new innovative development in Nepal. This initiation of small scale farms to manage feed for trout by farmers themselves is highly encouraging for their sustainability. The introduction of local made pellet machine for trout feed in also one of the very innovative step in aquaculture sector. These all indicates that the future of trout farming in Nepal is highly positive and innovative. However, there is need of improvement substantially in consistency of feed ingredients quality, storage facilities properly. Farmers need to be trained, motivated for maintaining high quality feed and their farm products. Farmers should also be trained for using vitamin and mineral in the feed.
Some of the required ingredients for preparing trout pellet may not be available consistently. Soybean meal is found all over the year but quality may be variable. Other ingredients like rice bran, wheat and mustard oil cake are found in Kathmandu. The quality of raw material in local market was not satisfactory because quality ingredients are not available in all seasons. Low qualities of raw materials are sold in the market during off seasons. Hence, the quality raw materials in local market were not satisfactory. Soybean cake contains higher crude protein than that of full fat soybean (Toshida et al 1993). So it can be used as a cheap source of plant protein. The raw soybean contains a large percentage of growth inhibititors like Trypsin, Hemagglution, Sapouin, Goitroyenin and anticoagulant factors.
64 Shrimps and soybean meal are brought from Calcutta and Mumbai. The quality of shrimp from Mumbai is better than that of the quality from Calcutta. Small shrimp of low quality is easily available in Kathmandu. For the above result there was a wide variation in the protein content of shrimps based on their size difference. The protein content was higher in biggest size of shrimp and it decreased with decreasing size (Toshida et al. 1993). Protein content was 60% in biggest one and approximately 40% in smaller size of shrimp. In case the shrimp is to be used it is better to use bigger size to meet the required amount of crude protein i.e.35% which cannot be provided be small shrimps.
Among the feed equipments and accessories three farmers were involved in pellet production. The pellet feed may need to improve further in its appearance. One of the farmers who brought equipment from India produced better pellet than others, however, that requires much water and it takes long time to dry the produced pellet feed. If it is not dried completely, fungus may grow in pellet feed.
According to Halver (1976) any nutritionally balanced diet must include an energy source with sufficient essential acids, essential fatty acids, and non-energy nutrients (Vitamins and minerals). The amount of vitamin and minerals play an important role in terms of weight gain, survival rate, feed efficiency and specific growth rate. Several workers (Castell 1979; Watanabe 1982) had reviewed the essential fatty acid requirement in fish. Studies have demonstrated that the essential fatty acid requirements of fish differ considerably from species to species. Vitamins are complex and essential organic trace elements. Water soluble vitamins except cholin and inositol act as co-factors or co- enzymes are necessary to be incorporated in fish diet as fish cannot synthesize in its body tissues (Rath 2000). Sedgwick (1985) reported small amount of digestible fat (5-8%) needed in trout diet along with small quantity of minerals and some vitamins. Different chemical substance stimulates the feeding behavior in different species of fish.
Wheat provides carbohydrate, so it is in usual practice to use wheat flour in fish feed making. Wheat flour acts as plant protein source on one hand and a good binder on the other. Rice bran is used as a cheap source of protein rather than a source of fat. Mustard oil cake exhibited higher protein and fat but lower moisture content. Hence it can be best utilized as attached protein source for feed formulation. Higher growth rates of both rainbow trout and common carp were obtained when they were fed diets with the manganese content of 12-13 mg/kg diets instead of 4 mg/ kg diet (Rath 2000). Protein is used as a source of energy when fat and carbohydrates are depleted. One gram protein yields 4k cal energy. A considerable progress has been achieved in the study of the dietary protein requirements in number of fishes (Halver 1976, Watanabe 1982, Pandian 1987). A higher protein requirement ranges from 35-55% in different fishes. Protein is efficiently utilized when lipid is added as source of energy in the feed of carnivorous fish with protein sparing effects. The protein requirement of fish is about 2 to 3 times higher than that of mammals (Pandian 1987).
A trend of small scale trout production farms seemed to be appearing in Nepal. Generally, ready made commercial pellet diets manufactured by large industries are sold in many countries. However, many years may take to take such a trend in Nepal. Therefore, currently development of small scale feed integrated with trout farming would be important for the development of scaling up of trout farming in Nepal.
Recommendation and Conclusion For the further improvement better quality of raw materials is required for better production of feed. Along with quality ingredients, high capacity equipment is also needed. These help to increase the production of trout. Big shrimp containing nearly 60% crude protein seems to be the better animal protein to make trout feed than smaller shrimp because they cannot meet the required amount of crude protein, greater than 35% for feed composition. Soybean meal is more likely to be used in feed
65 instead of roasted soybean because it contain less fat and more protein; and cheaply available in Katmandu.
Acknowledgement We express our sincere gratitude to all farmers who provided us the valuable information for this study. Fund for study on rainbow trout was supported by Japan International Cooperative Agency and Nepal Agricultural Research Council. Thanks are also to Mr. Sadhu Ram Basnet, Chief of Fisheries Research Division, Trishuli for his support and initiatives.
Reference Castell J. D (1979) Review of lipid requirement of fin fish. In: J. E. Halver & K. Tiews Finfish Nutrition Fishfed Technology. Vol 1. Proceedings of world symposium, Hamberg,Germany 1:259-273 Ghittino P (1972) The diet and general fish husbandry in fish nutrition. John E. Halver (ed); Academy press New York. Gurung T. B & Basnet S. R (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal: constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8(4):16-18 Watanabe T (1988) Fish nutrition and Mariculture. Department of Aquatic Biosciences . Tokyo University of Fisheries . Halver J. E (1976) The nutritional requirements of cultivated warmwater and coldwater species. FAO Technical conference on Aquaculture. Kyoto Japan 26 May to 2 June, 1976.FIR/Conf. 76/R. 131. Watanabe T (1982) Lipid nutrition in fish. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 73 B: 3-15. Pandian T. J (1987) Fish energetics. In T. J. Pandian and F. J. Vemberg (eds) vol 2. Acadmic press, New york p. 357-465. Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002). Economics of rainbow trout farming systems in Nepal. In: T. Petr and D. B. Swar (eds.) Cold Water Fisheries in the Trans-Himalayan Countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 431 Rome, FAO. P. 376 Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & Lamsal G. P (2005) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal- A success story. Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, Thailand. 33 pp. Sedgwick S. D (1985) Trout Farming Handbook. 4th ed. Fishing News Books, England, 160 pp. Rath R. K (2000) Freshwater Aquaculture 2 nd edition Scientific Publisher (India). 5-A New Pali Road, P.B.No 91 Jodhpur. Toshida S, J. D. Bista, K. Nagakura & Roy N. K (1993) Feed Ingredients for Fish available in Nepal (in Nepali). Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)/ Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)/ Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteer (JOCV) 68 pp
66
Water Quality Parameters for Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Farming in Hills of Nepal
Neeta Pradhan, Raja Man Mulmi & Ram Prasad Dhakal*
Abstract Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a clean, cold and high dissolved oxygen requiring fish. Water quality is one of the basic prerequisite to begin the cultivation of trout. Farmers living in hills may require information on water quality to begin and sustain their farming practices. The present study aims to provide basic information on desirable water quality and quantity for trout culture. Moreover, in this paper result of water quality test of Godawari fish farm before entering after passing through raceway ponds have also been presented. The result showed that in Godawari fish farm the water quality such as dissolved oxygen, temperature, CO 2 , pH, total phosphorus, and nitrate nitrogen do not vary substantially into the inlet and outlet stream.
Key words: Water temperature, dissolved oxygen, Nitrogen 1. Introduction Water quality refers the extent to which water is biologically, chemically and physically suitable to specific purpose: such as fishery, aquaculture, irrigation, water recreation, and water sports (Boyd 1979). Knowledge of water quality is one of the essential parameters for environmentally sustainable fishery and aquaculture. The purpose of understanding water quality in aquaculture is management of water to optimize fish production without impairing environment. To great extent water quality determines the success or failure of an aquaculture operation.
Water quality is highly influenced by environment of their origin and occurrence. Trout prefer clean, cold and high oxygen water for their survival, growth and maturity. Rainbow trout culture site must have a year round supply of water with a temperature ranging from 10-18C (Yamajaki 1991). If the water temperature stays very near the limits of the suitable range for more than six months, the growth rate of rainbow trout will be so poor that the production farm will not be commercially viable (Yamaha 1991). With regards to water quality, the best guideline is that the water should be clear, not turbid. The pH value of 6.5-8.5 and dissolved oxygen above 8 mg per liter are considered suitable for trout culture (Huet 1975). Moreover, calcareous water is preferable (Leitritz 1963).
A potential site for commercial trout production must have a year round supply of high quality adequate cold running water available from stream, river, lake or any impoundment. Very fast running water is not desirable. If the current is too swift, energy might used up for swimming instead of the growth (Huet 1975). On the other hand, stagnant water might result depletion in dissolved oxygen below the desirable level and accumulation of wastes. These could lead to poor growth and performance of trout. As a rule of thumb, the current should be sufficient to provide at least one complete change of water per hour (Yamaha 1991).
The majority of solids are generally discharged during raceway cleaning when raceways are partially dewatered and settleable solids are swept into drains and discharged (Maillard 1998). Therefore, a study was performed at FRD Godawari for 3 years (from 2000/01 to 2003) to know the situation of water quality in up, mid and downstream, before entering into and out side the raceway ponds for
67 better water quality management. The objective of this paper is to provide basic information on desirable water quality and quantity for trout culture and; compare the water quality at inlet and outlet stream before and after water entering into raceways holding trout.
2. Materials and Methods Before establishing trout farm in private sector different water quality parameters such as water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and rate of flow of water were studied both in dry and wet season in several farms of private sector. Though there are many criteria to be considered for high trout production, DO, pH and temperatures were taken the basic parameters.
2.1 Water quality sampling criterion, processing and analysis DO, pH and temperature were recorded with DO meter, pH meter and thermometer respectively. Besides, these carbon dioxide, total hardness, alkalinity, ammonium nitrogen, nitrate +nitrite (NO 2 +NO 3 ), reactive phosphorus, total phosphorus were analyzed from four places inside and outside of fish farm. Water samples were collected from four sampling stations once a month. The sampling stations included station 1 (main source of water before deer farm), station 2 (water at inlet of raceways ponds), station 3 (outlet of raceways ponds) and station 4 (main out let to outside of Godawari farm).
Rate of flow of water at inlet was also monitored during sampling period. Water discharge rate in the feeding canal was measured every week throughout the experimental period. The Indophenols method was used to measure ammonium (NH 4 -N) and diphenylamine method (Mullin & Riley 1995) was used to measure nitrite (NO 2 -N) plus nitrate (NO 3 -N). Phosphorus (PO 4 -P) was analyzed by the method of Murphy & Riley (1962).
3. Result The water temperature ranged from 7 to 21C, pH from 6 to 8.5 and DO from 6 to 10 mg/L. The optimum range of water temperature, DO and pH were 15 to 21C, > 8 ppm and 6.5 to 8.5 respectively. Some of the basic water quality characteristics of some trout farms is given in Table 1 & 2. The average rate of water flow in trout farms in the study area ranged from 2.5-6 L/minute. The details of water quality parameters examined at four different places of the farm in Godawari fish farm is give below:
Table 1. Status of water quality parameters of some rainbow trout farms
68 Water flow rate The water flow rate was higher in rainy seasons, except in year 2002 when higher discharge rate was recorded in winter in December. The highest discharge rate was about 5000 liter per minute, while lowest discharge rate was about 1900 liter per minute in May. Fig 1.
Fig . 1. Water discharge (2001-03) Fig . 2. Water temperature (2001-03)
Water temperature Water temperature in all station fluctuates according to the seasons. Generally the higher temperature was recorded 18-19 0 C, from June to October; while lowest was 8-10 0 C from December to February depending on stations (Fig 2).
pH The pH varied in short range in general from 6 to 9.5. The pH in all stations showed consistent results however, fluctuated in September and October in 2004 (Fig 3).
Fig . 4. pH (2001-03) Fig . 3. DO (2001-03)
Dissolved Oxygen The dissolved oxygen ranged from 6.0 to 10.3 mg/L in Godawari. The variation in sampling station was not distinct, but showed little fluctuation over each other. In general during the study period the DO tended to increase in the months of MarchApril (Fig 4).
69 Total phosphorus The total phosphorus ranged from 0 to 0.68 mg/L. Most of the sampling period in all station the TP showed consistent results. However, in November 2001 the TP in station 3 exceeded the highest level to 0.67 mg/L due to unknown reasons. In general the TP was higher in average in year 2001 than remaining other years (Fig 5).
Fig . 6. Total phosphorus Fig . 5. Nitrite and Nitrate
Nitrite+Nitrate The Nitrite+Nitrate showed varied from 0 to 1.2 mg/L. The highest values occurred at station 3 and 4 in November 2001. In rest of the sampling period the values fluctuated from 0 to 0.70 mg/L (Fig 6).
Alkanity Alkanity ranged from 55 to 190 mg/L throughout the study period. In station 1 alkanity showed lower values in winter months while values tended to show higher values in early summer months in general (Fig 7).
Fig . 8. Alkanity Fig . 7. Total Hardness
Total hardness The total hardness during the study period varied from 103 to 230 mg/L. The values did not show consistent trend, however, in most the sampling period slight higher values were found in station 4 in more occasions than others. The values of station 1 also showed higher fluctuation (Fig 8)
70 Ammonia The concentration of ammonia was high in 2001-02 than in other years fluctuating from 0.10 to 0.25 mg/L. In general the Ammonia was higher in station 1 and 4 than in 2 and 3. In remaining two years ammonia fluctuated between 0 to 0.27 mg/L. The highest concentration of ammonia occurred at station 4, the outlet of the farm. In 2002 and 03 the concentration of ammonia was slightly higher in station 3 than in 1 and 2 (Fig 9).
Fig. . 9 Ammonia (2001-03)
4. Discussion The water quality parameters examined in present study showed mostly all parameters falls within the desirable limit for rainbow trout cultivation. This study only provides limited data on water quality parameters. Detail water quality data should be used to cover the water quality parameters from Nepalese hills and mountains.
Past experience has shown that water temperature is one of the strong tools to determine the feasibility of trout farming areas depending on the origin of water resources. Generally, water temperature in altitude below 1000 m may not be suitable to grow trout because in summer the perennial water may exceed >20 0 C. However, if the water origins from glacier, then the water temperature would be still feasible even at the altitude of about 700 m because the annual water temperature may not exceed more than 18 0 C. Therefore, care should be taken not to consider the altitude only but also the origin of water resources to predict the feasible site for trout farm operation especially in lower altitude. In higher altitude lower water temperature should be viewed in context of trout farm purpose. For example, performance of trout hatchery would be suitable in relatively cold waters, while for table trout production water 14-20 0 C has been considered more suitable.
In water originated from glaciers turbidity and suspended solids have been found to be higher during monsoon. For example, water in Trishuli River. Contrarily; water originated from spring are low in suspended silt and turbidity of inorganic particles. Therefore, in future for hatchery operation use of spring or water coming through high altitude lake could be more suitable.
Fish perform all functions and completely depend upon water to breathe, feed and grow, excrete wastes, maintain a salt balance between water and their body (Boyd 1979). Trout cultivation totally depends on composite feed input. Thus, the feed derived wastes (uneaten feed and fish fecal matter) comprise the majority of solids produced in trout raceway production facilities. In general, 5-30% of dry feed is uneaten by fish and 25-30% of the feed consumed by fish is excreted as feces (Naylor et al. 1999). The quantity of solids produced depends upon several factors, including: fish species, stocking
71 density, feeding frequency (Mayer & McLean 1995; Boujard et al. 2002), feed composition, water temperature (Cripps & Bergheim 2000), age, and growth rate of fish (Rasmussen & Ostenfeld 2000). Solids contain nitrogen and phosphorous (Naylor et al. 1999) and their subsequent decomposition degrades water quality within the hatchery and downstream, directly affecting the health of aquatic organisms (Van Rijn et al. 1995, Fries & Bowles 2002).
The results of water sampling in inlet and outlet streams of Godawari fish farm showed that water quality parameters do not change substantially in locations, suggesting that the contamination due to trout farming is far below than presumption. It might be due to low intensity of trout farming in raceways. The water flow in the farm varied according to the season, as it was always low in dry season and highest in wet when heavy rainfall occurred in the area. The present study suggests that water quality in hill and mountain of Nepal are within desirable limit. Since, farming intensity of trout in Godawari farm is within the limit therefore the water examined water quality parameters did not vary in inlet and outlets.
Acknowledgement Thanks to Dr. Ash Kumar Rai and Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung for guidance. We are also grateful to our staffs and farmers who provided us much information and without their cooperation this work could never be accomplished.
Reference Boujard T, L. Labbe & Auperin B (2002). Feeding behavior, energy expenditure and growth of rainbow trout in relation to stocking density and food accessibility. Aquaculture Research 33:1233- 1242. Boyd C. E (1979) Water quality in warm water fish ponds. Auburn University, Agricultural Experiment Station, USA. Pp iii. Cripps S. J & Bergheim A (2000) Solids management and removal for intensive land-based aquaculture production systems. Aquacultural Engineering 22:33-56. Fries L. T & D. E Bowles (2002). Water quality and macro invertebrate community structure associated with a sportfish hatchery outfall. North American Journal of Aquaculture 64:257-266. Huet M (1975). Text book of fish culture. Fishing news (Books) Ltd, 23 Rosemount Avenue, West by fleet, survey, England. p Leitritz E (1963). Trout and salmon culture, State of California, Dept. of Fish and Game. Fish Bulletin no. 107 Maillard V. M (1998) Characterization, treatment, and improvement of aquacultural effluents. M.S. Thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia. Mayer I & McLean E (1995) Bioengineering and biotechnical strategies for reduced waste aquaculture. Water Science and Technology 31(10):85-102.62. MS. Mullin J. B & Riley J. B (1995) The spectrophotometric determination of nitrate in natural waters, with particular reference to sea water. Anam. Chim. Acta, 2:464-480. Murphy J. B. & Riley J. B (1962) A modified single solution method for the determination of phosphate in natural waters. Anam. Chim. Acta, 27:31-36. Naylor S. J, R. D. Moccia, Durant G. M (1999) The chemical composition of settleable solid fish waste (manure) from commercial rainbow trout farms in Ontario, Canada. North American Journal of Aquaculture 61:21-26. Rasmussen R. S. & Ostenfeld T. H (2000) Effect of growth rate on quality traits and feed utilization of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Aquaculture 184:327- 337. Van R. J, N. Fonarev & Berkowitz B (1995). Anaerobic treatment of intensive fish culture effluents: digestion of fish feed and release of volatile fatty acids. Aquaculture 133:9-20. Yamaha Motors Co. Ltd (1991) Rainbow Trout Culture, Fishery Journal No.36. Yamazaki T (1991) Culture of Foreign Origin Fishes, Farming Japan, 25 th Anniversary, Vol. 25-1:41- 46.
72
An evaluation on rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) diseases and their control measures in Nepal
Abstract History of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cultivation is relatively new in Nepal. Trout were introduced only about two decades before, since then knowledge on rainbow trout diseases and their control measures have been gained. It is learnt that trout are mostly susceptible to diseases related to feed and water contamination. Unclean water may stimulate bacterial, protozoan and cytozoic parasites for infection, such as Eimeria disease, while unhygienic feed may trigger hepatoma and others. These harmful diseases, if not controlled may cause severe economic losses to farmers. It is concluded that at present there is no urgent disease problems associated with rainbow trout, however, if occurred can be controlled, if treated on time. The present low occurrence of disease in trout might be due to relatively low intensity of trout farming; however, in future intensification of culture system may invite disease problems.
Key words: Hepatoma, Eimeria, columnaris, pop eye
1. Introduction Aquaculture is one of the fast growing agricultural enterprises in Nepal. The inland water bodies in the hills and mid hills area provide ample usable resources for trout growers in the country. Over the years, culture technology of trout had been developed; however, practice for commercial scale production is yet to be adopted. In order to increase the production per unit area, high stoking density and heavy feeding will be inevitable which might deteriorate water quality in the system. As fish production systems intensifies, the interaction of disease agents with other factors such as the physical, environment, nutrition become more complex. In such a system, even small changes in some factors can trigger to cause the expression of disease (Snieszko 1974, Inglish et al. 1994, Purohit 1998). Particularly stressors in the context of their environmental and hosts physiology, often fish are exposed to bacterial-born diseases through water that serves as the medium for the growth of microorganisms (Snieszko 1974, Inglish et al. 1994, Purohit 1998, Trust 1986; Roberts & Sommerville 1982, Paperna 1984). Generally fish disease is recognized as one of the most significant constraints to aquaculture production and trade, negatively impacting over economic development in many countries in the world (De Silva 2001). There are diverse of diseases and parasites which may cause harm to rainbow trout farming. Here, in this paper we review some of the diseases and their control measures related to trout in Nepal.
2. Review on trout diseases abroad Among bacterial diseases columnaris disease are caused by Flavobacterium columnaer or Flexibacter columnaris (Bernardet et al. 1996). Besides these several bacteria are also known to affect rainbow trout such as, bacterial kidney disease (BKD), mycobacteriosis (fish tuberculosis), myxobacteriosis, streptococcosis, enteric red mouth disease, haemorrhagic septicaemia, furunculosis and vibriosis (Klontz 1991, Stickney 1991, Bernardet et al. 1996, Schperclaus 1991). Hoshina et al. (1958) isolated Streptococcus faecalis from dying juvenile rainbow trout. Streptococcal species, accompanied by exopthlmus (pop eye) have been reported in rainbow trout by Barham et al. (1979). In Europe, the parasite Myxosoma cerebralis, has been reported to be the cause of whirling disease in rainbow trout
73 when cultured in earthen ponds (Stickney 1991). In United States, Ichthyophthirius multifilli, Gyrodactylus and Dactylogyrus have been reported as source of major parasitic infestation in rainbow trout (Klontz 1991).
3. Review on trout disease in Nepal Earlier when trout were recently introduced, sign of many diseases were absent. Since 1993 rainbow trout have been found susceptible to diverse types of diseases, such bacterial, hepatoma disease, and protozoan and cytozoic parasites. The clinical sign of tail rot and fin rot was first noticed in rainbow trout (Fig 1) in 1993 (Gurung & Lama 1994). The occurrence of fin rot later was often seen at Fisheries Research Division, Godawari usually in January to September and November (Rayamajhi 1998, Rayamajhi 1999, Rayamajhi & Bajracharya 2000, Rayamajhi et al. 2004, Rayamajhi & Bajracharya 2005). Fin rot have been observed in trout at many farms at Nuwakot. In trout, fin deterioration has been considered most predominant common disease (Rayamajhi 1998, Rayamajhi & Bajracharya 2000). However, this disease has not found to cause mortality.
Columnaris disease caused by Flavobacterium columnaer were first isolated from trout fingerlings in 1999 and found responsible for 1.2% mortality (Rayamajhi 1999). F. columnaer (columnaris disease) have been reported mostly (Fig 2 & 3) in late summer (June), rainy (July) and winter months (November & December). The bacterium, F. columnaer, species of Aeromonas and Streptococcus were isolated from grown trout (12.63695.01g) in winter (November) and rainy season (June-August) in 2005. Existence of Streptococcus fecalis may also cause mortality in late monsoon from July to September. Aeromonas bacterium and Aeromonas hydrophila were isolated from unfertilized eggs of trout and Pasteurella bacterium from milt in 2005 (Rayamajhi & Roy 2006).
A very few incidence of Trichodina parasite have been observed in trout of young juveniles to adult (Fig 4) (Rayamajhi 1998 & 1999). The young juveniles of trout infested with Trichodina might cause mortality. Trout production may also suffer heavy loss due to major outbreak of enterococcidiosis disease caused by Eimeria sp, if not controlled (Fig 5, 6, 7, 10). First clinical sign of hepatoma disease was first noticed in liver of rainbow trout in 1993 at Fisheries Research Center, Godawari (Fig 9) (Gurung & Lama 1994, TFRC 1993). Later the disease was reported in 2004 (Rayamajhi et al. 2004).
4. Possible causes of trout diseases in Nepal In general, supply of polluted water and unhygienic feed are considered major sources of trout disease occurrence. Fisheries Research Center, Godawari, receives polluted water in early monsoon from Deer farm situated above trout farm. Inadequate management, maintenance of hygiene and proper knowledge to farmers and improper knowledge of the best management practice (BMP) for trout cultivation are the basic reasons for the causes of trout disease.
5. Diagnosis capacity of trout disease in Nepal Several disease related to trout including bacterial origin can be diagnosed in Nepal. There are two disease laboratories in Godawari and Balaju Fisheries Centers respectively with limited capacity in terms of physical facilities and human resource. Since the physical and human resources related to trout diseases are inadequate. Till now few training related to trout diseases to farmers have been conducted. Trout farming at present is confined to limited area. It is easier to monitor trout disease in these pocket areas. However, later when trout farming will be spread up in various distant parts, then several trout disease diagnostic center and related human resources would be required. Therefore, skill human resources and facilities for trout disease control and prevention measures would be requiring in coming days.
74
Fig 1-9. Photograph of tail and fin rot (1-3), columnaris (6), parasites (Trichodina sp. 4), and Eimeria sp (5-7) and Eimeria infected trout (8), hepatoma infected liver (9) exposed to rainbow trout, during diseases outbreak in Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Nepal.
5.1 Trout disease diagnosis and control Presently Doxycycline have been considered major therapeutants to combat disease problem against microflora; Flavobacterium columnaer, Aeromonas species, and Streptococcus species. The recommended dose is @ 6-10 g /100kg fish feed for 7-14 days. It seems that Tetracycline hydrochloride, Terramycin, and Oxytetracyclin containing medicated feed could be prepare to minimize microbial infection. The water flush method using rock salt @ 2-3%, and Copper sulphate @0.1-0.4 g /liter were also considered as external microbicide to treat Flavobacterium columnaer. Kohrsolin-Th liquid@ 0.25 ml/m 3 have been also found protective to minimize tail and fin rot and other general bacterial infection.
Application of Vitamin 'C' @ 1-2 g /kg pellet feed of trout is considered to make trout robust for additional resistant power. Amprol, an oral antiparasitic agent used @ 6-10 g/100kg fish feed, for 7- 24 days, have been found effective to control enterococcidiosis/coccidiosis disease infection. The supply of diagnostic services and control measures have been carried out to trout growers in Nuwakot District by FRD, Godawari and FRC, Trishuli (Nepal Agriculture Research Council, NARC).
6. Main issue and challenges Impacts from uneaten feed and fish excreta can impair water quality (increasing biological oxygen demand, reducing dissolved oxygen and increasing turbidity) and increase the growth of algae in trout culture raceway ponds, which may cause stress and invite various types of pathogenic diseases.
75 7. Recommendation Considering the potentiality of trout farming in the country, there should be a Central Cold Water Aquaculture Disease and Prevention Research Center. Human resource should be trained in different discipline (parasitology, bacteriology and virology aspects of trout aquaculture) Emphasis should be given to train farmers and extension agents on trout disease and control measures.
8. Conclusion No severe threat of disease problems have been noticed in rainbow trout culture in Nepal. This might be due to low level stocking density of trout in raceways. But, in the future inbreeding and intensive trout farming system could trigger out epidemic diseases. The hepatoma is expected to control by improving feed storage facilities.
Acknowledgement We express our gratitude to the Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung for kindly reviewing the paper. We also express out thanks to K. Bajaracharya for her support in laboratory work. Part of financial support for this study was funded by Japan International Cooperative Agency.
Reference Barham W. T, Schoonbee H, Smit G. L (1979) The occurrence of Aeromonas and Streptococcus in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri richardson. Journal Fish Biology, 15: 457-460. Bernardet J. E, Segers P, Vancanneyt M, Berthe F, Kersters K and Vandamme P (1996) Cutting a Gordian knot: Emended classification and description of the genus Flavobacterium, emended description of the family Flavobacteriaceae, and proposal of Flavobaterium hydatis nom. nov. (Basonym, Cytophega Aqualis Strohl and Tait, 1978). International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology, 46:128-148. De Silva S S (2001) A global perspective of aquaculture in the New Millennium. In: Aquaculture in The Third Millennium, pp. 431-459. Gurung T. B & Lama S. L (1994) A preliminary study on the occurrence of parasites and disease in rainbow trout (Onchorynchus mykiss). In: Annual Report, Fisheries Research Center, Godawari, Nepal. pp. 26-37. Hoshina T, Sano T & Morimoto Y. A (1958) A Streptococcus pathogenic to Fish. Journal Tokyo University, 44, pp. 57. Inglish V. R, J. Roberts & Bromage N. R (1994) Bacterial diseases of fish, Blackwell Science Limited, USA, pp. 312 Klontz G. W (1991) A Manual for rainbow trout production on the family-owned farm. Elson & Sons, Inc., University of Idaho, Dept. of Fish & Wildlife Resources, Moscow, I. D. Extension Bulletin No. 7. pp. 70. Purohit S. S (1998) Microbiology fundamentals and applicants. Sixth edition, Agro Botanica, Bikaner, pp. 792 Paperna I (1984) Winter diseases of cultured tilapia. In: Acuigrup Spain (ed.) Fish Diseases. Fourth COPRAQ Session. Editora ATP. Madrid, pp. 139147. Rayamajhi A & Roy R. N (2006) Surveillance of fish parasites and diseases. In: Unpublished Annual Technical Report, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Nepal. Rayamajhi A & Bajracharya K (2005) Surveillance of fish parasites and diseases. In: Annual Technical Report, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Nepal. pp. 61-80. Rayamajhi A, Bajracharya K & Mulmi R (2004) Surveillance of fish parasites and diseases. In: Annual Technical Report, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Nepal. pp. 7-21. Rayamajhi A & Bajracharya K (2000) Surveillance of fish parasites and bacterial diseases. In: Annual Technical Report, Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Nepal. pp. 14-23.
76 Rayamajhi A (1999) Surveillance of fish parasites and bacterial diseases. In: Annual Technical Report, Fisheries Research Center, Godawari, Nepal. pp. 27-35. Rayamajhi A (1998) Proceedings of The Third National Workshop on Livestock and Fisheries Research in Nepal, held from 26-28 June, 1999 at Agriculture Research Station, Lumle, pp. 153- 157. Roberts R.. J & Sommerville C (1982) Diseases of tilapias. In: Pullin R.S.V. and Lowe McConnel R.H. (eds.). The Biology and Culture of Tilapia. ICLARM Conference proceeding, Manila, Philippines. pp. 247263. Snieszko S. F (1974) The effect of environmental stress on outbreaks of infectious diseases of fishes. Journal Fish Biology, 6: 197208. Schperclaus W (1991) Fish Disease Volume I and II. Oxonian Press Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, Calcutta, pp. 1398 Stickney R. R (1991) Culture of Salmonid fishes. CRC Press, Inc., Florida, Pp 113. TFRC (1993) Annual Technical Report, Published by Trishuli Fisheries Research Center, Trishuli, Nuwakot, Nepal. Trust T. J (1986) Pathogenesis of infectious diseases of fish. Annual review of Microbiology 40: 479-502
77 Market Channels of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) products in Nepal
Monitoring Division 2 , Singhdarbar Plaza, NARC and Fishery Research Division 3 , Godawari, Fisheries Research Station 4 , Trishuli
Abstract Production and marketing of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a recent phenomenon in Nepal. It is currently emerging as a niche product for hills and mountain region. This paper is output of a marketing study on trout in Kathmandu-Trishuli-Rasuwa road corridor. It aims to provide an assessment of marketing system, market demand and supply as well as market and production potentiality of trout farming in Nepal. The study employed literature review, key informant interviews and market survey of trout producers, traders, and specific consumers of trout. The market survey employed two sets of questionnaires. The first set was used to interview sample respondents (N=22) involved in marketing of trout (e.g. farmers and market agents from department stores, restaurants, hotels, fresh house etc.); and the second was used to collect random views of consumers (N=68). Specific marketing channels, marketing practices, market demand, supply, market prices and margins, production and marketing potentials were assessed and projected. Similarly consumers demand, utility and the preferences for the size and types of trout products were identified and suggested. The finding showed that currently trout marketing is in very small scale (17 mt) mediating for commercialization. The farm households that are closer to road head and markets adopted trout farming and reaping fairly high benefits from this activity. The traders and hotel owners are also currently receiving good profit margin from the sale of trout. However, the current production and market supply of trout is not meeting increasing demands of consumers. Furthermore, this demand is increasing rapidly due to increasing tourist flow, urbanization, and increased consumer awareness about fresh trout products. The study therefore confirms that market for trout is unexploited and large because of increasing unfulfilled demands of high-income local consumers and demands of hotels, restaurants and super markets. A high prospect for commercialization of trout exists. Finally the paper suggests that special policy consideration is required to enhance production and supply of fingerlings as well as technical know-how and enabling investment environments for future growth in production and marketing. Key words: Consumers demand, market price, marketing channel, market potential 1. Introduction Production and marketing of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is a recent phenomenon in Nepal. It is currently emerging as a niche or specialty product for hills and mountain region, where suitable climatic conditions, land slopes and abundant perennial source of cold fresh running water is available. Rainbow trout is a high value exotic cold water fish. It prefers, clean, cold and high oxygen water for its growth and survival which is abundant particularly in the hill and mountain region of Nepal (Gurung & Basnet 2003). The present stock of trout was introduced from Japan in 1988 (Joshi & Westlund 1997, Gurung & Basnet 2003, FRD 2005). The research work on breeding work and culture technology was first initiated since early 1990s. Over the past 10 years NARC research work carried out at Fisheries Research Station (FRS), Trishuli and Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godavari revealed that production of trout is technically feasible in Nepal (FRD 2005, FRS 2006). The cultivation has also been tested and validated in the farmer's field to learn the feasibility and profitability of this technology (Nepal et al. 2002). On-farm testing in individual farmers own production management conditions and its economic analysis indicated that it is technical feasible and
78 profitable in places where suitable agroecological conditions prevail such as the hills and mountains of Nepal (FRD 2005).
Recently considering the viability of the technology and its potential role in trout farming commercialization in hills and mountains, NARC has initiated its scaling-up of technological activities. Consequently, Government of Nepal has selected Nuwakot and Rasuwa as the Trout Districts under One Village One Product (OVOP) program (MoF 2006). Despite this policy recognition and prioritization, we have limited information and empirical studies that have rarely been undertaken to study market potential of trout production for successful scaling-up and commercialization of trout farming. In this context, this study was initiated to explore market potentials and understand market demand and supply of trout in Nepal. The specific objectives were to study the market system, trend, demand, and supply; assess production, identify current constraints, risks and potentials in production and marketing for suggesting possible investment measures, priority areas and policy options in trout farming promotion.
2. Materials & Methods The study was undertaken in Kathmandu valley, Trishuli and Kathmandu-Trishuli road corridor where currently trout is produced, marketed and consumed. It employed literature review, exploratory survey and use of specifically designed qualitative and quantitative methods and tools for collecting market information. Participatory and qualitative study covered desk study, focus group discussion, key informant interviews, direct field visits and interaction meeting with trout researchers in Fisheries Research Center Trishuli and Godawari. In addition, information was also gathered by visiting and interacting with other related stakeholders in trout production, marketing and promotion (e.g. ADB/N Trishuli, JICA etc.). Quantitative method involved market survey of market agents and consumers using specifically designed questionnaire. The market survey employed two sets of questionnaires. The first set was used to interview sample respondents (N=22) participating in marketing of rainbow trout (e.g. farmers and market agents from department stores, restaurants, hotels, fresh house etc.) and the second set was used to interview random sample of different types of troutconsumers (N=68). The data and information collected from survey were compiled, coded and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS). From survey data, specific marketing channels, marketing practices, market demand, supply, market prices and margins as well as production and marketing potentials are assessed and projected. Similarly consumers demand, utility and the preferences for the size and types of rainbow trout products are identified and suggested.
3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Production systems Currently small-scale market oriented production occurs in trout fish with very small volume (nearly 17 mt) and size of production and marketing specifically in Kathmandu-Trishuli-Rasuwa road corridor. Until 2006, only nine farmers (private sector) have been involved in trout fish farming in addition to production by two government (NARC) research farms in Godawari and Trishuli. Current total combined production of trout is about 0.09 % of total pond culture fish production in Nepal. Production is tied with specific agroclimatic conditions (fresh cold running water, low temperature in gentle hill and mountain slopes) and market access. Basically, trout farming is knowledge, input and technology intensive farming. It requires year round dependable source of cold oxygenated unpolluted fresh running water, water temperature of 9-14 0 C for spawning and 14-18 0 C for fingerlings and table fish production. It is learned that about 55 hills and mountain districts (15 high hills and 40 mid hills) of Nepal are suitable for rainbow trout fish farming, wherever; this dependable source of fresh cold running water is available. The available data (Fig 1) shows that currently 17 mt of rainbow trout fish is produced in the country where both public and private sector is combined. The trend of production data from 2002 to 2005 reveals that the share of private sector is increasing whilst that of public sector is declining in the last four years.
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Fig 1: Trend of rainbow trout fish production (2002-2005; Source: FRS, Trishuli 2006)
3.2 Adoption of trout farming and marketing Strong NARC fisheries outreach support in terms of technological know-how, inputs and information and the existence of markets in Kathmandu-Trishuli-Rasuwa highway were the basic factors that stimulated the process of trout farming and marketing in the study sites. The households that are closer to road head and markets in Kathmandu have adopted trout farming earlier. Currently nine farmers have adopted trout farming and half of them are directly involved in marketing of their own produce in their own restaurants. The survey revealed there are some behavioral factors that are responsible for adoption of trout farming and marketing. These behavioral characteristics that are common to those innovative farmers include creative and information seekers and ability to derive full benefits from the opportunities.
3.3 Economic viability of trout farming and marketing Unlike normal fish production, initial investment cost for a trout farm is higher. This is because more expensive facilities are needed, such as concrete cemented ponds (raceways), operating equipments and hatcheries. However, currently farmers in the study areas receiving high returns from trout farming and marketing since they have good market outlets and in majority cases, no middlemen are involved as they are directly marketing the products. The financial analysis of the study revealed that the breakeven price for the cost of production is about Rs 250/kg (FRS 2006) but farmers' are currently receiving Rs. 450 to 650/kg for the fresh products depending upon location, market negotiation and market outlets.
3.4 Market channels and local marketing practices Presently trout has a specific niche market that is high income domestic consumers and foreign tourists, where the products are not marketed in general in local market stalls, footpaths and fish shops. The market and value chain is small due to small-scale production. Very limited middlemen were found to exist in marketing of trout fish. Some producers themselves also act as middlemen and these traders have own informal contractual agreements with local producers for advance buying of trout products. The market channels are very specific and market is segmented and specific to star hotels, tourist restaurants and high income domestic consumers. The products were not differentiated among sellers except some labeling. The producers and hotel owners sells the products in different types of recipes based on the nature of hotels and consumers preferences. For example, Japanese/ Chinese/Korean restaurants had different recipes compared to western and Nepalese restaurants. The prices were found set based on market negotiation, local contacts, promotion strategies and technique with particular hotels, restaurants and super markets.
80 Market arrivals generally occur after November until June. Rainbow trout is a high value perishable product. As a result it requires good care and handling in post harvest use and marketing. Current transport system and production sites are reasonably good for a quick distribution of perishable products. However, such a production site close to major market centers and convenient transportation system may not be available in many parts of the hills and mountains. The local marketing practices commonly used for trout include:
i. Collection of fresh fish ii. Packaging: Plastic vacuum packaging (Air-tight) iii. Labeling with specific own brand names by producers/traders iv. Local transportation in Microbus, Vans and Bus v. Grading: farmers grade their products based on the demand in the hotels, restaurants and department stores vi. Advertising with sign post & labeling of attractive exotic names (Japanese name) vii. Advertising linked with local, traditional and pure organic products viii. Sold with different forms of food recipes and preparation (Gravy, deep fried, steamed, roasted etc.) ix. Sold in different sizes. Most preferred size for hotels is 200-300 gm whilst for own direct selling to consumers ranges from 100-300gm
3.5 Marketing options There are three options for the local farmers to undertake marketing of trout in the study areas: i. Cooked products sold to outside consumers from their own hotels/restaurants, ii. Fresh sales to local hotels and to hotels, restaurants, department stores in KTM iii. Fresh sales to local and far way consumers
3.6 Type of market agents The market survey revealed that there are different types of market agents who are involved in marketing of trout. They are producer-traders to department stores, restaurants, and hotels etc. as given below: i. Producers-traders (restaurant owners) ii. Star hotels: Yak & Yeti, Soaltee, Height Residency, Godawari Resort, Summit etc. iii. Restaurants: Koto Restaurant, Mike Breakfast, Chez Carolene, Mackfe etc. iv. Department Stores: Bhatbhateni, Bluebird, Namaste, Sale well, Valley shop etc.
3.7 Type of consumers The consumers of trout fish are mainly middle and high income groups from both overseas and Nepal. The survey revealed that domestic Nepali high-income groups visiting Trishuli and star hotels/restaurants for enjoyment, fun and relish the taste of exotic fish are the main consumers. These groups are mainly business people, contractors, politicians, professionals, bureaucrats, high ranking army and policy officials as well as people involved in travel and tourisms. People are also buying trout fish from Trishuli and Godwari farm in government rate which is relatively affordable (Rs 300/kg). Visiting tourists, diplomatic officials and professional from Japan, China, Korea and western Countries are the main foreign consumers of rainbow trout fish. They normally buy it from department stores, government farms and also visit hotels and restaurants for relishing the taste. 3.8 Farm gate, market Prices and margins There are no variations in market prices of trout in different seasons and parts of the year. Currently the farm gate average price of fresh products (table fish) in private farm is Rs 400-450/kg. The marketing costs include handling, packaging and transportation costs. No direct and indirect taxes, marketing hassles and other types of costs are found to incur. The storage, warehousing, communication costs are not prevalent due to direct fresh marketing.
81 The buying market price for private farm produced fresh trout in department stores, hotels and restaurants in Kathmandu is Rs 550/kg. The selling prices (retail price) are Rs 600/kg for fresh trout. The cost of handling and packaging (Rs 10/kg), and transportation (Rs 20/kg) and additional cost of weight loss and others (Rs 20/kg) could add up to a total Rs 50/kg. Using this data of marketing costs, the net marketing margin (profit) from marketing by the middlemen is Rs 50-100/kg, which is quite high under current situation where there is no competition in the market. 3.9 Consumers preference Unlike normal fish (e.g. carp), trout fish has absence of Y bone so consumer feel easy and comfortable to eat it. The main reasons for consuming trout fish was tastiness (>60%) followed by good nutrition (30%). Many consumers (>80%) prefer to have 200-300gm size of fish, though some domestic consumers prefer to have 150-200g fish to eat in the restaurants. Among Nepali high- income consumers, deep-fried was one of the most preferred recipes followed by gravy and roasted.
3.10 Demand and supply Currently, the demand of trout for consumption is large and unfulfilled. All surveyed market respondents (trout producer-traders, star hotels, restaurants /caf, department stores etc.) indicated that they are not receiving adequate quantities of trout; some of them even complained government research farms and producers not supplying it for the last six months and one year or so. The findings revealed that they are likely to increase their market sale three to five times, if they receive adequate quantity of trout fish regularly.
3.11 Market prospects and trend Current combined 17 MT of production (with 66:33 ratio from private and public sectors) is inadequate to meet huge demand of domestic consumers as well as overseas tourists' inflow. Current demand shows that 50 MT of trout fish could be marketed in and around Kathamndu a year without any further efforts of market promotion. The domestic overall demand of trout fish currently is estimated about 200 MT if market is promoted in different urban centers and popular tourists destination around the country. Domestic demand is increasing rapidly. The survey also revealed that high prospects of export exist for this unique fish in the name of Himalayan Rainbow Trout in Japan, Thailand, and western countries, if adequate market search is made and quality supply is assured on time. Until now there is no problem of external competition for the trout products. Hence market for trout is large and unexploited due to unfulfilled demands, export potentials and future trend of consumers choices.
3.12 Problems in production and marketing Technology, knowledge and labor intensive production Highly perishable, seasonal, bulky, small scale and scattered production Increase risks of markets due to high input costs and market volatility Poor market infrastructures and high costs of transportation Limited supply of fingerlings for increased production and marketing Limited infrastructures for hatcheries and trained high quality human resources Low amount of credit access due to low valuation of marginal land that are used for trout farming in mountains No insurance policy for pond structures and facilities Lack of investment priority for inaccessible hills and mountains where trout farming is possible 3.13 Policy considerations Finally the paper suggests that special policy consideration is required to enhance production and supply of fingerlings as well as technical know-how and enabling investment environments for future growth in production and marketing. The following policy and practices are considered in successful production and marketing of trout fish in Nepal:
82
i. Integration of market-based trout production with organic horticulture, micro-livestock, water mills and eco-tourism ii. Credit policy with appropriate valuation of lands in combination with insurance provisions iii. Development of satellite hatchery farms in various hilly regions with adequate human resource development programs iv. Investment policy focused for hills and mountain region of Nepal where trout farming could be successful v. Public- private partnership for scaling up and commercialization through one village one product vi. Market promotion and export market search for the rainbow trout Conclusions Currently trout production is in trial stage of commercialization. It is a profitable business with high demand and prospects for trout production and marketing in Nepal. Current production and market supply of trout is not meeting and increasing demands of consumers in local market. Furthermore, this demand is increasing rapidly due to increasing tourist flow, urbanization, and increased consumer awareness about trout products. The study, therefore confirms that market for rainbow trout in Nepal is unexploited and large because of its increasing unfulfilled demands. A high prospect for commercialization of trout exists in the country.
Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godavari for giving this opportunity and financial support for the field study. Special thanks goes to Dr. Tek Bhadur Gurung, Ms. Nita Pradhan and other supporting staffs for providing logistic support to carry out this study. The study would not have been completed without generous support provided by the trout producers, Fisheries Research Station (FRS), Trishuli and all the respondents of star hotels, supermarkets, restaurants as well as the concerned stakeholders and trout consumers. We thank all of them. The authors are also grateful to Socioeconomics and Agriculture Research Policy Division (SARPOD), Khumaltra NARC who facilitated and undertook the leading role in this study and especially to Mr. Bisawamber Man Singh Basnet, Administrative Assistant SARPOD for his untiring contribution for the fieldwork, data compilation and logistics. Reference FRD (2005) Annual Technical Report 2004/05: Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godawari, Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC), Lalitpur, Nepal FRS Trishuli (2006). Short information on rainbow trout farming in Nepal. Fishery Research Station (FRS), Trishuli, Nuwakot, Nepal Agricultural Research Council. Gurung T. B & Basnet S. R (2003) Introduction of Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus mykiss in Nepal. Constraints and Prospects. Aquaculture Asia, Vol. VIII (4). October December. Joshi P. L & Westlund L. M (1997) Production Technology and Prospects of Trout Farming in Nepal; Proceed. National Symposium on the role of Fisheries and Aquaculure in the Economic Development of Rural Nepal, 15-16 August, 1996. MoF (2006) Budget Speech, Minister of Finance, 2006 (2063/64), Government of Nepal. Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002). Economics of rainbow trout farming systems in Nepal. In: T. Petr and D. B. Swar (eds.) Cold Water Fisheries in the Trans-Himalayan Countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 431 Rome, FAO. P. 376
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Socio-economic study of rainbow trout farming in Nepal: A case study of Kathmandu - Trishuli - Rasuwa road corridor
Socioeconomic & Agricultural Research Policy Division, NARC Email: [email protected]
1 Fisheries Research Division, Godawari 2 Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli
Abstract The main objective of this study was to analyze the socio-economical performance of emerging trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farms in Kathmandu-Trishuli-Rasuwa highway corridor. The study used purposive selection of samples by a group of multidisciplinary team comprised of socio-economists and trout biologist. Data were collected through personal interviews, field observation, informal discussion with trout producers and other key informants. The study revealed that Lama, Brahmin and Ghale were the major ethnic groups involved in trout farming with an average family and farm size of 11.0 persons and 10 Ropani (1 Ropani = 500m 2 ), respectively. The farmers had a total number of 80 raceways with water surface area of 2.35 Ropanii. The production of trout increased from 8323 Kg to 16069 Kg from 1998 to 2006 where, share of private producers increased from 10% to 75% in total production. This indicates that there is a high annual growth and adoption rate of trout farming technology. The gender analysis revealed that participation of men was relatively higher than women, though women also contributed substantially in trout production activities. Currently, Trishuli (75%) and Godawari (25%) farms were the major source of fingerlings supply to the farmers. However, current fingerling production is not adequate to meet the increasing demand for increasing production. The main problems identified was limited availability of fingerlings, low quality feeds, inadequate credit facilities, high mortality rate of fingerlings and high risks of production at the farm level. However, there is still ample scope for enhancing trout production in the study area, in other suitable hill and mountain, if strong technological, policy, institutional approaches could be integrated for eco-trout tourism development in the country.
1. Introduction Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) production is a recent initiative around Kathmandu-Trishuli- Rasuwa road corridor in private sector. Trout in Nepal was first introduced in 1969 from India. Later, the queen of Great Britain presented 10,000 fingerlings of trout but both of these stocks could not survive due to lack of appropriate technology (Joshi et al. 1997, FRD 2005). At the third time 50,000 eggs of rainbow trout was presented to Fisheries Research Center, Godawari in 1988 by Fisheries Experimental Station, Kobayashi Branch, Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan. With that stock Nepal Agricultural Research Council continued research on technical, social, managerial, economical aspects of rainbow trout farming practices in Godawari and Trihsuli.
Rainbow trout is one of the best known fish for commercial farming in cold waters. The flesh of trout is considered high quality products because of its specific composition, which supports healthy cardiac function and memory sharpening. The commercial cultivation of trout was started as early as in 1853 in USA (Bardach et al. 1972). The preferable size of table fish is between 200-300 g, which becomes ready after 14-15 months of culture period in Nepalese condition (FRD 2005). Trout is high value, exportable agricultural commodity consumed in urban area by resource rich people, however, efforts are needed to make the trout available to everyone. Earlier about two decades back in Nepal
84 chicken was also considered as rich person food, however, presently chicken meat are sporadically available regardless of urban and rural areas. The present report is based on a comprehensive field study on trout farming for evaluating problems, potential, gender prospective associated with trout production. The main objective of the study was to analyze socio-economical performance of emerging trout fish farming around Kathmandu -Trishuli - Rasuwa road corridor.
2. Materials and Methods The study was specifically focused under the outreach research command area of FRD, Godawari and FRS, Trishuli in Kathmandu-Trishuli-Corridor, where 8 farms adopted trout farming for last 2-5 years. A standard questionnaire was prepared to collect the information from individual trout farmers on socioeconomic condition, trout farming system, marketing, and gender concerns. Primary data was collected through complete household enumeration. The study was conducted by a group of multidisciplinary team that consisted of socio economists (Socioeconomic Agricultural Research Policy Division (SARPOD) and researchers from Fisheries Research Division (FRD) Godawari and Fisheries Research Center (FRC), Trishuli. The household survey was carried out in December 2006. Collection of data was done through personal interviews, direct field observation, informal discussion with trout producers and other key informants. Field data obtained through the household survey was compiled, coded and analyzed using SPSS. Relevant information on trout production and adoption were collected from published reports and on going research programs. 3. Results 3.1 Agro-ecology and Production Systems Rainbow trout farming in private sector was found successful in mid hill (1100-1950 msl) gentle to steep slops where cold running fresh water is available. The farmers in the area had a total number of 80 raceway ponds with the total water surface area of 2.35 Ropani. The total production of trout was estimated 6817 kg, average household production was estimated 973 kg and per Ropani was 426 kg (Table 1).
3.2 Socio economic profile of trout farmers The detail of the socioeconomic perspectives of trout farmers has been described in Table 1. The average level of education among all trout fish farmers was SLC (63%), however, their experience in trout fish farming was 3.38 years. There was no significant difference in the average age and family size among the trout farmers. The total population of the 8 surveyed households was 88 with an average family size of 11.0 persons in each. The average size of land holding of the household was estimated 10 Ropani. There were three types of raceways viz own (75%), leased in (12%) and contact based (12%). During the survey, farmers were reported that the total number of raceways is 80 with the water surface area 2.35 Ropani. Some of the raceways were constructed by owners and rented out and some farmers take a pond as a contact basis. Lama was the largest ethnic group interviewed followed by Brahmin and Ghale.
The total number of labor is used 50 where family labor contributes 62% and non- family labor 38% for trout production activities. There are mainly three activities for which family labor engaged is engaged; production (68%), marketing (26%) and hatchery (5%) for trout fish farming (Table 2).
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Table 1: Biophysical and production systems analysis
3.3 Production Level Trout production from private sector was started since 1998 when the share to the overall total trout production from the research farm was 90%. But in the year 2006, the contribution to the overall total production from FRS Trishuli, FRD Godavari and private farmers were 19%, 7% and 75%, respectively (Table 3). Now, the private farmers have been the major trout producer and supplier to the market. Recently, private farmers have been involved in trout breeding activities. In eight years interval (1998-2006), production of trout has almost doubled from 8323 kg to 16069 kg. The share of private farmers in total production has also increased from 800 kg to 12000 kg.
Trout production in the farmers field was estimated to be 6817 Kg in the fiscal year 2005 (excluding Shreeman Lama, farmer at Kakani). This indicates that the survival rate of fingerlings was low due to high mortality rate. The average household production is estimated 973.86 kg. The estimated mortality rate of fry and fingerlings is about 10-20% (Table 3).
86 Table 2: Socioeconomic characterization of trout farmers
The annual growth rate analyses for FRC Trishuli, FRD Godawari, private farmers and total production showed that the trout fish production has a significant growth. The annual growth rate of FRC, Trishuli, FRD, Godawari, private farmers and overall production is 17.39%, 12.66%, 35.11% and 32.32%, respectively in the given year. The data indicates that there is a high annual growth rate in the private farmer's level in between (1998-2006) as compared to the government farms because the farmers were adopting the technology and marketing opportunities as compared to other fish farming. According to the farmers the appropriate month of the breeding activity is from December to February because of very cold fresh running water. During the survey farmers were reported that there is a high demand of trout fish in the months of September to January. In these months, many social occasions and special days are in these months and low demand is in April, May, June, and August months.
3.4 Major issues on trout production are observed in the following aspects: i. High mortality rate ii. Lack of better rainbow color iii. Slow growth rate iv. No appropriate harvest time for table fish v. Size of table fish identified according to consumer demand vi. Reduce long duration of production cycle
87 Table 3: Trout production trend from 1993-2006 (in kg)
Source: FRS, Trishuli and FRD, Godavari, 2006 (Figures in the parentheses indicate the percentage to total trout production)
3.5 Fingerling stock The total number of fingerlings stocked was 77000 in the year 2005. The average number of fingerlings stocked per household was 9625. Now, farmers are fingerlings stocking on an average 65 trout fish in a 1 sq. m but research has recommended the 100 trout fingerlings can be stocked in the 1 sq.m. with sufficient running water for trout production.
At present FRS Trishuli and FRD Godawari are supplying fingerlings to the farmers. The size of fingerlings is distributed about 2-5 grams at Rs 2 per piece. The availability of trout fingerlings is limited because of load shading, silt and sand deposit in the farms ponds. The demand of fingerlings has increased. To increase the suppky FRS Trishuli farm has distributed 700 female and 100 male trout to 2 farmers for breeding purpose. The target of fry and fingerlings production is estimated 1 lakh and 5 lakh from Nuwakot and Dunche, Rasuwa respectively.
3.5 Major issues on trout fingerlings are observed in the following aspects: i. Other trout species need to be to studied ii. Growth and survival in spring and snow water management need to be studied. 3.6 Feed Feed management is one of the major activities of trout fish production. Most farmers reported that 2-3 times of feeding a day. According to them, trout are marketed when they attain individual body weight of approximately, 100-150 grams within 11-12 months. The survey revealed that the average rate of feed to produce 1 kg of trout was about 2.97. The average cost of feed was estimated Rs 63 per kg. There were no serious problems to make feed for trout. Mostly farmers purchased raw materials from the Kalimati Bazar, Kathmandu and transported to farmers, Nuwakot.
The feed contains, generally, more than 35-40% crude protein (CP) is necessary for trout and growth will not be satisfactory with feed contain less than 20% animal protein (Joshi & Westlund 1997). Farmers reported that for trout pellet production they use shrimp (29%) mixed with wheat (22%), soybean (15%), oilcake (15%), rice bran (18%), vitamin mixture (0.5%) and minerals (0.5%).
88 3.7 Technological support Scientists and technical officers from NARC provide technical services related to raceway constructions, water management, fry, fingerlings and harvest and marketing. Technical officers from FRD and FRC successfully transferred the hatchery activities in collaboration with the farmers (Mr. Daman Lama and Mr. Padama Lama).
3.8 Distribution of consumption pattern Majority of the farmers reported that about 68% (4385 kg) of their trout production sold directly to consumers and 3% (1900 kg) of the product was sold to traders/middle men (Fig 1). It showed that high percentage of production was sold to direct consumer followed by sold to traders/ middlemen. It indicates that fish farmers are actively engaged in the marketing in their restaurants where many people from Kathmandu visited these places to taste trout. Fig. 1: Distribution and consumption pattern of trout
3.9 Gender roles and participation The analyses of labor allocation to different activities showed that majority of male and female were engaged in trout farming and related enterprises. Members of the family were the chief source of labor for trout fish farming.
Overall, the involvement of female labor is lower than the involvement of male labor in the trout farming. The major activities such as brood and hatchery management, watering, harvesting, weighting and handling, diseases and parasites and packing for marketing were major activities of male. Transportation of the products into the market was exclusively dominated by male. Fry rearing, feed management, fish grading and cleaning were the major activities of female. It was observed that male spent longer period than female in the trout fish farming. Females were engaged in the business activities of restaurant besides the trout fish farming.
Table 4: Gender involvement in labor allocation in the different activities
89 Note: Figures in the parenthesis refer the responded of the household.
3.10 Market and price In the study area, the farmers usually sold fish directly to the consumers. There are some farmers who have their own motor cycles and sell their produce directly to big star hotels: Yak & Yeti, Himalayan, Soaltee Crown Plaza, and Hayatt Regency, and Godavari Resort, Restaurants at Darbar Marga and Bhatbateni department store when they gave order. But the farmers and consumers reported that they are not able to fulfill the demand of sizable trout regularly.
The farm gate price of trout ranges from Rs. 450 to 750 per kg depending upon the location and opportunities. Price of trout fish vary from location to location and fluctuation was due to supply and demand in a market. The average selling price of trout fish is Rs.567.86 per kg. The marketing channels of fingerlings and table trout fish shown in the flow chart (Fig 2).
3.11 Common problems encountered The farmers reported different types of commonly encountered problems. The most significant constraints were the inadequate fingerlings supply (100%), high input cost (87%), high interest rate (62%), skilled labor problem (62%), and low water supply (37%) in the dry season and lack of feeds (37%). Most farmers reported that the inadequate supply of fingerlings was the major constraints for increase trout production. The other major socio-economic problems are lack of technical known how (75%), lack of capital (62%), lack of land (50%), lack of fresh and cold water (37%) and credit availability (37%). The major problem to the farmers is the running capital for carrying out the trout fish farming in the large scale. It was observed that the most of the raceways were constructed in marginal lands with high steep slopes where cold fresh stream at the top were available. So, evaluation of the marginal land for collateral into the bank was low compared to plain land. There is no insurance policy to covered the damage on trout farm. The rate of interest for trout fish farming is 12.5% per annum and there is no subsidy on it however, this farming is very high risk. Conclusion and recommendation Trout is a new product in Nepal, and the species is still unknown to most of the Nepalese. Nepal has suitable agro-climatic conditions in hills and mountains to produce trout wherever adequate fresh cold running water is available. The socioeconomic context is encouraging for trout farming in Nepal. Both men and women can contribute in various levels of production and marketing activities. Technology is not a major problem, but promotion of these technologies in farmers field in suitable agroecological regions is urgently required. Trout farming has been carried out in the marginal land. Since trout farming utilizes marginal land, therefore, from scaling-up perspective it seems high potential for trout commercial production. Currently there is a small production and small-scale marketing system which means that generally trout can only be sold in the area close to the trout farms and around Kathmandu valley. There is some sale to few star hotels, restaurants and stores in Kathamndu, but demand is very high and most hotels asked to supply trout products from farms because they require high quality processed products. Many wealthy people belonging to do family visited the trout farm for recreation and taste trout in farmers restaurants. They even can enjoy the trout harvesting by themselves in farmer's pond. This situation provides a healthy business
90 atmosphere and in reality it has a multiplying effect on the economic condition of the rural people because both the owner and non-owner derive income from the same area. To increase the trout production following recommendations have been proposed:
i. There is need to establish additional hatchery and breeding program in the farmers level in collaboration with the farmers and department of fishery in Dunchha, Rasuwa district.
ii. For the marketing improvement, private farmers should manage an insulator van for supplying trout fish demanded by consumed star hotels, restaurants, and big store in coming days.
iii. NARC's fisheries farms should develop and support infrastructure for nursery farm in the farmers level. After 4-5 years, trout fish can be exported by the farmers to neighboring and third countries where demand is very high.
iv. In NARC research system, there is no cold water breeding export so that scientists and technical officers must be given high level education along with knowledge on fisheries economics and marketing disciplines.
v. The allocation of credit to trout farming is low and the rate of interest for the investment in trout farming is high so that government should provide the loan on subsidy and also minimize the risk management through insurance policy on trout fish farming.
vi. Government and private trout fish farmers should use mass media for trout marketing and promotion within the country.
vii. NARC should not limited trout fish activities in the center hill area but also extend this activity under the command area of ARS, Lumle and ARS, Pakhribas by assigning a fishery staff in the each station.
Acknowledgement We express our gratitude to the Fisheries Research Division, Godawari for offering this study opportunity to Socioeconomic and Research Policy Division (SARPOD). Dr. Tek Bhadur Gurung and his supporting staffs are also thankful for providing logistic support to carry out this study. Thanks to Dr. Mina Nath Paudel, Senior Scientist, Outreach Research Division for kindly reviewing the paper. We extend our sincere thanks to the fishing farmers who provided us valuable information for the study. Last but not the least; our special thanks go to Mr. Bisawamber Man Singh Basnet, Administrative Assistant of SARPOD, who contributed greatly in the field work to carry out this study.
Reference Bardach J. H., W. O. Ryther & McLarney W.O (1972) Commercial culture of freshwater salmonids, genera Salmo, Thymallus, and Hucho. In: The farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine organisms. John Willey and Sons. pp. 397-449. FRD (2005) Annual Technical Report 2004/05: Nepal Agricultural Research Council and Fishery Research Division, Godawari. Lalitpur, Nepal Joshi P. L & Westlund L. M (1997) Production Technology and Prospects of Trout Farming in Nepal; Proceedings of the National Symposium on the role of Fisheries and Aquaculure in the Economic Development of Rural Nepal, 15-16 August, 1996
91
Prospects of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming commercialization in relation to global context in Nepal
Tek Bahadur Gurung, Neeta Pradhan, Dharni Man Singh 1 , Tek Bahadur Thapa 2
Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur 1 Directorate of Fisheries Development, Balajoo, Kathamndu 2 Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Singh Durbar, Kathmandu
Abstract The total trout production in Nepal is meager totaling about 18 mt in 2005 from 3523 m 2 area, suggesting that there is need of technological, administrative and financial improvement for increased trout production. Among these the primary goals of technological development of trout farming have been achieved recently. The private sector has recently been started to produce trout seed as a part of participatory research. The present scenario of trout cultivation in hills showed that trout farming has been successful though various management shortcomings are yet to be overcome. The preliminary feature of trout cultivation in Nepal Himalaya might be taken as one of the strength for its scaling-up. Considering the remarkable progress on trout farming achieved around the world in diverse socio- economic conditions, potentiality and future of trout commercialization can be expected in Nepal. However, to establish trout as a commercial aquaculture commodity a "paradigm shift" would be necessary in extension, research, social mobilization, financing and policy strategies of existing fisheries sector. So, the theoretical potentiality of commercial trout production in the country could be solicited into the practical reality.
Key words: commercialization, trout, multiplier effects, private sector, global trout production
1. Introduction Commercialization is a process by which any product is systematically enhanced, supported and shaped to establish its value chain from production level to market channeling for sustaining livelihood and business of people associated. Commercialization brings product into the market for business. However, understanding the ways how a product could be commercialized is highly interesting field of study. Recently, farming of trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) has shown promising results (Rana 2007a, Rana b) and prospects in hills and mountains of Nepal, having possibilities of multiplier impacts.
Rainbow trout farming is one of the commercial activities especially in temperate and tropical countries, such as USA, Russia, Japan, Norway, Denmark, Iran, India, Pakistan etc. Trout basically a North American cold water fish is one of the best studied fish in aquaculture sector. The advantage of trout cultivation is its possibilities of rearing in cold waters densely with high water exchange rate. Trout aquaculture was started some 100 or more years ago; however its commercial farming is more recent, started more intensively after 1970 in the world (Brannon 2000).
In Nepal, the potentiality of trout was realized earlier, thus, the attempts of introduction began in 1960 and '70s without success. Later again in 1988, trout were introduced from Japan. This stock has been successful for breed and cultivation. Recently, the farming of trout among many hill farmers and taste among the consumers has popularized trout. As a result trout has been one of the most demanding commodities among farmers as well as consumers. If farming of trout would be expanded by overcoming the present constraints of fish seed production. It is anticipated that trout would be commercialized soon in Nepal.
92 2. Concept of trout farming commercialization Fishery food products are a potential answer to the growing problem of world dietary animal-protein shortages (Helfrich 1997). Aquaculture has been demonstrated in past to be one of the solution of food deficit, income and job opportunities and social inclusion in Nepal (Gurung & Bista 2003, Gurung et al. 2005). However, aquaculture practices further needs to be commercialized for better economic development, income and job opportunities. For commercialization of aquaculture conceptual frame work has been proposed in past. One of such oldest concepts has been developed by Bardach et al. (1972). According to which the commercialization of aquaculture products mainly comprising of four important stages (Fig 1).
Fig 1: Schematic diagram showing interplay of biological, social and economical and other factors on the development of a species for commercialization (after Bardach et al. 1972).
Stage 1 and Stage 2 are major steps of screening of aquaculture species to be produced commercially. In these two stages the species goes through ecological, economical, social and life history feasibilities in local climatic and environmental conditions. If any of the factors constraint the potentiality of commercialization of the product, the species could be rejected in these stages. However, the potential candidates passing theses stages moves ahead for stage 3 and 4, where aquaculture potentiality are tested in research station and piloting of the species for cultivation may take place. In stage 4, commercial trials begin possibly in conjunction with business and industries (Fig 1). The farming of trout in Nepal can be considered in between the phase 3 and 4 currently.
93 3. Brief Global Review Origin place of trout is known to be North America, which later distributed to most of the countries including that of equatorial regions mainly for farming and sport purposes (Stickney 1991). Trout is one of the excellent fish suitable for commercial production in cold waters. Therefore, trout has been one of the most cultivated fish in countries having abundant cold water resources. The present global production is known to be 510,000 Mt in 2001 (Hardy et al. 2000, Hinshaw et al. 2004; Abdulhai & Ghomi 2005). The United States of America alone produced 24,699 Mt of rainbow trout in 2002. Other European and American countries are Chile, Norway, Denmark, France, Italy, Spain, Germany and UK. Australia contributed about 5743 Mt of rainbow trout in 2002. In Asia, Japan, Iran, Korea and Taiwan are the countries, which have achieved recent successes in the commercialization of trout. Iran is known to produce 23,137 Mt in 2003 where commercialization took the momentum after sensation (Abdulhai & Ghomi 2005). Rainbow trout is also cultivated in India and Pakistan (Yakoob 2002). In China, rainbow trout has been successfully reaching to produce 10,000 Mt in year 2000 (Zhaoming & Yuhui 2002). In Thailand, nearly 20,000-25,000 eyed eggs were supplied from Nepal in year 1998.
Fig 1. Production of trout worldwide since 1950. Sources: Hardy et al. 2000; Hinshaw et al. 2004.
For further global expansion of trout production, Iran claims that in future the trout production will skyrocketed further to meet huge national and international demand. However, in USA, availability of abundant clean water of desirable temperature and quantity for aquaculture, environmental rules and regulation; and low cost import of trout have been supposed to be the barrier for further expansion of rainbow trout farming (Hinshaw et al. 2004). Some of the salient features by which commercialization could be achieved is considered due to:
94 i. Abundant cold water resource ii. Year round supply of trout seed iii. Availability of dry pellet feed iv. Development of automated feeders, graders, and fish pumps v. Evolution of concrete raceways vi. Market
4. Present Status of Rainbow Trout Farming in Nepal There are two government farms and 9 private trout farms in Nepal. These all trout farms are located in between 610 m to 1950 m above the sea level. Climatically, an elevation of 610 m is considered not suitable for trout farming as water temperature would be higher, however, in such altitude, if water originated from glaciers are available then trout might be grown successfully. The Trishuli Fish Farm which is located at 610 m elevation from the sea level receiving water supply from River Trishuli originated from glaciers present this evidence. The oldest trout farm in private sector was established in 1998 located in Kakani Village Development Committee, Nuwakot. Among all private farms 7 are located in Nuwakot district, 1 in Kathmandu. One trout farm in privates sector has been started in in Mustang district, one research farm is presently located in Lalitpur District. At present these farms altogether producing nearly 18 Mt of trout. These farms are supported from Trishuli Fisheries Research Centers and Godawari Fisheries Research Division for technical backstopping, fingerlings and feed technology (Rai et al. 2005). The most recent technological achievement on trout farming in Nepal has been highlighted by Rana (2007 a & 2007 b).
4. 1 Status of Seed Supply and Mechanism Trout fingerlings were exclusively supplied to farmers from two fisheries stations. The total annual fingerling capacity is about 0.3 million per annum at experimental level. Since, there are no other governments farms for supporting trout seed supply, private sector farmers have been strengthen for trout breeding in private sector. Now onwards breeding technology is gradually to private sector through participatory trout breeding programs (Box 1) from 2006. This program is sponsored by Japan International Cooperative Agency (Box 2).
Box 1: Participatory Trout Breeding Research Program
This approach of breeding of trout has been designed to evaluate the performance of trout brood in different geo-ecological region of mid and high hills. The experimental location ranges from 610 meter elevation (Trishuli) to 1950 meters of Rasuwa. In this participatory research program 3 private farms and 2 fisheries research station have been included as project site. The main aim of this research is to increase fingerlings production of trout, enhance farmer's capacity in technical skill of trout breeding, fry rearing, feeding and producing robust seed for increasing trout production using the facilities of their own farm. Using the experience farmers can switch over to trout breeder. In this participatory breeding farmers have been supplied with trout broods to rear in different locations in their farms in November 2006 for ova and milt production. The process of brood rearing, stripping, fertilization, incubation, larvae production skills have been taught to farmers under the scheme. Altogether 700 broods have been used. It is expected that from now onwards these associated farmers would gain capabilities to performed trout breeding for producing require number of fingerlings in their own farms. The fingerlings produced by these associated farmers would not only used by the owners but they would also share and sell their products to near by farmers. This is one of the steps to make trout farming sustainable in their own farm. The concept of the programs has been designed as a result of inadequate water quality resources in existing research stations.
95 Box 2: JICA support on Soft type follow up project of Natural Water Fisheries Development Project Fisheries Research Division, Godawari and Fisheries Research Center Trishuli have recently received a grant of nearly 1.67 million Nepalese Rupees for scaling up of trout farming. The main objective of this grant is to enhance the trout production in Nepal especially from Rasuwa and Nuwakot districts through community participation. Till now the technology and facilities of trout research and production are within the fence of research centers, therefore under this project various stakeholders associated with trout farming will be trained for better technological, managerial, and marketing aspect. The project would also tentatively work out on the market demand of trout, so the production and research strategies in future could be stream lined. The fund of the JICA project would also be used to supply hatchery supplies to farmers, demonstration program, prepare training materials to farmers. The technological and social aspects of trout farming would also be publicized using different media among policy makers, business communities, farmers and technicians. This project would also encourage women participation in trout farming aspects
There are increasing trends of trout seed demand, therefore, a new hatchery has been proposed in high hill area, which is expected to supply about 2 million fingerlings from year 2009 (Box 3).
Box 3: Establishment of Rainbow trout Genetic Resource Center in Dhunche, Rasuwa for scaling-up of trout farming Rasuwa is one of high hill district having plentiful of freshwater resources. Rasuwa in local language means (=leaking, moist, juicy), its name suggesting the place is highly moist due to water springs. Dhunche is the district headquarters located about 1950 m above the sea level. Rasuwa district also possess the Langtang Conservation Area, where several hundred external as well as internal tourist visit this area. Dunche is situated about 115 km north-east, nearly 6 km drive from Kathmandu. Transportation through pebble road is the means of transportation. All season transportation may be interrupted during monsoon for few kilometers; at that time porter may be the means to link the break. However, Rasuwa district is adjoining with Tibet, in near future road link with China may add the future potentiality of the region.
Recently, to support the declaration of Ministry of Finance, government of Nepal, Ministry of Agriculture and cooperative have allocated 10 million Nepalese Rupees for construction of a trout hatchery in Rasuwa. The main aim of the hatchery would be production of trout fertilized ova and fingerlings for supporting trout production program in the area. This hatchery would be jointly operated by Nepal Agricultural Research Council and Department of Agriculture under the coordination of Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
4. 2 One Village One Product (OVOP) movement for trout production The concept of "One Village One Product" is originated from Japan and has been implemented to promote commercialization of local products in Thailand, Philippines and other countries. Recently, Government of Nepal has declared Rasuwa and Nuwakot Districts as trout growing district, under "One Village One Product" program where trout farming will be prioritized to promote the local farmers by using cold water resources and local tourism. The products have specific natural taste being produced in the Himalayan water. Thus, can be competitive in international market as "Himalayan Trout"
96 Box 4: One Village One Production (OVOP) Program
One Village one Product is one of the program under which any local product is branded for enhancing its value chain. The concept of OVOP was originated from Japan and known to be successfully implied in Thailand and Philippines. Recently, this concept has been implied in four agricultural products of Nepal. One of the products is rainbow trout. Since, trout is Nepal is produced in higher altitude using cold, unpolluted glacier, lake and spring waters, therefore, the taste considered unique. In OVOP program following organizations are the members for promoting rainbow trout production. - Local farmers and companies - Local chamber of commerce and industry - Local District Development Committee - Directorate of Fisheries Development, DoA, MoAC - Fisheries Research Division - Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli - Agro Enterprise Centre, FNCCI - National Planning Commission - Ministry of Industry Commerce and Suppliers - Nepal Rastra Bank, Ministry of Finance Recently a one day workshop was organized in where it has been resided that at present the main bottleneck for further enhancement is availability of trout fry. If the constraints of trout seed could be solved then trout production could be enhanced under OVOP program.
4.4 Strength, weakness, opportunity and threat of trout farming (A) Strengths: i. Climatically suitable for production ii. Abundance water supply for production, in general iii. Trout from high Himalayan water have specific taste & blend iv. Several feed ingredients locally available v. More demand than supply vi. Existing private sectors' performance praiseworthy vii. Declaration of the trout village by local community viii. High market price ix. Local bodies & chamber of commerce and industry proactive x. Government's previous experience at a local level
(B) Weakness i. Inadequate seedlings ii. Inadequate technique for feed formulation & production iii. Inadequate awareness among local communities iv. Lack of feed, ice plant & other market infrastructure v. Inadequate marketing channel vi. No brand promotion vii. Labor intensive, require high investment initially
(C) Opportunities i. More demand than supply ii. Local bodies & communities highly enthusiastic iii. Adequate feasible area for trout production iv. Private sector to be involved in fingerlings production v. There are two research farms in the public sector vi. One more public hatchery is under construction in the area
97 vii. Technological infrastructures & inputs for efficient use can be localized
(D) Threats i. Seed production program does not get implemented timely ii. High cost of ice factories establishment iii. Biodiversity damage may occur, if attention is not given iv. Local consumers do not get adequate message v. Due to natural calamities high cost may loss for ever
5. Process need to be focused for commercialization i. Awareness at local level ii. Provide quality seed and feed production technology iii. Provide services and subsidies iv. Diagnostics & extension service, v. Increase production vi. Loan, technical services from pond construction, market coordination and linkage, post- harvest technology, ice plants, accessories and delivery van etc vii. Promotion as local brand
6. Existing support on trout farming i. Nepal Agriculture Research Council (Fisheries Research Division) ii. Japan International Cooperative Agency (JICA) iii. Private sector initiatives/investment locally
7. Major problems/obstacles i. Inadequate seed available for commercial production ii. Lack of extension resource center iii. Inappropriate hatchery facilities iv. Inadequate market infrastructure and marketing channel v. High interest rate or no loan available for trout production vi. High investment but low collateral value vii. High risk and no insurance
8. Necessary environment/ Missing points for further development i. Strong Public and Private Partnership ii. Awareness in local communities for production enhancement iii. Detail inventory of suitable water availability iv. More supply to meet local demands v. Trout seed availability vi. Trout feed preparation and storage facilities vii. Cold storage for market channeling
9. Research challenge for commercialization i. Year round supply of seed through day light control and bio manipulation ii. All female or sterile population iii. Balanced pellet feed industry iv. Market destination for mass scale consumption v. Market products vi. Feasible area for commercial production 10. Possible strategies for future commercialization Throughout the world, trend of farmers involvement in trout commercialization have been appeared. Trout has been successful in private sector, its commercialization could bring substantial changes, and
98 commercialization could be possible in the country as it will be supported by the abundant water resources in the country. There might be two ways of commercialization
a. Through community participation approach involving several groups forming cooperative b. Involvement of big companies for commercialization production c. Involving family run trout companies and small scale enterprises as such modalities have been more successful abroad. d. Involvement of large business group in trout farming,
In USA, the total trout production is contributed by 561 farms operating in 42 states, major production site located in Idaho (70-75% of domestic production) and only few small scale enterprises (Hinshaw et al. 2004). While in Iran 562 farms producing 23137 Mt. Considering such trend it is likely that larger companies may dominant the trout production in future, contrary to the trend most of the farm operators are low to medium level farmers in Nepal. The goal of trout commercialization could be achieved either by establishing high investment through private companies, however, the goal of commercialization could be developed through mass participation. In near future the most important part would be the government policies for trout farming commercialization in the country. The current cold water aquaculture technological development in Nepal could bring "paradigm shift" on the modern aquaculture production in Nepal. At present nearly 50 hills and mountain district seems feasible for trout production from the climatic perspective. However for providing technical support to these areas the present fisheries extension and research network would not be sufficient. Therefore, the present set up which has been generally adopted to provide services for warm water carp aquaculture in limited area might need be extended, reshuffled and restructured for 'paradigm shift' to achieve substantially high commercial level fish production using warm water as well as cold water aquaculture technologies in the country.
Conclusion Henry IV, King of France, promised in 1589 "a chicken in every pot (Bardach et al. 1972), at the time it seemed an extravagant offer, to-day in the United States and other effluent countries, a politician making the same offer would be accorded a blas reception, for through streamlined production methods, chicken has become one of the cheapest meat. Trout may soon achieve the same position among quality fish production. Seeming the enthusiasm and commitment, market, 'one village one product' program and farmer in future, indeed Nepal could be one of the destination for trout commercialization to fulfill the demand not only from domestic market but also from international market. In future the Nepalese trout production will require technologies for year round seed production, easy transportation and reliable water supply system for trout hatcheries and production sites.
Acknowledgement We express our thanks to all staff of Fisheries Research Division, Lalitpur for their kind cooperation during the preparation of the manuscript. We are also thankful to Fisheries Research Center Trishuli for providing information. Funding for present study was provided through Japan International Cooperative Agency.
99 Reference Abdulhai H & M. K. S Ghomi (2005) Rainbow trout culture in Iran: development and concerns. In: Aquaculture Asia magazine, Vol. 10. No. 3. pp. 34-38. July-September 2005 Bardach J. E, Ryther J. H & McLarney W.O (1972) General principle and economics. In : Aquaculture, The farming of freshwater and marine organisms. Willey Inter Science, A division of John Willey and Sons. Pp. 1-28 Brannon E. L (1991) Rainbow trout culture. In: Stickney R R (Ed) Culture of salmonid fishes, CRS Press Boca Raton Ann Arbour, Boston, London, pp 189 Gurung T. B & Bista J. D (2003) Livelihood improvements through fisheries in the Pode community in Pokhara, Nepal. STREAM Journal 2(3): 12 Gurung T. B, S. K. Wagle, J. D. Bista, R. P. Dhakal, P. L. Joshi, R. Batajoo, P Adhikari, Rai A. K. (2005) Participatory fisheries management for livelihood improvement of fishers in Phewa Lake, Pokhara, Nepal. Himalayan Journal of Sciences. 3. 47-52 Hardy R.. W, G. C. G. Fornshell & Brannon E. L (2000) Rainbow trout culture. In: R. R. Stickney, editor, Encyclopdia aquaculture. John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY 716-722. Helfrich L. A (1997) Planning for commercial aquaculture. Extension Fisheries Specialist, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Tech, and Donald L. Garling, Extension Fisheries Specialist Michigan State University Helfrich L. A (1997) Planning for commercial aquaculture. Extension Fisheries Specialist, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Tech, and Donald L. Garling, Extension Fisheries Specialist Michigan State University Hinshaw J. M, Fornshell G, Kinnunen R (2004) A profile of the aquaculture of trout in the United States, USDA Risk Management Agency, Federal Crop Insurance Corporation, Mississippi State University, pp 1-42. Yakoob M (2002) Cold water fisheries of Pakistan. In: Cold water fisheries in the trans-Himalayan countries, FAO Fisheries technical Paper 431. (ed): T. Petr & D. B. Swar, pp 101-106.. Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet, Lamsal G. P (2005) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal. A success story, Asia Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, Thailand. Rana C (2007a) Rainbow trout: an agricultural breakthrough. The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 97-99. www.readtheboss.com Rana C (2007b) No, fishy business! The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 76-77. www.readtheboss.com Stickney R R (2000) Salmonid life histories. In: Stickney R R (Ed) Culture of salmonid fishes, CRS Press Boca Raton Ann Arbour, Boston, London, pp 189. Zhaoming W & Yuhui Y (2002) Cold water fish culture in China. In: Cold water fisheries in the trans- Himalayan countries, FAO Fisheries technical Paper 431. (ed): T. Petr & D. B. Swar, pp 97-100.
100 Linkage need among research, development and private institutions for commercializing rainbow trout farming in Nepal
1 Fisheries Research Station Trishuli, 2 Socio-economic & Agriculture Policy Research Division, Khumaltar
Abstract The study highlights the need of linkage for promoting rainbow trout as one of commercial commodities among main stakeholders such as Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Department of Agricultural/Directorate of Fisheries Development, Agriculture Development Bank, Department of Road, Agro-enterprises, Private enterprises, I/NGOs, Agro-Enterprise Center, Farmers/Producers, Insurance Company, marketing and consumer etc. Major linkage should also be considered among local, national, regional and international markets channels. Private entrepreneurs have been more eager on dissemination of trout breeding in private sector for rapid commercialization of trout production. This fact is important in prevailing condition of meager seed supply capacity of government sector contrary to increasing demand of trout seed among farmers willing to expand trout farming in mountain regions of the country. It is recommended that the private sector should be strengthen in seed production systems for expanding trout farming in hills and mountains areas.
1. Introduction Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is one of the excellent fish for commercial production in cold waters (Bardach et al. 1972; Yamazaki 1991). The breeding, rearing and production technologies had been developed nearly one decade before in Nepal (Gurung & Basnet 2003). Recent studies have shown that trout farming is one of transferable technologies developed by Nepal Agricultural Research Council. This is the reason that trout farming has been one of demanding farming technologies among the farmers. Trout grow well in lower temperature ranging from 10-20C. Trout attains commercial size (200 300 gm) in a period of 14-17 months in Nepalese hills. The present domestic trout market is limited to certain hotels, restaurants, international organization and some of the diplomatic offices in Kathmandu. The export markets of trout is virtually unknown, however, considering the regional trend of aquaculture production in south-east Asia, it is assumed that Nepal could be suitable production site considering the availability of cold water resources and labor force available in the country. However, besides these potentialities a comprehensive linkage among various institutions would essential for taking the relative geographical, technological, ecological and socio-economical advantages of the country. The aim of the present paper is to evaluate and highlight the importance of linkages among various stakeholders for promoting commercial farming of rainbow trout in Nepal.
2. Materials and Methods This study was conducted in the areas including both research and private farms where trout are grown, especially in Nuwakot, Rasuwa, Kathmandu and Rasuwa districts. A questionnaire was developed to collect the primary and secondary data to evaluate the production trend, demand and supply, cost of production, and growth rate of trout farms in the area. Later group discussion were held incorporating farmers. Market information was collected from agro-enterprise and other related institutions.
101 3. Result and Discussion Trend in adoption of rainbow trout farming in hills In total, the trend of rainbow trout production is increasing in Nepal. The cost of production of rainbow trout was found NRs. 285 in research farms. Due to high meat quality, tasty and easy to eat, the demand of rainbow trout is high in local market. On, private trout producers are getting maximum profit as trout could be sold easily in market.
Linkage for promoting rainbow trout commercialization Fisheries Research Division, Godawari and Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli are involved in technological package generation of rainbow trout since 1988. Till now trout production in the country was only on trial basis depended on Nepal Agricultural Research Council for scaling up. However, now onwards the generated technologies should be disseminated through Directorate of Fisheries Development; District Agriculture Development Office and several other line agencies in coordination. For further exchange of ideas and commercialization of trout farming for promoting trout farmers following stakeholders should play much interactive roles in Nepal.
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Strategy and policy of Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative should be focused on rainbow trout farming in hills and mountains regions as commercial farming. Programs for piloting of trout production should be tested according to the concepts of pocket package program. Emphasis should also be given on establishment of trout hatcheries in suitable locations.
Directorate of Fisheries Development of Department of Agriculture Directorate of Fisheries Development should take the responsibilities of extension of trout farming technologies all over the mid and high hill districts. There responsibilities should include all aspect of trout production from hatcheries to marketing management.
Agricultural Development Bank Agricultural Development Bank should provide loan at minimum rate of interest for trout farm construction to suitable farmers in hill and mountains. They should provide financial support in close co-ordination with other concern line agencies for insecure their investment.
Department of Road Accessibility of road is one the most important components of successful trout farming. Agriculture roads can provide support to trout farming program together with other agricultural products. If road accessibility could be available near-by farming area, producers can send their products at the market.
Agro-enterprises The roles of agro-enterprise have support to the producers by providing market information from national and international level. Thus, agro-enterprises should also promote rainbow trout farming commercialization in suitable areas. Agro-enterprises should play much proactive role in national, regional and international market channeling of trout byproducts.
Private enterprises Private enterprises can invest capital for rainbow trout farming. Rainbow trout products can be exported to the overseas countries. This helps to earn foreign currency.
I/NGOs Joint programme among Nepal Agricultural Research Council, District Agricultural Development Office, International Organization and Non-government Organization should add rainbow trout as one of the important agricultural commodity for poverty alleviation in hills and mountains areas. Insurance Private Company Ltd
102 In general, trout farming involves high capital investment. So any accident may cause big loss to farmers, therefore, trout farmers are in view to formulate insurance policy for trout farms, so their investment could be assured. Such policies would also encourage promotion of commercial agriculture production of high market values.
Major linkage for commercialization trout production with local, national, regional and international markets Nepal has squeeze suitable climate in its mountains to high hills for high quality trout production. It is encouraging to note that the 13 th SAARC (South Asian Association Regional Countries) summit recognized the need of strengthening the trade facilitation measures for enhancing intra-regional trade and other economic activities among SAARC countries. Nepal obtained World Trade Organization (WTO) membership in 23 April 2004. Nepal recognised WTO as an institution that ensures fair, and inclusion trading regime of all the countries small and big, rich and poor for international trading. In this context besides several other products trout could be one of the commodities from Nepal for trading in international market that would help reduce poverty from hills and mountains. Border markets are very much open for trade deals with open borders to India and Tibet (China). High value rainbow trout products could be sold in these border markets. Rainbow trout products could be exported to Indian, Tibet/China borders, SAARC countries and overseas after required processing.
4. Lessons learned from rainbow trout producers in the country In general, all trout farming farmers complained on insufficient fingerlings supply for commercialization of trout farming. To overcome this problem participatory breeding activities have been put forward. As a result, private entrepreneurs have been much more conscious on trout breeding and hatchery management. Hopefully the problem of short fingerlings supply would be resolved soon.
5. Recommendations/Suggestions Commercial trout farming should be promoted to increase trout production Marketing should be studied in context of national, regional and international markets. Government. policy and strategy should emphasize rainbow trout farming commercialization projects Rainbow trout farming should be extensively expanded in hills and mountains in integrated approach by adjoining and linking all concern major stakeholders for commercialization.
Acknowledgment We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. N. P. Shrestha, Executive Director, NARC for his encouragement and supports. The authors also like to acknowledge Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung, Ms. Asha Rayamajhi, Ms. Neeta Pradhan of Fisheries Research Division, Godawari, Lalitpur and Mr. S. R. Basnet, Chief, Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli, Nepal for their technical input and encouragement for preparing this paper. We sincerely thank to Mr. P. L. Karna, Directorate of Crop and Horticulture Research, and Mr. S. B. Pandey, Directorate Planning Division, and Dr. B. P. Tripathi, Liaison Scientist/Manager, Nepal-IRRI office, Nepal for their help. Thanks to all rainbow trout farmers groups in Nuwakot and Kakani, Districts of Nepal for providing information.
Reference Bardach J, J. H. Ryther & McLarney W. O (1972) Aquaculture: The farming and Husbandry of Freshwater and Marine Organisms, Wiley Inter-Science, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 868pp. Gurung T. B & Basnet S. R (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal: constrains and prospects. Yamazaki T (1991) Culture of Foreign Fisheries, farming Japan, 25 th Anniversary, Vol. 25- 1, 41- 46.
103
GIS based evaluation on potential sites of cold water fish, Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming in Nuwakot, Nepal
Suresh Kumar Rai, Tek Bahadur Gurung 1 and Gopal Prasad Lamsal 2
1 Fisheries Research Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council 2 Fisheries Research Center, Trushuli
Abstract Nepal is predominantly a mountainous country where nearly 83% of its part is known to be mountainous with world renounced fresh water resources having multitude of potentialities for use. These water resources might also be used to develop commercial cold-water fish farming. At present to use these cold water resources, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) could be one of the most desirable candidates to cultivate. Before planning, however, it is essential to estimate the suitable area where such activities could be implemented. In general, GIS (Geographic Information System) is considered to be the most effective tool for such evaluation. Thus, in present study a GIS based evaluation has been presented on the estimate of potential sites for cold water fish farming in Nuwakot district. First, we set some simple criteria related to rainbow trout farming, such as sources of water, accessibility to road and use of land which includes some cultivated land as Scenario 1, and without cultivated area as Scenario 2. The analysis showed that according to the Scenario 2 about 1183 ha of land might be suitable while according to the Scenario 1 the potential area for trout farming exceeds more than 4 times high than Scenario 2.
Key words: GIS, potential sites, cold water, mid hills, water quality, altitude
1. Introduction Nepal is rich in its inland water resources, where there are about 6000 large and small rivers originating from high hills and mountains (Gurung et al. 2006). Trout prefers cold and high oxygen content water for their growth and survival, which are abundant in Nepal, particularly in the hills and mountain area. The farming of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal was started after its third introduction from Japan in 1988. Now, the technologies have reached to the farmers field. There are several farms engaged in trout production with technical supports from fisheries research stations.
Rainbow trout in Nepal is gaining considerable importance as one of the highly delicious cold water fish. Now the farmers have started producing trout in their own efforts. In near future the area under trout cultivation would be increasing. To supply the fingerlings to the farmers, the government has recently established a hatchery at Dhunche, Rasuwa. With such development more and more potential areas need to be identified within the region for trout production. In this aspect, Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can play a vital role for identifying such potential area. All we need to have a strong database of the district related with trout production. Many organizations in the country or abroad are making use of GIS technology for making effective and efficient planning. In this study our objective was to identify potential sites for trout production in Nuwakot district by using GIS.
2. Material and Methods 2.1 Study Area Nuwakot district is located in Central Development Region in Bagmati Zone, extended to an area of 1121 sq. km. between 84 0 58 to 85 0 30 E longitude and 27 0 48 to 28 0 06 N latitude. It is surrounded
104 by Sindhupalchowk; Kathmandu, Dhading and Rasuwa districts. The elevation varies from 518 to 4876 meter. The district has sub tropical to mid temperate climate (NIDI 2006) (Fig 1).
To work with GIS we developed certain critarion keeping in mind the pre requisites of the trout farming. Information collected during various farmers site visit has also been incorporated in the study. The study was carried according to the following steps:
2.2 Criteria Setting-up Primarily, an assessment for trout fish cultivation was carried out after consulting with trout farmers and related scientists. This covered basic requirements essential for successful trout farming such as water, infrastructures, land use pattern, soil, climate that have influence on trout growth and production. These parameters were carefully discussed in a group of experts on ways of its application. Some parameters to be used in the study were taken from available digital information of the study area. These also included the information collected through various sources such as farmers and field workers. Based on the experts discussion, some criterion was set up for identifying the potential sites in the study area as follows; a) Water - permanent source, near to the fish farm within the periphery of 500 meters from the rivers, stream or spring b) Access to road - site near to road within the periphery of 200 meters (vertical distance) of roads c) Use of marginalized or non-agricultural land
2.3 Information/Data collection This constitutes the collection of data/information about Nuwakot district. This is mainly the collection of digital or analog maps that are related with the parameters that would be used in the study. Some information about the study area could be collected from various sources, which are as given below;
a) Administrative map Department of Survey, Nepal b) Road maps do c) River maps do d) Landuse/Land cover map do e) Elevation map ICIMOD, Nepal
2.4 GIS analysis and map production Using analysis tools in GIS, various maps were produced from the available thematic maps and spatial data. These maps were overlaid onto each other to produce the final map of the potential sites. Potential site refers to the locations that best match with the criteria set forth for potential trout production site for the targeted district. The GIS analytical works were done using ArcView 3.1 program package. Some other GIS software; Ilwis 2 and Idrisi 3 were also used.
3. Result and Discussion 3.1 Development of thematic road map There were various types of roads in the road map of Nuwakot district. This study concentrated mainly on to those types of roads where vehicle transportation was possible. Therefore, only major roads were selected excluding all other minor roads such as foot trails and non-motorable roads. Then
105 by buffering process in GIS, the areas around the roads within the distance of 200 meter were identified in the maps. Such area would represent the potential site based on road accessibility (Fig 2).
3.2 Development of thematic river map Except digitalized major and minor rivers, the available river map does not contain any other attributes about the rivers in the district. For example, perennial or seasonal, water temperature, pH and, so on. Even the numbers of minor rivers were very high and located very close to each other in the map. So in order to reduce the complexity and make the analysis easier, some of the rivers, which were closer (<100 meters) were excluded from the study. Next, only those rivers within the range of 1000 meters from the major roads were selected. After selection of the rivers now the area covered by those rivers within the range of 500 meters (Buffering) were identified in the maps (Fig 3). Some existing trout farms brought water from the rivers up to 1000 meters away. So in this study a distance of 500 m from rivers were decided to be used for the analysis (Fig 4).
3.3 Development of thematic elevation map This map was prepared using the contour lines of the altitude. From the contours, a digital elevation model (DEM) was prepared in ILWIS at an interval of 100 m, which was then exported to IDRISI. After some conversion, it was again exported back to ArcView format (Fig 5). The area and the percentage of the coverage under different elevation have been presented in the Table 1. From this elevation map, first area lying above 1100 m was extracted and later based on this map; rivers lying above 1100 m were identified. The annual water temperature of the rivers used by the existing trout farmers were usually below 20 0 C, a favorable temperature for trout farming. All of these trout farms were located above 1100 m altitude. In the absence of the information about rivers and its quality, this assumption had to be made using the knowledge of farmers and experts working in this field. After the identification of rivers lying above 1100 m altitude, now the area covered by these rivers with the distance of 500 m (as above) was identified in the map.
Table 1. Area (ha) under different elevation classes in Nuwakot district
106
Table 1. Area (ha) under different elevation classes in Nuwakot district
3.4 Thematic Landuse/Land cover map From this map, only those land were selected which do not make differences to other agricultural sectors, if used for trout cultivation. For this purpose, bush/shrub, grass, ponds/lakes, sandy area, waste and barren land and water bodies were selected to be included in the study. Table 2 shows the various landuse/land cover of the study area in 1999. Regarding the cultivated area, two scenarios were constructed; one in which the cultivated area included with others as mentioned above, while in scenario 2 cultivated lands were not included.
107 Table 2. Area under different Landuse/Land cover in Nuwakot 1999
3.5 Overlaying In this process, different map layers created in the above steps were overlaid onto each other to identify the locations that fall within the criteria set forth. The sites where all the layers meet are the site for potential trout production. Only such potential areas were later clipped out from the overlaid layers that represent the potential sites. However, this potentiality depends on the criteria, based only on road and river accessibility, and land use type.
Twenty five VDCs of Nuwakot district shows the potentiality for trout production with a total area of 4985.4 hectares under Scenario 1(Including cultivated area) and 1183.3 hectare under Scenario 2 (Excluding cultivated area) (Table 3 and Table 4). The maps have been presented in the Fig 6 and Fig 7. Table 3: Potential area under Landuse in Nuwakot
Fig 6. Potential sites in Nuwakot including cultivated land Fig 7. Potential sites in Nuwakot excluding cultivated land
108
3.6 Limitation of the study Most hindering part of the present study was the unavailability of the data in digital or analog format. Data plays the vital role based on which various maps are produced in GIS. For the study various information such as river, electricity were very much essential which could have helped to produce more effective and realistic results, if used.
Conclusion and recommendations As stated earlier, this potentiality is not complete in itself due to fewer numbers of parameters taken into consideration however, the information generated through this study could be equally important. Instead of going through the entire district for site selection, these areas can be focused and by collecting additional information say for water and other not included in the study the efforts can be made more precisely and effectively for the success of the trout farming in the district. This study could further be improved with the integration of left over spatial information of the study area. The spatial information about the water temperature, rivers types and other important data need to be collected in the future to make such study more meaningful and effective.
Acknowledgement Authors are grateful to Department of Survey, District Local Government Support Program, Ministry of Local Development, and Agri- Business Promotion and Statistics Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, and ICIMOD, Nepal for providing the necessary digital data of the Nuwakot district. Due regards are to those all who have contributed in the study without which this study would have not come to this shape.
Reference Gurung T. B, S. R. Basnet & G. P. Lamsal (2006) Rainbow trout farming in hill terrace of Nuwakot, Nepal. Aquaculture Asia Magazine, April - June. p 17-18. Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnyat, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & R. M. Mulmi (2002) Economics of rainbow trout farming in Nepal. In: Petr T and Swar D. B edited "Cold water fisheries in the trans- Himalayan countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper. No. 431 Rome FAO, p 376. NIDI (2006). Nepal District Profile (2006) Nepal Development Information Institute, Nepal.
109 GIS Based Potentiality of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Farming in Northern high hill Rasuwa, Nepal
Saroj Prasad Aryal, Mahendra Nath Paudel
GIS Section Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Email: [email protected]
Abstract Abundant fresh water in Nepal could be used for aquaculture along with generating hydropower, and supporting irrigation for the prosperity of her people. The water resources located in high mountains area might be used to develop cold-water fish farming using fish like rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Recent works on rainbow trout farming in Nepal suggest that trout could be one of the potential fish species to rear in mountain area. However, it is not clear yet how much of the hill and mountain areas are suitable and among those what area could be used for cultivation of cold water fish. It is indeed difficult to assess the exact potential areas, but recently to evaluate such potential areas GIS tool has been considered as one of the important method of estimation. Therefore, to evaluate the potential sites for cold water fish farming in Rasuwa, a mountainous district we used GIS as a tool. The analysis showed that huge area could be utilized under trout cultivation in this high hill mountainous district.
Key words: high altitude, rainbow trout cultivation
1. Introduction: Nepal is one of the major countries for having vast fresh water resources in the world. These resources could also be used for the purpose of aquaculture development to support rural livelihood besides hydropower generation and irrigation etc. The contribution of fisheries to the total AGDP is still very negligible and estimated as 1.6 percent in the fiscal year 2004/05 (CBS 2005). Therefore, Nepal government has given due emphasis on the trout production in mid and high hills of the country considering the promising prospects of cold water fisheries as well as its high value in the market (FRD 2005).
Trout is a cold water fish and its cultivation is viable to utilize the vast cold water resources of the country originating from glaciers in Himalaya (Joshi & Lovfall 1997). To promote cold water aquaculture in the country, two fisheries research stations, Godawari in Kathmandu, and Trishuli in Nuwakot were involved. Under these method of trout cultivation in Nepal was tested especially in the context of Nepal's socioeconomic conditions. These farms developed the rainbow trout cultivation technology which were tested in farmer's field under collaborative research programs involving farmers located in Nuwakot, Rasuwa and Kathmandu districts. These studies suggest that trout could be cultivated in hill and mountains region. However, despite of such potentiality the identification of the actual potential areas has not yet been carried out. Therefore, in present study it was aimed to identify GIS based potential pocket areas of trout farming through examining physical and other resources in the district
2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Study site and location : Rasuwa District Rasuwa district is located at 27 o 2 27 o 10 North Latitude and 85 o 4585 o 88 East Longitude with an area of 1544 Sq. Km (Fig 1A). The district lies between the altitude of 600 meters to 7246 meters and Dhunche is the capital of the district has an altitude of 1950 meter above sea level. The district is situated in the Central Development Region of mountain areas of the country and surrounds Peoples Republic China in the north, Sindhupalchowk in the east, Nuwakot in the south and Dhading in the
110 western part. The major rivers of the Rasuwa district are Trishuli, Falakhu, Bungkhola, Chepare Khola, Dhobi khola and Chahere Khola. Also, religiously very popular and other tourist destinations such as Gasain Kunda, Langtang Himal, Ganesh Himal, Tatopani, Parbati Kunda, Langtang Natinal Park are located in the district. The principal socio-economic and other indicators of Rasuwa District are as follows (Table 1):
Table 1. Principal socio-economic and other indicators of Rasuwa District (Source: CBS 2004)
111 Rasuwa district is the least populated district compared to other of the Central Development Region (Fig 1 B). There are altogether 9 agriculture and livestock service centers that has covered all 18 village development committees. The details have been presented below in Table 2.
Table 2. Service Centers and VDC in Rasuwa districts Table 3. Land use pattern
2.2 Land use In order to achieve final output of the study such as maps of potential areas, charts and tables etc; various types of data (spatial and non spatial) processing and analyzing steps have been adopted (Table 3)
2.3 Data Sources Survey Department, DLGSP/Ministry of Local Development, Central Bureau of Statistics, District Agricultural Development Office (Rasuwa) as well as Fisheries Research Division, NARC is the major data source agencies for spatial and non spatial digital as well as hard copy data for the study.
2.4 Data Collection, Compilation and Entry All relevant spatial/base map and non spatial digital data used in the study are collected from secondary data sources. Also, data compilation, and entry works have been carried out in a designed database format required for the analytical works.
2.5 Standard Technical Parameters of rainbow trout In order to achieve the desired output of the study, the entire GIS based analytical works is based on standard technical parameters developed by the concerned subject matter specialist. The technical parameters that have been used in the study are as follows:
2.6 Standard Parameters 2.6.1 Assumptions of study In fact, trout farming is highly associated with the good quality cold water and its regular supply whether it is perennial or spring water. The fluctuation or obstruction in the water supply may cause heavy loss of the trout farming because it involves more investment and costs as compared to other fish farming. Considering the fact, the following assumptions have been made for the current study and are as follows:
a) Glacier and major rivers have been considered as a main target study area considering quality and regular cold water supplying source for the trout. The spring water and minor rivers have been excluded in the present study. b) All observed value of the water quality of Trishuli river/glacier as given below in Table 4 have been found within the limit of highly potential required value of the technical parameters. Therefore, Trishuli and other glacier rivers are considered as highly potential water supplying source for the trout farming.
112 Table 4. Water quality parameters in Trishuli River Table 5
2.6.2 Scope and coverage of study The study has mainly focused on potential pocket areas/growth centers for the rainbow trout farming in Rasuwa district. Also, it has tried to provide glimpse of resources such as physical features, social characteristics, Agricultural service centers, road network, etc.
2.7 Computer hardware and software The Dell PIV workstation and Software ARC GIS Version 9.0 along with GPS (Silva Brand) have been used for the whole package of GIS works in the study.
2.8 Data processing and analysis To find out the trout potential areas, firstly; concerned thematic spatial and their attribute digital data have been joined together and then query builder tool has been used to detect exact highly potential geographic locations for the trout farming on the basis of recommended technical parameters. The simulation works has been carried out one to one basis to make analytical works more result oriented. Also, the consistency check of the results has been done with the information collected from the concerned district as well as field visit for the ground truth also has been made.
During data processing and the analytical works, the following thematic and attribute data have been taken into account such as Administrative area, transportation, land use, topography, utilities (electricity), temperature, population, services etc Also, the steps used for the analytical works have been shown in the flow chart which is given below (Fig 3)
113 2.9 Quality Control and Field verification In order to make the qualitative output, the study team members have been made necessary consultation and interactions during the field visit at FRC Trishuli farm, Dhunche new Farm (DOFD and NARC), Nuwakot and Dhunche (Gyalpo) farmers trout
2.2 Limitations The study is completely based on secondary data source and all data are considered as consistent. Also, equal weights have been given to all technical parameters while analyzing the data.
Fig 3. Land use pattern in Rasuwa district
3.0 Result and Discussion Potential areas for trout cultivation based on several assumptions showed that following places in Rasuwa district possess, in general, the potentiality for trout cultivation. The potential sites have been shown in Fig 3 and 4. The areas are: Dhunchhe (Near Himal Spring Water Factory) Thulo Markhu Moga Gaun Sole Gaun BokaJhunda (Waterfalll)
4. Opportunities: High Demand/Value Agro tourism (Trout, off season Veg. irrigation facilities) Integrated with livestock and poultry, hotel and restaurant business) Use of natural and other resources Rural employment and income Mitigation of rural urban migration Spill over (irrigation, electricity, water grinder, etc.) Reverse flow of fund Low rate of virus outbreak in cold water
114 5. Constraints for adoption High price of inputs Inadequate fingerlings supply High technology and management Low technical skill of virus management Risk of disease outbreak Investment cost
6. Risk High price of inputs Inadequate fingerlings supply High technology and management Low technical skill of virus management Risk of disease outbreak Investment cost
7. Recommendations and conclusion Effective training, research work, breeding and adequate supply of fingerlings should be undertaken by NARC and other motivating and extension works should be carried out by DADO/Rasuwa. The ongoing joint (DOFD/ NARC) project of Dhunche should be completed as early as possible.For this, necessary follow up should be made with the officials of Langtang National Park. DADO/Rasuwa should be made more accountable and responsible for the enhancement of the Trout farming in the district rather than DOFD and NARC. Initial matching fund (at least 50 percent of total construction costs) should be provided by the Government as a subsidy other wise farmers can not bear the whole costs and will not be motivated. Insurance policy for the Trout farming should be introduced in the district.
Acknowledgement We are sincerely thankful to all farmers for interacting us in different matters related to trout farming in Rasuwa district. Thanks are also to District Agricultural Development Office and Trishuli Fisheries Research Station for providing information necessary to prepare this paper.
References CBS (2004) Statistical Year Book of Nepal. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal. CBS (2005) Statistical Year Book of Nepal. Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal. 447 pp FRD 2005: Annual Technical Report 2004/05: Nepal Agricultural Research Council and Fishery Research Division, Godawari. Lalitpur, Nepal Joshi P. L & Westlund L. M (1997) Production Technology and Prospects of Trout Farming in Nepal; Proceedings of the National Symposium on the role of Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Economic Development of Rural Nepal, 15-16 August, 1996 NCAP 2004: Strategies and Options for Increasing and Sustaining Fisheries and Aquaculture Production to Benefit Poor Households in India: National Centre for Agricultural Economic & Policy Research (NCAP), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Pusa, New Delhi, India
115 A case study on integrated trout farming in hill terrace with other developmental activities
Trishuli Fisheries Research Center, Nuwakot Email. [email protected]
1 Madanpur Village Development Committee, Ward No-9, Nuwakot
Abstract A case study on integrated rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cultivation along with horticulture, livestock, floriculture, bee keeping, water mill and hydro-power in sloppy terrace land is presented. Mr. Padam Bahadur Lama Rumba's integrated trout farm is located 50 Km far from the Kathmandu and 25 Km far from Bidur municipality. The most interesting part of the integration is 7.5 KW hydropower generation using the water discharge from the farm. The electricity generated is used in grinding and pelleting of trout feed besides other uses. Mr. Rumba, a traditional farmer had an estimated annual income 147,000 and expenses of 150,000 NRs. per year before adopting trout integration. Since, the initial expense in trout farming is high construction of trout raceways cost him nearly 450,000 NRs. In the first year he could sell only 750 Kg trout but it has been increased up to 3600 Kg in 2005. The economic analysis showed after starting new intervention with trout integration his income reached approximately 1.66 million Rupees in a year. The rate of return calculated on initial cost is 39.29% and rate of return on operating cost stands about 67.33%. Trout production contributes about 92% of the total income of the farm. The electricity contributes about 5.7%, remaining 2.3% of the farm income are contributed through livestock, horticulture, water mill etc. The production cost of trout is 276 Rupees/kg in his farm.
1. Introduction One of the important aspects of integrated fish farming is high per unit area productivity of farm land. Integrated fish farming is one of the well known concepts of fisheries (Gooley 2000), however, integration of cold water fish trout with several other developmental activities is new direction which has been appeared in Betini Nuwakot (Gurung et al. 2006). Many hill farmers with access to perennial water resources could use the present example as a model of integration in hills. Nepal is predominantly a mountainous country with abundant water resources. It is not only the big rivers, which has shown potential for water resources but smaller tributaries are also potential for small scale hydropower generation due to sloppy mountainous set up of landscape. Small tributaries are highly potential sites to get water for rainbow trout farming (Gurung & Basnet 2001; Nepal et al. 2002; Rai et al. 2005). If these small tributaries water are used for fish farming, the fish production in Nepal can be increase substantially in future. The present study highlights the integration approach of rainbow trout with other developmental activities for livelihood enhancement of hill farming community in Nepal.
2. Study Area Integrated trout farm of Mr. Padam Bahadur Lama Rumba is situated at Madanpur VDC-9 of Nuwakot, on the Pasang Lhamu Marg a highway connecting Kathmandu and Nuwakot. The farm is nearly 50 Km away from Kathmandu and 25 Km from Bidur municipality. In this farm floriculture, horticulture, beekeeping, and livestock farming along with hydropower generation are the main activities. Mr. Padam started trout farming in 2058 B.S (1999 AD) in 66.47 m 2 areas with 4 raceway ponds. It is now expanded to 267.99 m 2 with 21 raceways. Information for this study was collected from at the time of working with farmer on trout culture practices, some through face to face interview, his family and neighbors.
116 3. Previous history and source of income with traditional agriculture Mr. Padam is 28 years old high school graduate (SLC passed). The total land area of the trout farm is 45 Ropani, which is in his father's ownership. The source of the family income is only the land. So the income generation depend how efficiently they use their land. Earlier, the income from the land is only sufficient for food, cloth and medicine. The money was not sufficient for further education. So he had to work as a house worker in Kathmandu to pass SLC. The natural plants in the farm were the main sources of his family income from his terrace land such as Kaphal, Aishlo and Amrisho. Limited products of millet, potato, radish and buckwheat are used for main food, vegetable and prepare alcohol. Table 1. Farm income and expenditure of the farmers before starting trout farming
4. Trout integration The raceway area for trout farming covers only 2.5 Ropani of his total land where he has constructed 17 raceways. In rest of the farm land has he grown seasonal vegetables, different fruits, and flowers. The farm has generated electricity from the used water in raceways for trout cultivation. The farm also owns local water mill (Pani Ghatta). For trout integration all technical supports were provided from Fisheries Research Center Trishuli. The loan was offered at the interest rate of 12.5% by Agriculture Development Bank, Trishuli.
Trout production was the main target of the farm. Initially he had only constructed only 4 raceways covering 66 m 2 areas (Fig. 1). The water input rate in the farm is about 5 liter/sec. during the dry season, while the discharge rate increases enormously during the rainy monsoon season. At the time a large amount of water are flushed from main stream. For fish production the farm capacity has been estimated to be about 4 Mt/year at his present raceway size. At present this estimate is based on the assumption of 10 Kg/m 2 production rate. The present production is given in Fig 2. Comparing to earlier, fingerlings stocking has increased except in the year 2005 when he could stock only 12,000 fry due to the shortage of the fingerlings. From 2006 the farm has started to produce the fingerling. It is expected then the farm could produce table fish in its full capacity. The table fish are grown up to 200-250 g size. It takes about 12 months to grow the trout into the marketable size.
5. Feed preparation The farm its own locally made pellet mill and dryer. He produced trout feed not only for his own farm but also for near by other two farms. At present he produces about 12 MT of pellet feed in his farm. The farm also performs grinding and mixing of processes.
6. Trout Hatchery A trout hatchery for fingerling production has been initiated from this year (2006) in collaboration with Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli. The hatchery is situated about 100 m above than the production farm. This year 257 female broods for breeding purpose have been used. The farm has aimed to produce abut 50,000 fry this year.
117 8. Horticulture Horticulture is one of his traditional occupation and component of the farm. The farm grows cauli- flower, broccoli, radish, potatoes, onion, garlic, cardamom, and ginger. The farm has also fruits trees such as guava, avocado, plum, peach, macadamia nut etc. The annual income from the horticulture production is estimated to be about 30-40 thousands Rupees. The land coverage under the horticulture is about 1.5 Ropani. The water from trout raceways are used for irrigation. The vegetable and fruit are sold in local market. The natural plants in the farm are Kaphal, Aishlo and Amrisho. These plants are one of the main income sources for him in different seasons. Kafal, Aisheloo and Amrisho are sold in the market near to Kathmandu. Limited products of millet, potato, radish and buckwheat are used for main food, vegetable and to prepare alcohol.
9. Bee Keeping Bee keeping is a new intervention of the farm. The bee keeping was started in 2005. He possesses about 100 hives. These hive producing about kg of honey per year. The location for bee hives is highly suitable as the farm is located in pollution free area surrounded by forest area.
10. Livestock The farm has also been integrated with goats, cow and buffaloes. Goats fulfilled the meat and cattle fulfilled the milk purpose. In near by fence the grasses like Napier and Amrisho have been cultivated for cattle feed.
11. Floriculture The farm grows variety of different seasonal flowers. The flowers are generally sold during Dashain and Tihar festivals.
12. Local water mill and hydro power The water discharge of the trout farm is used for two main purposes. For running a local water mill, this is used for grinding wheat, maize, and buckwheat. Later the same water is used to generate the electricity. For hydropower generation a turbine has been installed about 50 m down from the last raceway pond of the farm. The water discharged from the raceway is sent through polyethylene pipe to rotate a turbine, which produces about 7.5 KW of electricity. The electricity produced from the farm is used for power supply in the farm for purpose like grinding and pelleting trout feed. The surplus electricity is sold in near by household.
Table 2. Cost benefit analysis of the integrated trot farm in Betini, Nuwakot distric
118 Annual operating costs
13. Economic Analysis of the farm Cost benefit ratio of the farm after and before trout farming has been presented in Table 1 and 2. Before adoption of trout in integration the traditional farming system had an income of about 147 hundred thousands, however, after starting intervention with trout integration his income reached approximately to 1 million 66 thousand Rupees. Trout production contributes about 92% of the total income of the farm. The electricity contributes about 5.7%, remaining 2.3% of the farm income are contributed through livestock, floriculture, horticulture, water mill etc. The economic analysis of the farm showed that the production cost of trout per Kg becomes 276 Rs per kg. The rate of return calculated on initial cost is 39.29% and rate of return on operating cost stands about 67.33%.
119
Conclusion Eco-geographically and socio economically there is higher scope of farm establishment throughout the country especially in mid and high hills integrated trout. Mr. Rumba has demonstrated that trout integration can increase the farm land productivity by 12 times higher than the traditional farming. In several other locations this kind of farms could be developed where trout can be integrated with other commodities. This type of integrated approach would indeed enhance farm land productivity several fold for livelihood enhancement and poverty alleviation of hill farmers.
Acknowledgement We wish to thank all staff of FRC Trishuli, FRD Godawari and trout grower's community. I am grateful to Dr. Tek Bahadur Gurung to encourage me to write this paper. Thanks to all who have helped to promote trout farming integration of Mr. Padam Rumba.
Reference Gooley G (2000) R & D Plan for Integrated Agri-Aquaculture Systems 1999-2004. A report for the rural industries research and development corporation, RIRDC Publication No 99/153. RIRDC Project No MFR-1A Gurung T. B, S. R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal: Constraint and prospects. Aquaculture Asia, 2003, (Vol .VIII No.4) Gurung T. B, S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal (2006) Rainbow trout farming in terrace land in Nuwakot district of Nepal. Aquaculture Asia, April-June. pp.17-18 Nepal A. P, S. R.. Basnyat, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R.. M (2001) Economics of rainbow trout farming system in Nepal, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 431-179-191 Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & G. P Lamsal (2005): Rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss Culture in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal. APAARI Publication: 2005/1
ecc FRC (2005) Annual Technical Report. Published by Trishuli Fisheries Research Center, Trishuli, Nuwakot Gurung, T.B, S. R. Basnet and Lamsal G. P (2006) Rainbow trout farming in hill terrace of Nuwakot, Nepal. Aquaculture Asia Magazine. April-June. pp.17-18.
ecc mcup= FRC (2005) Annual Technical Report. Published by Trishuli Fisheries Research Center, Trishuli, Nuwakot Gurung, T. B, S. R. Basnet & Lamsal G. P (2006) Rainbow trout farming in hill terrace of Nuwakot, Nepal. Aquaculture Asia Magazine. April-June. pp.17-18.
126
Recipes for Dish Preparation of Rainbow trout in Nepal
Bharati Moktan Proprietor Fall and Trout Fish Farm, Kakani, Nuwakot Email: [email protected]
Abstract This paper deals with recipes for dish preparation of rainbow trout. Recipe of 5 dishes have been presented namely, trout curry, grilled trout, steamed trout, deep fried trout, and shashimi of trout, according to the local taste and food tradition but keeping the original taste of trout.
1. Introduction Nepal is rich in tradition of varieties of food preparation in various occasions, as the country is rich in culture, tradition, religion, and ethnicity. It is known that climate, altitude, cleanness, and many other factors may add flavor to food due to several reasons in high hills. One can only speculate that some special minerals may add special flavor in the food. Cultivation of fish is an art (Bardach et al. 1972), but more importantly, the preparation of dishes out of trout in special occasions is also the most significant part of the story. Here, my aim is to present recipes of trout cultivated in high mountains water received from glacier and springs in Nepal. The recipes for special dishes out of trout are presented. The recipes of the dish are: i. Trout curry ii. Grilled trout iii. Steamed trout iv. Deep fried trout v. Shashimi of trout
i. Trout Curry The curry in general is one of the favorite dishes for Nepali consumers (Fig 1). Since, Nepalese are also one of the best consumers of rice products, therefore, the way we consume the steam rice, preparation of dish with rich in gravy along with various spices had been always a favorite dish for most of us. Here, a method is described how trout curry full of gravy with Nepali spices should be prepared. Please try as follows:
Required Ingredients Trout fish - 600 gm Onion 250 gm Tomato 250 gm Garlic paste 1 tea sp Ginger paste tea sp Turmeric power tea sp Coriander leaves chopped 2 tea sp Salt according to your taste Chilly power -1/2 tea sp Cumin power tea sp
127
Fig 1. Trout curry Procedure Cut the fish into three pieces. Heat the oil in a wok or deep frying pan. Let the smoke come in. Put the fish until it is brown. Now chain it out. Heat 5 tab sp oil put. Chopped onion, when it is brown put garlic, ginger, onion power, turmeric power salt and chilly power. Cook for a while then put chopped tomato cook until it is a thick paste. Add 1 cup hot water cook for a while put the fried fish into it garnish with coriander leaves. Curry is ready. Serve 3-4 persons.
ii. Grilled trout Grilled trout could be preference for those who often does not prefer to intake much oil in the trout (Fig 2). One can avoid oil using the grilled trout. Here, a recipe for preparation of grilled trout is summarized as, please give a try:
128 Procedure Clean the fish with head & tail intact with sharp pointed knife cut inside vertically from head to tail so that the fish should be flat from both sides mix garlic paste, tomato, salt, soya sauce in a in a swallow bowl rub the fish inside and outside with the mixture and keep aside for 125 min. Place the fish on a hinged double racked holder which makes turning the fish easier cook slowly about 6 in above the heat turn the fish frequently for 10-12 min until the fish is cooked. Garnish with challots and coriander leaves. Serve 2-3 persons.
ii. Steamed trout The steamed trout could also be good for those wishing to avoid much oil (Fig 3). This is one of such preparation where most of the natural ingredients and taste of trout remain intact in this dish. Pleas try, this is simple, Trout fish 600 gm Tomato paste - 4 tab sp Garlic paste - 1 tea sp Soya sauce - tea sp Lemon juice - tea sp Salt - according to your taste
Wash the fish and pat it dry using sharp knife make 3 or 4 slightly diagonal slits across 1 inches apart. Across the both sides of the fish mix all the above mengredients in swallow bowl working the mixture well into the slits and inside the stomach for 20-30 minutes. Warp in an aluminum toil or keep in a plate the water to boil. Boil water in a steamer place the fish in a steamer and cover the fish cook for 15- 20 min if the fish is white it ready to serve. To prepare sauce mix all the above ingredients sauce in prepare for dipping.
ii. Deep fried trout For those who love oily stuff with crunchy taste of trout deep fried dish could be recommended (Fig 5). This preparation can be served at parties, home and special festivals to friends, family members, especially to young members. Please try this. Trout fish 600 gm Lemon juice - tea sp Salt - according to your taste Oil - 500 ml.
Procedure Cut the fish into three pieces. Mix it in lemon juice. Add some salt. Heat the oil in a deep frying pan. Let the smoke come in. Put the fish until it is brown.
129 ii. Trout Shashimi A healthy food for all ages, however someone may need to cultivate the taste of shashimi (Fig 6). This dish is very popular in Japan, China, Thailand, Korea, USA and; perhaps all over the over. One may find all natural ingredient of trout intact becuase this dish does not pass through any cooking process. One may need fresh live fish from very clean and cold water sources for preparation of this dish.
Procedure: Trout fish 600 gm Sashimi soya sauce 1 tab sp Wasabi paste - 1 tan sp, available in Japanese shop Akey
Cut head and tail fish make fillet with sharp knife. Mix soya sauce and wasabi paste. Deep fried with kokkom on sauce.
Fig 6: Shashimi of trout
Acknowledgement Thanks to all staffs of Fisheries Research Division and Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli. Mr. Gopal Lamsal kindly took the still photographs for the dishes. Mrs. Neeta Pradhan kindly translated the transcript into the English. Thanks to Mr. Sadhu Ram Basnet, Chief of Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli for his generous supports.
Reference Bardach J. E, Ryther J. H & McLarney W.O (1972) General principle and economics. In : Aquaculture, The farming of freshwater and marine organisms. Willey Inter Science, A division of John Willey and Sons. Pp. 1-28
130 Best Management Practices (BMP) for aquaculture of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal
Surendra Prasad, Jay Dev Bista & Suresh Kumar Wagle Fisheries Research Station, Pokhara E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract Best Management Practices (BMP) is employed to achieve possible higher production of fish without impairing biodiversity and environment. Aquaculture of rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) is gradually emerging in Nepal. Trout cultivation, in general, is an intensive type of farming system which requires more input compared to other aquaculture practices Being water intensive and feed based culture system, trout farming require better management practices. Trout is a carnivore fish; thus, trout might be harmful if released into open water. The strategic plan for improvement of aquaculture practices and regulatory measures for responsible and sustainable development of aquaculture system have been discussed. Social and environmental issues associated with expansion and commercialization of trout industry and their mitigating measures have also been suggested.
Key words: Best management practices, code of conduct, resources, trout cultivation
1. Introduction Farming of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Nepal has relatively short history. It is introduced from Miyazaki prefecture of Japan in 1988 (Rai et al. 2002). After its introduction and adaptive research works in Nepal, gradually the farming technology is disseminating among private farmers in hill and mountains of Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts, Nepal. Existing trout production operations in Nepal indicate that trout farming is viable and has tremendous potential to produce high quality fish products for domestic and export markets. It is hoped that trout aquaculture will continue to expand rapidly. Currently its demand is increasing for commercial culture. Increased profitability from existing trout farm are the biggest factors driving the demand for this species. However, farm operators are cautioned against the excitement it has, because aquaculture is unlikely to sustain itself based on economic viability alone but will need to ensure social and environmental sustainability as well (Kutty 1997).
At present world aquaculture community is increasingly confronted with environmental issues such as environmental degradation resulting from irresponsible practices (Barg et al. 1997) by some entrepreneurs engaged in culture of various species which may bring risk to the whole sector into dispute. Several aquaculture organizations in many countries have formulated code of practice based on FAO code of conduct (FAO 1995) for mitigating negative environmental and social impacts in commercial oriented intensive farming. In Nepal also it is crucial that trout farming, being a feed based intensive system takes note of such controversies and potential repercussion, if it is going to meet its scaling-up goals.
Trout culture is intensive type of farming require more input resources compared to other species for survival and growth. The feasibility of achieving required production naturally depends on a number of factors including seed, feed, health management and environmental consideration. Potential success in trout production requires better governance and significant improvements in the management practices. Therefore, it is necessary to have strategic plan to address technical, social and environmental constraints. They include the availability of high quality seed at an affordable price, good quality low-cost feeds, control of disease, and efficient use of water resources. At the same time regulatory measures or code of practice is prerequisite for responsible practices of trout aquaculture with a view to ensuring the production of trout in profitable and sustainable way. This paper reviews present status and provides concept and guidelines to manage and promote trout scaling-up program in the country based on available research findings and experience.
131 1. Aspects of best management practices In order to achieve the goal of scaling-up program of trout it is quite necessary to focus on improving existing technology or developing new ones for increased and sustaining production. It is generally accepted that better farm management can increase production from aquaculture operations. However, use of improved breeds of fish can make further significant improvements in production. To date, most effort in trout culture has been directed towards improving diets, water quality management and to lesser extent health management. As important as they are, strategy to increase genetic potential of the population is scarce. Trout farm in Nepal maintaining old populations, possible degradation of parent stock than their wild cousin can not be ignored because no progress has been made in improving the breeds until quite recently. Thus, research should undertake for the genetic improvement of present stock and reduce inbreeding. Genetic improvement by selective breeding, cross breeding and application of other genetic technology (Mair & Beardmore 1999) such as use of cryopreserved sperm of fish from selected sources to avoid inbreeding and use of monosex (female) population may help increases the production. Production of fish seed from pure line breed can only assure quality fish seed. One of the regulations of hatchery management should be to incorporate basic genetic and breeding concept into routine hatchery management in order to maximize the biological potential of fish.
1.1 Assurance of seed supply In fact lack of seed has been a problem constituting a serious restriction to scaling-up of trout farming. Early efforts focused on public sector production and distribution of seed. However seed production of Government farm rarely meets demand. Current projections of supply and demand to the incoming year indicate that gap between supply and demand will continue to widen, if trout farming continues to progress in future which is inevitable. Government should try to promote establishment of trout hatchery for the assurance of sufficient and consistent supply of fry before recommending new establishment of private farm for sustaining growth of trout industry. Although seed supply will be met by establishing trout hatchery in private sector, there is no standardization of seed quality and seed certification of trout seed and other fish species as it is practices in many agricultural commodities. This is often detrimental to production. It is essential that protocols for certification of seed be developed and implemented for marketing of product and increase consumer confidence.
1.2 Feeding and nutrition Fish feed is a significant factor in increasing the productivity and profitability of trout aquaculture. At present, the cost of production is high (Gurung et al. 2006) mainly due to high cost of feed. It is a major factor limiting the development of trout and is likely to remain so in the near future. Therefore, nutrition research, that helps to reduce the cost of feeds without reducing their efficacy, will be crucial for the successful development and scaling-up of trout. At present fish meal is one of the major components of trout feed formulation. However, there is wide spread concern over the increasing use of fish meal in aquaculture sectors (Naylor et al. 2000). A move towards the use of upgraded vegetable protein (e.g. soybean. oil cakes, etc.), as a partial replacement of fish meal would help to reduce cost of production.
Balanced formulation, good storage, quality and consistency of fish diets improve nutrition. Probiotics are now gaining acceptance for the control of pathogens in aquaculture (Green & Green 2003). Hence, feed formulation with use of probiotics, consideration of immunological parameters in nutritional studies for increased immunocompetence and disease resistance would further benefit. Since feed is the biggest source of nutrient loading in trout production, regulation is necessary for feed waste and nutrient discharge. Development of feed which are more palatable and digestible are much effective and give rise to much lower level of effluent, most notably suspended solids, BOD, phosphate and ammonia (Boyd & Tucker 1999). Although some local effects due to discharge are inevitable, this should be minimized by discharge control and advances in husbandry.
132 1.3 Fish diseases prevention Disease plays a key role in sustaining aquaculture. Most of the disease in trout culture reported from Nepal belongs to parasite, fungal and bacterial among infectious, and few nutritional disease in non- infectious group (Gurung & Basnet 2003). Viral disease has not been reported till now, however, its presence can not be overlooked. Although the reported disease is no longer causing major losses in the past, the threat that these disease pose is sufficient to warrant continuous attention. Farmers are not prepared for disease problem and practices crisis management of disease control. In comparison to veterinary medicine, the diagnosis of disease problems among fish in Nepal is relatively in infancy stage. The eventual findings of causative agents are not always very definitive; moreover, there is lack of technique to identify the viral infection. It is evident that viral disease such as infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN), viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) and infectious haematopoietic necrosis (IHN) (Andy 1993) cause large scale mortalities in fry and fingerlings of trout in many countries. This indicates the need for special attention to work with viral disease.
The main strategy of disease problems should be to reduce the level of risk and accelerate the trout farming by good health management which includes water quality management, nutrition and sanitation. However, in case disease problem occurs, timely action is essence of success in controlling epidemics of mortality through improving diagnostic methods, safe therapeutants and effective disease control methodologies. Research strategy should also focus on development of resistant variety.
Disease and health guidelines are important for better survival rate in hatchery and growth of fish in rearing ponds. Government should develop site specific protocols in this area in association with concerned stakeholders. Policy requires on that all groups of fish pass a certified inspection for bacterial, viral infection and parasites prior to sale or release for stocking. Code of practice for maximum acceptable levels of infection and parasites in the hatchery populations need to be established. Improper use of antibiotics and chemicals can have adverse effects on health of consumers and environment. It is essential that drugs used should be categorized into safe and harmful group and regulation should be enforcing to minimize or control the use of harmful chemicals and antibiotics.
1.4 Diversity in production system Currently, cemented raceways are the dominant production system for trout cultivation in Nepal. A major portion of public sector research and development effort has been directed towards increasing the productivity from raceway culture. It may provide limit opportunity for expansion as these involve high investment cost. Strategy is necessary to develop technology for a wide variety of production system. Research and development should be geared towards improving and understanding other production system such as cages, ponds, tanks etc. at various level of intensity as practiced in many other countries, which would help achieve national goal.
1.5 Ensuring safety of the environment Environmental consideration is most concerned issue worldwide for sustainable aquaculture. Hence, technique for reducing adverse environmental impacts and enhancing sustainability is needed to be applied throughout the industry. Any sort of development project activities have environmental impacts, both within and outside the project area. Aquaculture, if not properly planned and managed, can affect the environment through pollution from effluents and chemicals. The best strategy for this problem is to reduce the amount of waste water generated from every activity as much as possible. Water exchange is high in trout culture and their discharge contains nutrients, organic matter and suspended solids that can be sources of pollution in receiving waters. Feed is the biggest source of nutrient loading in trout production. Moreover, therapeutants misuse should not be overlooked. It is necessary to ensure that environment is not affected due to lack of proper planning and safeguard. Water quality standard for waste water from operating farm should be standardized. In some countries aquaculture is regulated as to maximum allowable concentration of BOD level 10mg/L
133 from effluent discharge (Boyd & Tucker 1999). Regulation of best management practices (BMPs) instead of relying upon water quality standard (Schwartz & Boyd 1996) is also more effective to prevent discharge or assure that effluent do not cause pollution or other environmental damage. Development of technology of better management practices such as chary stocking and feeding rates, use of better feed and feeding practices would be beneficial to improve effluent quality. Enforcement of provision of passing the discharge water through settling ponds, waste water treatment, operate farm on close system, use of bio filter etc would also help to minimize pollution. These systems may be used to comply with local legislation.
1.6 Maintaining biodiversity Detrimental environmental impacts have not yet been reported as a result of trout introduction in Nepal (Gurung & Basnet 2003). Since trout needs specific habitat to spawn so there is less chance of trout to breed in natural water of Nepal. However, negative impact of predation (Shetty et al. 1989) by escapee trout from farms on potential endemic species such as Asala (Schizothorax sp.), can not be ignored. Hence, policy is vital for the possible loss of biodiversity as a result of accidental escape from aquaculture would likewise a major issue. Regulatory measure to prevent escape of trout in natural water should be enforcing as precautionary measure.
1.7 Social aspect and minimization of resource use conflict It is more difficult to evaluate the claims of social conflicts between aquaculture industry and local inhabitants. These conflicts can be avoided by more careful planning and better management in favor of social benefit for the future benefit to themselves and society as a whole. Resource use conflict is common to any kind of development including aquaculture that may be perceived to impact on others. Development of aquaculture has to compete for primary resources such as land and water on equal basis with all other stakeholder (De Silva 2001). Trout require plentiful water which is generally extracted from natural water used for various purposes. Human population is tending to rise over time. Societal demand for land and water would be expected to increase. Therefore, policy is necessary to assure that aquaculture development does not compromise the livelihood of and access to resources by local communities. Strategy to give preference and involvement of local community in different aquaculture activities would contribute building up an attractive image of proposed project by providing opportunities of employment, poverty alleviation and food security.
Regular dialogue among all vested interests, and greater readiness on the part of farm operator to react quickly particularly in situation of adverse and unpredictable changes would be more effective. The move to co-management increases the likelihood of such progress. Awareness program, transparency in decision making, regulation of prior approval from local authority and local community can greatly influence the attitude of neighborhood community to the proposed farming and their future cooperation. A system approach would be useful to analyze and develop the solutions required for more sustainable use of primary resources. At the same time there must be effective enforcement of existing legal and administrative frameworks to protect the water resources to be degraded due to deforestation, sedimentation and chemical use which are issue of resource use conflict.
1.8 Food Safety There is currently widespread concern about food safety and this is a legal requirement in some countries (Pillay 1993). Food hygiene and safety standard strategy is required to maintain product quality acceptable to the world market. International standards, guidelines and recommendations are to be taken as reference to establish a sanitary protection. It is necessary to increase knowledge and sense of responsibility among farmers regarding food safety to gain consumer confidence. Regulation is necessary for improved management, prudent use of drugs and chemical. All the chemicals and drugs used should be regulated by registering from an authorized institution prior to distribute as it is regulated for human beings. Certification scheme of product be promoted for maximum allowable concentration of particular drugs.
134 1.9 Market and trade Current trout production and demand suggest that there is a high market demand for trout which support scaling-up program. Opportunity for expansion of trout farm is enormous in hill and mountain region, because much of suitable water resources of area are untapped at present time. However, research is required to study market demand and supply, with projection for the future, and how farmers should target consumer group for the future success of trout industry. Opportunity for expansion based on existing market may be limited. Plan and strategy is essential to establish wholesale market and export center to keep pace with increasing production of trout in future. Nepal is now a member of world trade organization (WTO). Therefore, technology to produce trout at competitive price, adding value to processed trout and regulation to maintain product quality and sanitary standards acceptable to world market is inevitable.
Generally trout are supplied to market either fresh or frozen. Food safety and sanitary standard should be maintained beginning from the fish harvested until delivered to consumers. Regulation is very vital to ensure the food safety of trout through particular care before and during harvesting, on- site processing, and value addition of product, proper storage and transport of the products before dispatch.
1.10 Policy support Conducive policy atmosphere is essential to expand and sustain trout aquaculture. There is need to set up a core center to provide technical support and assist investors, as part of its aggressive approaches to develop trout aquaculture and related business. National fisheries plan has already been made to develop aquaculture including trout aquaculture but due to poor strategies and lack of allocation of adequate resources such as technical and financial support, these policies actually do not benefit the farmers in field condition. It is important that these policies be properly implemented. The government should increase investment to update technology and to promote adoption of technology. The existing aquatic animal protection act is mainly intended to natural waters and do not normally address aquaculture. It should be amended or draft new regulation to address concern of possible environmental impact occurred by intensification of aquaculture systems.
Currently trout farmers have fragmented production units. Policy is required to promote for collective production and marketing in pocket area to ensure that inputs transportation and delivery of harvested fish to markets at a cheaper price.
It is also necessary to encourage farmers for formation of producer group or associations. Successful story of association of fisher group for management and production of fish from Lakes of Pokhara Valley suggest that associations are beneficial for the collective procurement of inputs and marketing of products.
The development of human resources should form part of any national aquaculture development plan (Pillay 1993). Considering increasing demand of trout farming in Nepal, human resources are meager to sustained development of trout aquaculture. Hence, priority should be given to increase researcher capabilities and technical personnels in the field of genetic improvement, feed technology and feed management, minimization of waste production, water recirculation technology, health management and food safety of product etc. Sometimes site specific protocols are required to overcome disease and day to day problems. Therefore, strategy to train farmers to tackle problems and work seriously around disease by monitoring the health status of fish as part of farm management is warranted.
Conclusion Trout culture is intensive type of farming which might confronted with environmental issues unless responsible way of culture technique is practiced. Potential success in trout production requires better governance and significant improvements in technology and the management practices. Improvement in genetic quality of brood stock for quality seed production, improved feed technology and feed
135 management, reliable diagnosis and effective disease control programs, and maintaining hygiene and sanitation of harvested product have led to increases in production efficiencies. Farmers should encourage adopting code of practice for mitigating negative environmental and social impacts. Conducive policy, strong efforts in human resource development to increase researcher capabilities and education program for technical personnels as well as farmers are equally important.
Acknowledgement We extend our sincere thanks to all of our staffs at Fisheries Research Station, Pokhara for their cooperation during the preparation of this paper. Thanks to Japan International Cooperative Agency for their cooperation and support.
References Andy H (1993) The veterinary approach to trout. In: Rydia Brown, ed. Aquaculture for Veterinarians: Fish Husbandry and Medicine. Pergamon Press Ltd. Oxford. pp.230. Barg, U.C., D.M. Bartley, A.G. Tacon & Welcomme R. L (1997) Aquaculture and its environment: A case for collaboration. In D. A. Hancock, D.C. Smith, A. Grant and J.P. Beumer eds. Developing and sustaining world fisheries resources: The state of science and management. 2 nd world Fish. Congress. CSIRO Publishing, Australia. pp. 462-470. Boyd C. E & Tucker C. S (1999) Aquaculture Water Quality Management. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston. pp.541-575. De Silva S. S (2001) Human resources development for sustainable aquaculture in the new millennium. In: R.P. Subasinghe, P.B. Bueno, M.J. Phillips, C. Hough, S.E. Mc Gladdery and J.R. Arthur eds. Technical proceedings of the conference on aquaculture in the third millennium. NACA/FAO. pp.43-48. FAO (1995) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Rome, FAO, pp.48. Green A & Green M (2003) Probiotics in Asian shrimp aquaculture. Asian Aquaculture Magazine. March/April. pp. 28-29. Gurung T. B, S. R. Basnet & G. P. Lamsal (2006) Rainbow trout farming in hill terrace of Nuwakot, Nepal. Aquaculture Asia Magazine. April-June. pp.17-18. Gurung, T. B & S R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal: constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia. Oct-Dec Vol. VIII No. 4 Kutty M. N (1997) What ails aquaculture? Aquaculture Asia. 2:8-11 Mair G. C & Beardmore J. A. (1999) Aquaculture genetics in development. AARM Newsletter, Vol. 4, No. 4. Pillay T. V.R (1993) Aquaculture :Principles and Practices. University Press. Cambridge. pp.12-22. Naylor R. L, R. J. Goldburg, H. Mooney, M. Beveridge, J. Clay, C. Folke, N. Kautsky, J. Lubchenco, J. Primavera & Williams M.. (2000) Natures subsidies to shrimp and salmon farming. Science 282: 883-884 Shetty H. P. C, M. C. Nandeesha & Jhingaran A. G (1989) Impact of exotic aquatic species in Indian waters. In: S.S. DeSilva ed. Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia. Asian Fish. Soc., Special Publication No. 3. pp. 45-55. Rai, A.K., S.R. Basnet, A.P. Nepal, R.M. Mulmi & Roy N. K (2002) Potential of Asla and Trout for economic enhancement of the people in the hilly region of Nepal. Proceeding of International seminar on mountains-Kathmandu. March 6-8. pp. 441-446. Schwartz M. F & C.E. Boyd (1996) Suggested management to improve quality and quantity of channel catfish pond effluents. Leaflet 108, Auburn University, AL.
136 Extension strategies for Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) aquaculture development in Nepal Dharni Man Singh, Shankar Prasad Dahal, Bikash Chand Shrestha, Rama Nath Mishra Email: [email protected] Abstract Rainbow trout farming technology is rapidly expanding in the hills of Nepal. Recent research achievements on rainbow trout farming have demonstrated that trout, a cold water fish can be successfully cultivated in Nepalese hills and mountains. Considering its potentiality of expansion and analyzing the present network of fisheries extension network, we proposed a more dynamic and effective fisheries extension network in the country for better benefit to farmers in hills and mountains.
1. Introduction Rainbow trout farming is one of the commercial activities in temperate and tropical countries around the world (Bardach et al. 1975). Present stock of trout was introduced from Japan in 1988 (Gurung & Basnet 2003). Recent research activities indicated that rainbow trout is one of the suitable fish for commercial farming in cold waters regions of Nepal (Rana 2007a, 2007b). NARC has developed a package of practices for trout farming in mid-hills and high mountain areas. It provides employment, income generation and supplementary source of high value protein to economically deprived mountain communities. Therefore, it is high time to make a strategic plan for scaling-up and expansion of trout farming in Nepal. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the present status of fisheries extension activities and recommend the strategic framework and a working model for trout extension strategy.
2. Present status of aquaculture extension Traditional pond aquaculture practices are known to exist since 2006 B.S, but the modern aquaculture started about three decades ago in Nepal. The modality of present form of fisheries extension was adopted focusing on the development of warm water aquaculture production in Terai during Aquaculture Development Project Phase I and II around 1980s. Thus, the present form of extension service absolutely focused on warm-water aquaculture. At present there are three t research farms (one is in the process of establishing with research and development objectives).
Table 1. Existing Fisheries Extension Personnel under existing extension services
137 Thus, the present extension structure actually has not been visualized to function for the extension of cold water aquaculture in the country. The present human resources working for the extension of aquaculture development is given in Table 1. From the given structure it is clear that 74.3% of total fisheries extension human resources are involved southern terai region and 23.7% in mid hills including those of working in centrally located mid hill headquarter in Kathmandu. The table also shows no presence of fisheries extension services in high hill districts despite of the fact that high potentially of cold water aquaculture development exist in mid and high hill districts.
In present scenario, it is not the extension network involved in trout farming extension, however, the NARC's fisheries stations have been involved in uptake pathway and scaling up activities. Since, it has been now proved that trout farming is one of the promising aquaculture activities in the country, especially in high and mid hills, therefore, it is high time that the fisheries extension service should develop the structure so the areas under cold water regions could be addressed by the presence of fisheries extension services.
Fig 1. Existing Model of Trout Extension
3. Recommended model of trout farming extension Since Nepal has the comparative advantages over other countries for the development and expansion of cold water aquaculture (Table 1), therefore deputation of extension personnel in mid hill and high hills are highly recommendable. It is clear that the present form of extension service cannot provide substantial extension services for increase trout production in the country. Therefore reformation and addition of extension personnel will be indispensable for trout production and income generation through agriculture development in the country.
To add the fisheries extension personnel in mid and high hills we recommend the deputation and linkage as shown in Fig 2. In this structure, Fisheries Development Centers in different potential regions have been envisaged. Similarly, subject matter specialist (SMS with the staffs) in potential District Agriculture Development Offices including in Agriculture Service Centers (ASC) has also been proposed (Fig 2). It is expected by such scenario cold water fisheries could be promoted in clusters or trout farming companies could exist with the support of extension services.
138
Fig 2. Proposed extension service structure to promote cold water aquaculture in Nepal
4. Strategic framework for trout extension The strategies of trout extension should be based on following themes: - Participatory Extension The extension services in the country for the development of all commodities should be participatory based on public-people-partnership. - Decentralized Service Delivery The service delivery including that of seed and other services should be decentralized. - Partnership and Complementary Approach The extension approach should be based on partnership approach and the relationship among the srakehilders should be complementary to each others. - Optimization of local resources For extension of cold water aquaculture technology strategic plan should be use local resources as much as possible for fish production. - Use of pocket approach Instead of providing services in isolation, rather pocket approach should be taken as usibg this strategy limited specialist could provide their services of expertise in clusters more efficiently. - Farmer to farmer extension An approach of farmer to farmer extension should also be taken as this would be more reliable way of extension service. - Use of Information Technology Information services should be provided through modern systems to share the information for the benefit of farmer's community. 5. Thrust of trout extension strategy Rainbow trout is considered as one of the high value product. In general, capital cost involvement is relatively higher than other agricultural commodities for trout farm establishment. Therefore, the main thrust for trout extension should be income generation, food security, equity and inclusive, value addition and ensuring quality production, commercialization and environment friendly. These aspects are considered to provide sustainable production of targeted communities in more reliably.
139 6. Constrains for trout expansion - Inadequate awareness among local community - Inadequate seed supply and lack of quality feed factory - Late realization for its scaling-up and extension - No trout resource centers under DOA for providing support services to the farmers/entrepreneurs - Lack of trained human resource in trout extension - Inadequate infrastructures such as road, electricity, ice plant in potential areas - Financial aspects of the existing technology needs further study - Limited study on demand and supply and inadequate marketing channel - Low collateral value and very high investment
7. Conclusion and recommendation The characteristic of the trout extension services should be; - focused on potential areas - Holistic and integrated approach - Encouraging better cooperation amongst stakeholders - Facilitating the use of local resources - Public sector should play a facilitators role - Mass awareness program for local NGOs, CBOs, VDCs, DDCs, political organizations and participatory extension approach through these organizations - Inventory preparation for feasible trout farming sites/locations, categorization of natural resource rich areas and resource poor areas and provide extension services accordingly - Incentives, soft loans and tax assumption on capital investment for establishing trout hatcheries/nurseries - Project approach - Integrated approach e.g. with hydropower - Provision of seeking external financial resources - Competitive grant system for trout extension services - Capacity building and human resource development - Upgrading existing DOFD into warm-water and cold-water two directorates - The strategy should open opportunities for the inclusion of retired exports, experienced farmers, researcher and village resource persons
Acknowledgement We extend our sincere thanks to all of our staffs for providing support and advices for the preparation of this manuscript. Thanks are also to support provided by Mr. Mukund Bahadur Thapa for secretarial services and his numerous other supports.
Reference Bardach J. H, W. O. Ryther & McLarney W.O (1972) Commercial culture of freshwater salmonids, genera Salmo, Thymallus, and Hucho. In: The farming and husbandry of freshwater and marine organisms. John Willey and Sons. pp. 397-449 Rana C (2007a) Rainbow trout: an agricultural breakthrough. The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 97-99. www.readtheboss.com Rana C (2007b) No, fishy business! The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 76-77. www.readtheboss.com Gurung T. B & S. R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal: constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8 (4):16-18
140 Constraints and potentialities on scaling-up of Rainbow trout farming practices in mid and high hills of Nepal: Farmers Perspective
Aditya Raj Khanal & Resham Gautam Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development, Pokhara, Nepal Email: [email protected]
Abstract Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) farming practice is expected to have high potentiality to be scaled up in mid hills and mountainous region of Nepal. Despite of its potentiality, the farming is restricted only to a very few farmers of Nuwakot district. Successful trout farming demands high skill, expertise and specific managerial requirements which might pose problems to find out appropriate site for trout farming. It might be the reason that some of the trout farmers have perceived trout farming as one of high skill work. To examine how the associated farmers have perceived the trout farming activities in present socio-economic perspectives a schedule interview in Nuwakot district was performed. High demand of trout with the lucrative market price makes the trout farming a viable enterprise in the mountains and hills of Nepal. Possibility to utilize abundant sloppy land, natural spring water, link with hotel business and agro tourism were the potentialities realized for rapid scaling up of trout farming in the country. Difficulties in availability of fish fry, technical aspects of farming, high starting and production costs, difficulties in availability of feed were considered the major constrains for scaling up of trout farming technology at farmers level. Farmers mostly prefer easier provision of financial support with low interest rate and appropriate valuation of their trout farming lands for loan sanctioning. Intensive technical trainings for starter farmers, effective mechanism for availability of fry fish and group approach in feed management are some recommendations of farmers on scaling up of rainbow trout farming to the similar areas within the country.
Key words: farmer's perspective, rainbow trout farming, shortage of seed, sloppy land, high cost
1. Introduction Nepal is well known for ample rivers, streams and lakes where different types of aquaculture enterprises could be initiated or established. Fish farming could be an important source of income generating activities for farmers residing in those areas where water resources are abundant. The southern plain known as Terai is the main area for warm water pond fish farming, where carps are produced commercially. In mid and high hill area where cold water is abundant fish farming with cold water fish seems to be highly potential. Initiative in fish farming activities could be enhanced in the mid and high hills by providing required technical skills, identifying suitable fish species to their environment and enhancing their management capacity. This would not only improve the economic status of farmers but would also commercialize the cold water fish farming in the mid and high hills.
Rainbow trout (Oncorynchus mykiss) is a high value exotic cold water fish. It prefers clean, cold and high oxygen water for its growth and survival (Gurung & Basnet 2003). On-farm testing of rainbow trout at individual farmers own management conditions and its economic analysis indicates that trout farming is technically feasible and profitable in places where suitable agro ecological conditions prevail (FRD 2005, Rana 2007a, 2007b). Various studies carried out by Fisheries Research Centre (FRC), Trisuli and Fisheries Research Division (FRD) Godawari revealed that trout farming can be managed by farmers in raceway ponds (Gauchan et al. 2007; Gurung & Basnet 2003, Nepal et.al. 2002, Rai et al. 2005) Trout is popular among consumers for its taste. This preference might be due to high quality flesh of trout. The commercial cultivation of rainbow trout was started as early as 1853 in United States (Bardach et al. 1972). Moreover, farmers prefer trout because of its higher demand, good price and sufficient market. Though the trout farming has tremendous potential in terms of market, price and higher consumer demand, this farming still posses some constraints. There are inadequate research
141 and studies regarding the constraints of farmers managed trout farming in the mid and high hills of Nepal. These constraints on farmer managed trout farming could best be assessed by farmers who have initiated trout farming. Root problems and constraints assessed by the farmers themselves, the potentials of trout farming in their area and recommendations suggested by them could guide the national strategic directions and planning on scaling up of rainbow trout farming. Therefore, this study was carried out with following objectives: To assess the potentials and constraints of trout farming at farmers level in Nepal and provide guideline for the national strategic directions on scaling up of rainbow trout farming in mid and high hills of Nepal.
2. Materials and Methods Farmers of Nuwakot district have been involved in the rainbow trout farming. Perception on potentialities and constrains of rainbow trout farming was taken from individual trout growing farmers of Nuwakot district of Nepal through interview method. Study covered those farmers who are growing trout for several years and the farmers who have just started construction of raceway pond for trout farming. Six out of seven trout growing farmers of Nuwakot district were individually interviewed and their farms were observed. Present context of trout farming basically on feed, technical, marketing and managerial aspects on the area was assessed and observed. Recommendations from farmers to scale up trout farming to the other similar areas of Nepal were also collected.
3. Result and Discussion 3.1 General scenario of rainbow trout farming in Nuwakot District Rainbow trout was introduced to the farmers of Nuwakot by Fisheries Research Centre, Trishuli in 1998 (FRC 2006). Mr. Purna B. Lama, a farmer resident of Nuwakot district, was the first person to initiate trout farming at farmers level in the area. He started farming since 1998 with 400 fingerlings and at present he has raceway ponds of around 40,000 fingerlings capacity. In Nuwakot, seven farmers are raising trout on their private farm at present and two farmers have just started construction of pond for farming. Trend shows that trout farming has increased both in terms of area and household. Most of the established trout growers have their own restaurant where various dishes of trout are available for sale. Trout hatchery has just started at farmers level under supervision and technical suggestion from Fisheries Research Division (FRD), Godavari and Fisheries Research Centre (FRC), Trishuli of Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC). Natural spring water tapped from the forest area is the main source of water for raceway ponds which is constructed on sloping lands where trout is farmed.
3.2 Farmers preferred model Farmers prefer to have an integrated farm for trout farming. Preferred model includes spring water passing through the raceway ponds of sloping land, which is then utilized for generating electricity and running Ghatta (water mills) and finally the outgoing water from Ghatta and turbine is used for agricultural production. Almost all trout farmers of the study area wish to have their own restaurant adjoining to integrated trout farming.
3.3 Potentialities of trout farming 3.3.1 Natural spring water Natural spring water tapped from the forest is supposed to be the appropriate water for trout farming. Spring water is examined technically to know whether it has all the requirements for trout farming or not. Thus, those areas where year round natural spring water is available could be regarded as the potential areas for trout farming.
3.3.2 Sloping land utilization Sloping lands with poor fertility status, which otherwise could not be used for most of the agricultural crop farming, could be used for constructing race way ponds. Current farming on slopping land
142 shows good result on productivity of trout. It is recommended that sloping land pattern of high and mid hills could be efficiently utilized for trout farming.
3.3.3 Good annual return to farmers Trout farming is yielding good return to the farmers. High demand of trout and good market of the produce are the good indicators for scaling up of rainbow trout at farmers level. There are no cases reported by farmers about the produce that have not been sold so far. Although the produce has high price, it is sold from the farm gate. Farmers regard consumers demand of trout dishes in their own restaurant as very high.
3.3.4 Integrated way of farming Rainbow trout farming can be managed well in integrated way and some farmers in the study area have already been practicing it. Water current after passing through race way ponds located on sloping lands could be utilized for generating electricity and running Ghatta. Electricity is utmost important in making feed, drying and storage. Farmers responded that micro level electricity generation at farmers own initiatives is the best way to solve the problem of lower voltage and load shading of public electricity. Ghatta is essential to grind the feed for trout. The drained water could be utilized for irrigating agricultural crops as the mid and high hills of Nepal are potential areas for various agricultural crops. Farmers opined that labor force involved in trout farming could be efficiently utilized on production of other associated agricultural crops of the area in an integrated way.
Beside these, trout farming could be associated with hotel business and agro tourism. Farmers involved in such business responded that an adjoining restaurant with trout farm with proper management earns good profit.
3.4 Constraints at farmers level 3.4.1 Finding appropriate site Rainbow trout needs some special requirements such as year round supply of clean cold water with good dissolved oxygen, accessibility of road, communication, electricity and feed source. Thus, finding appropriate site for trout farming is itself a difficult job.
3.4.2 High starting and production cost Cost of construction on sloping land is comparatively very high. Cost of machines for feed making and other management make initial and production cost of farming more expensive. Beside this, micro electricity generation on own initiative adds substantial cost that an ordinary farmer face difficulty to manage despite of its requirement for the successful trout enterprises. Depending upon the public source of electricity is risky due to its unreliability, fluctuation on voltage, and frequent power cut-off and load shading.
3.4.3 Technical aspects Trout growing needs a thorough technical knowledge. Most of the farmers are facing the technical difficulties. It is inferred that trout growing farmers not only need great interest in farming but also equally be sensitive and serious in technical matters with risk bearing capacity as well. Trout growers of the study area feel the prevailing technical suggestions are insufficient (Box 1).
Box 1. Experiences of Kanchha Lama Cleaning the Fish Pond Kanchha Lama, trout grower of Belkot-6, Nuwakot faced some problem on technical clearance. As technician suggested him to clean pond frequently, he cleaned his raceway pond twice a day assuming that trout needs clear pond. Mr. Lama suffered to a loss due to over-cleaning of the pond, affected on the performance of trout and resulted in lower fish yield.
143 In 2060 (B.S.), Bibek Devkota of Jituphedi faced the immediate mortality of about 1500 fry fish at the beginning of farming due to the un clarity on the technical suggestions he received from the concerned trout experts/technicians.
3.4.4 Loan sanctioning and valuation of sloping land Farmers regard loan sanctioning process is one of the constraints to initiate trout farming. As trout needs about 12-14 months to attain commercial size and substantial amount of money is spent on initial constructions, it is difficult to pay loans on time. On the other hand, sloppy land of mid and high hills as collaterals are evaluated as lower price and only a little amount of loan is sanctioned by the financial institutes and the banks.
3.4.5 Availability of fry fish Fry fish is not available in adequate amount as demanded by farmers at present context. Almost all trout growers of the area have lower stock of fry than actual capacity of their pond due to unavailability of fry fish.
3.4.6 Availability and cost of feed materials: Feed materials and procedure of pellet making is costly at farmers level. As feed quality is highly influential in growth of trout, farmers can not compromise with the quality of feed. To own feed associated machines is advantageous but the cost for those machine is comparatively very high to bear by a single farmer. High protein rich feed is required for trout among which dried shrimp is the main component. Availability of shrimp is sometimes difficult as farmers have to rely on traders from Kathmandu valley and other towns in the country.
3.5 Recommendations as suggested by farmers: 3.5.1 Financial support and loan: Financial support with low interest rate for starter farmer is crucial to start trout farming at farmers level. On the other hand, in farmers opinion, rainbow trout potential land should be evaluated differently from ordinary sloping lands of mid and high hills so that farmer could get more loan from banks by valuating them as the enterprises. This needs a clear policy from the government side to promote trout farming.
3.5.2 Intensive technical trainings for starter farmers: Before starting trout farming, it is better to give intensive technical trainings for interested farmers to aware about risk and probable difficulties of farming. Since, more technical aspects should be considered on trout farming, frequent visit of technicians on farmers field would make farming easier.
3.5.3 Farmers group approach for feed: As cost and availability of feed is somewhat difficult, it could be managed by group approach of trout growing farmers. Group approach in feed management such as bringing raw materials and making pellet could make availability of feed easier. Policy on recognizing the group efforts and more specifically, promotion of cooperative concept in the potential area would help in promoting the enterprises.
3.5.4 Hatchery and fry fish production on farmers level: The supply of fry fish is lower than its demand. Hatchery on farmers level under supervision of technicians could be the way forward for it. On the other hand, some farmer suggest that to avoid chances of monopoly and private pricing, supply and pricing mechanism of fry should be strictly controlled by government.
144 Conclusion High demand of rainbow trout and good return to the farmers in the study area indicates the potentiality of scaling up of rainbow trout in those areas where technical and managerial aspects of trout farming is met. Integrated approach of trout farming associated with hotel business seems to be more profitable. Intensive technical backstopping for the trout growers and frequent visits from technicians in the farming areas could help in minimizing technical difficulties encountered by the trout growers. Government need to formulate appropriate mechanism for easy and adequate availability of fry fish to the farmers. Farmers group approach in feed management could solve the availability and high cost of feed. Moreover, promotion of cooperative concept by federating the interested trout farmers could be an appropriate approach to promote the rainbow trout farming in the potential areas. Trout farming is not profitable and feasible for the subsistence farming. For the profitable trout farming, initial investment is comparatively high which can not be afforded by many small and medium scale farmers of Nepal. Easy access to the soft loan for establishment of the trout enterprises is the must to promote the trout farming at commercial level. The sloping land used for rainbow trout farming should be valued as a part of trout enterprises and thus valuation while sanctioning loan should be done accordingly. By adopting the integrated approach of fish farming, generating electricity, running the water mills and using the drained water from the pond for irrigating the high value agricultural crops, trout farming could be made more inclusive to the community members. The use of the drained water from the ponds for the high value crop growers, relatively poor members of the community who can not afford the trout farming, would also promote the social inclusion process. This will also help justifying the public financial institutions, e.g., agricultural development banks, that the money is invested for the benefit of all kinds of the farmers including the poor members. Acknowledgement The authors are highly indebted to Dr. Pratap Shrestha, executive director of LI-BIRD for his encouragement to carry out the study. We are thankful to Mr. Tara Lama, Mr. Diwakar Poudel and Mr. Arjun Basnet for their inputs on the paper. We highly acknowledge the support provided by Dr. Tek B. Gurung and Ms. Neeta Pradhan of FRD/NARC. Finally, the authors are thankful to Mr. G.P. Lamsal of FRC Trishuli and the trout farmers of Nuwakot for their kind cooperation during the field study. Reference Bardach J. E, J. H. Ryther & McLarney W. O (1972) Aquaculture: The farming and husbandry of Fresh water and marine organisms. Wiley inter-science, A division of John Wiley and Sons, NY, 868pp. FRD (2005) Annual Technical Report 2004/05. Fishery Research Division (FRD) of Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC), Godawari, Lalitpur. FRC Trisuli (2006) Short Information on Rainbow Trout Farming in Nepal. Fishery Research Centre (FRC) of Nepal Agriculture Research Council, Trisuli, Nuwakot. Gauchan D, N Thakur, B Shrestha, A Rayamajhi, S Gautam & Lamsal G. P (2007) Marketing of Rainbow Trout Fish in Nepal. Paper presented in First National Workshop on Scaling-up of Rainbow trout Farming Strategies in Nepal. Fisheries Research Division/NARC, Directorate of Fisheries Development/DoA, Nepal Fisheries Society and JICA.October December. Gurung T & Basnet S R (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal.Constraints and Prospects. Aquaculture Asia, Vol VIII (4). Nepal A. P, S. R. Basnet, G. P. Lamsal, P. L. Joshi & Mulmi R. M (2002) Economics of rainbow trout farming system in Nepal. FAO fisheries technical paper 431:179-191. Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & Lamsal G. P (2005) Rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss culture in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal. APARI Publication 1/2005. Rana C (2007a) Rainbow trout: an agricultural breakthrough. The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 97-99. www.readtheboss.com Rana C (2007b) No, fishy business! The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 76-77. www.readtheboss.com
145 Role of media for scaling up of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming technologies among stakeholders Bhola Man Singh Basnet
Chief, Communication, Publication and Documentation Division Nepal Agricultural Research Council Email: [email protected]
Abstract Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) native to cold waters of the Northern Hemisphere have been introduced throughout the world. Trout are prized both as sport fish and food fish due to their excellence in fighting ability and taste, respectively. Rainbow trout accept a wider variety of food, therefore, considered ideal for farming. Trout is considered a product of high value but low volume commodity for food and nutritional security. Its farming can be highly beneficial in enhancing livelihood of hill and mountainous communities by utilizing cold water resources. Nepal has recently developed full packages of practices for rainbow trout farming, as a result several trout farms have been established in hilly areas especially near by Kathmandu. On this regard, media have also played important role in dissemination of trout farming technology not only among interested farmers but also among donors, government officials, bureaucrats, and policy makers. As an impact trout has been included in government policies, because media has also played significant roles since last several years using visuals, audio and print media (radio, FM, TVs). The successful scaling up of the rainbow trout farming, thus suggest that journalists should also be in-built partners in scaling-up activities with allocation of budget and program for communications and promotions. Press releases and conferences can create awareness. Media sensitize not only the farmers but donor, planner, financial agency, policy maker, social scientist, politician, extension, I/NGOs, CBOs, development worker, entrepreneur, producer & consumer, marketing agency etc. There are several proverbs relating to media, which could be instantly used in agriculture sector to translate the knowledge from agricultural scientist to their stakeholders using the media. For example, it is said "information not published is not done", "late news is no news", "how new is news ?", "be the first to tell and be the first to know", "we report you decide like advocate and judge", "putting news first". At the end it is suggested that all the researchers, extensions/development workers and farmers/clients should be "pro-active", they should have "salesmanship" and they should be "good communicator" too. However, mostly researchers lack the salesmanship. Before communicating any message, first the outputs should be successful, well proven, matured one, or it should have news value, otherwise some time communication might be counterproductive.
1. Introduction Fish is considered as the sign of "Good Luck" in Nepalese tradition and culture. According to the recent fisheries profile of the country the total fish production was 42,463 metric tones in Fiscal Year 2005/06. In fisheries sector, warm water aquaculture is relatively well developed and forms the backbone of fish production in the country. Considering the geographical setting cold water fisheries need to be promoted so the people living in hills could also involved in aquaculture based livelihood opportunities. Trout are native to cool waters of the Northern Hemisphere and have been introduced to cool waters throughout the world. Trout are prized both as sport fish and as food fish because of their fighting ability and their spectacular leaps when hooked. Rainbow trout takes a wider variety of food, therefore ideal for fish farmers. Trout is also considered as high value low volume commodity for food security, nutritional security, profitability i.e. income generation for enhancing the livelihood of hill and
146 mountainous people, employment opportunity, reducing poverty, ultimately helping for agriculture commercialization and specialization by utilizing cold water resources.
Recently Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) has developed farming technological packages of rainbow trout suitable to Himalayan ecological conditions. Rainbow trout introduced in Nepal from Japan is also known as Himalayan Trout among many consumers. Several examples have been shown demonstrating that the technology generated by NARC has been highly successful in farmer's field (Rai et al. 1995, Gurung et al. 2003). Since trout farming technology has been proved to be a successful project, it is considered that this is the right time to transfer this technology to various other agencies which could promote and scale up this technology to private enterprises for the benefit of all stakeholders. Here, in this essay my aims are to evaluate the role played by media in enhancing the knowledge of trout farming and highlight on possible role for dissemination of trout farming technology among stakeholders in Nepal.
Recently, media have played a greater role for bringing rainbow trout as an important commodity under "One village one Product" program in Nepalese government's policy because we have been advocating trout since the last so many years through print and electronic media (radio, FM, TVs), personal contacts plus exhibitions etc. In this sense journalists also act as one of the development partners. Therefore, it is argued that budget for publication should be in-built/embed for scaling-up and promotion of any agriculture-related projects. Media is needed for uptake pathways plus wider scaling-up too (Fig 1, 2). Press releases and press conferences can be done for sensitizing and creating public awareness about rainbow trout. Media sensitizes, not only the farmers but donor, planner, financial agency, policy maker, social scientist, politician, extension, I/NGOs, CBOs, development worker, entrepreneur, producer & consumer, marketing agency etc. It is said "Not publish/inform means not done". Donors in the past always forgot this vital issue of development communications.
The persuasion of this author also helped for bringing out publication entitled "Rainbow Trout Culture in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal: A Success Story" by Asia-Pacific Association for Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI). APAARI has published success stories in so many agriculture related subjects of countries concerned. Himalayan Trout so far, is the only one subject from Nepal. Technology exchange is also done between rainbow trout from Nepal and fresh water prawn from Thailand. We should not forget that any program to be successful there should be "research push and market pull". Researcher should not lack in salesmanship/pro-activeness and they should be a good communicator too for scaling-up of successful technologies.
2. Communication and Agricultural Policies Nepal wants to promote agriculture-related issues like market price, transfer of technologies etc., through the telecommunication media like Radio, FM Radio, and Television. In the long-term government has plan to establish Tele centres (rural information centres) throughout the 4,000 VDCs with the facilities of internet, e-mail, printer, fax, photocopy machine etc. Following are some related information on communication use for agricultural extension and education for farmers and other stakeholders.
2.1 Telecommunication (Internet, Cellular Telephone for rural development) Nepal Telecom Ltd. provided telephone service through 195 telephone exchanges by mid-March 2005. These exchanges have a total of 5,25,021 line capacity, of which 4,33,631 lines have been distributed. Post-paid and pre-paid mobile services customers totaled 75,645 and 1,73,175 respectively by mid-March 2005. After the expansion of the telecom services in 325 VDCs during this year, a total of 2,234 VDCs, out of 3,914 VDCs and 58 municipalities have access to telephone service by mid- March 2005.Cellular Telephone services are provided both by Nepal Telecom as well as Private One i.e. " Mero Mobile ".
147 2.2. Radio and TV Established in 1951, Radio Nepal is country's oldest and country-wide electronic media. Its short- wave broadcast can be received all over the country while its medium wave broadcast can reach to 83 % of the population. To extend its services to areas not covered by medium wave broadcasting with the cooperation at local level through the use of Frequency Modulation (FM) system has also been started recently. Radio Nepal also adopted V-sat technology to make its broadcast receivable all over the country.
Television service of Nepal Television (NTV), as a strong, wider coverage and effective means of communication, is in regular operation in Nepal since 1984. At present, it has 3 studios and 15 broadcasting centers covering 45 % of the total area of Nepal. Its population coverage is estimated around 65 %. NTV is using geo-satellite to broadcast its programs countrywide. Now, NTV is telecasting its program through the satellite of Thailand. It has second channel i.e. the Metro Channel. NTV has installed the Digital Satellite News gathering equipment and has a capacity of live cast from any part of the country.
2.3 Print Media for Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Information Services The normal channel of disseminating agricultural technologies generated by NARC to the farmers/clients is through Department of Agriculture (DoA) and Department of Livestock Services (DLS) under the Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives (MoAC). International / NGOs, CBOs, Development Organizations, Print and Electronic media are also disseminating agricultural technologies. The five Regional Directorates of Agriculture & Livestock are located in five Regions, similarly 75 district agriculture centers (ASCs/SCs) are respectively established in Nepal. They are all mandated to provide agriculture development information to disseminate improved technologies using different methods/media of communications.
Use of mass communication channel is also undertaken in Nepal with the aim of reaching a considerably large number of farmers. So, it is the mass media which are believed to convey the updated technical information to farmers, rapidly and regularly with more coverage. The different mass media presently used in Nepal are Radio, FM Radio, Television, Printed materials, Exhibitions and Video films. There is daily agriculture program in Radio and Television (Fig 1). Moreover, there is Teleserial, Farmers' problem and Experts' answer, Studio-based Interaction programme, Agriculture from Foreign Countries, weekly (Friday) Agriculture News in Television.
2.4 ICT (Internet & Cellular Telephone) use in Agricultural and Rural Development ICT access, first meant public internet access (telecentres); now being interpreted more broadly to include radio, TV, phones, and non-networked kit (computers etc). Community Radio (FM) is working well and needs more resources. Daily agriculture program broadcasted through Radio Nepal is accessible even in remote areas of the country. Radio is the most effective, affordable and reachable to the farmers even in remote areas. Rural telecom networks are largely absent, and where present are not data-capable. Existing non-commercial telecentres are few, little used, often not connected. Internet access rates outside main towns are prohibitively high (Recently NT has announced the facility of POP (real + virtual) in 55 district HQs. Private ISPs have trouble getting leased lines.
2.5 ICT use in Agricultural Research and Development Communication, Publication and Documentation Division (CPDD) under Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) is responsible for both enhancing accesses to information technology for the scientists, researchers, technical officers and communicating research results to the extension, farmers, clients and other potential beneficiaries. NARC's research results including fisheries/Himalayan trout are to be communicated to its internal and external clients through different types of technical publication both in print and electronic formats. The library of NARC is also the National Agricultural Documentation Centre.
148 3. Agriculture Extension and Outreach The major pathway for disseminating the NARC's generated agro-technologies along with Himalayan trout is through the extension wings under Department of Agriculture (DoA) and Department of Livestock Services (DLS). These departments have extension network throughout the nation in 5 development regions, 75 districts through several Agriculture Service Centres & Sub-centres in each districts. These days, I/NGOs, CBOs, Development Organizations, Media Houses are also playing greater role for extension activities for reaching the mass of farmers/clients within the short span of timeframe. At present, the concept of participatory technology development (PTD) is followed in Nepal. The outreach program of NARC is also the bridge between researcher and farmer with the help of extension.
4. Agriculture Market related information Agriculture Business Promotion and Market Development Directorate monitor, supervise, evaluate and make strategy for the marketing of agricultural commodities including fisheries throughout the country. This directorate also maintains the market related information like recent market price of the agriculture commodities in different parts of the country and information related to cost of cultivation of various agricultural commodities etc. Trade Promotion Centre (TPC) deals with import & export of agricultural commodities.
5. Publicity and mass communication It is said "Late News is no News", "How New is News ?", "How News is Used", "Be the First to Tell and Be the First to Know", "We Report you Decide like Advocate and Judge", "Putting News First". We can follow these principles in agriculture too. All the researchers, extensions/development workers and farmers/clients should be "Pro-Active, they should have "Salesmanship" and they should be "Good Communicator" too. However, mostly a Researcher lacks in the Salesmanship. Before communicating any message, first the outputs should be successful, well proven, matured one, or it should have news value, otherwise some time communication could be counterproductive too.
There is daily 15-minute "Agriculture Program" broadcasted and telecasted through Radio and Television plus weekly (Friday) "Agriculture News" telecasted by Nepal Television (NTV) too. Previously, we were after media, now they are after us for getting latest innovative events concerning agro-technologies including Himalayan trout/fisheries & aquaculture, which is a good indication/feedback. Even the reporters from major media houses have created one association named "Nepal Agricultural Journalists' Association = NAJA".
NTV had telecasted news related with trout six times during 2005 and 2006 including full story once in 2006. Fisheries & Aquaculture related programmes had been telecasted by NTV during 2005- second week of January 2007. Television like Image Channel and Channel Nepal telecasted Himalayan Trout's activities of Nuwakot and Rasuwa on December 28, 2006 and December 29, 2006 respectively. HBC 94 FM also broadcasted interview about trout on December 8, 2006.
For promotion of trout Agriculture Exhibition/Fair has also been also effective tool. The "Press Conference and Press Releases" are other ways of creating or sensitizing public awareness about the development of successful agro-stories and technologies. NARC Newsletter covered activities about Himalayan Trout 9 times, 15 times about fisheries and aquaculture within the span of 1994-2006. Advertisements in agriculture are equally important for publicity. Subject-specific Campaigns can also be done successfully. Recently held CAN INFO TECH-2006 in Kathmandu is worth mentioning. South Asian Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) had one workshop about "SAARC's Trans-Himalayan Fisheries" on 26-27 November 1996 in Kathmandu. SAARC's Workshop on Fisheries and Aquaculture was held on 13-14 December 1994 in Kathmandu. Hatchlings from Fishery Research Division, Godawari and Egg/Hatchlings from Agriculture Research Station, Trishuli had been exported to Pakistan and Papua New Guinea (PNG) respectively during 1994.
6. Further ahead in information and communication management There has been growing need of improving communication and management system in NARC without which, the works being carried out by NARC scientists cannot be managed properly, the
149 technology developed cannot be disseminated and appropriation of resources cannot be efficiently done. Today, computers are playing very important role in communication, publication, documentation and management of research. The e-mail and internet is profoundly affecting research systems in all countries of the world and information and knowledge can no longer be controlled in the ways it used to be in the past. The use of electronic media for the exchange of research outputs, literatures, submission correction, publication, data analyses and collection of references for papers. Now, NARC has its own website (e.g. http://www.narc.org.np) and E-mail addresses ([email protected][email protected]). Therefore, in order to increase NARC research and research management efficiency, all staff must learn to use these computer-based techniques. Even if we are academically sound, when we don't know how to operate computer then it is said "Educated Illiterate ".
Some of the suggestions for scaling-up of Himalayan trout through Media Give major thrust on " Successful Stories/Technologies " Successful package of practices Successful modes of communications Production and collection of Video Films about successful technologies Technological Exchanges Strong link with Print & Electronic and other media Organize and participate in Exhibitions (e.g. AGRO EXPO NEPAL-2006) Telecentre concept E-Publications Publication of Popular articles More sensitize public awareness about the importance of Himalayan Trout Networking Exchange of Publications Scientists-to-Scientists/Farmer-to-Farmer/Business-to-Business contact Visit & observation tours by information and communication persons
Conclusions Until and unless NARC generated programs are not appropriate and suitable to the requirements and feeling of the farmers/entrepreneurs/clients, it will be very difficult to adopt and disseminate. In scaling up activities technologies beneficiaries must be involved in the whole process to give the feeling of their ownership. They should be active partner and NARC should play the role of facilitator. These days focus is given for participatory technology development (PTD) and dissemination. Therefore, project should consider journalists as one of their development partners for dissemination, sensitizing or creating public awareness and scaling-up of rainbow trout. Moreover, the budget and program for communications must also be in-built/embedded in the project. At last but not the least, let us exchange/share our ideas/experiences/ knowledge/technical know-how about the successful agricultural stories and technologies concerning Himalayan trout for the benefit of extensionists/development workers/entrepreneurs/farmers/ and other clients. Acknowledgement My sincere thank to all journalists, who had been helpful for me to disseminate agricultural technological innovation to various stakeholders. I would also like to thanks my subordinate staffs working in information and documentation Division, NARC.
Reference: Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & G. P. Lamsal (2005) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal- A success story. Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, Thailand. 33 pp Gurung T. B. & S. R. Basnet (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Onchorynchus mykiss in Nepal: constraints and prospects. Aquaculture Asia 8(4):16-18
150
A B
C
Fig 1. Some news publication by print media on trout farming and products (A-E).
151
D
E Fig 2. A booklet on rainbow trout farming research in Nepal published by APAARI.
152
"One Village One Product" (OVOP) program with special reference to Rainbow trout farming and marketing perspective in Nepal
Kiran Raj Pandey Agro Enterprise Centre/Federation of Nepal Chamber of Commerce Email: [email protected]
Abstract This paper gives a brief introduction on rainbow trout farming perspective in "one village one product" scheme. Rainbow trout produced in Himalayan water has higher market probability. The major objective of the OVOP program is to cater local as well as international market opportunities by means of product development and value addition of local productions for assisting in the poverty alleviation and economic development of local communities. The overall target of OVOP trout program is o achieve 400 mt of production by the end of 2009. The working modality of OVOP program is based on a public private-partnership.
1. Introduction Nepal is an agrarian society with agriculture representing the major share of GDP (38%) and the majority of the population living in rural areas and depending mostly on agriculture for their livelihood. Since last decade many agricultural sub-sectors like cardamom, ginger, tea, coffee, honey, floriculture, fishery, vegetables, fruits, etc. have gradually come up in a commercial scale. Many small and medium enterprises are depending on local agricultural and forest resources and are generating self-employment opportunities and raising income of rural population. Nepalese agricultural products need to increase value addition that will help realize better market and prices for the poor farmers for which a program like" One Village One Product" movement can bring positive impact.
The success of "One Village One Product" program (OVOP) movement in Oita Prefecture of Japan from where it started in 1979 as a local campaign and similar programs in many other countries, especially in Thailand, involving local community and utilizing local resources towards attaining a prosperous economic development have inspired the Federation of Nepalese Chambers of Commerce Industry (FNCCI), an umbrella organization of the Nepalese private sector, to initiate "One Village One Product" in a form of a national prioritized program jointly with the Government of Nepal. The program will encourage local people to become more motivated, to feel greater pride in their communities, and to become more involved in the activation of their local community through their own efforts to produce local specialties. It strongly believes that economic development programs linked with rural communities particularly focusing on the agriculture and potential employment generating economic activities have got to be the major program thrust areas for Nepal. Currently FNCCI and the Government of Nepal, especially the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, are working together in a public private partnership approach in carrying out OVOP program in Nepal (AEC 2007, 2008).
Major objective of the OVOP program is to cater local as well as international market opportunities by means of product development and value addition of local productions for assisting in the poverty alleviation and economic development of local communities. Other objectives of OVOP program in Nepal are provided below:
153 Create jobs and thereby increase income for local communities. Strengthen communities in individual thinking and action in local development. Promote local wisdom, use of local materials and labor as main resources. Promote human resource development and capacity cultivation of people in community. Promote creative thinking of communities in product development in line with life style and objectives.
2. Development of OVOP movement in Nepal Since last two year FNCCI has been engaged in planning to initiate OVOP movement in Nepal. Some officials of FNCCI and members of different chambers of commerce and industries had participated in a study tour of "One Village One Product" program in Thailand. For a good initiation and effective implementation of this program, FNCCI had proposed the Government of Nepal an effective public- private partnership modality. Ministry of Agriculture & Cooperatives and Ministry of Industry, Commerce & Supplies have shown great interest in supporting OVOP movement in Nepal for the upliftment of rural farmers. Currently, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has two committees at the central level: High Level Committee for policy support under the Chairmanship of Honorable Minister of Agriculture & Cooperatives, and another implementation committee under the Coordination of the President of FNCCI. Both of these committees have members representing different ministries. Agro Enterprise Centre of FNCCI bears entrusted responsibilities of the Secretariat for OVOP movement.
The Centre coordinates the formulation and effective implementation of initial programs. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives and AEC/FNCCI had engaged in preparing working procedures of the OVOP program in Nepal. Inputs from other ministries had been received in finalizing the document. The Government of Nepal formally incorporated OVOP concept in the National Program and Budget for the fiscal year 2006/07 and recently approved the Working Procedure 2063 for the implementation of OVOP program. This Working Procedure has special features like implementation of programs on a rolling basis, establishment of basket fund where resources from different sources can be pooled in to carry out programs; resources will not be freezed at the end of the fiscal year, and ample flexibility in making necessary changes in programs, if required. Pilot programs in about six districts for four agricultural products (sweet orange, lapsi, bel & rainbow trout) have been approved in a public private-partnership modality. Rainbow trout farming will be promoted as OVOP program in Nuwakote and Rasuwa districts.
3. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farming as OVOP movement Rainbow trout as food fish among consumers and commodity for farming among farmers, especially in hills is becoming popular in Nepal. The farming of trout succeeded recently (Gurung & Basnet 2003; Rana 2007a, 2007b) after the intervention of Nepal Agricultural Research Council for its technological generation Details of technological packages of trout farming were developed in Fisheries Research Division Godawari and Fisheries Research Center, Trishuli. At present eight private sector entities have established small to medium level trout farms on the way to Balaju- Kakani- Nuwakot route. Trout have specific natural taste being produced in the Himalayan water and can be promoted in the international market as "Himalayan Trout from Nepal". According to the evaluation of Rana (2007a, 2007b) the success of rainbow trout farming in Nepal is a breakthrough by NARC in technological development.
Experts from fisheries sector and AEC/FNCCI worked together to develop a plan under OVOP for the promoting trout. Two districts, Nuwakot and Rasuwa have been selected to promote trout farming under the OVOP program. This was because existing trout production cannot cater increasing demand of trout. Public sector entities such as NARC's Research Centers like, Nuwakot and Godawari, can provide technical backstopping required for enhancing trout production in private sector.
154 OVOP program has targeted to scale-up trout production up to 400mt by the year 2009 involving local communities. Production will be complemented by modern processing, packaging, cold chain distribution system, and effective marketing programs for high quality products. Although the program seems ambitious, the target is achievable if the program prepared by the Directorate of Fisheries Development and AEC/FNCCI gets adequate resources and the hatchery at Rawuwa get started timely. In order to formulate effective strategies for the implementation of this program SWOT analysis
has been carried out, which is illustrated below:
Strength Climatically suitable for production. It is produced in the natural glacier and spring water having some specific natural taste, both districts Nuwakot and Rasuwa have abundance water supply for the production. More demand than supply. Several feed ingredients are locally available. Government's previous experience at a local level. Existing private sectors' performance praiseworthy (small scale). Declaration of the trout village by local community of Nuwakot district. High market price. Proactive approach of NARC Research Centre in Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts and chamber of commerce and industry.
Weakness Not enough seedlings. Not adequate technique in the quality of feed formulation and production. There is not enough awareness among local communities. Lack of feed mill plant, ice plant and other market infrastructure. Marketing channel is not developed. No brand promotion. It is labor intensive and requires high investment in the initial phase. Some chemicals are not easily available and also cost high.
Opportunities More demand for product than supplies. Local bodies as well as communities are very much enthusiastic. There is adequate feasible pocket for rainbow trout production. Private sector to be involved in fingerlings production. There are two research farms in the public sector. Technologies & Infrastructures for efficient use of inputs can be localized.
Threats NARC's fingerling production program in Rasuwa does not get implemented timely. High cost of cold chain development. Biodiversity damage may occur if exotic species introduced without proper attention. Local consumers do not get adequate message. Due to natural calamities high cost during establishment cause loss for ever.
Hence, from the SWOT analysis presented above Rainbow Trout program's situation analysis has been assessed based on the analysis TOWS Matrix has been illustrated below (Table 1) to formulate alternative strategies showing external opportunities and threats facing Rainbow Trout program that can be matched with that of program's internal strength and weakness.
155 Table: 1 TOWS Matrix
Strategies mentioned in the TOWs Matrix address all programs of Rainbow Trout OVOP program. Major actors who will be involved in the trout OVOP program are categorized into two components:
At policy level Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative (Department of Agriculture (Directorate of Fisheries Development), Nepal Agriculture Research Council (Fisheries Research Division), National Planning Commission, Ministry of Industry Commerce and Suppliers, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Local Development, Nepal Rastrya Bank, Federation of Nepalese Chamber of Commerce and Industry will guide the OVOP Program.
At implementation level District Chamber of Commerce and Industry, NARC (Fisheries Research Station-Nuwakot), District Agriculture Offices, Rasuwa; Local District Development Committees, Municipalities and Village District Committees, Local financial institutions, Office of Small and Cottage Industry, Farmers' groups, small & medium entrepreneurs, Exports, NGOs, Donor communities will participate in the program.
Conclusion The Working Procedure 2063 of OVOP program has pointed out major activities that will be carried out for the next three years to meet the set production and marketing target. The program will focus on the existing rich experience of research sector and that of some of the private sector entrepreneurs. Theirs experience could be enriched by marketing capabilities based on the total value chain approach (from farmers' groups, to processors for handling and packaging by marketers) to cater the increasing demand of local market. Besides, the program will also facilities the government in the establishment of trout hatchery in Rasuwa. Recently a district implementation committee has been formulated to
156 plan and implement program at a local level, where the President of the Nuwakot Chamber of Commerce and Industry is the Coordinator with District Agriculture Officer, Local Development Officer of the District Development Committee, Chief of Fisheries Research Station, Trishuli (NARC) & Chief of Agriculture Development Bank as the members. The program is envisaging increasing production of trout up to 400 mt by the end of 2009, thereby involving many local farmers and raising their income. An effective public-private partnership at local and at central level can make OVOP movement in scaling up of rainbow trout production in Nuwakot and Rasuwa districts.
Acknowledgement I am thankful to AEC/FNCCI for providing me information on the present subject matter. Thanks to all of my staffs for their support during the preparation of the manuscript.
Reference AEC (2007) Presentation on Concept note of "One Village One Product program" prepared by Agro Enterprise Centre/FNCCI.pp AEC (2008) Working Procedures of One Village One Product program-2063 approved by the Government of Nepal. Gurung T. & Basnet S.R. (2003) Introduction of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss in Nepal: Constraints and Prospects. Aquaculture Asia, Vol VIII (4). Rana C. (2007a) Rainbow trout: an agricultural breakthrough. The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 97-99. www.readtheboss.com Rana C. (2007b) No, fishy business! The Boss magazine, 15 Jan-14 Feb 2007: 76-77. www.readtheboss.com Subedi J. R. (2007) -- +, Article by Mr. Jaya Ram Subedi (in Nepali) Samacharpatra of 6 th
January, 2007.
157
Rainbow trout farming in hills of Nepal in relation to gender perspectives
Sudha Sapkota Kiran Raj Joshi Planning and Coordination, Nepal Agricultural Research Council Email: [email protected]
Abstract With the aim to evaluate the role of gender in rainbow trout farming, we studied Madanpur and Kakani Village Development Committees of Nuwakot District, a place known as trout production area. To evaluate the situation questionnaire was designed for interview. Our study revealed in rainbow trout farming women were mainly involved in raceway construction, brood selection, feed preparation, feeding fish, removing dead eggs during incubation, preparation of dishes and several aspects of marketing activities. After the introduction of rainbow trout in the study area, opportunity to share their leisure time on trout farming activities have been generated among the rural women to support livelihood and income generation.
1. Introduction A large portion of rural women performs unpaid work in agriculture sector, especially involved in works related to household activities. Women's roles in family and society may differ according to geographic zones. In the mountain areas, women participate in traditional activities. In hilly and terai area women are involved in agriculture as well as other type of professional works. However, mostly women receive lower pay than men for the same or equivalent work.
Rainbow trout is a cold water fish and feed on aquatic insects, small crustaceans and small fishes in natural environment (Huet 1971, Bardach et al. 1972). Trout was introduced in Nepal to meet many needs, such as substitution of fish import, use of cold water resources, to increase the income of the farmers from barren, sloppy fields where both the production and the productivity level of the other crops are poor. Recently trout farming is gradually has been popularised in mid hill region of Nepal. The scaling up strategies of rainbow trout has been developed from various, biological, ecological, environmental, social, and economical perspective. To develop the commercial viability of agricultural commodities their evaluation from gender perspective is also highly valuable. Therefore, in this study we examined and analyse how gender perspective could intervene in trout production in the country. For example what would be womans role in trout production? What responsibilities in decision making? What are the works that they perform and differ from males attitude in different activities etc.
2. Materials and Methods This study was done from Nov-December 2006 in Madanpur and Kakani Village Development Committee of Nuwakot District as this place is known as trout producing area. To meet the purpose a questionnaire was developed to collect primary and secondary information to assess the gender role in trout production.
3. Result and Discussion The result of the interview with several farmers in the target areas reflected that hill women are mainly involved in different activities of trout farming such as:
i. Raceway construction: During the preparation of raceways for trout cultivation, women of Madanpur and Kakani participate in labour work of carrying stone, cement and other materials used for construction.
158 ii. Fish grading: Women participated to segregate trout on the basis of fingerlings size. This is one of the important activities of trout fish cultivation because there should be equal size of fish in each raceway to avoid competition among smaller and bigger, equal opportunity to feed to all fish for equal growth.
iii. Fish harvest: Women were also found to participate in the harvesting of trout.
iv. Post harvest activities: Male also participates in cooking and serving fish but a dominating role were found to be played by women. Smoking was a part of post harvest.
v. Collection, cleaning, grading, winnowing drying and mixing of feed ingredients: Both men and women buy feed ingredients on the basis of need. Women involve in the cleaning, grading and winnowing the feed ingredients for trout. Women do drying the feed ingredients to escape from the fungal infection and to increase the durability of storage of the feed ingredients.
vi. Separation of dead eggs and selection of brood: During the period of incubation, dead eggs have to be separated. During the phase, soft handle will be preferred more and seen positive result also. In such case, female's participation shows a good result perform better than male. A trend of male and female engaged for the brood selection and breeding of trout is presented below.
In general, with the initiation of trout farming in the project area involvement of women has been relatively increased than before.
Conclusion and Recommendation: Rural women play a fundamental role in decisions regarding the household, including decisions regarding production, use of resources, and expenditures. However, women's decision-making role tends to be marginalized outside the household, especially in public decision-making bodies.
A project to promote the transfer of trout production technology to peasant communities in the mountain as well as hilly areas has to promote the participation of women in extension, and carried out sensitization workshops for trout production programme and project designers. Research should be carried out on: Women's contribution to the fisheries economy; the role of indigenous women in the management of natural resources and the environment; the effects of structural adjustment on women.
Acknowledgement The authors are pleased to express their deep appreciation and sincere gratitude to farmers for their valuable time spent during interview. They would also like acknowledge Mrs. Bhavana Shrestha for her help.
Reference Rai A. K, R. C. Bhujel, S. R. Basnet & Lamsal G. P (2005) Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) culture in the Himalayan Kingdom of Nepal- A success story. Asia-Pacific Association of Agricultural Research Institutions (APAARI), FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Bangkok, Thailand. 33 pp
The Reliable Pheasant Standard - The Recognized Authority: A Practical Guide on the Breeding, Rearing, Trapping, Preserving, Crossmating, Protecting, Hunting of Pheasants, Game Birds, Ornamental Land and Water Foul Birds.