SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE TECHNIQUES EM 8901 December 2005 $1.

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Drip Irrigation Guide for Onion Growers in the Treasure Valley

C.C. Shock, R. Flock, E. Feibert, C.A. Shock, L. Jensen, and J. Klauzer

ince 1992, the Oregon State University Malheur Agricultural Experiment Station in Ontario, Oregon, has evaluated drip irrigation on onion. As pioneers in onion drip irrigation, we have investigated crop response to irrigation intensity and ow rate, bed conguration, subsurface chemigation, nitrogen fertilizer rates, microirrigation criteria, and plant population. As a result of this research, distinct advantages of drip irrigation have become available to growers. These advantages include signicant reductions in water use and nitrate leaching, as well as increased onion size and marketable yield. Drip systems are tailored to each crop and eld. Growers have many options for custom tting a drip system to their specic situation. It is difcult to describe in a brief publication all of the factors that affect irrigation. Thus, this publication provides a framework, general recommendations, and rationales to aid onion growers interested in maximizing their land use and crop yield through drip irrigation. Consult your local extension agent or other agricultural professional for additional information.

Initial interest

Malheur Experiment Station, Oregon State University: Clint C. Shock, superintendent and professor; Rebecca Flock, research aide; Erik Feibert, senior faculty research assistant; Cedric A. Shock, research aide OSU Extension Service, Malheur County: Lynn Jensen, staff chair and Extension potato and onion specialist Clearwater Supply, Ontario, Oregon: Jim Klauzer

In 1989, northern Malheur County was declared a groundwater management area due to groundwater nitrate contamination. The groundwater contamination was linked, at least in part, to furrow irrigation of onion. In arid regions, all irrigation systems require some leaching fraction to avoid salt accumulation. However, the high nitrogen fertilizer rates used through the 1980s, combined with heavy water applications to furrow-irrigated onion, allowed nitrate and other mobile compounds to be lost readily to deep percolation. Surface erosion also posed a problem. In an effort to nd an alternative method of irrigating crops with high water demands in an arid region, we considered drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is the slow, even application of lowpressure water to soil and plants using plastic tubing placed directly at the plants root zone.

This method allows very little evaporation or runoff, saves water by directing it more precisely, reduces the transmission of pathogens, and produces fewer weeds.

Emitters spaced 12"

Site selection

High onion yields are feasible with furrow irrigation on level, even-textured elds without investment in drip irrigation. However, variable topography or soil textures make furrow or sprinkler irrigation difcult. Drip irrigation can irrigate these difcult elds uniformly, thus maximizing land use and crop yield. When designing a drip system, rst identify fairly similar irrigation zones. Irrigation zones are based on factors such as topography, eld length, soil texture, optimal tape run length, and lter capacity. Many irrigation system suppliers use computer programs to easily analyze these factors and design drip systems. Once the zones are assigned and the drip system designed, it is possible to schedule irrigations to meet the unique needs of each zone.

3"-spaced double row

44" onion bed Double rows spaced 18"

Drip tape at 4" deep

Figure 1. Typical bed conguration for dripirrigated onions. On 44-inch beds, two double rows are centered 18 inches apart. Double rows consist of two onion rows spaced 3 inches apart. Drip tapes are installed 3 to 4 inches deep in the bed center. Tape emitters are 12 inches apart. Drip tapes are installed 3 to 4 inches deep in the bed center, between the two double rows, at the time of planting. The tape emitters are spaced 12 inches apart. This bed conguration minimizes tape use and cost per acre. However, this conguration can be problematic if the water fails to sub or move over to the onion rows. Alternative bed congurations have been used successfully, especially in soils where the water will not wick to the side sufciently for one tape to serve a 44-inch bed. Three drip tapes have been used with six double rows of onions on 80- to 88-inch beds. Two double rows are planted on either side of each tape so that the onion rows are closer to the drip tapes.

Drip system uniformity

Because onions have very strong positive yield and grade responses to wet soil, yet exhibit increased risk of decomposition in overly wet soil, it is indispensable that the drip system be carefully designed to apply water uniformly. Yield is lost in excessively dry areas, while disease and nitrate leaching are promoted in excessively wet areas. The minimum water application uniformity for onion is 90 percent.

Bed conguration

The bed conguration used in many of our studies has proven effective for Sweet Spanish onion. Two double rows per 44-inch bed are planted in late March at 150,000 seeds/acre. The 44 inches is the distance between the furrows. Double rows are centered 18 inches apart and consist of two onion rows spaced 3 inches apart (Figure 1).

Plant population Closely related to bed conguration is the issue of plant spacing and population. Over the past few decades, the advent of larger market size classescolossal (4 to 4 inches) and super colossal (larger than 4 inches)has led

to new considerations in plant population and spacing. Because the entire top of the onion bed is wetted under drip irrigation, growers initially assumed that more onions could be planted per acre by spacing them closer together. This approach succeeds in increasing the total number of onions, but the crowded spacing can result in a greater number of smaller, lower value onions. To optimize nancial returns, one must consider the inuence of plant population on bulb size. Research at the Malheur Experiment Station showed that onion bulb size distribution is closely related to plant population (Shock et al., 2004). Colossal and super colossal onion yields are favored by low plant population and less plant competition. In our research, comparatively higher populations resulted in greater numbers of medium and jumbo onions, as well as greater total marketable onion yield.

Finding the balance It is difcult to predict the optimum onion plant population in any year due to price variability. Onion prices vary by size class depending on availability, which depends on weather in several production areas. Onion prices can increase with increasing bulb size. However, when the market does not favor super colossal and colossal onions, gross returns are correlated more with total marketable yield.

Pumps and lters

Every trickle counts when you are battling a water shortage. An ineffective or improperly managed lter station can waste a lot of water and threaten a drip systems tness and accuracy. In the West, sand media lters have been used extensively for drip irrigation systems. Screen lters and disk lters are common as alternatives or for use in combination with these lters.

Sand media lters provide ltration to 200 mesh, which is necessary to clean surface water and water from open canals for drip irrigation. These water sources pick up a lot of ne grit and organic material, which must be removed before the water passes through the drip tape emitters (Figure 2, page 4). Sand media lters are designed to be selfcleaning through a backush mechanism. This mechanism detects an increase in the pressure differential between input and output of the lter due to the accumulation of ltered particles. It then ushes water back through the sand to dispose of clay, silt, and organic particles. Some backush mechanisms are based on elapsed time rather than on pressure differential. Sand used for lters should be between size 16 and 20 to prevent excessive backushing. It may be better to use several smaller sand media lters rather than a few larger tanks so that clean water is available for the ush (Gelski, 2003). In addition to a sand media lter, a screen lter can be used as a prelter to remove larger organic debris before it reaches the sand media lter, or as a secondary lter before the irrigation water enters the drip tape. For best results, screens should lter out particles four times smaller than the emitter opening, as particles may clump together and clog the emitters. Screen lters can act as a safeguard if a problem occurs with the main lters. They also may act as the main lter if a sufciently clean underground water source is used. However, some groundwater contains enough particulate matter to require a sand media lter. Secondary lters often are omitted if the drip tape is replaced annually.

Chemical injection Pressure relief valve Pump Prelter Backow prevention Filters

Air vent

Pressure control Water meter Drain Solenoid valve

Main line Back wash

ZONE 1

Drip line

Figure 2. Drip irrigation system with a prelter, pump station with backow prevention, and chemical injection site. The chemical injection site can be before or after the main lter station. A pressure control valve is recommended to adjust the water pressure as desired before it enters the drip lines. A water meter can be placed after the pressure control or between a solenoid valve and each zone. An air vent provides vacuum relief. Vacuum relief is necessary between the solenoid valve and the drip tapes to avoid suction of soil into the emitters when the system is shut off.

Sub main line

System maintenance
Flow meter A water ow meter should be an integral part of the system, and each zones gauge should be recorded regularly. This provides a clear indication of how much water was applied to each zone. Water ow records can be used to detect deviations from the standard ow, which may be caused by leaks in the system or by clogged lines. Watch for leaks Leaks can occur unexpectedly as a result of damage by insects, animals, or farming tools. Systematically monitor the lines for physical damage. It is important to x holes as soon as possible in order to maintain system uniformity.

Chlorine clears clogged emitters If the rate of water ow progressively declines during the season, the tape may be slowly plugging, resulting in severe damage to the crop. The application of chlorine through the drip tape will help minimize clogging. Because algae growth and biological activity in the tape are especially high during June, July, and August, chlorine usually is applied at 2-week intervals during these months. Use chlorine applications in moderation so that the chlorine cleans the emitters without affecting the soil environment. If drip lines become plugged in spite of maintenance, many cleaning products are available through irrigation system suppliers. Choose a product appropriate for the specic source of contamination.

In addition to the use of chlorine and maintaining the ltering stations, ush the drip lines once a month by opening the bottom ends of a portion of the tapes at a time and allowing the higher velocity water to wash out the sediment.

Microirrigation criteria
Daily crop water use Irrigation application must reect crop water use. Therefore, it is crucial to plan how much water to apply and when to apply it to optimize efciency. One aim of irrigation is to replace the daily crop evapotranspiration. Estimated daily onion evapotranspiration for the western Treasure Valley is available on the Malheur Experiment Stations website (http://www.cropinfo.net). Water applied at any one irrigation should not exceed the soils water-holding capacity. Different combinations of intensity, frequency, and ow rates can be customized to meet varying irrigation needs within a eld. Getting started During each irrigation the wetting pattern needs to reach or pass the base of the onion plants most distant from the drip tape. The rst irrigation of the season establishes the wetting pattern and often is 24 to 36 hours long. Fine silts or salts in the soil can be moved laterally with the initial wetting front, and they can become xed when the water ceases to move outward. Expanding a wetting pattern beyond this initial boundary can require an excessive amount of water. Once growers select the proper duration for the initial irrigation, subsequent irrigation sets should maintain the previously established wetting pattern. Onion plants growing beyond the wetting front usually have smaller bulb size.

Water applied per irrigation and irrigation frequency Low-application, high-frequency irrigation has been identied as the ideal irrigation strategy for maximizing plant growth. Growers can expect to irrigate drip elds more frequently than furrow-irrigated elds. The typical range for drip irrigation frequency is 1 to 2 days. One reason for the need for more frequent irrigation with drip systems is simply that less water is applied per irrigation cycle. Also, moisture may be wicked away from the root zone as the irrigated plots and surrounding dry soil equilibrate. Since irrigations are small, drip irrigation causes signicantly less erosion, less deep percolation, and less leaching than furrow irrigation. Drip irrigation permits greater control and precision of irrigation timing and the amount of water applied. This exibility to tailor a schedule based on local soil water tension (SWT), thus precisely matching crop needs, may be the greatest advantage of drip irrigation. Irrigation frequency depends on the water applied: the lower the amount, the higher the frequency. The amount of water applied per irrigation is governed by the duration of the irrigation and the ow rate. The irrigation application and frequency should be planned to keep the SWT at an optimal level without excessive leaching. See Table 1.
Table 1. Irrigation amounts and frequency evaluation for drip-irrigated onion. In each case, tape ow rate is 0.22 gal/min per 100 ft.
Application (inches/ Duration Frequency Irrigations irrigation) (hr) (Irrig/day) (MayAug)
1

16 8 1 4 1 2
1

1 2 4 8

4.2 2.1 1.1 0.5*

445 223 110 57

*One irrigation every 1 to 2 days

An onion irrigation amount and frequency study in 2002 and 2003 showed that the optimum amount on silt loam was no less than 1 2 inch per irrigation. Amounts of 18, 14, and 1 16 inch per irrigation offered little or no advantage and slightly reduced the yield of colossal and super colossal onions (Shock et al, 2005a). Practical limitations of the highfrequency, low-application principle include excessive mainline drainage from very frequent irrigations and the need to dedicate water sources to one eld. Adjust irrigation amounts if excessive puddling occurs or, conversely, if the wetting front never fully reaches the root zone.

aeration of plant roots and reducing leaching losses of water or nutrients. These factors make irrigation by SWT economically and environmentally important. Viewed in graphical form, the SWT clearly indicates the relative condition of the root zone of the crop over time. The use of granular matrix sensors and tensiometers to determine crop water needs is discussed in Irrigation Monitoring Using Soil Water Tension, EM 8900 (Shock et al., 2005b).

Emitter ow rate The drip tape emitters determine the ow rate of water into the plot. Drip tapes with lower water application rates make low-intensity, high-frequency irrigations more feasible by improving wetting pattern and uniformity. Low ow (0.13 gal h-1) and ultra-low ow (0.066 gal h-1) are two of the emitter options commercially available for silt loam. Practical limitation of ultra-low ow emitters became evident when these two types of emitters were compared against each other (Shock et al., 2005a). Ultra-low-ow emitters reduced the yield of the largest bulb size class compared to low-ow emitters. Ideal emitter ow rates depend on the soil type. Coarser soils usually require higher emitter ow rates. Why measure soil water tension? Soil water tension (SWT) is the measure of how strongly water is held in the soil. Onion yield and grade are related to the amount of energy needed for plant roots to remove water from the soil. SWT also provides information on soil saturation, which can help growers avoid saturating the soil, thereby maintaining

Recommended SWT Based on a 2-year study at the Malheur Agricultural Experiment Station (Shock et al., 2000), it is recommended that drip-irrigated onion in the Treasure Valley on silt loam be irrigated when SWT at the 8-inch depth reaches 20 centibars (cb). Note that lower numbers indicate wetter soil (0 = saturated; 100 = dry). This recommendation is based on several factors. Research has shown that onion yield, size, and therefore prot, increase with decreasing soil water tension. In 1998, the highest yield and prot were in plots irrigated when the SWT was 10 cb. However, in 1997, onions irrigated at 10 cb displayed increased decomposition during storage. Depending on the year, onions irrigated at the lowest (wettest) soil water tension could be subject to longer periods of excessively wet soil, thereby promoting disease. Furthermore, elds irrigated at soil water tensions wetter than 17 cb exhibited deep percolation of water and increased risk of nitrate leaching. Thus, the optimum SWT for maximizing prot and yield for the Treasure Valley grower producing onion on silt loam should be closer to 20 cb. This threshold takes into account the difculty of predicting effects on storage quality and on the environment. Irrigation at 20 cb or slightly drier minimizes decomposition in storage.

Chemigation

Irrigation and fertilization should be managed together to optimize efciency. Chemigation through drip systems efciently deposits chemicals in the root zone of the receiving plants. Because of its precision of application, chemigation can be safer and use less material. Several commercial fertilizers and pesticides are labeled for delivery by drip irrigation. Injection pumps with backow prevention devices are necessary to deliver the product through the drip lines. These pumps allow for suitable delivery rate control. Backow prevention protects both equipment and the water supply from contamination. Other safety equipment may be required; contact a dripirrigation system supplier for details. Fertilizer usually is introduced into the irrigation system in front of the lter station so the lters can remove precipitates that occur in the solution.

the most limiting factor in Treasure Valley onion growth and therefore is not required to the extent that was previously thought. In a 3-year drip-irrigated study, N rate had no signicant effect on onion yield, grade, or gross returns, but the irrigation water contained some nitrate (Shock et al., 2004). Consult Nutrient Management for Sweet Spanish Onions in the Pacic Northwest (PNW 546) to calculate whether N fertilization is needed to fully meet the onion crops needs (Sullivan et al., 2001). Root tissue sampling allows for initially conservative N applications followed by N application via chemigation as needed.

Nitrogen fertilizers Soil microorganisms convert nitrogen (N) fertilizers to nitrate. Nitrate is water soluble, available to plants, and subject to leaching loss. Since nitrate loss management was one of the initial reasons for exploring drip irrigation, it is appropriate that we revisit this topic. When growers observed very high onion yields under drip irrigation, many assumed that greater yields would require increased N fertilizer. In fact, no more nitrogen than usual is required. Typically, less is needed because the fertilizer is spoon-fed to the root system with very limited loss. Nitrogen fertilizer normally is applied at a little more than half the customary rate because it is supplied directly to the root system and is not leached immediately from the root zone. Furthermore, studies on furrow- and dripirrigated onion have shown that N often is not

Buffering water pH Systemic insecticides sometimes are used in drip systems for enhanced insect and nematode control. Normally, the product is introduced in the middle of the irrigation set, allowing a clean water period to push the product out of the drip tape and closer to the crop. In some instances, a pH-buffering agent is needed to enhance the effectiveness of insecticides. A second injection pump is required for a pH-buffering agent.

For more information

Gelski, Jeff. 2003. Avoid Filter Frustration. Available online at http://www. growermagazine.com/home/02-03lters.html Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, and L.D. Saunders. 2000. Irrigation criteria for drip-irrigated onions. HortScience 35:6366. Shock, C.C. 2001. Drip Irrigation: An Introduction. Oregon State University Extension publication EM 8782. Available online at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/ agcomweble/edmat/html/em/em8782/ em8782.html

Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, and L.D. Saunders. 2004. Plant population and nitrogen fertilization for subsurface drip-irrigated onion. HortScience 15:714. Shock, C.C., E.B.G. Feibert, and L.D. Saunders. 2005a. Onion response to drip irrigation intensity and emitter ow rate. HortTechnology 39:17221727. Shock, C.C., R.J. Flock, E.B.G. Feibert, C.A. Shock, A.B. Pereira, and L.B. Jensen. 2005b. Irrigation Monitoring Using Soil Water Tension. Oregon State University Extension publication EM 8900. Available online at http://eesc.oregonstate.edu/ agcomweble/edmat/em8900.pdf

Sullivan, D.M., B.D. Brown, C.C. Shock, D.A. Horneck, R.G. Stevens, G.Q. Pelter, and E.B.G. Feibert. 2001. Nutrient Management for Sweet Spanish Onions in the Pacic Northwest. Pacic Northwest Extension publication PNW 546. 26 pp. For more Extension publications on irrigation management, visit the OSU Extension website at http://extension.oregonstate.edu.

Acknowledgments

Funding to help prepare this publication was provided by a grant from the Oregon Watershed Enhancement Board.

Quick Facts
Drip irrigation is the slow, even application of low-pressure water to soil and plants using plastic tubing placed directly at the plants root zone. Drip irrigation systems facilitate water management in elds that are difcult to irrigate due to variable soil structure or topography. Onion yield and grade respond very sensitively to irrigation management. Recommended soil water tension for irrigation onset for drip-irrigated onion is 20 centibars (cb) on silt loam. Seasonal water needs for drip-irrigated onion are 24 to 32 inches, depending on the year. Soil water potential is the negative of soil water tension. A soil water potential of -20 cb is the same as a soil water tension of +20 cb. Also, cb is the same as kPa (kilopascals). Drip systems require careful design and maintenance.

2005 Oregon State University. This publication was produced and distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Extension work is a cooperative program of Oregon State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Oregon counties. Oregon State University Extension Service offers educational programs, activities, and materialswithout regard to race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, national origin, age, marital status, disability, and disabled veteran or Vietnam-era veteran status. Oregon State University Extension Service is an Equal Opportunity Employer. Trade-name products and services are mentioned as illustrations only. This does not mean that the Oregon State University Extension Service either endorses these products and services or intends to discriminate against products and services not mentioned. Published December 2005.