Formwork: The term given to the whole setup of temporary moulds into which concrete is poured.

Along withformwork, a system is provided to support the moulds and the concrete till the concrete is set and hasgained enough strength this is known as the Staging It is also the term given to either temporary orpermanent moulds into which concrete or similar materials are poured. The formwork constitutes 30% of the project cost and 60% of the project construction time. A temporary framework is used to support thewalkway platform, the access ways and that supports the labours who are laying the skin and placing thereinforcement is know as Scaffolding. The material which is used to form the mould into which theconcrete is pored is called as Skin. The skin can be made up of ply, steel or aluminium. The process of placing the skin is known as the Shuttering Requirements of a good formwork system: The essential requirements of formwork or shuttering are: The material for form should be cheap and it should be suitable for reuse for several times It should be practically waterproof so that it does not absorb water from concrete. Also itsshrinkage and swelling should be minimum. It should be as light as possible. It should be strong enough to take the dead and live loads during the construction The joints in the formwork should be rigid so that the bulging, twisting or sagging due to deadand live load is as small as possible. Excessive deformation may disfigure the surface of concrete The construction lines in the formwork should be true and the surface plane so that the cost of thefinishing the surface of concrete on removal of shuttering is least. A formwork should be such that it can be easily erected. A formwork should be easily removable without any damages to itself so that it can be repeatedlyused. Factors to be considered for selection of system: The number of repeat uses The desired finish

The amount of labour to install each use Availability of experienced personnels to install it Handling equipment available to move large sections around The amount of wet concrete deliverable per cast The amount of capital available The speed of project Versatility Pour to strip times The acceptability of cold joints Materials The various materials used as forms are: Timber: It is the most common material for shuttering and is almost available everywhere. It iscomparatively cheaper and could be easily shaped. Timber deteriorates under the stress of heatand contact with water. It is also difficult to evaluate the proper strength of timber. Thus, ascientific approach of design becomes difficult. Plywood: It has got a better surface and gives a smoother finish. These are useful and economicalfor larger panels with repetitive uses. Plywood is available is different varieties such as resin ,plastic coated plywood, texturised surfaces for exposed concrete surface. Hardwood: they are manufactured from wood fibre under controlled combination of pressure,heat and moisture. These are tempered with the impregnation of drying oils which are stabilizedby heating. They have improved strength, low water absorption, and better abrasion resistanceand are used as formwork lining. Fibre forms: They are used as lost forms for concrete. They are left in place on the exposed faceof the concrete where it gives architectural look and also improves acoustical and insulationproperties Gypsum boards: They are generally used to provide artistic design or ornamental pattern for theexposed concrete face. It is reinforced with an organic fibre or coir to make it tougher. Concretequality may improve due to absorption of extra water present in concrete by these boards. Plastic forms: PVC, neoprene and polyester strengthened with glass fibre are some of the plasticforms in use. They are manufactured as per required shapes, do not rust and are easy to clean. Lost forms: Forms, which are not removed after casting, form a part and parcel of the

structurethat behaves as composites. These are known as lost forms or permanent formwork. Steel form: Steel forms consists of angles, tubes, joists, flat plates, are very much in use as shores,bracings, runners, slabs, shutters etc. Steel forms are also in use in combination with timber.These are very strong and can be used repetitively without much damage done to these forms.The design calculations can be easily done since the characteristics of steel are known.The advantages and disadvantages of the various forms are listed below. Untreated wood Advantages Low initial cost Low experience cost Low weight Versatility usually contains sugars that acts as a retardant and prevents sticking Disadvantages Poor finish, patching almost demanded where the finished concrete will be seen Low per unit use (4-7) High labour as each set must be rebuilt Must wait until concrete is well set (24 hours) to strip Leaves a dusty finish as there are sugars in the sap of soft wood Untreated Plywood Advantages Same as above but gives a smooth finish Disadvantages Same as above but greater cost and less availability in some countries Coated PlywoodDensified shuttering:It is manufactured from selected veneers peeled from hardwood plantation and treatedwith specially manufactured phenolic resin for longer durability and better performance. Thesurface of shuttering ply is overlaid with 10GSM phenol impregnated film. The sides areresealed by acrylic paint to preserve moisture absorption and swelling Advantages Will increase durability Many plywood systems are available:

Oil saturated paper Vinyl and water resistant glue surface

Curing Concrete
holding water in the concrete Will: - Increase concrete strength - Increase concrete abrasion resistance - Lessen the chance of concrete scaling - Lessen the chance of surface dusting - Lessen the chance of concrete cracking

Good curing is the final step in giving your customer the quality concrete job you intended
CURING OF CONCRETE
CURING DEFINED Curing can be defined as a procedure for insuring the hydration of the Portland cement in newly-placed concrete. It generally implies control of moisture loss and sometimes of temperature. The hydration of Portland cement is the chemical reaction between grains of Portland cement and water to form the hydration product, cement gel: and cement gel can be laid down only in water-filled space. Hydration can proceed until all the cement reaches its maximum degree of hydration or until all the space available for the hydration product is filled by cement gel, whichever limit is reached first. Water curing is when the concrete is covered with a layer of water for a period of time and the evaporation of moisture is from the surface of the water. This is the ideal way of curing concrete, although the concrete needs to stay

continually wet for 7 days, preferably 14 days. Membrane curing is the most practical with today's construction schedules. The curing of the concrete is dependent on the quality of the film, the thickness, and the uniformity of the film applied to the concrete. The curing membrane used is the least expensive component in the completion of quality concrete construction, and the most over looked.

Concrete strength with moisture present for curing

according to the Portland Cement Association
Age Days 5000 psi 4000 psi 3000 psi 2000 psi 1000 psi

CONCRETE STRENGTH
Concrete strength increases with age as long as moisture and a favorable temperature are present for hydration of cement. In the figure shown below concrete that is In air entire time is only 55% of the strength of Moist-cured entire time concrete at 28 days. In air after 3 days is 80%, and In air after 7 days is 90%. A Quality curing and sealing compound will allow the concrete to continue in strength gain beyond 28 days as shown in the chart for moist-cured.
Strength gain in colder temperatures slows down. 40o F. concrete will be 35% of its design strength in seven days as compared to 75% for 73o F. concrete. Concrete poured in lower temperatures needs to be covered to maintain higher concrete temperatures to get sufficient strengths to withstand freeze-thaw cycles.

CURING COMPOUNDS and CURING AND SEALING COMPOUNDS Difference of CURING compounds and CURING AND SEALING compounds is the resin used. Curing compounds use a resin that breaks down in months, and curing and sealing compounds use a resin that will resist sun light, abrasion, most chemicals and will be on the surface of the concrete for a while. CURING compounds are meant for curing the concrete only. No other sealer or adhesive for a floor covering can be put down unless the curing compound is stripped off.

CURING AND SEALING compounds can accept paints and adhesives for vinyl tile and carpets (it is recommended to put a sample down to check for compatibility), and they can be recoated for long term sealing of the concrete. EXTERIOR CONCRETE For concrete poured outside long term sealing of the concrete will require a recoat after the concrete is 28 days old or older, so the resin can penetrate into the pours and capillaries of the concrete after the moisture has left. Shown in the diagram below.
The difference of Curing and Sealing Fresh Concrete and Sealing Concrete after it is 28 days old A- Curing and sealing fresh concrete B- Sealing 28 day old concrete

For outside concrete the curing and sealing compound used should be a solvent-based, because when reapplied the solvent in the second coat will re-emulsify the resin left from the first coat and allow it to penetrate the concrete. Water-based curing and sealing compounds when reapplied do not re-emulsify the first coat, so you can only apply another coat over the top of the first.

CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH

"Use of additional cementitious material such as fly ash has become more prevalent in concrete construction. Several investigations have reported that the strength development and durability of concrete containing fly ash is related to the extent and degree of curing. It has also been substantiated that drying ambient conditions greatly reduce the strength potential of fly ash concrete because the secondary (pozzolanic) reaction fails to contribute to the development of the strength." 1 Given adequate curing the strength development of cement-fly ash paste was superior to plain cement paste. Curing and sealing compounds that meet ASTM C-1315 should be used, because this specification requires more moisture retention for curing than ASTM C-309, more in line for concrete containing fly ash. Products to use are: AS-1 1315, AK-2 1315, TK-26UV.

CARBONATION OF CONCRETE
Carbonation results in a soft dusty surface to normal concrete. It is most prevalent in cold weather concreting. Carbonation defined - is the chemical combining of carbon dioxide with the hydration products of portland cement. Carbon dioxide combines principally with calcium hydroxide, but will also attack and decompose the calcium silicate and aluminates and combine with the calcium portion of these compounds to form calcium carbonate(a acid which kills cement). Concrete is susceptible while it is in it's plastic state. As temperatures dip below 40o F. proper hydration of concrete is severely slowed. The concrete stays in the plastic state for a longer period of time, and the likelihood of carbonation increases. Carbonation can affects concrete to various degrees from a light dust on the surface to a deep of 1/4 inch or more. To lessen or prevent carbonation damage to floors placed during cold weather. a. Use a accelerating set admixture in the concrete. b. Use temporary heaters which do not allow combustion gases to contaminate the atmosphere surrounding the floor.

c. Open the building to fresh air at the time of the pour to ventilate exhaust fumes from trucks, troweling machines, etc. d. The concrete is most susceptible in the first 24 hours. Use a membrane curing and sealing compound as soon as possible, to block the carbon dioxide gas from the concrete. A uniform and heavy film will be necessary. It was proven that burlap and poly for curing do not offer adequate protection. References
1. Haque, M.N., "Some Concretes Need 7 Days Initial Curing", Concrete International, February 1990, pp.42-45.

CRACKS IN CONCRETE SURFACES Two basic causes of cracks in concrete are (1) stress due to applied loads and (2) stress due to drying shrinkage or temperature changes. Stress Cracks can be eliminated by having a proper subbase and proper concrete design for the load. Shrinkage Cracks Drying shrinkage is an inherent, unavoidable property of concrete. Shrinkage of plain concrete drying is .72 inches per 100 feet from its plastic state to a dried state with 50% relative humidity, this shrinkage will take place when the moisture leaves the concrete. To minimize these cracks we need proper placement of saw cuts, and proper curing to hold the moisture in the concrete long enough to get adequate tensile strength gain in the concrete before the moisture leaves and the concrete shrinks. With adequate strength the concrete should pull together and crack in the saw cuts and not in between them. Plastic Shrinkage Cracks Plastic Shrinkage Cracks is a type of cracking that appears on the surface of freshly placed concrete during finishing operations, or soon after. Most often, this form of cracking is caused by the rate of evaporation water being greater than the rate at which it is being replaced by bleed water. The surface shrinks while underlying concrete maintains a constant volume. Contributing factors:
a. increased wind velocity. b. ambient temperature increase c. a decrease in relative humidity.

To minimize plastic cracking:

a. dampen the subgrade. b. don't work in the sun or wind, erect a roof over the slab and a wind barrier. c. schedule work for the early morning or late afternoon. d. have sufficient man power and equipment. e. cover the concrete with poly in between finishing operations. f. spray on a evaporation retarder, Tri-Film, to form a liquid monomolecular barrier on the surface of the concrete after each finishing operation.

Craze Cracking Crazing is the occurrence of numerous fine hair cracks in the surface of a newly hardened slab due to surface shrinkage. These cracks form an overall hexagonal pattern.

Causes:
a. Rapid surface drying usually caused by either high air temperatures, hot sun, or drying winds, or a combination of these. b. not using an evaporation retarder during placement in hot or windy conditions. c. excessively high slump, over troweling the surface, floating the surface when there is an excess amount of moisture at the surface. d. over use of a jitterbug, vibrating screed, darby or bull float may contribute by working an excess of mortar to the surface.