(1911) Elementary Lectures On Electric Discharges, Waves and Impulses and Other Transients by Charles Proteus Steinmetz A.m., Ph.D.
(1911) Elementary Lectures On Electric Discharges, Waves and Impulses and Other Transients by Charles Proteus Steinmetz A.m., Ph.D.
(1911) Elementary Lectures On Electric Discharges, Waves and Impulses and Other Transients by Charles Proteus Steinmetz A.m., Ph.D.
MECHANICS DEPARTMENT
Published by the
Hill PublishingCompany
ELEMENTARY LECTURES
ON
ELECTRIC DISCHARGES,
WAVES
AND IMPULSES,
AND
OTHER TRANSIENTS
BY
A.M., PH.D.
E.G.
rH
Library
COPYRIGHT, 1911,
BY THE
Stanbopc Hfress
F. H.
GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON,
U.S.A.
PREFACE.
IN the following I am trying to give a short outline of those phenomena which have become the most important to the electrical engineer, as on their understanding and control depends the further successful advance of electrical engineering. The art has now so far advanced that the phenomena of the steady flow of
power are well understood. Generators, motors, transforming devices, transmission and distribution conductors can, with relatively little difficulty, be.Calculated, and the phenomena occurring in them under normal (faa^tftmS'bf operation predetermined and controlled. Usually, however, the limitations of apparatus and lines are found not in the normal condition of operation, the steady flow of power, but in the phenomena occurring under abnormal though by no means unfrequent conditions, in the more or less transient abnormal voltages, currents, frequencies, etc.; and the
study of the laws of these transient phenomen^4fee electric discharges, waves, and impulses, thus becomes of paramount impor" In a former work, Theory and Calculation of Transient tance.
Electric Phenomena and Oscillations," I have given a systematic study of these phenomena, as far as our present knowledge permits, which by necessity involves to a considerable extent the use
of mathematics.
have endeavored to give in the following a descriptive exposition of the physical nature and meaning, the origin and effects, of these phenomena, with the use
inclination to a mathematical study, I
and also to serve as an introduction to the study of " Transient Phenomena." I have, therefore, in the following developed these phenomena from the physical conception of energy, its storage and readjustment, and extensively used as illustrations oscillograms of such electric discharges, waves, and impulses, taken on industrial
electric circuits of all kinds, as to give the reader
and only the simplest form of mathematics, so as to afford a general knowledge of these phenomena to those engineers who have not the time to devote to a more extensive study,
of very little
a familiarity
749213
vi
PREFACE.
with transient phenomena by the inspection of their record on the photographic film of the oscillograph. I would therefore recom-
mend
the reading of the following pages as an introduction to " Transient Phenomena," as the knowledge gained the study of
thereby of the physical nature materially assists in the understanding of their mathematical representation, which latter
obviously is necessary for their numerical calculation and predetermination.
series of lectures on electric discharges, was given during the last winter to which waves, and impulses, classes of Union the graduate University as an elementary intro" from mathematics into English" of the translation duction to and " of Transient Electric Phenomena and Calculation Theory and been a Hereto has added Oscillations." chapter on the calculation inductances of and of capacities conductors, since capacity and the fundamental are inductance quantities on which the transients
depend. In the preparation of the work, I have been materially assisted by Mr. C. M. Davis, M.E.E., who kindly corrected and edited the manuscript and illustrations, and to whom I wish to express
my
thanks.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
LECTURE
1.
I.
power and energy. Permanent and transient phenomena. Instance of permanent phenomenon; of transient; of combination of both. Transient as intermediary condition between permanents. 2. Energy storage in electric circuit, by magnetic and dielectric field. Other energy storage. Change of stored energy as origin of tranElectric
sient.
3.
way
Transients existing with all forms of energy: transients of railDestructive values. car; of fan motor; of incandescent lamp.
Fundamental condition
of
Electric
vanced, of more
4.
Simplest transients: proportionality of cause and effect. Most Discussion of simple transient of electric circuit. Exponential function as its expression.
electrical transients of this character.
5.
Other transients: deceleration of ship. Coefficient of its exponent. Two classes of transients: single-energy and double-energy
transients.
of
pendulum;
Instance of car acceleration; of low- voltage circuit; of condenser discharge through inductive circuit.
LECTURE
7.
II.
10
flow:
power dissipation in conductor; electric field consisting of magnetic field surrounding conductor and electrostatic or dielectric field issuing from conductor. power
8.
Phenomena
Lines of magnetic force; lines of dielectric force. The magnetic flux, inductance, inductance voltage, and the
field.
The
The conception
and
magnetism. 10. Magnetic circuit and dielectric circuit. Magnetomotive force, magnetizing force, magnetic field intensity, and magnetic density. Magnetic materials. Permeability.
vii
Vlll
11.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
electrifying force or voltage gradient. Dielectric field intensity and dielectric density. Specific capacity or permittivity. Velocity of propagation. 12. Tabulation of corresponding terms of magnetic and of dielectric field.
tric,
Electromotive force,
and
electric circuit.
IN
CONTINUOUS-CUR19
represents increase or decrease of energy. Magnetic transients of low- and medium-voltage circuits. Single-energy and double-energy transients of capacity. Discus-
Single-energy
transient
4>,
i,
e,
of inductive circuit.
Exponen-
Duration of the transient, time constant. equation. ical values of transient of intensity 1 and duration 1.
forms of the equation of the magnetic transient.
NumerThe three
Simplification
field.
by choosing the
14.
starting
moment
as zero of time.
Calcula-
tion of
duration.
15. Effect of the insertion of resistance on voltage and duration of the magnetic transient. The opening of inductive circuit. The effect of the opening arc at the switch.
16. The magnetic transient of closing an inductive circuit. General method of separation of transient and of permanent terms during
TRANSIENTS
OF
ALTERNATING-CUR30
Separation of current into permanent and transient component. Condition of maximum and of zero transient. The starting of an
mum
alternating current; dependence of the transient on the phase; maxiand zero value.
18. The starting transient of the balanced three-phase system. Relation between the transients of the three phases. Starting
field,
and
its
construction.
The
Its independence of the phase oscillatory start of the rotating field. at the moment of start. Maximum value of rotating-field transient,
and
its
19.
Momentary
magnetic
synchronous alternator,
field flux,
The magnetic
field transient at
on the armature currents, and on the field current. Numerical relation bet ween the transients of magnetic flux, armature currents, armature reaction, and field current. The starting transient of the armature currents. The transient full-frequency pulsation of the
effect
CONTENTS.
field
ix
PAGE
field.
current caused
by
it.
phenomena
of
a poly-
circuit.
The
The
and
transients of the single-phase alternator short circuit. permanent double- frequency pulsation of armature reaction
of field current. The armature transient depending on the phase of the wave. Combination of full-frequency transient and double-frequency permanent pulsation of field current, and the shape of the field current resulting therefrom. Potential difference at field terminal at short circuit,
and
its
industrial bearing.
LECTURE V.
22.
...
52
Absence of proportionality between current and magnetic Numerical calculation by step-by-step method. Approximation of magnetic characteristic by Frohlich's formula, and its rationality.
flux in ironclad circuit.
23.
General expression of magnetic flux in ironclad circuit. Its introduction in the differential equation of the transient. Integra-
tion,
and calculation of a numerical instance. High-current values and steepness of ironclad magnetic transient, and its industrial
bearing.
LECTURE VI.
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS
59
24. Single-energy transient, after separation from permanent term, as a steady decrease of energy. Double-energy transient consisting of energy-dissipation factor and energy-transfer factor. The latter periodic or unidirectional. The latter rarely of industrial importance.
25.
mum
Pulsation of energy during transient. Relation between maxicurrent and maximum voltage. The natural impedance and
Calculation of
maximum
voltage from maximum current, and inversely. Instances of line short circuit, ground on cable, lightning stroke. Relative values of transient currents and voltages in different classes of circuits.
26.
and
voltage.
power-dissipation factor of the transient. Duration of the double-energy transient the harmonic mean of the duration of the
The
magnetic and of the dielectric transient. The dissipation expoThe complete equation of the nent, and its usual approximation. double-energy transient. Calculation of numerical instance.
LECTURE VII.
28.
LINE OSCILLATIONS
72
Review of the characteristics of the double-energy transient: periodic and transient factor; relation between current and voltage; the periodic component and the frequency; the transient component and the duration; the initial values of current and voltage.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Modification for distributed capacity and inductance: the distance phase angle and the velocity of propagation; the time phase angle;
29.
the two forms of the equation of the line oscillation. Effective inductance and effective capacity, and the frequency The wave length. The oscillating-line secof the line oscillation.
tion as quarter
30.
wave
length.
Relation between inductance, capacity, and frequency of propagation. Importance of this relation for calculation of line constants.
The different frequencies and wave lengths of the quarterwave oscillation; of the half- wave oscillation. Its importance in compound 32. The velocity unit of length. circuits. Period, frequency, time, and distance angles, and the
31.
LECTURE VIII.
33.
TRAVELING WAVES
88
of the stationary oscillation and its correspondence with reactive power of alternating currents. The traveling wave and its correspondence with effective power of alternating currents.
The power
The
traveling
wave of the compound circuit. 34. The flow of transient power and
dissipation constant
its
equation.
The power-
and the power-transfer constant. Increasing and decreasing power flow in the traveling wave. The general
35.
equation of the traveling wave. Positive and negative power- transfer constants. Undamped The arc as their source. oscillation and cumulative oscillation.
alternating-current transmission-line equation as special case of traveling wave of negative power-transfer constant. 36. Coexistence and combination of traveling waves and stationary Difference from effective and reactive alternating oscillations.
The
Their freIndustrial importance of traveling waves. Estimation of their effective frequency if very high. quencies. Its equations. The wave 37. The impulse as traveling wave.
waves.
front.
LECTURE IX.
38.
108
The
circuit,
its
the compound circuit. The and the power-dissipation and section. Power supply from section
of
of low-energy dissipation to section of high-energy dissipation. 39. Instance of oscillation of a closed compound circuit.
The
two traveling waves and the resultant transient-power diagram. 40. Comparison of the transient-power diagram with the power The cause of power diagram of an alternating- current circuit. The stationary oscillation of an open comincrease in the line.
pound
circuit.
CONTENTS.
41.
xi
PAGE
oscillating circuit.
Voltage and current relation between the sections of a compound The voltage and current transformation at the
transition points between circuit sections. 42. Change of phase angle at the transition points between sections of a compound oscillating circuit. Partial reflection at the
transition point.
119
Definition of inductance
field.
and
of capacity.
the dielectric
44.
The law
of superposition of fields,
use
for calculation.
Calculation of inductance of two parallel round conductors. External magnetic flux and internal magnetic flux. 45. Calculation and discussion of the inductance of two parallel conductors at small distances from each other. Approximations
and
46.
of
their practical limitations. Calculation of capacity of parallel conductors by superposition dielectric fields. Reduction to electromagnetic units by the
velocity
of
light.
Relation
between inductance,
return,
capacity,
and
inductance,
its
and capacity.
Correction
Limitations of
application.
for penetration of return current in ground. Calculation of equation, 48. Mutual inductance between circuits.
and approximation. 49. Mutual capacity between circuits. Symmetrical circuits and Grounded circuit. asymmetrical circuits. Inductance and capacity of two50. The three-phase circuit.
wire single-phase circuit, of single-wire circuit with ground return, and of three-wire three-phase circuit. Asymmetrical arrangement
of three-phase circuit.
with three-phase
circuit.
ELEMENTAEY LECTURES ON ELECTEIC DISCHARGES, WAVES AND IMPULSES, AND OTHER TRANSIENTS.
LECTURE
i.
I.
electric
flow, that
electric
power.
Two
classes of
phenomena
permanent and transient, phenomena. To illustrate: Let G in Fig. 1 be a direct-current generator, which over a circuit A connects to a load L, as a number of lamps, etc. In the generator G, the line A, and the load L, a current i flows, and voltages e
Fig.
1.
exist, which are constant, or permanent, as long as the conditions If we connect in some more of the circuit remain the same.
lights, or
i',
and possibly
manent, that is, unchanged. Let, however, in Fig. 2, a direct-current generator G be connected to an electrostatic condenser C. Before the switch S is closed, and therefore also in the moment of closing the switch, no current flows in the line A. Immediately after the switch S is closed, current begins to flow over line A into the condenser C, charging this
condenser up to the voltage given by the generator.
1
we get a different current but again i' and e' are perremain the same as long as the circuit remains
When
the
DISCHARGES, WAVES
condenser
AND IMPULSES.
C is charged, the current in the line A and the condenser That is, the permanent condition before closing zero again. the switch S, and also some time after the closing of the switch,
is
is
Immediately
after
the closing of
the switch, however, current flows for a more or less short time. With the condition of the circuit unchanged: the same generator
voltage, the switch S closed on the same circuit, the current nevertheless changes, increasing from zero, at the moment of closing the switch S, to a maximum, and then decreasing again to
zero, while the
tor voltage.
We
condenser charges from zero voltage to the generathen here meet a transient phenomenon, in the
Commonly, transient and permanent phenomena are superimposed upon each other. For instance, if in the circuit Fig. 1 we close the switch S connecting a fan motor F, at the moment of
closing the switch S the current in the fan-motor circuit is zero. It rapidly rises to a maximum, the motor starts, its speed increases
while the current decreases, until finally speed and current become constant; that is, the permanent condition is reached.
transient, therefore, appears as intermediate between two permanent conditions: in the above instance, the fan motor dis-
The
then
connected, and the fan motor running at full speed. The question arises, why the effect of a change in the conditions of an
electric circuit
short,
Consider the simplest case: an electric power transmission In the generator G electric power is produced from me(Fig. 3). In the line A some of chanical power, and supplied to the line A
.
dissipated, the rest transmitted into the load L, power where the power is used. The consideration of the electric power
this
is
in generator, line, and load does not represent the entire phenomenon. While electric power flows over the line A there is a magnetic
,
field
surrounding the line conductors, and an electrostatic field The magnetic field and the issuing from the line conductors.
"dielectric
field represent stored energy. Thus, during the permanent conditions of the flow of power through the circuit Fig. 3, there is electric energy stored in the space surroundThere is energy stored also in the generaing the line conductors. tor and in the load for instance, the mechanical momentum of the
electrostatic or
"
1,
of the incandescent
lamp
filaments.
The permanent
thus represents not only flow of power, but also storage of energy. When the switch S is open, and no power flows, no energy is If we now close the switch, before the stored in the system.
Fig. 3.
the stored energy has to be supplied from the source of power; that in supplying the stored energy, flows not is, for a short time power, only through the circuit, but also from the circuit into the space
plies the
surrounding the conductors, etc. This flow of power, which supenergy stored in the permanent condition of the circuit,
supplied,
in Fig. 3,
and and
a transient.
if
Inversely,
we
thereby reduce the flow of power, a smaller amount of stored energy would correspond to that lesser flow, and before the conditions of the circuit can become stationary, or permanent
(corresponding to the lessened flow of power), some of the stored circuit, or dissipated, by a
Thus the
transient
is
the result of the change of the amount of by the change of circuit conditions, and
4
is
may thus be said that the permachange nent phenomena are the phenomena of electric power, the transients the phenomena of electric energy.
not specifically electribut occur all forms with of energy, under all condiphenomena, tions where energy storage takes place. Thus, when we start the motors propelling an electric car, a transient period, of acceleration, appears between the previous
3.
cal
permanent condition
of standstill
and the
final
permanent con-
dition of constant-speed running; when we shut off the motors, the permanent condition of standstill is not reached instantly,
but a transient condition of deceleration intervenes. When we open the water gates leading to an empty canal, a transient condition~"of flow and water level intervenes while the canal is
permanent condition is reached. Thus in the case motor in instance Fig. 1, a transient period of speed and mechanical energy appeared while the motor was speeding up and gathering the mechanical energy of its momentum. When turning on an incandescent lamp, the filament passes a transient
filling,
until the
of the fan
under certain conditions, rise to destructive values; so transients of other forms of energy may become destructive, or may require serious consideration, as, for The instance, is the case in governing high-head water powers.
column
under
amount
of water in the supply pipe represents a considerable of stored mechanical energy, when flowing at velocity, load. If, then, full load is suddenly thrown off, it is not
would lead to a pressure transient of destructive value, that is, burst the pipe. Hence the use of surge tanks, relief valves, or deflecting nozzle governors. Inversely, if a heavy load comes on the wide nozzle does not immediately take care suddenly, opening of the load, but momentarily drops the water pressure at the nozzle, while gradually the water column acquires velocity, that
is,
stores energy.
differs
of the appearance of a transient such a disposition of the stored energy in the system as from that required by the existing conditions of the system;
of the condition of a system,
which requires a
change of the stored energy, of whatever form this energy may be, leads to a transient. Electrical transients have been studied more than transients of other forms of energy because
:
Electrical transients generally are simpler in nature, and therefore yield more easily to a theoretical and experimental
(a)
side
of
electrical
engineering
is
further
of
most other
sciences,
and
(c) The destructive or harmful effects of transients in electrical systems are far more common and more serious than with other forms of energy, and the engineers have therefore been driven by
and extensive study. simplest form of transient occurs where the effect is This is generally the case in directly proportional to the cause. electric circuits, since voltage, current, magnetic flux, etc., are
The
proportional to each other, and the electrical transients therefore In those cases, however, are usually of the simplest nature. where this direct proportionality does not exist, as for instance in
inductive circuits containing iron, or in electrostatic fields exceeding the corona voltage, the transients also are far more complex,
and very little work has been done, and very little is known, on these more complex electrical transients. Assume that in an electric circuit we have a transient current, as represented by curve i in Fig. 4 that is, some change of
;
a readjustment of the stored energy, which occurs by the flow of transient current i. This current Assume starts at the value ii, and gradually dies down to zero. now that the law of proportionality between cause and effect applies; that is, if the transient current started with a different f value, izj it would traverse a curve i which is the same as curve
circuit condition requires
,
i,
except that
j
all
by the
ratio
^; that
ii
is,
i'=iX*ii
i;
i' .
t'
Starting with current ii, the transient follows the curve starting with 2 the transient follows the proportional curve At some time, t, however, the current i has dropped to the value
z'
,
2,
i'
started.
i,
At
this
moment
t,
the conditions
are the
same
as the conditions in
the second case, of current i at the moment t\; that is, from t onward, curve i is the same as curve i' from time i\ onward. Since
t!
Fig. 4.
Curve
of Simple Transient:
Decay
of Current.
is
tional to the
proportional to i from any point t onward, curve i' is proporsame curve i from t\ onward. Hence, at time t\, it is
diz
dti dii ^. i%
dti
ii
But
since
and -^ CLL\
i2
at
t\
are the
same
as -r
dv
and
at time
t,
it
follows:
di
dii i
or,
di
where
di
.
1 - -r;
ii
at
constant,
is
chosen, as
-r is negative. at
As
in Fig. 4:
~aJi
ii,
1^
dii
_
~
tan
<f>
_ ~
_1_
. '
c is
the reciprocal of the projection T = tj* on the zero line moment of the transient.
Since
di
cdt;
is, the percentual change of current is constant, or in other words, in the same time, the current always decreases by the same fraction of its value, no matter what this value is.
that
= ct = Ae~
+ C,
,
ct
or
>
i~#:':*5
is,
that
the curve
is
the exponential. is the expression of the simplest This explains its common occurrence in elecConsider, for instance, the decay of the radiation, which represents the decay,
of radiating material;
it is ~-rCit
proportional to the
amount
cm,
Not all transients, however, are of this simplest form. For instance, the deceleration of a ship does not follow the exponential, but at high velocities the decrease of speed is a greater fraction of
the speed than during the same time interval at lower velocities, and the speed-time curves for different initial speeds are not proThe reason portional to each other, but are as shown in Fig. 5.
is,
is
Two
classes of transients
may
Energy may be stored in one form only, and the only energy change which can occur thus is an increase or a decrease of the
stored energy.
2.
Energy
may be
stored in two or
more
different forms,
and the
possible energy changes thus are an increase or decrease of the total stored energy, or a change of the stored energy from one form
to another.
An
instance of the
of a train, or
ical
momentum, and
here energy can be stored only as mechanthe transient thus consists of an increase of
:
Seconds
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Fig. 5.
Deceleration of Ship.
deceleration.
Thus
also in a low-voltage electric circuit of neglican be stored only in the magnetic field, and
the transient represents an increase of the stored magnetic energy, during increase of current, or a decrease of the magnetic energy, during a decrease of current.
An instance
weight at rest in
maximum
with the is the pendulum, Fig. 6 elevation, all the stored energy is potential energy of gravita:
tion.
the potential gravitational energy has been either converted to kinetic mechanical
all
Then, energy or dissipated. during the rise of the weight, that part of the energy which
Fig. 6.
Double-energy Transient
of
Pendulum.
not dissipated again changes to potential gravitational energy, at c, then back again to
is
kinetic energy, at a;
is
and
in this
manner the
gradually dissipated,
by a
again from dielectric to magnetic stored energy. This for instance is the case in the charge or discharge of a condenser through an inductive circuit.
If energy can be stored in more than two different forms, still more complex phenomena may occur, as for instance in the hunt-
ing of synchronous machines at the end of long transmission lines, where energy can be stored as magnetic energy in the line and
line,
and as mechanical
calculation of the
calculation of
transient
phenomena.
the current,
the stored energy, etc. The theory of alternating-current phenomena, as periodic transients, thus has been more difficult than that of continuous-current phenomena, until methods were devised to treat the periodic transients of the alternating-current circuit " effective as permanent phenomena, by the conception of the the introduction of the and more completely by general values,"
number
tion of time
or complex quantity, which represents the periodic funcby a constant numerical value. In this feature lies
the advantage and the power of the symbolic method of dealing the reduction of a periodic with alternating-current phenomena,
transient to a permanent or constant quantity. For this reason, wherever periodic transients occur, as in rectification, commutation, etc.,
a considerable advantage is frequently gained by their reduction to permanent phenomena, by the introduction of the symbolic expression of the equivalent sine wave.
Hereby most of the periodic transients have been eliminated from consideration, and there remain mainly the nonperiodic Since transients, as occur at any change of circuit conditions. of stored the of the are energy, a readjustment they phenomena that the of the electric of energy storage circuit, is, of its study is dielectric of first and importance. field, magnetic
LECTURE
THE ELECTRIC
7.
II.
FIELD.
power over
line
sented
Fig. 7.
is
tain
phenomena
occur: magnetic
and
Fig. 8.
is surrounded by a magnetic field, or a magnetic which is measured by the number of lines of magnetic force <J>. With a single conductor, the lines of magnetic force are concentric
The conductor
flux,
circles,
as
shown
in Fig. 8.
By
11
are crowded together between the conductors, and the magnetic field consists of eccentric circles surrounding the conductors, as
lines in Fig. 9.
An
electrostatic, or,
as
more properly
from the conductors, that is, a dielectric flux passes between the conductors, which is measured by the number of lines of dielectric
force ty.
With a
shown dotted
in Fig. 8.
By
the return
conductor, they are crowded together between the conductors, and form arcs of circles, passing from conductor to return conductor, as
shown dotted
in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9.
the dielectric
electric field,
field of
field of
the conductor.
field or magnetic flux of the circuit, <, is proto the current, i, with a proportionality factor, L, which portional is called the inductance of the circuit.
The magnetic
= Li.
The magnetic
field
(1)
represents stored energy w. To produce it, therefore be supplied by the circuit. Since power
p =
e'i.
(2)
12
the magnetic field $ of the current i, a voltage e f must be consumed in the circuit, which with the current i gives
To produce
the power p, which supplies the stored energy w of the magnetic r field <i>. This voltage e is called the inductance voltage, or voltage
field,
required to produce it, the inductance voltage tional to the increase of the magnetic field:
:'
(3)
;
or
by
(1),
(4)
If i
-r
and therefore
e'
are negative;
that
p becomes negative, and power is returned The energy supplied by the power p is
is,
w=
or
dt,
by
(2)
and
(4),
w=
hence
Li
di;
L* w=
(^
(5)
is
field
$ = Li
of the circuit.
9.
field.
The
voltage
called the
(6)
it,
The
To produce
Since power
(7)
r
i'e.
the voltage e, a current i must be consumed in the circuit, which with the voltage e gives the dielectric
field ty of
To produce
13
the power p, which supplies the stored energy w of the dielectric This current i' is called the capacity current, or, wrongly, field ^.
charging current or condenser current. Since no power is required to maintain the field, but power is required to produce it, the capacity current must be proportional
to the increase of the dielectric field:
or
by
(6),
i'
C^.
de
-j-
(9)
If e
and therefore
^ decrease,
and therefore
is
are negative;
circuit.
that
is,
The energy
is
w=j*pdt,
or
(10)
by
(7)
and
(9),
w=
hence
Cede;
=
is
rw
(ID
field
t=
of the circuit.
Ce
As seen, the capacity current is the exact analogy, with regard to the dielectric field, of the inductance voltage with regard to the
the representations in the electric circuit, of the energy storage in the field. The dielectric field of the circuit thus is treated and represented
magnetic
field;
in the
as
same manner, and with the same simplicity and perspicuity, the magnetic field, by using the same conception of lines of
force.
Unfortunately, to a large extent in dealing with the dielectric fields the prehistoric conception of the electrostatic charge on the conductor still exists, and by its use destroys the analogy between the two components of the electric field, the magnetic and the
14
dielectric,
un-
necessarily complicated.
There obviously is no more sense in thinking of the capacity current as current which charges the conductor with a quantity of electricity, than there is of speaking of the inductance voltage
But as charging the conductor with a quantity of magnetism. while the latter conception, together with the notion of a quantity
of
magnetism,
etc.,
of the magnetic field by the lines of magnetic force, the terminology of electrostatics of many textbooks still speaks of electric
charges on the conductor, and the energy stored by them, without considering that the dielectric energy is not on the surface of the conductor, but in the space outside of the conductor, just as the
magnetic energy.
all
All the lines of magnetic force are closed upon themselves, the lines of dielectric force terminate at conductors, as seen in Fig. 8, and the magnetic field and the dielectric field thus can be
10.
considered as a magnetic circuit and a dielectric circuit. To produce a magnetic flux <, a magnetomotive force F is required. Since the magnetic field is due to the current, and is proportional
to the current, or, in a coiled circuit, to the current times the number of turns, magnetomotive force is expressed in current turns or
ampere
If
turns.
F=
is
ni.
(12)
the m.m.f.,
by F,
/
=
7
(13)
is called the magnetizing force, and is expressed in ampere turns per cm. (or industrially sometimes in ampere turns per inch). In empty space, and therefore also, with very close approxi-
all nonmagnetic material, / ampere turns per cm. length of magnetic circuit produce 3C = 4 TT/ 10" 1 lines of magnetic force (Here the factor per square cm. section of the magnetic circuit.
mation, in
cgs.
(14)
a survival of the original definition of the magnetic field intensity from the conception of the magnetic mass, since unit magnetic mass was defined as that quantity of magnetism which acts on an equal quantity at
is
The
factor 4 *
THE ELECTRIC
is
FIELD.
15
It is the magnetic density, called the magnetic-field intensity. 2 the number of lines of is, magnetic force per cm produced by the magnetizing force of / ampere turns per cm. in empty space.
that
lines of
cm 2
pro-
3C in
any material
/z3C,
& =
where ju and is called the permeability.
is
(15)
magnetic conductivity," or very nearly so for most materials, with the exception of very few, the so-called magnetic materials: iron, cobalt, nickel, oxygen, and some alloys and oxides
^
"
of iron, manganese, and chromium. If then is the section of the magnetic circuit, the total magnetic
flux
is
$ =
Obviously,
if
A.
(16)
the magnetic
field is
and
(16)
the average magnetizing force, while the actual magnetizing force would vary, being higher at the denser, and lower at the less dense, parts of the magnetic circuit:
'-"
the magnetic flux $ would be derived by integrating the densities (B over the total section of the magnetic circuit.
In
(16),
ii.
To produce
which
is
Entirely analogous relations exist in the- dielectric circuit. a dielectric flux ^, an electromotive force e is required,
measured
in volts.
is
The
dielectric circuit
then
gradient,
and
is
G=
f-
(18)-
The unit field intensity, then, was defined as unit distance from unit magnetic mass, and represented by one line (or rather "tube") of magnetic force. The magnetic flux of unit magnetic mass (or "unit magnet pole") hereby became 4w lines of force, and
unit distance with unit force.
the
field intensity at
TT
into
many magnetic
TT
has
failed, as the
The factor 1Q- 1 also appears undesirable, but when the electrical units were introduced the absolute unit appeared as too large a value of current as practical unit, and one-tenth of it was chosen as unit, and called "ampere."
16
This gives the average voltage gradient, while the actual gradient
in
field,
as that between
varies,
being higher at the denser, and lower at the the field, and is
portion of
then
is
the
dielectric-field intensity,
and
(20)
K is
D = KK
would be the
dielectric density,
where
and
is
close
approximation for
air
and
VL
~9
where
v
is
10 10
tivity of
customary, however, and convenient, to use the permitempty space as unity: K = 1. This changes the unit of
dielectric-field intensity
by the
factor
and
gives: dielectric-field
intensity,
=
dielectric density,
T^-oJ 4 Try 2
KK,
(21)
D=
(22)
solids
where K = 1 for empty space, and between 2 and 6 for most and liquids, rarely increasing beyond 6. The dielectric flux then is
^ = AD.
12.
(23)
seen, the dielectric and the magnetic fields are entirely analogous, and the corresponding values are tabulated in the
As
following Table
*
I.
The
factor 4
TT
appears here in the denominator as the result of the factor due to the relations between these
17
18
TABLE
Magnetic Circuit.
II.
LECTURE
CURRENT
13.
III.
which energy can be stored in one form only, as in this case the change of stored energy can consist only of an increase or decrease but no surge or oscillation between several forms of energy can Such circuits are most of the low- and medium-voltage exist. 220 volts, 600 volts, and 2200 volts. In them the capaccircuits, ity is small, due to the limited extent of the circuit, resulting from the low voltage, and at the low voltage the dielectric energy thus
;
is
negligible, that
field.
is,
by
the magnetic
of high resistance,
would
also give
The usual high-voltage capacity circuit, as in the dielectric field. that of an electrostatic machine, while of very small inductance, also is of very small resistance, and the momentary discharge
currents
may
be very considervery
considerable
eo
^
'
small
inductance,
__
(but
A current i =
Q
and
a magnetic
field
$0 10~ 8
e
=-is
Assuming
now
20
the
the
coil
circuit,
as
for
instance
by
short-
A, with no
voltage impressed upon the coil, and thus no power supplied to it, current i and magnetic flux of the coil must finally be zero.
<
However, since the magnetic flux represents stored energy, it cannot instantly vanish, but the magnetic flux must gradually decrease from its initial value 3>o, by the dissipation of its stored
fore,
energy in the resistance of the coil circuit as i~r. Plotting, therethe magnetic flux of the coil as function of the time, in Fig. 11 A, the flux is constant and denoted by $ up to the moment of
Fig. 11.
is applied, as indicated by the dotted on the magnetic flux decreases, as shown by curve Since the magnetic flux is proportional to the current, the <. latter must follow a curve proportional to <, as shown in Fig. IIB. The impressed voltage is shown in Fig. 1 1C as a dotted line; it is and drops to at t CQ up to t However, since after t a current i flows, an e.m.f. must exist in the circuit, proportional to the
From
current.
e
ri.
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
This
is
21
is the e.m.f. induced by the decrease of magnetic flux <, and therefore proportional to the rate of decrease of <, that is, to
d<&
.
In the
full
first
-j-
moment
magnetic flux
value
iQ.
still
has
value
3>
thus also
full
Hence,
at the first
,
moment
must be
equal to e Q that is, the magnetic flux $ must begin to decrease at such rate as to induce full voltage e as shown in Fig. 11C.
,
three curves <, i, and e are proportional to each other, and must be proporas e is proportional to the rate of change of 3>, tional to its own rate of change, and thus also i and e. That is,
<
The
flux, current,
(1)
<, i, and e decrease most rapidly at first, and then slower and slower, but can theoretically never become zero, though practically they become negligible in a finite time.
The voltage e is induced by the rate of change of the magnetism, and equals the decrease of the number of lines of magnetic force, divided by the time during which this decrease occurs, multiplied The induced voltage e by the number of turns n of the coil. times the time during which it is induced thus equals n times the decrease of the magnetic flux, and the total induced voltage,
is, the area of the induced-voltage curve, Fig. 11C, thus equals n times the total decrease of magnetic flux, that is, equals the initial current i times the inductance L:
that
Zet
=w
10- 8
Li Q
(2)
Whatever, therefore,
of the curves of $,
i,
may
e,
and
= Li be the same, and equal to w If then the current i would continue to decrease at its initial rate, as shown dotted in Fig. 115 (as could be caused, for instance, by a gradual increase of the resistance of the coil circuit), the
induced voltage would retain its initial value e up to the moment of time t = t Q T, where the current has fallen to zero, as
22
shown dotted
would be
e T,
it
The area
and
since
it is
seen above,
=
and, combining (2) and
:
ri.r,
(3), i
cancels,
of T:
.:'
T-\-
>';
flux,
(4)
That
is,
the
initial
netic flux
and
decrease of current, and therefore of magof induced voltage, is such that if the decrease
become zero
T=
r
is,
The
and magnetic
when maintained
they would
time
T=
-=
become
Since the curves of current and voltage theoretically never zero, to get an estimate of the duration of the transient
we may determine
It is preferable, half, or to one-tenth, etc., of its initial value. to estimate the duration of the transient however, by the time T,
which
it
would
last
if
maintained at
is
its initial
value.
That
r
is,
T= "
This time
time constant
of the circuit.
resistance
r,
the shorter
is
more
T=-
and the
initial
exponential
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
by the numerical values
given in Table III.
of the exponential
function, y
TABLE
y
X
III.
1
and Duration
1.
e~ x
2.71828.
24
(6)
directly
by the integration
where
-=-
is
ri
and
their
sum
short-circuited.
Equation
(7)
transposed gives
hence
logi
=L = Ce~~ \
and, as for
0: i
to,
it is:
C =
hence
14.
of engineering importance only in highly inductive circuits, as motor fields, magnets, etc. To get an idea on the duration of such magnetic transients,
per pole, r
circuit, it is
resistance,
and
2
L = =
iQ r
hence
500
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
The magnetic flux is $ = 8 X 10 6 and with 4 n number of magnetic interlinkages thus is
,
25
total turns
the total
n$ = 32 n
X
.32
10 6
L0~ 8
henrys.
The
hence
field excitation is
ra'o
6000 n =
hence
, L=
.32 -
6000 X r
*<r
henrys,
and
L
That
1920
3 84 sec
'
OA
'
is,
full field
excitation for nearly 4 seconds. It is interesting to note that the duration of the field discharge
does not depend on the voltage, current, or size of the machine, but merely on, first, the magnetic flux and m.m.f., which determine the stored magnetic energy, and, second, on the
excitation power, which determines the rate of energy dissipation. 15. Assume now that in the moment where the transient begins the resistance of the coil in Fig. 10
is
increased, that
is,
the
Fig. 12.
coil is
itself,
resistance r '.
Such would,
S.
for instance,
26
The
as A, B,
initial
The magnetic
values $o and i at the moment to of opening the switch S, on curves which must be steeper than those in Fig. 11, since the current passes through a greater resistance, r r', and thereby dissipates the stored magnetic energy at a greater rate.
Fig. 13.
The impressed voltage e Q is withdrawn at the moment t and a voltage thus induced from this moment onward, of such value as r'. In the to produce the current i through the resistance r
,
to,
the current
eo
is still i Q ,
=
eQ
io (r
r'),
to,
was
ior;
greater than the impressed voltof the discharge circuit the resistance in the same ratio as resistance the coil r through which the of is greater than the
eo' is
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
The duration
of the transient
27
now
is
T=
that
L
" r 7+-
is, shorter in the same proportion as the resistance, and thereby the induced voltage is higher. If r = oo that is, no resistance is in shunt to the coil, but the circuit is simply opened, if the opening were instantaneous, it
f
,
would be e = co that is, an That is, the insulation of the circuit closed in this manner.
f
:
infinite voltage
coil
The more
higher
is
the
down.
the induced voltage, and the greater the danger of breakHence it is not safe to have too rapid circuit-opening
To some extent the circuit protects itself by an arc following the blades of the circuit-opening switch, and thereby retarding the cirThe more rapid the mechanical opening of the cuit opening.
switch, the higher the induced voltage, and further, therefore, the arc follows the switch blades and maintains the circuit.
16.
circuit
when
closing a
discuscurrent, or the resistance or inductance of the circuit. sion of the infinite variety of possible combinations obviously would be impossible. However, they can all be reduced to the
same simple case discussed above, by considering that several currents, voltages, magnetic fluxes, etc., in the same circuit add
algebraically, without interfering with each other (assuming, as
magnetic saturation is not approached). produces a current i\ in a circuit, and an e.m.f. ez in ez the same circuit a current i2 then the e.m.f. e\ produces as is the current obvious. i\ -\- 1%, produces iZj conIf now the voltage e\ ez, and thus also the current ii
here, that
If
done
an
e.m.f. e\
ii, and a transient term, e2 and i z the transient terms ez iz follow the same curves, when combined with the permanent terms e\, i\, as they would when alone in the circuit (the case above discussed). Thus, the preceding discus-
sists of
a permanent term,
,
e\
and
sion applies to all magnetic transients, by separating the transient from the permanent term, investigating it separately, and then adding it to the permanent term.
28
The same reasoning also applies to the transient resulting from several forms of energy storage (provided that the law of proportionality of i, e, $, etc., applies), and makes it possible, in investigating the
phenomena during the transition period of energy readjustment, to separate the permanent and the transient term,
separately.
Fig. 14.
coil
shown
eQ
A
At
the voltage
tQ,
coil.
moment
of time,
e
when
this
done, current
i,
magnetic
flux <,
and voltage
on the
In
the transient has passed, the values i 3> e are reached. We may then, as discussed above, separate the transient from the permanent term, and consider that at the time U the coil has a permanent
current
i
,
permanent
flux
<i>
permanent voltage
and
in addi-
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
tion thereto a transient current
.
29
<
i 0j
a transient flux
and a
transient voltage eQ These transients are the same as in Fig. 11 Thus the same curves result, and (only with reversed direction). to them are added the permanent values i <J> e This is shown
,
.
in Fig. 14.
shows the permanent flux and the transient flux which are assumed, up to the time t Q to give the resultant zero
<
<J>
flux.
The
with Fig.
sient
11.
& added to
flux to the
by the curve
3>,
.
<', in
accordance
is
<
which
the tran-
permanent flux 3> In the same manner B shows the construction of the actual current change i by the addition of the permanent current i Q and the transient current i', which starts from i Q at to. C then shows the voltage relation: e Q the permanent voltage, e' the transient voltage which starts from e at t and e the resultant or effective voltage in the coil, derived by adding e Q and e'.
,
from zero
LECTURE
CURRENT
17.
IV.
in such a
tion period appears, during which the stored energy adjusts itself from the condition existing before the change to the condition
The currents in the circuit during the transition period can be considered as consisting of the superposition of the permanent current, corresponding to the conditions after the change, and a transient current, which connects the current value
after the change.
before the change with that brought about by the change. That = current existing in the circuit immediately before, and is, if i\
thus at the
moment
of the
change of
circuit condition,
and
i%
current which should exist at the moment of change in accordance with the circuit condition after the change, then the actual current ii can be considered as consisting of a part or component i z and a
,
iz The former, iz is permanent, as resultIQ. component ii The current compoing from the established circuit condition.
,
nent
IQ,
remnant
,
however, is not produced by any power supply, but is a of the previous circuit condition, that is, a transient, and
manner
-
as discussed in para-
graph
13,
that
is,
with a duration
T=
may
i2 may be continuous, or alternating, or be a changing current, as a transient of long duration, etc. The same reasoning applies to the voltage, magnetic flux, etc.
Thus,
t'i,
let,
in
an alternating-current
.
circuit traversed
by current
in Fig. 15 A, the conditions be changed, at the moment t = 0, The instantaneous value of the so as to produce the current i2
ii
current
at the
moment
=
=
i\
permanent current
i*.
i2 ,
shown
dotted,
io
The
30
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
sient,
31
iQ
shown dotted
in Fig. 15.
i2
to the
permanent current
due to the difference between the instantaneous value of the current i\ which exists, and that of the current i2 which should exist at the moment of change, and
is
shown
drawn
Fig. 15.
thus
the larger, the greater the difference between the two It thus disappears currents, the previous and the after current.
is
if
moment when
ii
12 are equal, as shown in Fig. 15B, and is a maximum, if the change occurs at the moment when the two currents i\ and iz
and
difference, that
is,
and
12,
as
shown
32
If the current ii is zero, we get the starting of the alternating current in an inductive circuit, as shown in Figs. 16, A, B, C. The starting transient is zero, if the circuit is closed at the moment
when the permanent current would be zero (Fig. 16B), and is a maximum when closing the circuit at the maximum point of the permanent-current wave (Fig. 16C). The permanent current and the transient components are shown dotted in Fig. 16, and the resultant or actual current in drawn lines.
Fig. 16.
Applying the preceding to the starting of a balanced three-phase system, we see, in Fig. 17 A, that in general the three transients t'i, i2 and 4 of the three three-phase currents ii, iz is are different, and thus also the shape of the three resultant
1 8.
, ,
Starting at the moment ii, Fig. 175, there is no transient for this current, while the transients of the other two currents, iz and i 3 are equal and opposite, and near their maximum value.
currents during the transition period.
of zero current of
one phase,
Starting, in Fig. 17C, at the maximum value of one current ia we have the maximum value of transient for this current 3 while
, i' ,
i\
and
ii,
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
half the value of 13,
33
and are opposite in direction thereto. In the three must be distributed on both sides transients any case, ' of the zero line. This is obvious: if ii, i 2 ', and i s are the instantaneous values of the permanent three-phase currents, in Fig. is17, the initial values of their transients are: iz, i\,
Fig. 17.
Since the
is
zero, the
is
sum of the three three-phase currents at every moment sum of the initial values of the three transient currents
Since the three transient curves ii,
i'
also
zero.
iz
are pro-
same durait
T=
],
is
zero,
follows
34
that the
sum
must be zero
at
any
the resultant currents (shown in drawn line) must be zero at any moment, not only during the permanent condition, but also during the transition period existing before the permanent condition
is
reached.
apply this to the resultant magnetic field produced by three equal three-phase magnetizing coils placed under equal angles, that is, to the starting of the three-phase
rotating magnetic
field,
It is interesting to
or in general
magnetic
field.
Fig. 18.
known, three equal magnetizing coils, placed under excited by three-phase currents, produce a resultand equal angles ant magnetic field which is constant in intensity, but revolves synchronously in space, and thus can be represented by a concenis
As
well
In This, however, applies only to the permanent condition. the moment of start, all the three currents are zero, and their
resultant magnetic field thus also zero, as
shown above.
Since
the magnetic field represents stored energy and thus cannot be produced instantly, a transient must appear in the building up of
the rotating
field.
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
35
as
the permanent and the transient components of the three currents, Let ii, i2) is be the instantaneous is done in the preceding.
values of the permanent currents at the moment of closing the = 0. Combined, these would give the resultant field circuit, t
(Mo
are
in Fig.
i'i
18.
The
i2
,
moment
=ii,
i^_==
13
these give a
resultant field
OB
permanent
since
all
field rotates
equal and opposite to OA in Fig. 18. The synchronously on the concentric circle a;
OB
OB
three transient components of current decrease in proporIt decreases, however, with the decrease of tion to each other.
the transient current, that is, shrinks together on the line B Q 0. The resultant or actual field thus is the combination of the per-
and the transient fields, manent fields, shown as OAi OA 2 shown as OBi, OB Z etc., and derived thereby by the parallelogram law, as shown in Fig. 18, as OC\, OC2 etc. In this diagram,
, . . . ,
,
Bid,
BC
2
2)
etc.,
OA
2,
etc.,
that
is,
to the radius
in
a,
permanent circle a. That is, while the rotating field permanent condition is represented by the concentric circle
of the
during the transient or starting period is represented by a succession of arcs of circles c, the centers of which move from B Q in the moment of start, on the line B Q toward 0,
the resultant
field
and can be constructed hereby by drawing from the successive BI B 2) which correspond to successive moments of points B
, }
time
0,
tij
t2
...
radii BiCi,
BC
2
2,
etc.,
done in
is
Fig. 19,
constructed.
Fig. 19.
36
_From this polar diagram of the rotating field, in Fig. 19, values OC can now be taken, corresponding to successive moments of
time,
and plotted
in rectangular coordinates, as
As
closing the circuit, and reaches the final value by a series of oscillations ; that is, it first reaches beyond the permanent value, then
drops below
it,
rises
again beyond
it,
etc.
cycles
Fig. 20.
We
in a
system
with only one form of stored energy (magnetic energy), by the combination of several simple exponential transients. However, it must be considered that, while energy can be stored in one form only, as magnetic energy, it can be stored in three
electric circuits,
and a
the
It
three
electric
circuits,
and therewith a
surge,
thus
can
is
is
occur. interesting to note that the rot at ing-field transient independent of the point of the wave at which the circuit
is
closed.
That
is,
wave
at
which they start, as shown in Fig. 17, their polyphase resultant always has the same oscillating approach to a uniform rotating
field,
of duration
T
r
value, which the magnetic field during the transition period can reach, is limited to less than double the final value, It is as is obvious from the construction of the 'field, Fig. 19.
The maximum
evident herefrom, however, that in apparatus containing rotating fields, as induction motors, polyphase synchronous machines, etc.,
the resultant
excessive
field
if
may
then
under transient conditions reach nearly it reaches far above magnetic saturation,
momentary
currents
may
density.
In polyphase rotary
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
37
apparatus, however, these momentary starting currents usually are far more limited than in transformers, by the higher stray field
(self-inductive reactance), etc., of the apparatus, resulting from the air gap in the magnetic circuit. 19. As instance of the use of the single-energy transient in engineering calculations may be considered the investigation of
the
momentary
short-circuit
phenomena
of synchronous alter-
nators.
In alternators, especially
high-speed
high-power mar
momentary
short-circuit current
may
times greater than the final or permanent shortcircuit current, and this excess current usually decreases very At the same time, a big curslowly, lasting for many cycles.
be
many
field.
This excess
field
current shows
curious pulsations, of single and of double frequency, and in the beginning the armature currents also show unsymmetrical
oscillograms of three-phase, quarter-phase, and circuits of turboalternators are shown in Figs. short single-phase 25 to 28.
shapes.
Some
By
complex-appearing phenomena can be easily understood, and predetermined from the constants of the machine with reasonable
exactness.
reaction
tion,
In an alternator, the voltage under load is affected by armature and armature self-induction. Under permanent condi-
both usually
noninductive and
it
at
same way, reducing the voltage at load, and increasing antiinductive load; and both are usually combined in one
act" in the
still
In the transients resultquantity, the synchronous reactance XQ. as short circuit from changes, circuits, the self-inductive ing
armature reactance and the magnetic armature reaction act very differently:* the former is instantaneous in its effect, while the The self-inductive armature reactance Xi latter requires time. consumes a voltage x\i by the magnetic flux surrounding the armature conductors, which results from the m.m.f of the armature
.
current, and therefore requires a component of the magnetic-field As the magnetic flux and the current flux for its production. which produces it must be simultaneous (the former being an
integral part of the
II), it
*
phenomenon of current flow, as seen in Lecture thus follows that the armature reactance appears together So also in their effect on synchronous operation, in hunting, etc.
38
with the armature current, that is, is instantaneous. The armature reaction, however, is the m.m.f. of the armature current in its
That is, that reaction on the m.m.f. of the field-exciting current. = the reactance which of x XQ Xi z synchronous corresponds part
to the armature reaction is not a true reactance at all, consumes no voltage, but represents the consumption of field ampere turns by the m.m.f. of the armature current and the corresponding change of field flux. Since, however, the field flux represents stored magnetic energy, it cannot change instantly, and the armature reaction thus does not appear instantaneously with the armature current, but shows a transient which is determined essentially
by the constants
If
is, is
the counterpart of
then an alternator
self -inductive
the true
is short-circuited, in the first moment only part Xi of the synchronous reactance exists,
is i\
=
Xi
where
is
the induced
that is, the voltage corresponding to the magnetic-field excitation flux existing before the short circuit. Gradually the armature reaction lowers the field flux, in the manner as represented by the synchronous reactance x and the short-circuit cur,
i'
=
XQ
short-circuit current to the
is,
The
ratio of the
momentary
perma-
=
Xi
>
synchronous reactance to self-inductive reactance, or reaction plus armature self-induction, to armature In machines of relatively low self-induction self-induction.
armature
reaction,
the
momentary
the
short-circuit
cur-
thus
may
be
many
times
permanent
is
short-circuit
current.
The
field flux
age consumed by the armature self-induction, while the decrease of field flux between open circuit and short circuit corresponds to
the armature reaction.
The
synchronous
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
Thus
it is:
39
momentary
short-circuit current
~"
_ synchronous
reactance _ XQ ~~
x\
self-inductive reactance
Let $1
field flux of
a three-phase alternator
(or, in general,
polyphase alternator) at open circuit, and this alternator be shortcircuited at the time t = 0. The field flux then gradually dies
its
energy in the
field circuit, to
the
as indicated
m=
by the curve $
in Fig.
21A.
ratio
$1
= m$ and
,
the
initial
value of the
the
permanent part
$0.
<i>
$1
<
= (ml)
This
is
second or more.
The armature
iz
$ which
produces them, and thus gradually decrease, from initial which are as many times higher than the final values as $1 values, is higher than 3> or m times, and are represented in Fig. 21 B.
,
resultant m.m.f. of the armature currents, or the armature reaction, is proportional to the currents, and thus follows the same
field transient, as
The
shown by F
in Fig. 2 1C.
field-exciting current is i at open circuit as well as in the permanent condition of short circuit. In the permanent condition
The
combines with the armature demagnetizing, to a resultant m.m.f., which the short-circuit flux 3> produces During the transition period the field flux $ is higher than 3> and the resultant m.m.f. must therefore be higher in the same proportion. Since it is the difof short circuit, the field current i Q
reaction
which
is
the latter
*
ference between the field current and the armature reaction F, and is proportional to 3>, the field current thus must also be
If the machine were open-circuited before the short circuit, otherwise the field flux existing before the short circuit. It herefrom follows that the momentary short-circuit current essentially depends on the field flux, and
thereby the voltage of the machine, before the short circuit, but is practically independent of the load on the machine before the short circuit and the field
excitation corresponding to this load.
40
proportional to
Thus, as
iQ.
it is i
iQ
at
<
,
period
it is i
<P O
the same transient, from an initial value iY to the normal value as the field flux 3> and the armature currents.
Fig. 21.
Construction of
Momentary Short
phase Alternator.
Thus, at the
moment
of short circuit a
sudden
rise of field
current must occur, to maintain the field flux at the initial value In other words, $1 against the demagnetizing armature reaction.
the
field flux
circuit the e.m.f. required to raise the field current in the propor-
and maintain it at the values corresponding tion m, from i Q to i to the transient i, Fig. 2 ID. As seen, the transients 3>; z'i, 2 iz] F; i are proportional to each
,
i'
other,
and are a
field transient.
by current
iQ
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
at impressed voltage e
first
,
41
moment
were short-circuited upon itself, in the field would still be i Q and therewould have to be induced by the decrease of
,
field transient, as
discussed
would be
TQ =
ro
The
field
from a source
of constant
f
,
the voltage supply, as the exciter, to produce the current i voltage Co' = meo must be acting in the field-exciting circuit; that
is,
must be induced
netic flux.
by the
TO
I)e
mage
,
As a
transient of duration
(m
must
be
-
(m-
-i
1) TO
where
L =
inductance, r
The
more
to
short-circuit transient of
is
of
its field,
the
is,
momentary
permanent
short-circuit current.
In Fig. 21 the decrease of the transient is shown greatly exaggerated compared with the frequency of the armature currents, and Fig. 22 shows the curves more nearly in their actual proportions. The preceding would represent the short-circuit phenomena, if
there were no armature transient.
cuit contains inductance also, that
thereby gives
rise to
a transient, of duration
T =
where
L =
inductance, r = resistance of armature circuit. The armature transient usually is very much shorter in duration than the field
transient.
The armature currents thus do not instantly assume their symmetrical alternating values, but if in Fig. 215, iV, iz, is are the instantaneous values of the armature currents in the moment
of start,
t
0,
upon
these,
and
42
The resultant armature is'. ii, iz, by the addition of these armature transients upon the permanent armature currents, in the manner as discurrents are derived
,
cussed in paragraph 18, except that in the present case even the permanent armature currents ii, i2 is are slow transients. In Fig. 22B are shown the three armature short-circuit currents, in their actual shape as resultant from the armature transient and the field transient. The field transient (or rather its beginning) is shown as Fig, 22 A. Fig. 22B gives the three armature
Fig. 22.
Momentary Short
Alternator.
is
closed at the
moment when
transient,
should be
maximum
ii
maximum
and
iz
transients in opposite direction, of half amplitude. These armature transients rapidly disappear, and the three currents become symmetrical, and gradually decrease with the field tran^3
and
The resultant m.m.f. of three three-phase currents, or the armature reaction, is constant if the currents are constant, and as the currents decrease with the field transient, the resultant armature
reaction decreases in the
same proportion
as the
field,
as
is
shown
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
in Fig. 21(7
43
by F. During the initial part of the short circuit, the armature transient is appreciable and the while however, armature currents thus unsymmetrical, as seen in Fig. 225, their
resultant polyphase m.m.f. also shows a transient, the transient of the rotating magnetic field discussed in paragraph 18. That is,
approaches the curve F of Fig. 21 C by a series of oscillations, as indicated in Fig. 21E. Since the resultant m.m.f. of the machine, which produces the
it
flux, is
field
excitation, Fig. 21
and the
initial os-
21 E, the field-exciting current must give the same since its m.m.f. minus the armature reaction gives the oscillation, The starting resultant field excitation corresponding to flux $>.
transient of the polyphase armature reaction thus appears in the field current, as shown in Fig. 22(7, as an oscillation of full machine
frequency.
circuit is
field
not perfect, the transient pulsation of armature reaction with reduced amplitude in the field current, and this appears reduction is the greater, the poorer the mutual inductance, that
is,
field winding is from the armature windIn 22(7 a ing. Fig. damping of 20 per cent is assumed, which to corresponds fairly good mutual inductance between field and
armature, as met in turboalternators. If the field-exciting circuit contains inductance outside of the
field, as is always the case to a slight extent, the pulsations of the field current, Fig. 22(7, are slightly reduced and delayed in phase; and with considerable inductance intentionally inserted into the field circuit, the effect of this inductance would
alternator
require consideration.
From
circuit characteristics
momentary
short-
(m
sec.,
I)r
is
T= ~=
And assuming
.1 sec.
is
44
self-induction, that
is
6 times the
is
self-
inductive reactance,
If
<f>i
= m =
Xi
1 ~ $1,
6.
The frequency
25 cycles.
is
the
is
circuit flux
= 3>i =
and the
field
is
a tran-
and
Fig. 22 A, repre-
currents
,
ii,
i%,
is
m
XQ
field
on the
transient of duration
To
these
XQ
start with initial values equal
currents are added the armature transients, of duration T, which but opposite in sign to the initial
values of the permanent (or rather slowly transient) armature currents, as discussed in paragraph 18, and thereby give the asymmetrical resultant currents, Fig. 225.
The
this is
field
current
f
gives the
,
flux <,
starting with
= mi Q and
Upon
superimposed the initial full-frequency pulsation of the armature reaction. The transient of the rotating field, of duration
T=
.1 sec., is constructed as in paragraph 18, and for its instantaneous values the percentage deviation of the resultant field from its permanent value .is calculated. Assuming 20 per cent
damping
since i
in the reaction
field
on the
field excitation,
is,
the instantaneous
(i
i'
transient (that
of the current
),
the permanent component) then are increased or decreased by 80 per cent of the percentage variation of the transient field of armature reaction from uniformity, and thereby the field
curve, Fig. 22C,
field
is is
derived.
to be applied, if considerable. Since the transient of the armature reaction does not
inductance
depend
follows
on the point
that the
of the
it
polyphase alternator phenomena are always the same, that is, independent of the point of the wave at which the short circuit occurs, with the exception of the initial
wave shape
of the
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
45
on the point of the wave at which the phenomenon begins, but not
so in their resultant effect.
conditions with a single-phase short circuit are differarmature reaction is pulsating, varying between zero and double its average value, with double the
21.
ent, since the single-phase
The
machine frequency.
The slow
Fig. 21,
field transient
and
its effects
are the
same as shown
in
to D.
However, the pulsating armature reaction produces a corresponding pulsation in the field circuit. This pulsation is of double
Fig. 23.
frequency, and
circuit current.
is
final short-
reaction on the
Furthermore, the armature transient is not constant in its field, but varies with the point of the wave at
circuit starts.
starts at that point of the rather (or slowly transient) armature current should be zero: then no armature transient exists, and
circuit
the armature current is symmetrical from the beginning, and shows the slow transient of the field, as shown in Fig. 23, where A
46
is
the
(the
same as
in Fig.
22 A) and
the armais
ture current, decreasing from an initial value, which the final value, on the field transient.
times
field
and
such that 60 per cent of the pulsation of armature reaction appears in the field current. Forty per cent damping for the double-frequency reaction would about correspond to the 20 per cent damping assumed for the transient full-frequency pulsation of the polyphase machine.
pulsates
The transient field current thus by 60 per cent around the slow field transient, as shown
by
Fig.
23C; passing a
maximum
for every
maximum
of
armature
Fig. 24.
of Alternator.
current,
and thus maximum of armature reaction, and a minimum armature current, and thus armature reacshort-circuit transients
have occasionally been recorded by the oscillograph, as shown Usually, however, the circuit is closed at a point of the wave where the permanent armature current would not be zero, and an armature transient appears, with an initial value equal, but opposite to, the initial value of the permanent armature current. This is shown in Fig. 24 for the case of closing the circuit at the moment where the
in Fig. 27.
Such single-phase
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
armature current should be a maximum, and
its
47
transient thus a
maximum.
The
field
transient
<
is
The
asymmetry resulting from the and superimposed on the slow field transient.
initial
field current, which, due to the single-phase armature shows a permanent double-frequency pulsation, is now superimposed the transient full-frequency pulsation resultant from the transient armature reaction, as discussed in paragraph 20.
On
the
reaction,
Every second peak of the permanent double-frequency pulsation then coincides with a peak of the transient full-frequency pulsation, and is thereby increased, while the intermediate peak of the
double-frequency pulsation coincides with a minimum of the fullfrequency pulsation, and is thereby reduced. The result is that successive waves of the double-frequency pulsation of the field
nate.
current are unequal in amplitude, and high and low peaks alterThe difference between successive double-frequency waves
is a maximum in the beginning, and gradually decreases, due to the decrease of the transient full-frequency pulsation, and finally the double-frequency pulsation becomes symmetrical, as shown in
Fig. 24C.
In the particular instance of Fig. 24, the double-frequency and the full-frequency peaks coincide, and the minima of the fieldcurrent curve thus are symmetrical. If the circuit were closed at
another point of the wave, the double-frequency minima would become unequal, and the maxima more nearly equal, as is easily
seen.
While the field-exciting current is pulsating in a manner determined by the full-frequency transient and double-frequency permanent armature reaction, the potential difference across the field winding may pulsate less, if little or no external resistance
or inductance
nating and
it is
may pulsate so as to be nearly altertimes higher than the exciter voltage, if considerable external resistance or inductance is present; and therefore
is
present, or
many
may become
impor-
tant by
With
disruptive effects, if reaching very high values of voltage. a single-phase short circuit on a polyphase machine, the
double-frequency pulsation of the field resulting from the singlephase armature reaction induces in the machine phase, which is
in quadrature to the short-circuited phase, an e.m.f. which contains the frequencies /(2 1), that is, full frequency and triple
48
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
49
frequency, and as the result an increase of voltage and a distortion of the quadrature phase occurs, as shown in the oscillogram
Fig. 25.
momentary three-phase
short cir-
The
Fig. 26 A.
CD9399.
Symmetrical.
Fig. 2QB.
cuit of
CD9397.
Asymmetrical.
Cir.
1500-Kw. 2300- Volt Three-phase Alternator (ATB-4-1500-1800) Oscillograms of Armature Current and Field Current.
lower curve gives the transient of the field-exciting current, the in Fig. 26A upper curve that of one of the armature currents,
that current which should be near zero, in Fig. 26B that which should be near its maximum value at the moment where the short
circuit starts.
in
27 shows the single-phase short circuit of a pair of machines which the short circuit occurred at the moment in which the armature short-circuit current should be zero; the armature curFig.
50
and the
Symmetrical. Momentary Single-phase Short Circuit Oscillogram of Armature Current, Armature Voltage, and Field Current.
Fig. 28. of
Asymmetrical. Momentary Single-phase Short Circuit Three-phase Alternator (ATB-6-5000-500) Oscillogram of Armature Current and Field Current.
CD6565.
5000-Kw.
Fig. 28 shows the single-phase short circuit of a 6-polar 5000-kw. 11,000-volt steam turbine alternator, which occurred at a point of the wave where the armature current should be not far from its
maximum.
The
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
51
symmetrical, and the double-frequency pulsation of the field current shows during the first few cycles the alternate high and low peaks resulting from the superposition of the full-frequency transient pulsation of the rotating
magnetic
field of
armature reaction.
Interesting in this oscillogram is the irregular initial decrease of the armature current and the sudden change of its wave shape, which is the result of the transient of the current transformer, through
On
LECTURE
CIRCUIT.
22.
field
V.
and the
is a simple exponential, if stored energy, as discussed in the preceding lectures. This, howthe if is no case the field contains iron or ever, longer magnetic
transient thus
other magnetic materials, or if the dielectric field reaches densities beyond the dielectric strength of the carrier of the field, etc. and
;
the proportionality between current or voltage and their respective fields, the magnetic and the dielectric, thus ceases, or, as it may be expressed, the inductance L is not constant, but varies with the
current, or the capacity
not constant, but varies with the voltage. is that of the ironclad magnetic cirexists in one of the most important electrical apparatus,
is
case
If the iron magnetic circuit the alternating-current transformer. contains an air gap of sufficient length, the magnetizing force con-
sumed
in the iron,
is
small compared
with that consumed in the air gap, and the magnetic flux, therefore, is proportional to the current up to the values where magnetic
sient thus
If
saturation begins. Below saturation values of current, the tranis the simple exponential discussed before.
the magnetic circuit is closed entirely by iron, the magnetic not proportional to the current, and the inductance thus not constant, but varies over the entire range of currents, following
flux is
the permeability curve of the iron. Furthermore, the transient due to a decrease of the stored magnetic energy differs in shape
and
in value
as
shown by
Since no satisfactory mathematical expression has yet been found for the cyclic curve of hysteresis, a mathematical calculation is not feasible,, but the transient has to be calculated by an
'^''"r
'*_/
? :,":
52
53
approximate step-by-step method, as illustrated for the starting an alternating-current transformer in "Transient Electric Phenomena and Oscillations," Section I, Chapter XII. Such methods are very cumbersome and applicable only to numerical
transient of
instances.
An approximate calculation, giving an idea of the shape of the transient of the ironclad magnetic circuit, can be made by neglecting the difference between the rising and decreasing magnetic
characteristic,
acteristic given
of the
magnetic char-
which
is
by Kennelly:
(2)
= - = a
T/>
+ crOC;
that
is,
the reluctivity
is
field intensity.
It gives
approximation for higher magnetic densities. This formula is based on the fairly rational assumption that the
fair
permeability of the iron is proportional to its remaining magnetizaThat is, the magnetic-flux density (B consists of a compobility.
nent
3C,
the
field intensity,
3C,
(B'
which is the flux density in space, and which is the additional flux density
With
is
" metallic-flux frequently called the increasing 3C, (B' reaches a finite limiting value,
is
which
in iron
about
&x =
'
cm 2
*
.
At any density
(B^'
(B',
the remaining magnetizability then is the (metallic) permeability as proportional and, assuming
(B',
hereto, gives
and, substituting
gives
a =
,
cftco'rc^
See
"On
the
Law
page 621.
54
or, substituting
1_
***
1
t*
,fc / (/
For OC
in equation (1),
uv
for 3C (7
oo
that
a:
is,
cr
in equation (1), Oi
initial
permeability,
saturation value of
circuit contains an air gap, the reluctance of the iron part is given by equation (2), that of the air part is constant, and the total reluctance thus is
ft
+ ffK
where 3
air gap.
In addition to the metallic flux given by equation (1), a greater or smaller part of the flux always passes through the air or through space in general, and then has constant permeance, that is, is given
by
23. In general, the flux in an ironclad magnetic circuit can, therefore, be represented as function of the current by an expression
of the
form
where
1
-f-
&
is
ut
and
the iron and whatever air space may be in series with the iron, a is the part of the flux passing through nonmagnetic
material.
Denoting now
L =
2
nc 10- 8
where n = number of turns of the electric circuit, which is interlinked with the magnetic circuit, L2 is the inductance of the air
part of the magnetic circuit, LI the (virtual) initial inductance, that the magis, inductance at very small currents, of the iron part of
55
and
=-
That
If r
is,
for i
72,CJ>'
0,
Z/i
and
for i
oo
<'
,
d
T
.
component
of the transient
resulting
from the
air flux
would be
*V-7"
and the duration
initial
_L
nc 10~ 8
T~
of the transient
which would
result
from the
The
differential
is:
induced voltage
is,
(i+Wdi +
.
na 10~ 8
di
ncl0rS
dt
.,_
di
+
.
(6),
t(l
+ bi)
Tidi
Z 5
'
d*
+ Tidi + dt = Q
by
1
The
first
term
is
integrated
1
i(l
+ 6i)
"
2
1
i
+ 6i
+ 6i)
2>
.
then gives
If then, for the time t = t Q the current is i = i substituted in (8) give the integration constant C:
,
these values
T log1
+ !T
logio
T-
+ +C
^o
0,
(9)
56
gives
+ 6i
'
(10)
This equation
is
so
complex
in
i
t
that
it
is
not possible to
cal-
the corresponding values of i; but inversely, for different values of i the corresponding values of t can be calculated, and the corresponding values of i and t,
derived in this manner, can be plotted as a curve, which gives the single-energy transient of the ironclad magnetic circuit.
Tra sient o
Ironclad Inductive Circuit
:
t=2.92(dotted:
t
t-.6i l+.6i
= 1.0851g
.50?)
seconds
Fig. 29.
Such
is
= c = b = n =
a
4 4
X X
105 104
.6,
300.
57
58
This gives
T =
Assuming
tion
:
10 amperes for
0,
T=
2.92
9.21 log 10
^+
and
921
4
.6 i
=
is
by
.4343.
line, in Fig. 29, the transient of such constants as to give
For comparison
shown, in dotted
of a circuit containing
no
iron,
= 1.0S5logi-
.507.
As
much
seen, in the ironclad transient the current curve is very steeper in the range of high currents, where magnetic satis
uration
is
medium
magnetic Thus, in ironclad transients very high-current values of short duration may occur, and such transients, as those of the starting current of alternating-current transformers, may therefore be of
serious importance by their excessive current values. An oscillogram of the voltage and current waves in an 11,000-kw.
high-voltage 60-cycle three-phase transformer, when switching onto the generating station near the most unfavorable point of the
wave,
is
As
seen,
persists for a number of cycles, causing a distortion of the voltage wave, and the current waves remain unsymmetrical for many
cycles.
LECTURE
VI.
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
24.
the change in the stored energy which can take place as the result of a change of the circuit conditions is an increase or decrease.
The transient can be separated from the permanent condition, and then always is the representation of a gradual decrease of energy. Even if the stored energy after the change of circuit conditions is greater than before, and during the transition period an increase of energy occurs, the representation still is by a decrease of the
transient.
is
storage in the
the transition period. If the law of proportionality between current, voltage, magnetic flux, etc., applies, the single-energy transient is a simple exponential
function
:
j_
i/oe
(1)
where
?/o
TO
that
last
is,
= =
initial
if
the time which the transient voltage, current, maintained at its initial value.
is
would
The duration T
T =
where
rent, r
(2)
L = inductance = coefficient of energy storage by the cur= resistance = coefficient of power dissipation by the current.
e,
as dielectric
field,
the
TJ = -,
s/
(3)
59
60
where
energy storage by the voltconductance = coefficient of power consumption by the voltage, as leakage conductance by
capacity
coefficient of
C=
and g
the voltage, corona, dielectric hysteresis, etc. Thus the transient of the spontaneous discharge of a condenser
would be represented by
e
e~
ct
.
(4)
may
For instance, the transient by which a water jet approaches constant velocity when falling under gravitation through a resisting medium would have the duration
T = -,
where V Q = limiting velocity, g be given by
v
(5)
acceleration of gravity,
and would
(l-6~r}.
(6)
gradual decrease of stored energy similar to that represented by the single-energy transient, a transfer of energy can occur between its two different forms.
transient voltage (that is, the difference between the respective currents and voltages existing in the circuit as result of the previous circuit condition, and
Thus,
if i
transient current, e
the values which should exist as result of the change of circuit conditions), then the total stored energy is
w
W
'T + -2-'
=
Li*
Ce*
Wm +W
(7)
>
d.
decreases by dissipation, While the total energy m may be converted into Wd, or inversely. Such an energy transfer may be periodic, that is, magnetic energy may change to dielectric and then back again; or unidirectional,
that
is,
magnetic energy
dielectric to magnetic),
may change to dielectric (or inversely, but never change back again; but the
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
energy
is
61
dissipation of energy is very rapid, the resistance (or conductance) high, and therefore gives transients, which rarely are of industrial importance, as they are of short duration and of low power. It
therefore
is
sufficient
is,
transient, that
to consider the oscillating double-energy the case in which the energy changes periodically
between
This
fer,
two forms, during its gradual dissipation. may be done by considering separately the periodic transor pulsation of the energy between its two forms, and the
its
25.
is
maximum
at the
moment when
is
the dielectric energy is zero, and when all the energy, therefore, magnetic and the magnetic energy is then
where
t'
= maximum
is
transient current.
is
The
dielectric
energy
maximum
all
at the
moment when
the
zero,
and
Ce
2
where
e
it
= maximum
is
transient voltage.
As
magnetic and as
W
~2~
Ceo
~2"
This gives a relation between the maximum transient current and the maximum transient voltage:
v/:-^
therefore
is
of the nature of
an impedance
and
is
called
and
fc = V/y Jj
T
yo, is
62
The maximum
the
maximum
#0
'Z'O
V/
7>
i&Qj
(10)
and
inversely,
io
eo
yj
/C =
2/o.
(11)
This relation
is
For instance, if a line is short-circuited, and the short-circuit IQ suddenly broken, the maximum voltage which can be induced by the dissipation of the stored magnetic energy of the
current
short-circuit current
If
is e
igZo.
one conductor of an ungrounded cable system is grounded, the maximum momentary current which may flow to ground is = voltage between cable conductor and ground. io = eo2/o, where e If lightning strikes a line, and the maximum voltage which it
produce on the line, as limited by the disruptive strength of the line insulation against momentary voltages, is e the maximum = e<>yo. discharge current in the line is limited to i
may
If L is high but C low, as in the high-potential winding of a high-voltage transformer (which winding can be considered as a circuit of distributed capacity, inductance, and resistance), z is
That is, a high transient voltage can produce T/O low. only moderate transient currents, but even a small transient curThus reactances, and other reactive rent produces high voltages.
high and
apparatus, as transformers, stop the passage of large oscillating currents, but do so by the production of high oscillating voltages. Inversely, if L is low and C high, as in an underground cable,
low but 2/0 high, and even moderate oscillating voltages produce large oscillating currents, but even large oscillating currents produce only moderate voltages. Thus underground cables are little liable to the production of high oscillating voltages. This
ZQ is
is
relatively
fortunate, as the dielectric strength of a cable is necessarily much lower than that of a transmission line, due to
the close proximity of the conductors in the former. A cable, therefore, when receiving the moderate or small oscillating currents which
may
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
oscillating voltages, that
is,
63
former
if
latter. Inversely, the large oscillating current of a cable enters a reactive device, as a current transformer, it produces enormous voltages therein.
oscillation,
liable to
be destructive to the
reactive apparatus, transformers, etc., connected with the cable, than to the cable itself.
A transmission line is intermediate in the values of z and y Q between the cable and the reactive apparatus, thus acting like a reactive apparatus to the former, like a cable toward the latter. Thus, the transformer is protected by the transmission line in oscillations originating in the transformer, but endangered by the
transmission line in oscillations originating in the transmission
line.
The simple
V^
in
the different parts of an electric system thus gives considerable information on the relative danger and protective action of the
parts on each other, and shows the reason why some elements, as current transformers, are far more liable to destruction than others; but also shows that disruptive effects of transient voltages,
may
originate in the damaged apparatus, but originate in another part of the system, in which they were relatively harmless, and
become dangerous only when entering the former apparatus. 26. If there is a periodic transfer between magnetic and dielectric energy, the transient current i and the transient voltage e successively increase, decrease, and become zero.
The
current thus
may
i
be represented by
locosfa -7),
(12)
where
i Q is
the
maximum
27Tft,
is
still
(13)
where /
undeterof the
IQ
cos
initial
transient current.
(14)
As the current
energy
is
i is a maximum at the moment when the magnetic maximum and the dielectric energy zero, the voltage e
64
maximum, and
inversely;
and
the current
is
thus
represented by the cosine function, the voltage represented by the sine function, that is,
is
sin (0
7),
(15)
where
ei
sin
initial
(16)
The frequency /
is still
of propor-
tionality it follows that there must be a frequency, that is, the successive conversions between the two forms of energy must occur in
to dielectric
equal time intervals, for this reason: If magnetic energy converts and back again, at some moment the proportion be-
tween the two forms of energy must be the same again as at the starting moment, but both reduced in the same proportion by the power dissipation. From this moment on, the same cycle then must repeat with proportional, but proportionately lowered values.
Fig.
31.
CD10017.
Oscillogram
of
Stationary
Oscillation
of
Varying
of
Frequency:
Compound
and 28 Miles
lation
however, the law of proportionality does not exist, the oscilmay not be of constant frequency. Thus in Fig. 31 is shown an oscillogram of the voltage oscillation of the compound circuit consisting of 28 miles of 100,000-volt transmission line and the
If,
2500-kw. high-potential step-up transformer winding, caused by switching transformer and 28-mile line by low-tension switches off a substation at the end of a 153-mile transmission line, at 88 kv.
With decreasing
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
65
decreases, and as at lower magnetic densities the permeability of the iron is higher, with the decrease of voltage the permeability of the iron and thereby the inductance of the electric circuit inter-
linked with
it
from
this increased
magnetic
energy storage coefficient L, there follows a slower period of oscillation, that is, a decrease of frequency, as seen on the oscillogram,
frequency / would give a number of values which represent the different component sine waves.
charge," is capacity times voltage: Ce. It is, however, the product of the current flowing into the condenser, and the time during which this current flows into it, that is, it equals i t.
The
"
Ce
it
(17)
to the oscillating energy transfer: the voltage at the condenser e Q to -fe and the condenser changes during a half-cycle from
,
charge thus
is
2e C;
the current has a
maximum
value
i'
and as
it
frequency
that
is,
=-}, it is
2e Q C =
-io
7T
o7
2J
which is the expression of the condenser equation (17) applied to the oscillating energy transfer.
Transposed, this equation gives
66
a
is
VLC
and
dielectric
(20)
The
thus
and the
oscillation thus
TTCT
ality applies.
a sine wave without distortion, as long as the law of proportionWhen this fails, the wave may be distorted, as seen
Fig. 31. of the periodic part of the transient
on the oscillogram
can
now be
and
io
cos (0
7)
io
cos cos
7 cos
t
(7
<j>
+
.
sin
t
,
sin
IQ
e\
Q
i\
sin -
<J
and by
(11):
i
i\
cos
(T
1/001
sin - ,
ff
(21)
and
in the
same manner:
e
e\
cos (7
+z
ii
sin - ,
a
ii
(22)
where
e\ is
the
initial
the
initial
value
of transient current.
and
as
the voltage
Li 2
netic energy
^ z
Ce 2
dielectric
energy
seen, the stored magnetic energy pulsates, with double frequency, 2/, between zero and a maximum, equal to the total
As
The average value of the stored magnetic energy stored energy. thus is one-half of the total stored energy, and the dissipation of magnetic energy thus occurs at half the rate at which it would
the energy were magnetic energy; that is, the transient the power dissipation of the magnetic energy lasts from resulting twice as long as it would if all the stored energy were magnetic, or in other words, if the transient were a single (magnetic) energy
occur
if all
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
transient.
67
be
and with only half the energy magnetic, the duration thus is twice as long, or 2 T = 7\ = (23)
2T
^=,
and voltage
(21)
and
(22).
/C
Fig. 32.
The same
were
tion:
If all
the energy
of the dura-
dielectric, it
68
as only half the energy is dielectric, the dissipation that is, the dielectric transient has the duration
half as rapid,
T =
2
T =
'
(24)
and (22) constitute the periodic part of the phenomenon, the part which represents the dissipation of power is given by the factor
hk
t(
\T^TJ
(25)
is
T, thus
given by
I..!
T
IV
!_
2V
I
1/1
(26)
and this is the harmonic mean of the duration of the single-energy magnetic and the single-energy dielectric transient. It is, by substituting for T and TV,
where u
is
the double-energy transient. Usually, the dissipation exponent of the double-energy transient
is
given as
r
2L'
This
resents the
if g = 0, that is, the conductance, which reppower dissipation resultant from the voltage (by leakage, dielectric induction and dielectric hysteresis, corona, etc.), Such is the case in most power circuits and transis negligible. mission lines, except at the highest voltages, where corona appears.
is
correct only
It is
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
transformers,
lines, etc.
etc.,
69
and
is
very nearly the case if the capacity is due to electrostatic condensers, but not if the capacity is that of electrolytic
It is
condensers,
(25) as factor
with the equations of periodic energy transfer, (21) and (22), gives the complete equations of the double-energy transient of the circuit containing inductance and capacity:
=
e
cos
(7
t y Q ei sin
.
>
>
fl-
(28)
CCS o-
+z
ii
sin
/
)
'
where
(29)
= VLC,
and
(30)
and
ii
and
e\
volt-
age respectively. As instance are constructed, in Fig. 33, the transients of current and of voltage of a circuit having the constants
:
Inductance,
Capacity,
Resistance,
Conductance,
in the case, that
L= C= r = = g
1.25
2.5
ohms;
0.008 mho,
The The
It
is,
ii
e\
= =
= Vie =
-
io- 5
/=
ZQ
=
TTff
= =
y
y
=
=
2/o
/C T
mho,
TO
T =
l
0.001 sec.
=
=
millisecond,
0.5 millisecond,
2C =
1
0.0005 sec.
0.000333 sec.
0.33 millisecond;
3000 X15&
\
\
\
-1,0
Milliseconds
1
,i\i
Fig. 33.
= =
t
-3
<S140cos0.2-80sin0.2Zj,
1
},
is
given in milliseconds.
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS.
Fig. 33
71
and voltage:
i
r
= =
80 sin 0.2
1,
1.
Fig.
335
gives
transient,
transient,
= =
e~',
e~ 2< , e~ 3<
.
And
And
hki',
and the
tran-
sient voltage, e
LECTURE
28.
VII.
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
sient consists of a periodic
In a circuit containing inductance and capacity, the trancomponent, by which the stored energy
7" /j'2
f^ />2
and
dielectric
and a transient
component, by which the total stored energy decreases. Considering only the periodic component, the maximum magnetic energy must equal the maximum dielectric energy,
Lio
2
Ceo
"2"
where
i
~2~'
= maximum
transient current, e
eQ
= maximum
transient
voltage.
and
io,
= V /L_
\C-
ZQ
-y
'
where
ZQ is called the natural impedance or surge impedance, y the natural or surge admittance of the circuit. As the maximum of current must coincide with the zero of
inversely, if the one is represented by the cosine is the sine function; hence the periodic comthe other function, are the transient of ponents
voltage,
and
ii
ei
= =
IQ
cos
(</>
7)
l
e sin (0
7)
(4)
where
# and
= 2ft =
'
is
27^
is
(5)
The
transient
component
hk
e-*,
72
(6)
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
where
73
is
= =
loe-^cos (0
eoe-^sinfa
- 7) - 7)
f
7, e
and
i.
and
i'
of the transient,
at
= Oor
0:
sin
hence
to the circuit in
of the double-energy transient apply which capacity and inductance are massed, as, for instance, the discharge or charge of a condenser through an in-
ductive circuit.
Obviously, no material difference can exist, whether the capacity and the inductance are separately massed, or whether they are intermixed, a piece of inductance and piece of capacity alternating,
or uniformly distributed, as in the transmission line, cable, etc. Thus, the same equations apply to any point of the transmission
line.
A
However,
point
if
B
Fig. 34.
(8) are
of a line,
shown diagrammatically
point B, at distance I from the point A, the same equations will apply, but the phase angle 7, and the maximum values e Q and IQ,
may
be different.
if
Thus,
c <r ui cos (0
7)
)
)
sin(0
-7)
74
appear at a point B, at distance I from A, at a moment of time later than at to B, if the by the time of propagation ti from
oscillation
is
t
traveling from
(t
to
B- that
is,
instead of
Or,
if
ti'
the time
t\)
enters.
B to A,
t,
it is
earlier at
(t
by the
time
the value
ti)
enters the
equation (11). In general, the oscillation at A will appear at B, and the oscillation at B will appear at A, after the time t\; that of (11), with (t t\) and with (t ti), will is, both expressions
occur.
general form of the line oscillation thus is given by substiti) instead of t into the equations (11), where t\ is the tuting (t time of propagation over the distance I.
The
field,
which in
air,
10 10
/z
(12)
(specific
and
in a
medium
K is
of permeability
and permittivity
capacity)
v =5
X T=^>
3
10 10
(13)
VfUJ
and we denote
;;
then
.v
'.,.
a-j,
ti
ffifil
= 27rM
=F
co
(14)
al;
(15)
and
if
we denote
co
t
(16)
for
we
get, substituting
=F
t\
for
and
= =
ce~ ut cos (0
Z ce- u( sin
co
co
7) 7)
17
)
(</>
=F
In these equations,
is
=
co
2 2
7T/Z
(18)
7r/aZ
the space angle, and c is the maximum value of current, Z Q C the maximum value of voltage at the point I.
is
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
75
Resolving the trigonometric expressions of equation (17) into functions of single angles, we get as equations of current and of ut and of a combination of the voltage products of the transient e~
,
trigonometric expressions:
cos
sin
cos
co, co,
cos
sin
sin
cos
sin
co, co.
Line oscillations thus can be expressed in two different forms, and either as functions of the sum and difference of time angle
distance angle co: (0 and functions of of
co),
co,
as in (19).
The
is more convenient to introduce the terminal conditions in stationary waves, as oscillations and surges; the former is often more
convenient to show the relation to traveling waves. In Figs. 35 and 36 are shown oscillograms of such line
oscilla-
tions. Fig. 35 gives the oscillation produced by switching 28 miles of 100-kv. line by high-tension switches onto a 2500-kw.
step-up transformer in a substation at the end of a 153-mile threephase line; Fig. 36 the oscillation of the same system caused by
switching on the low-tension side of the step-up transformer. 29. As seen, the phase of current i and voltage e changes progressively along the line Z, so that at some distance 1 Q current and
voltage are 360 degrees displaced from their values at the starting This distance Z is point, that is, are again in the same phase. called the wave length, and is the distance which the electric field
travels during one period
to
As current and voltage vary in phase progressively along the line, the effect of inductance and of capacity, as represented by the inductance voltage and capacity current, varies progressively, and the resultant effect of inductance and capacity, that is, the effective inductance and the effective capacity of the circuit, thus are not the sum of the inductances and capacities of all the line elements, but the resultant of the inductances and capacities of That is, the effective all the line elements combined in all phases. inductance and capacity are derived by multiplying the total
inductance and total capacity by avg/cos/, that
is,
2 by -
T6
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
77
78
Instead of
L and
- - and
7T
7T
In the same manner, instead of the total resistance 2T 2 Q total conductance g, the values and - - appear.
7T
7T
,
and the
The values of z y u, 0, and co are not changed hereby. The frequency /, however, changes from the value correspond,
IT
VLC
to the value
=
4
Vic
where
(7
= VLC.
line
(21)
If h is the length of the line, or of that piece of the which the oscillation extends, and we denote by
over
LO, Co,
TO, go
(22)
then
-i
~ \
(23)
that
is,
is
independent of the
line
constants per
then
is
o-
Z*ro,
(24)
where
(TO
-\/T C* *
J-JQ\s
fOf^\
\^"/
is
a constant of the
line construction,
of the line.
is
/.-rrr-
(26)
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
The frequency / depends upon the
which the
oscillation occurs.
79
length Zi of the section of line is, the oscillations occurring in a transmission line or other circuit of distributed capacity have
in
That
definite frequency, but any frequency may occur, depending on the length of the circuit section which oscillates (provided that this circuit section is short compared with the entire length of the
no
circuit,
that
is,
which the
whole).
If
Zi
oscillation
the frequency high compared with the frequency would have if the entire line oscillates as a
is
wave length
of this oscilla-
tion
is
ZL
(27)
Zi,
the effective
(28)
Po
avg
ei
ei,
(29)
not zero, but alternately equal amounts of energy flow however, first one way, then the other way. Across the ends of the oscillating section, however, no energy can flow, otherwise the oscillation would not be limited to this*
section.
Thus
at the
e
i
2. 3.
= = =
Zi;
at one end,
i
Zi.
at one end, e
at the other
end
of
the potential and current distribution in the be as shown in Fig. 37, A, B, C, etc. That is,
thereof.
If
a three-quarters wave, in Fig. 375, at the two points C and the power is also zero, that is, Zi consists of three separate and
Zi
is
that
is,
the
80
unit of oscillation
or also a quarter-wave.
The same
is
the
In the case
2, i
and
voltage distribution are as sketched in Fig. 38, A, B, C, etc. That is, in A, the section li is a half-wave, but the middle, C, of li is a node or point of zero power, and the oscillating unit
again
is
/i
section
a quarter-wave. In the same way, in Fig. 385, the consists of 4 quarter- wave units, etc.
Fig. 37.
Fig. 38.
The same
length
30.
1
is
applies to case 1, and it thus follows that the four times the length of the oscillation l\.
/
wave
Substituting
li
oscillation
/
However,
the
if
^r
=
,
(30)
=
1Q
frequency, and v
is
velocity of propagation,
wave length
-*
period,
(31)
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
thus
is
Zo
81
trfo
=
^.,
(32)
a
or
(7
(33)
(34)
length, and the velocity of propagation. the calculation of the capacity from the inductance,
C =
and
inversely.
(35)
As
in
usually is difficult to calculate, while the inductance is easily derived, equation (35) is useful in calculating the capacity by means
of the inductance.
This equation (35) also allows the calculation of the mutual capacity, and thereby the static induction between circuits, from
the mutual magnetic inductance. The reverse equation,
is
(36)
ured capacity, and the velocity of propagation equation (13). 31. If li is the length of a line, and its two ends are of different
electrical character, as the
= at the other end, the oscillaa quarter-wave or an odd multiple thereof. The longest wave which may exist in this circuit has the wave = 4 Zi, and therefore the period t Q = cr /o = 4 o- /i, that length Z
and thereby
i
at one end, e
is
is,
the frequency /
A 4
r
ooti
This
is
wave
exist
of oscillation.
In addition thereto,
all its
wave lengths ^ ^ _
1, 2,
and
the frequencies (2 k
1)/
where k
82
If then denotes the time angle and co the distance angle of the = 2 TT represents a complete cycle fundamental wave, that is,
and co 2ir a complete wave length of the fundamental wave, the time and distance angles of the higher harmonics are
30, 3
co, co, co,
50, 5
70, 7
etc.
all
complex
possible fre-
cos (0 =F
co
71)
+a
and the length h
co
cos 5 (0
+a T
cos 3 (0 =F
co
co
73)
. .
is
75)
(37)
represented
by the angle
=
If
~,
and the
teristics,
the two ends of the line h have the same electrical characat both ends, or i = 0, the longest possible that is, e =
1
=
r J
l\,
"
'
any multiple (odd or even) thereof. If then and co again represent the time and the distance the fundamental wave, its harmonics have the respective angles of time and distance angles
or
etc.
complex
oscillation
co
a\ cos (0 =F
cos 2 (0
co
+a
and the length
l\
cos 3 (0 =F
is
73)
T +
co
72)
. .
(38)
of the line
represented by angle
coi
TT,
and the
The half-wave
harmonics, and thereby may have a wave shape, in which one half wave differs from the other.
(17),
but
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
usually are tion (19).
83
into the
form
for
oi
equa-
I)/,
that
is,
very large
the successive harmonics are so close together that a very small variation of the line constants causes them to overlap, and as the line constants are not perfectly constant, but may
vary slightly with the voltage, current, etc., it follows that at very high frequencies the line responds to any frequency, has no definite frequency of oscillation, but oscillations can exist of any frequency,
provided this frequency is sufficiently high. Thus in transmission resonance phenomena can occur only with moderate frequencies, but not with frequencies of hundred thousands or millions of
lines,
cycles.
32.
The
line constants r
go,
dealing with tranthe velocity unit v. That is, choosing as unit of length the distance of propagation in unit time, or 3 X 10 10 cm. in overhead circuits, this gives v = 1,
is
as per cm., mile, 1000 feet, etc. The most convenient unit of length, sients in circuits of distributed capacity,
when
and therefore
"1
or
GO
-jj
-L/o
T LIQ
1
-ftj-
That
the capacity per unit of length, in velocity measure, is In this velocity unit of inversely proportional to the inductance. distances will be X. length, represented by
is,
Using
<7
the transient.
This velocity unit of length becomes specially useful if the transient extends over different circuit sections, of different constants and therefore different wave lengths, as for instance an overhead line, the underground cable, in which the wave length is about one-half what it is in the overhead line (K = 4) and coiled windings, as the high-potential winding of a transformer, in which the wave length usually is relatively short. In the velocity measure of length, the wave length becomes the same throughout
all
is
thereby greatly
simplified.
84
Substituting
1 in
^o
Ao>
(40)
CO
O 2
7T/X
^ =
27rX
;
AO
/ LQ = V ^o r
4
T = L
= = T ?T T ^o
2/o
^O
^o
/A1\ (41)
where
= maximum
voltage,
= maximum
current.
and the is, the natural impedance is the inductance, natural admittance is the capacity, per velocity unit of length, and is the main characteristic constant of the line.
That
The equations of the current and voltage of the line oscillation then consist, by (19), of trigonometric terms
cos
sin
cos cos
sin
<f>
co,
cu,
co,
cos
sin
sin
co,
ut and would thus, in the most multiplied with the transient, e~ general case, be given by an expression of the form
,
= _
e~
"*
I
ai cos
</>
cos
co
+ 61 sin
_|_
cos
co
Ci
cos
sin
co
-f-disin</>sinco|,
e
- ut
|
fll
cos
^ cos w
^ sm ^ cos w
sin sin
co
_j_ Cl
j ,
cos
^ sm w
+ di
and
its
is,
terms, with
co, co,
co,
etc.
a, 6, c, d, a', 6', c', d'
(42),
the coefficients
by the terminal conditions of the problem, that by the values of i and e at all points of the circuit co, at the
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
<
85
= 0, and by the values of i and e beginning of time, that is, for at all times t (or respectively) at the ends of the circuit, that is,
</>
for
co
=
The
and
co
=
ft
For instance,
(a)
is
if:
circuit
is
co
0,
that
is,
the current
zero at
all
That
for
co
is,
0;
the equations of i then must not contain the terms with cos cos 2 co, etc., as these would not be zero for co = 0. That is,
co,
it
must be
Ol == 0,
61
a2
a3
= =
0, 0,
62 63
= = =
0,
0, 0,
(43)
etc.
)
contains only the terms with sin co, sin 2 co, Since, however, the voltage e is a maximum where the current i is zero, and inversely, at the point where the current is
of
i
The equation
etc.
zero, the voltage must be a maximum; that is, the equations of the voltage must contain only the terms with cos co, cos 2 co, etc.
Thus
it
must be
ci'
'
C2
'
c8
= = =
0,
,
d/ cV
d8
'
0,
= = =
0,
0, 0,
(44)
etc.J
= =
c~ ui
\d cos
</>
e~ ut {ai cos
co,
|
)
co
hereof.
If
open
circuit
at one end
co
0,
the line
end
co,
co
7T
-, the voltage e
must be zero
become zero
co
Cos
cos 4
cos 3
etc.,
co,
cos 5
co,
etc.,
for
=
,
but cos 2
co,
co,
7T
^,
and the
e.
sion of
86
That is, the voltage e can contain no even harmonics. If, however, the voltage contains no even harmonics, the current produced by this voltage also can contain no even harmonics. That is, it must be
C2
c4
C6
= = =
0, 0, 0,
^=
d,
0, 0,
0,
a/
a,'
d6
= =
a6
'
= = =
0,
62
64 66
'
'
0,
0,
'
= = =
0,
0,
0,
(46)
etc.
)
The complete
open at the end
and short-circuited
at the
end
co
^ thus
would be
i
=
=
e~ ut
(ci
cos
sin3co
e
e~ ut
+ di sin 0) sin + (c cos 3 + d sin 3 0) + + bi sin 0) cos + (a/ cos 3 + 63' sin 3 0)
co
3 3
. .
.
j,
co
+...}.
(c) Assuming now as instance that, in such a stationary oscillation as given by equation (47), the current in the circuit is zero = 0. Then the at the starting moment of the transient for
0.
c3 c5
= =
0,
0,
(48)
etc. )
At the moment, however, when the current is zero, the voltage of the stationary oscillation must be a maximum. As i = for = 0, at this moment the voltage e must be a maximum, that is, the voltage wave can contain no terms with sin 0, sin 3 0, etc.
This means
V=
63'
0,
)
65
'
= =
0,
0,
(49)
etc. )
+d
sin 3
sin 3
co
c? 5
sin 5
sin 5
co
-"'
\ai cos
<t>
cos
w+O)
cos 3
. .
cos 3
w+o
'
cos 5
<t>
cos 5
(50)
1.
LINE OSCILLATIONS.
87
In these equations (50), d and a' are the maximum values of current and of voltage respectively, of the different harmonic waves. Between the maximum values of current, i and of volt,
age,
eo,
where
is
That
is
a'=dz
and substituting
i
0)
(51)
e~
ut
\
di sin
<f>
+ d$ sin 3 +d
3
<f>
sin 3
co
+ d$ sin 5
d5 cos 5
<j>
sin 5
co
~ ut
I
di cos
cos
co
cos 3
<
cos 3
co -j-
cos 5
(52)
(d)
If
is
given
at the
is
of start of the transient, for instance, the voltage constant and equals e\ throughout the entire circuit at the
moment
starting
moment
ut ZQ t~
=
di cos
co
by substituting
ei
in (52),
\
c? 3
cos 3
co
c? 5
cos 5
co
+
,
(53)
co.
of
d\,
d3
d$,
etc.,
in the
III.
manner
as discussed in
"
LECTURE
VIII.
TRAVELING WAVES.
33. In a stationary oscillation of a circuit having uniformly distributed capacity and inductance, that is, the transient of a
circuit storing energy in the dielectric and magnetic and voltage are given ^by the expression
i
field,
current
= =
i Q e~
ut
cos (0
sin
(</>
e e~
ut
T T
co co
7), 7),
where
is
co
maximunl current and voltage respectively. The power flow at any point of the circuit, that is, at any tance angle co, and at any time t, that is, time angle <, then is
p
= = =
ei,
(</>
co
7) sin (0 =F
co
7),
(2)
^|V
<sin2(c/>=Fco-7),
is
Po
= =
avg
0.
p,
(3)
Hence, in a stationary oscillation, or standing wave of a uniform circuit, the average flow of power, p is zero, and no power flows along the circuit, but there is a surge of power, of double frequency. That is, power flows first one way, during one-quarter cycle, and then in the opposite direction, during the next quarter,
cycle, etc.
is
As in a stationary wave, current and voltage are in quadrature with each other, the question then arises, whether, and what
TRAVELING WAVES.
physical
89
in
meaning a wave
i
has, in
= =
loe~
ut
e Q e~
ut
co
7),
(4)
7).
= =
e Q i Q e-
2ut
cos 2
co
7),
(5)
of
power
p
is
avg
p,
(6)
Such a wave thus consists of a combination of a steady flow of power along the circuit, p 0) and a pulsation or surge, pi, of the same
nature as that of the standing wave
(2)
:
It occurs
Such a flow of power along the circuit very frequently. For instance,
is
it
may
be caused
is
if
by a
impressed
Fig. 39.
Wave.
circuit, as
shown by curve
in Fig. 39, or
is
magnetic energy a part of the circuit. This energy then gradually distributes over the circuit, as indicated by the curves B, C, etc., of Fig. 39, that is, moves along the circuit, and the dissipation of the stored energy
thus occurs by a flow of power along the
circuit.
by a impressed upon
if
90
Such a flow
consists of
For instance, if a circuit an unloaded transformer and a transmission line, as indicated in Fig. 40, that is, at no load on the step-down trans^>
Line
Transformer
Line
Fig. 40.
former, the high-tension switches are opened at the generator end of the transmission line. The energy stored magnetically and
dielectrically in line
dissipates
by a
transient,
This gives the oscillation of a circuit consisting of 28 miles of line and 2500-kw. 100-kv.
as
in the oscillogram Fig. 41.
shown
step-up and step-down transformers, and is produced by disconnecting this circuit by low-tension switches. In the transformer, the duration of the transient would be very great, possibly several
seconds, as the stored magnetic energy (L) is very large, the dissipation of power (r and g) relatively small; in the line, the transient is of fairly short duration, as r (and g) are considerable.
more
Left to themselves, the line oscillations thus would die out much rapidly, by the dissipation of their stored energy, than the
transformer oscillations.
together, both
sient.
simultaneously by the same tranthen follows that power must flow during the transient from the transformer into the line, so as to have both die down together, in spite of the more rapid energy dissipation in the line.
die
It
must
down
Thus a
transient in a
compound
circuit,
that
is,
a circuit comprising
is,
must be a traveling wave, that must be accompanied by power transfer between the sections
sections of different constants,
of
the circuit.*
effective
traveling wave, equation (4), would correspond to the case of power in a permanent alternating-current circuit, while
the stationary
wave
of reactive power.
wave
*
Since one of*the most important applications of the traveling is the investigation of the compound circuit, it is desirable
In oscillogram Fig. 41, the current wave
is
to the voltage
wave
TRAVELING WAVES.
91
92
to introduce, when dealing with traveling waves, the velocity unit as unit of length, that is, measure the length with the distance of 10 10 cm. with a straight conpropagation during unit time (3
ductor in
distance unit through all sections of the circuit, and expresses the wave length X and the period T by the same numerical values,
TQ
-,
co
directly comparable:
=
CO
2vft
2
7T
= =
27T
AO
(8)
A
34.
If
7T/X.
power flows along the circuit, three cases may occur: flow of power is uniform, that is, the power remains (a) constant in the direction of propagation, as indicated by A in
The
Fig. 42.
B
c'
A'
B'
Fig. 42.
(b)
The
flow of power
tion, as illustrated
(c)
tion,
propaga-
Obviously, in all three cases the flow of power decreases, due to the energy dissipation by r and g, that is, by the decrement e~ ut Thus, in case (a) the flow of power along the circuit decreases at
.
TRAVELING WAVES.
,
93
the rate e~ ut corresponding to the dissipation of the stored energy by e-"', as indicated by A in Fig. 42; while in the case (6) the power flow decreases faster, in case (c) slower, than corresponds
'
to the energy dissipation, and is illustrated by B' and C' in Fig. 42. (a) If the flow of power is constant in the direction of propagation, the equation
i
would be
= =
io<r
ut ut
cos (0
cos (0
o>
7),
e^~
co
7),
(9)
In this case there must be a continuous power supply at the one end, and power abstraction at the other end, of the circuit or circuit section in which the flow of power is constant. This could occur approximately only in special cases, as in a circuit section of medium rate of power dissipation, u, connected between a section of low- and a section of high-power dissipation. For instance, if as illustrated in Fig. 43 we have a transmission line
Line
Transformer
Line
Fig. 43.
LoadCT
^Circuit.
Compound
connecting the step-up transformer with a load on the step-down and the step-up transformer is disconnected from the generating system, leaving the system of step-up transformer, line, and
end,
load to die
circuit,
is
down together in a stationary oscillation of a compound the rate of power dissipation in the transformer then
much lower, and that in the load may be greater, than the average rate of power dissipation of the system, and the transformer will supply power to the rest of the oscillating system, the load receive power. If then the rate of power dissipation of the
u should happen to be exactly the average, w of the entire system, power would flow from the transformer over the line into the load, but in the line the flow of power would be uniform, as the line neither receives energy from nor gives off energy to the
line
,
but
its
its
rate
of
power
dissipation.
94
(b) If the flow of power decreases along the line, every line element receives more power at one end than it gives off at the other end. That is, energy is supplied to the line elements by
the flow of power, and the stored energy of the line element thus decreases at a slower rate than corresponds to its power dissipation
r and g. Or, in other words, a part of the power dissipated in the line element is supplied by the flow of power along the line, and only a part supplied by the stored energy.
by
if
Since the current and voltage would decrease by the term e~ w< the line element had only its own stored energy available, when
,
of current
and
hence the exponential decrement u is decreased to (u s), and s then is the exponential coefficient corresponding to the energy
supply by the flow of power. Thus, while u is called the dissipation constant of the may be called the power-transfer constant of the circuit.
circuit, s
Inversely, however, in its propagation along the circuit, X, such a traveling wave must decrease in intensity more rapidly than corresponds to its power dissipation, by the same factor by which
it
passed. enter.*
increased the energy supply of the line elements over which it That is, as function of the distance, the factor e~ sX must
the
e
line,
,
In other words, such a traveling wave, in passing along leaves energy behind in the line elements, at the rate
st
by
of
and therefore decreases faster in the direction of progress That is, it scatters a part of its energy along its path travel, and thus dies down more rapidly with the distance of
e~
sX
.
travel.
Thus, in a traveling wave of decreasing power flow, the time ~ decrement is changed to e~ (u s^, and the distance decrement e+ sX added, and the equation of a traveling wave of decreasing power
flow thus
is
--; ,
( (
* Due to the use of the velocity unit of length X, distance and time are = X and the time decrement, e+*<, and the distance given the same units, ^ sX Otherwise, the give the same coefficient s in the exponent. decrement, e~ velocity of propagation would enter as factor in the exponent.
TRAVELING WAVES.
the average power then
Po
is
95
avg e,
-s)t e -2s\
L
-2ut e +2s(t-\)
i,
e,
and po
of equations (11)
The
first
t,
form shows that the wave debut decreases with the distance X.
that the distance X enters the equation co respectively, and that thus for X and 4>
\ the decrement
is
e~ 2ut
that
is,
in the
dissi-
by the power
Equations (10) to (12) apply to the case, when the direction is, of wave travel, is toward increasing X.
in opposite direction, the sign of X
and thus
reversed.
(c)
If
line,
more power
leaves every line element than enters it; that is, the line element is drained of its stored energy by the passage of the wave, and thus
down with the time at a greater rate than corresponds to the power dissipation by r and g. That is, not all the stored energy of the line elements supplies the power which is being dissipated in the line element, but a part of the energy leaves the line element in increasing the power which flows along the line. The rate of dissipation thus is increased, and instead
the transient dies
of u, (u
+ s)
is
That
)',
is,
decrement
X the power flow increases, that is, the intensity of the wave increases, by the same factor e+ sX or rather, the wave decreases along the line at a slower rate than
line
,
cos
<>
is
96
that
(15),
positive for an increasfor a flow of ing, negative decreasing, power. The equations (13)
to (15) then apply also to the case (6) of decreasing power flow, but in the latter case s is negative. They also apply to the case
(a) for s
0.
The equation
of current, voltage,
and power
of a traveling
wave
= '^ = ^~VW-r*Vc=csArrka
_
==/?
at
s
^
u-r A; rr\c
f
^3^,.,
/v
.^^
/.i
o/
VW
where the upper sign applies to a wave traveling in the direction toward rising values of X, the lower sign to a wave traveling in opposite direction, toward decreasing X. Usually, waves of both
directions of travel exist simultaneously (and in proportions depending on the terminal conditions of the oscillating system, as
the values of
s
and
corresponds to a traveling wave of constant power flow corresponds to a traveling wave of increasing power flow, a wave which drains the circuit over which it travels of
(case (a)).
s
>
is,
that
some
s
of
<
is,
that
corresponds to a traveling wave of decreasing power flow, a wave which supplies energy to the circuit over which it
travels,
transient.
If s is negative, for
it
always must be
since,
would be negative, and e~ (u + s}t would increase with the time; that is, the intensity of the transient would
if
>
u,
-\-
TRAVELING WAVES.
increase with the time, which in general
is
97
not possible, as the
dissipation
transient
in r
time,
by the power
and
Standing waves and traveling waves, in which the coefficient exponent of the time exponential is positive, that is, the wave increases with the time, may, however, occur in electric cirin the
cuits in
is
source, as
by a generating system flexibly connected through an arc. Such waves then are "cumulative
oscillations."
either increase in intensity indefinitely, that is, up to destruction of the circuit insulation, or limit themselves by the power dissipation increasing with the increasing intensity of the
They may
it becomes equal to the power supply. Such which frequently are most destructive ones, are met in electric systems as "arcing grounds," "grounded phase," etc. They are frequently called "undamped oscillations," and as such find a use in wireless telegraphy and telephony. Thus far, the only source of cumulative oscillation seems to be an energy supply over an arc, especially an unstable arc. In the self-limiting cumu-
oscillation,
until
oscillations,
is rather limited, however. " on a 154-mile threeoscillogram of a "grounded phase phase line, at 82 kilovolts, is given in Figs. 44 and 45. Fig. 44 shows current and voltage at the moment of formation of the
An
later,
An oscillogram
volt
of a
It power transformer (60-cycle system) is given in Fig. 46. is caused by switching off 28 miles of line by high-tension switches, at 88 kilovolts. As seen, the oscillation rapidly increases in init stops by the arc extinguishing, or tion of the transformer.
tensity, until
by the
destruc-
Of
special interest
is
u;
of time
0, and the exponential function and current and vanishes, voltage become
in this case,
+s=
i
= =
i e
sX sX
cos (0 =F
cos (0
co co
7),
7),
98
TRAVELING WAVES.
99
100
that
and voltages.
Writing the two waves in (18) separately gives
cos (0
e
e e +sx cos (0
co co
- 70 -
i'
'e-
sX
line,
and these are the equations of the alternating-current transmission and reduce, by the substitution of the complex quantity for
the function of the time angle <f>, to the standard form given in "Transient Phenomena," Section III.
36. Obviously, traveling waves and standing waves may occur simultaneously in the same circuit, and usually do so, just as in alternating-current circuits effective and reactive waves occur
In an alternating-current circuit, that is, in permanent condition, the wave of effective power (current in phase with the voltage) and 'the wave of reactive power (current in quadrature with the voltage) are combined into a single wave, in which the current is displaced from the voltage by more than but less than 90 degrees. This cannot be done with transient
simultaneously.
waves.
The
transient
wave
is,
the travel-
ing wave,
i
= =
iQ
eQ
- ut - s ~ ut s
e~
(t
\)
X)
(i
cos (^ =p cos (0 =F
w
co
T)
7),
= =
io'e-
ut
cos (0
sin
(<
T
=F
co co
e 'e-
ut
7'),
7'),
and voltage
differ in
than 90 degrees, since the traveling e- s TX) resulting from its progression along the circuit, while the stationary wave does not contain this factor, as it does not progress. This makes the theory of transient waves more complex than
less
,
Thus
the time
t.
TRAVELING WAVES.
101
When
ously,
traveling waves and stationary waves occur simultanevery often the traveling wave precedes the stationary
wave.
The phenomenon may start with a traveling wave or impulse, and this, by reflection at the ends of the circuit, and combination of the reflected waves and the main waves, gradually changes to a In this case, the traveling wave has the same stationary wave. frequency as the stationary wave resulting from it. In Fig. 47 is shown the reproduction of an oscillogram of the formation of a
stationary oscillation in a transmission line
by the repeated
re-
i,
Fig. 47.
CD11168.
Oscillation
by Reflection
flection
impulse caused by
short circuiting the energized line at one end. In the beginning of a stationary oscillation of a compound circuit, that is, a circuit comprising sections of different constants, traveling waves frequently occur, by which the energy stored magnetically or dielectrically in
the different circuit sections adjusts itself to the proportion corresponding to the stationary oscillation of the complete circuit.
Such traveling waves then are local, and therefore of much higher frequency than the final oscillation of the complete circuit, and
thus die out at a faster rate.
oscillograph
102
the alternating waves before the beginning of the transient and the low-frequency stationary oscillation of the complete circuit. Such oscillograms are given in Figs. 48 to 49.
Fig. 48A gives the oscillation of the compound circuit consisting of 28 miles of line and the high-tension winding of the 2500-kw.
step-up transformer, caused by switching off, by low-tension switches, from a substation at the end of a 153-mile three-phase transmission line, at 88 kilovolts.
Fig.
CD10002. 4SA. Oscillogram of High-frequency Oscillation Preceding Low-frequency Oscillation of Compound Circuit of 28 Miles of
100,000-volt Line
Fig. 48# gives the oscillation of the compound circuit consisting of 154 miles of three-phase line and 10,000-kw. step-down trans-
former,
when switching
this line,
by high-tension
end of another 154 miles of three-phase line, at 107 The voltage at the end of the supply line is given as
beginning of the oscillating circuit as e2 Fig. 49 shows the oscillations and traveling
.
at the
waves appearing
in a
compound
and 10,000-kw. step-down transformer, by switching it on and off the generating system, by high-tension switches, at 89 kilovolts.
Frequently traveling waves are of such high frequency that the oscillograph does reaching into the millions of cycles not record them, and their existence and approximate magnitude are determined by inserting a very small inductance into the
TRAVELING WAVES.
103
104
circuit
gap.
local,
An approximate estimate of
waves can often be made from their high frequency a small striking distance_across inductance, by means of the
relation -^
lo
V/ * 7^
Co
For instance, in the 100,000- volt transmission line of Fig. 48A, the closing of the high-tension oil switch produces a high-frequency oscillation which at a point near its origin, that is, near the switch,
of 3.3 cm. length, corresponding to ei = 35,000 across the terminals of a small inductance consisting of 34 volts, turns of 1.3 cm. copper rod, of 15 cm. mean diameter and 80 cm.
length.
13 microhenrys.
2.2
The inductance of this coil is calculated as approximately The line constants are, L = 0.323 henry, C =
=
i
y5
-~
= Vo.1465 X
10 3
383 ohms.
produced
on nno
V_3
is
maximum
a
57,700
X V2 =
maximum
212
amperes. i Q = 212 amperes maximum, traversing the inductance of 13 microhenrys, thus give the voltage, recorded by the spark
gap, of
e\
35,000.
e\
If
then /
frequency of impulse,
it is
2-jrfLiQ.
;
Or
'
'=2^'
27rX
13
.'
35,000 X 10- 6
X212
=
37.
2,000,000 cycles.
A common form of traveling wave is the discharge of a accumulation of stored energy, as produced for instance by a direct or induced lightning stroke, or by the local disturbance caused by a change of circuit conditions, as by switching, the
local
blowing of
fuses, etc.
TRAVELING WAVES.
105
Such simple traveling waves frequently are called "impulses." such an impulse passes along the line, at any point of the line, the wave energy is zero up to the moment where the wave front of the impulse arrives. The energy then rises, more or less rapidly, depending on the steepness of the wave front, reaches a maximum, and then decreases again, about as shown in The impulse thus is the combination of two waves, Fig. 50.
When
Fig. 50.
Traveling Wave.
(u + s}i and thus preponderone, which decreases very rapidly, e ates in the beginning of the phenomenon, and one, which decreases
}
slowly,
- (u ~
s)t .
Hence
it
may
(20)
determines the
steepness of wave front." Figs. 51 to 53 show oscillograms of the propagation of such an impulse over an (artificial) transmission line of 130 miles,* of the
constants
= L= C=
r
93.6 ohms,
ZQ
590 ohms.
The impulse
second.
is
Its duration, as
0.0036
In Fig. 51, the end of the transmission line was connected to a noninductive resistance equal to the surge impedance, so as to
*
ficial
line see "Design, Construction, and Test of an ArtiTransmission Line," by J. H. Cunningham, Proceedings A.I.E.E., January,
1911.
In the manner as described in "Disruptive Strength of Air and Oil with J. L. R. Hayden and C. P. Steinmetz, Transactions A.I.E.E., 1910, page 1125. The magnetic energy of the transformer is, however, larger, about 4 joules, and the transformer contained an air gap, to give constant
t
Transient Voltages," by
inductance.
106
Fig.
51.
CD11145. Reproduction of Oscillogram of Propagation Impulse Over Transmission Line; no Reflection. Voltage,
of
Fig.
CD 11 152. 52. Reproduction of Oscillogram of Propagation of ImEnd of Line. Voltage. pulse Over Transmission Line; Reflection from Open
TRAVELING WAVES.
107
The upper curve shows the voltage of the give no reflection. at the impulse beginning, the middle curve in the middle, and the lower curve at the end of the line.
same three voltages, with the line open at the This oscillogram shows the repeated reflections of the volthe open end and the tage impulse from the ends of the line, transformer inductance at the beginning. It also shows the inFig. 52 gives the
end.
crease of voltage
by
reflection.
Fig.
53.
CD11153.
dle of the line, corresponding to the voltage impulses in Fig. 52. This oscillogram shows the reversals of current by reflection, and
the formation of a stationary oscillation by the successive reflections of the traveling wave from the ends of the line.
LECTURE
OSCILLATIONS OF THE
38.
IX.
CIRCUIT.
COMPOUND
the traveling
The most interesting and most important application of wave is that of the stationary oscillation of a comcircuit, as industrial circuits are
pound
transformer,
line,
load, etc.
1, 2,
of the
,
when
this
its
stored
energy by a transient. As function of the time, this transient must decrease at the same rate u throughout the entire circuit. Thus the time decrement of all the sections must be
6-**.
Every u3
.
.
of the section
section,
which represents the rate at which the stored energy would be dissipated by the losses of power in the
-"',
-*',
-"*'
But
down
at the
whole
,
circuit
each section must still have a second decrement e~ Ul e~" This latter does not time decrement, -(*-*J*, e -(u -u,)t
. .
transfer.
That
is,
51
52
= =
U
UQ
Ui,
Uz,
(1)
compound
108
circuit, if
is
the average
109
power-dissipation constant of the circuit, and u that of any section, this section must have a second exponential time decrement,
S
UQ
U,
(2)
which represents power transfer from the section to other sections, The oscilor, if s is negative, power received from other sections. lation of every individual section thus is a traveling wave, with a
power-transfer constant s. As UQ is the average dissipation constant, that is, an average of the power-dissipation constants u of all the sections, and s = UQ u the power-transfer constant, some of the s must be positive, some
negative.
In any section in which the power-dissipation constant u is less than the average U Q of the entire circuit, the power-transfer constant s is positive that is, the wave, passing over this section, increases in intensity, builds up, or in other words, gathers energy, which it carries away from this section into other sections. In any section in which the power- dissipation constant u is greater
;
circuit, the power-transfer conthe wave, passing over this section, decreases in intensity and thus in energy, or in other words, leaves some of its energy in this section, that is, supplies energy to the
negative; that
is,
section,
which energy
it
By the power-transfer constant s, sections of low energy dissipation supply power to sections of high energy dissipation. 39. Let for instance in Fig. 43 be represented a circuit consistand load. (The step-down transformer and its secondary circuit, may for convenience be considered as one circuit section.) Assume now that the circuit is disconnected from the power supply by low-tension switches, at A. This leaves transformer, line,
ing of step-up transformer, transmission line,
load, consisting of
and load as a compound oscillating circuit, consisting of four sections: the high-tension coil of the step-up transformer, the two
= length of transformer circuit, length of line, X 2 and Xs = length of load circuit, in velocity measure.* If then * = inductance, If Zi = length of circuit section in any measure, and L
Let then
Xi
lines,
and the
load.
Co
Zi,
measure
Thus, if transformer
coil,
n = number
coil;
of
the
hence the
110
HI
line,
u*
100
power-dissipation constant of transformer, and u z = 1600 = powerdissipation constant of the load, and the respective lengths of the
circuit sections are
Xi
it is:
Line.
1.5
10- 3
X2
10~3
\3
0.5
10~ 3
Transformer.
Line.
Load.
Sum.
Length:
Power-dissipation constant:
X = 1.5X10-3 u X
1X10~ 3
100
.1
1.5X10~ 3 .5X10~ 3
900
1.35
1600
.8
4.5X1Q- 3
= =
900
1.35
3.6
hence,
Wo= average, u
=
ZA
=
+700
800, and:
-100
-100
-800
dissipates
100,
sends out power into the other sections at the rate of That is, it sup700, or seven times as much as it dissipates.
The
load
at the rate Uz
is,
half of
power at the rate HI = 900, than the average power dissipation of is, the entire circuit, u = 800; and the line thus receives power only s= 100, that is, receives only one-ninth of its power at the rate from the transformer; the other eight-ninths come from its stored
The transmission
only a
line dissipates
that
little
faster
energy.
The traveling wave passing along the circuit section thus increases or decreases in its power at the rate e +2 *x that is,
;
in the line:
= =
n,
pie~
200X
,
the energy of
the wave
decreases slowly;
in the transformer:
p
length
li
+1400X
7?2C
,
wave
increases
rapidly;
L =
inductance,
C =
measure
in velocity measure, X = a Q n = n VLC. Or, if capacity of the entire transformer, its length in velocity
is
very simple.
111
p
Here the
p 3 e~
l600X
,
wave decreases
rapidly.
coefficients of pi,
beginning of
p 2 PS must be such that the wave at the one section has the same value as at the end of the
preceding section. In general, two traveling waves run around the circuit in
opposite direction. Each of the two waves reaches
circuit at the point
its maximum intensity in this leaves the transformer and enters
it
where
it
the
line,
it
Fig. 54.
of Closed Circuit;
one wave
is 6,
that of
the opposite wave 4 megawatts, the power values of the two waves then are plotted in the upper part of Fig. 54, and their difference,
that
is,
the resultant flow of power, in the lower part of Fig. 54. latter, there are two power nodes, or points over
which no power flows, one in the transformer and one in the load, and the power flows from the transformer over the line into the load; the transformer acts as generator of the power, and of this
112
power a fraction
load.
consumed
40.
The diagram
is
of this transient
power transfer
of the
system
thus
sion
by
very similar to that of the permanent power transmisalternating currents: a source of power, a partial conin the line,
sumption
the load.
and the
rest of the
power consumed
in
However, this transient power-transfer diagram does not represent the entire power which is being consumed in the circuit, as power is also supplied from the stored energy of the circuit; and
the case
may
thus arise
which cannot
exist in a
permanent
that the power dissipation of the line is less than corresponds to its stored energy, and the line also supplies power to the load, that is, acts as generator, and in this case the
power transmission
power would not be a maximum at the transformer terminals, but would still further increase in the line, reaching its maxi-
mum
This obviously is possible only at the load terminals. with transient power, where the line has a store of energy from which it can draw in supplying power. In permanent condition the line could not add to the power, but must consume, that is,
the permanent power-transmission diagram must always be like
Fig. 54.
Not
so,
Assume,
the line
as seen, with the transient of the stationary oscillation. we reduce the power dissipation in
resistance
by doubling the conductor section, that is, reducing the As L thereby also slightly decreases, to one-half. C increases, and g possibly changes, the change brought about in
the constant u
half,
=lj
~^7>)
Assuming
therefore, that the power-dissipation constant of the line is by the doubling of the line section reduced from u\ = 900 to HI = 500,
this gives the constants:
Line.
Transformer.
Line.
Load.
Sum.
X= u=
wX=
hence, MO
s
1.5X10- 3
500
.75
1X10- 3
100
.1
1.5X10- 3
500
.75
.5X10- 3 4.5X1Q- 3
1600
.8
2.4
average, u
- = = SwX
2/A
533, and:
+33
+433
+33
-1067
113
tive, si
the power-transfer constant of the line has become posi33, and the line now assists the transformer in supplying
power to the load. Assuming again the values of the two traveling waves, where they leave the transformer (which now are not the maximum values, since the waves still further increase in intensity in passing over the lines), as 6 and 4 megawatts respectively, the power diagram of the two waves, and the power dia-
gram
Fig. 55.
Energy Distribution
in
Compound
Line Loss.
Low
In a closed
circuit, as
the two component waves of opposite direction is not definite, but depends on the circuit condition at the starting moment of the transient.
circuit,
the relative
two component waves are fixed by the condition that at the open ends of the circuit the power transfer must be
zero.
As
illustration
may
potential coil of the step-up transformer, and the two lines, which are assumed as open at the step-down end, as illustrated diagram-
114
Choosing the same lengths and the same power-dissipation constants as in the previous illustrations, this gives:
Line.
Transformer.
Line.
Sum.
x=
u\ =
hence, w
1.5X10- 3
900
1.35
1X10- 3
100
.1
1.5X10- 3
900
1.35
4X10- 3
2.8
= average, u =
s=
SwX
^^
700, and:
-200
+600
Line
-200
Transformer
Line
Fig. 56.
The diagram
tions,
of the
power
of the
and
is
assuming
is
reached
Transmission Line
Transformer
Transmission Line
=900
=100
U=900
Fig. 57.
Energy Distribution
in
Compound
Oscillation of
Open
Circuit.
In this case the two waves must be of the same intensity, so as resultant at the open ends of the line. A power node then appears in the center of the transformer.
as to give
41.
stationary oscillation of a
compound
circuit consists of
two traveling waves, traversing the circuit in opposite direction, and transferring power between the circuit section in such a manner
115
same
As the
result of this
rate of energy dissipation in all circuit sections. power transfer, the stored energy of the
system must be uniformly distributed throughout the entire circuit, and if it is not so in the beginning of the transient, local traveling waves redistribute the energy throughout the oscillatSuch local oscillations are usually ing circuit, as stated before. of very high frequency, but sometimes come within the range of
the oscillograph, as in Fig. 47. During the oscillation of the complex circuit, every circuit element d\ (in velocity measure), or every wave length or equal part of the wave length, therefore contains the same amount of
stored energy.
current,
That
is, if
= maximum
voltage,
= maximum
Q
and X
= wave
must
be constant throughout the entire circuit. Since, however, in velocity measure, Xo is constant and equal to the period TO throughout
all
and
of
the sections of the circuit, the product of maximum voltage maximum current, e ^o, thus must be constant throughout
The same
it
Since
is
2
"*,
decreases with the time, and thus with the distance traversed during this time.
Maximum
voltage e
i'o,
however, are
by the condition_
ZQ
= i /^ -FT
fo\ (3)
and as the relation of L and <7 is different in the different sections, and that very much so, ZQ, and with it the ratio of maximum
voltage to maximum current, differ for the different sections of the circuit.
If
then
ei
and
ii
are
maximum
and
12,
voltage and
maximum
current
z\
y
z2
-^
is
ance
"
of this section,
and
ez ,
and
_
02
it is
/
'
A\
116
and
^
'
ei
ii
iz
substituting
e2
= =
i'2
z2 ,l
I
'z
or
and
z2
or
f
/ON
That
60 in
is, in the same oscillating circuit, the maximum voltages the different sections are proportional to, and the maximum currents i inversely proportional to, the square root of the natural
impedances
is,
to
At every transition point between successive sections traversed by a traveling wave, as those of an oscillating system, a transformation of voltage and of current occurs, by a transformation
ratio
which
is
ances, ZQ
=V *
TT Co
>
of the
two respective
sections.
When
to a section of low capacity and is, low impedance z high inductance, that is, high impedance z as when passing from a transmission line into a transformer, or from a cable into a transtance, that
,
line, the voltage thus is transformed up, and the current transformed down, and inversely, with a wave passing in opposite
mission
direction.
low-voltage high-current
wave
becomes a high-voltage low-current wave in a transformer, and inversely, and thus, while it may be harmless in the line, may become destructive in the transformer, etc.
117
42. At the transition point between two successive sections, the current and voltage respectively must be the same in the two sections. Since the maximum values of current and voltage
respectively are different in the two sections, the phase angles of the waves of the two sections must be different at the transition point; that
point.
illustrated in Fig. 58. Let z = 200 in the first section = 800 in the second section (transformer). (transmission line), Z Q
is,
This
is
The transformation
that
ratio
is
= 2; V onn ^Uu
/800
the
of
is, the maximum voltage of the second section is twice, and maximum current half, that of the first section, and the waves current and of voltage in the two sections thus may be as
by
e\e^.
Fig. 58.
Wave.
If
then
and
are the values of voltage and current respecbetween two sections 1 and 2, and
iz
and
ii
the
maximum
and
tively of the
first, e%
voltage and maximum current respecof the second, section, the voltage phase
are, respectively:
section:
_=
cos 71
and
-r
= cos 5i.
(9)
cos 72
and
i'
= cos
2.
118
61
62
=
cos
<5i
ii
iz
= Jz* V ?!
82
di
hence, multiplied,
cos 72
cos cos
cos 71
or
cos 72 COS 7i
(11)
cos COS
di
2
or
cos 71 cos
5i
cos 72 cos
52 ;
that
is,
voltage phases at this point. Since at the transition point between two sections the voltage and current change, from ei, ii to 62, is, by the transformation ratio
v/
nent
this
is,
,
reflection.
the current i\ can be considered as consisting of a compo" " which transmitted 2 passes over the transition point, is " " = i\ iz which is reflected current, and a component i\ The greater then the change of circuit constants current, etc. at the transition point, the greater is the difference between the currents and voltages of the two sections; that is, the more of current and voltage are reflected, the less transmitted, and if the change of constants is very great, as when entering from a transmission line a reactance of very low capacity, almost all the current is reflected, and very little passes into and through the reactance, but a high voltage is produced in the reactance.
z' ,
That
LECTURE
X.
discussed in the following. is the ratio of the interlinkages of the netic flux to the current,
is
The inductance
mag-
=
where
<i>
?i/
(i)
magnetic flux or number of lines of magnetic force, of times which each line of magnetic force interlinks with the current i.
The capacity
is
where
force,
\f/
is
the dielectric
e
flux,
or
number
it.
of lines of dielectric
single round conductor without return conductor (as wireless antennae) or with the return conductor at infinite distance, the lines of magnetic force are concentric circles, shown by
and With a
drawn
Fig. 8.
lines in Fig. 8,
page
10,
and the
shown dotted
in
Due to the return conductor, in a two-wire circuit, the lines of magnetic and dielectric force are crowded together between the conductors, and the former become eccentric circles, the latter
circles intersecting in two points (the foci) inside of the conWith more than one return ductors, as shown in Fig. 9, page 11.
conductor,
'iJBLtiGTRIC
DISCHARGES, WAVES
AND IMPULSES.
varies during the
cyclic
change
of current.
calculation of such more complex magnetic and dielectric becomes simple, however, by the method of superposition of As long as the magnetic and the dielectric flux are profields. which is portional respectively to the current and the voltage,
The
fields
the case with the former in nonmagnetic materials, with the latter for all densities below the dielectric strength of the material, the resultant
field of any number of conductors at any point in space is the combination of the component fields of the individual conductors.
Fig. 59.
Magnetic Field of
Circuit.
Thus the
field of
conductor
combination of the
field of
A and return conductor B is the A, of the shape Fig. 8, and the field of
magnetic
magnetic force of the resultant magnetic field since a line of magnetic force, which surrounds both conductors, would have no m.m.f., and thus could not exist. That is, the lines of magnetic force of
beyond B, and those of B beyond A, shown dotted in Fig. 59, and thereby vanish; thus, in determining the resultant magnetic flux of conductor and return conductor (whether the latter is a single conductor, or divided into two con-
121
ductors out of phase with each other, as in a three-phase circuit), only the lines of magnetic force within the space from conductor to return conductor need to be considered. Thus, the resultant
magnetic flux of a circuit consisting of conductor A and return conductor B, at distance s from each other, consists of the lines
lines of
of magnetic force surrounding up to the distance s, magnetic force surrounding up to the distance
and the
s.
The
attributed to the inductance of conductor A, the latter to the inductance of conductor B. If both conductors have
is
former
the same
size, they give equal inductances; if of unequal size, the smaller conductor has the higher inductance. In the same manner
ductors
is that corresponding to the lines of magnetic force surrounding the respective conductor, up to the distance of the return
conductor.
B. Calculation of inductance. 44. If r is the radius of the conductor, s the distance of the return conductor, in Fig. 60, the magnetic flux consists of that external to the conductor, from r to s, and that internal to the
conductor, from
to
r.
Fig. 60.
At
netic circuit
distance x from the conductor center, the length of the mag is 2 irx, and if F = m.m.f. of the conductor, the magis
netizing force
and the
field intensity
2F
x
(4)
(5)
122
zone dx thus
is
d^=^fdx,
and the magnetic
flux interlinked with the
I
conductor thus
is
(6)
x\
and z 2
is
r x*2
X
thus the inductance
r;
xz
1,
s; jP
i,
as this flux
=
ju
?-""-:-
<>
2. Internal magnetic flux. Assuming uniform current ^density throughout the conductor section, it is
-J Cx\ as each line of magnetic force surrounds only a part of the con-
ductor
and the
is
L=
or, if
LI
+L
//
2
j
log-
+T( per
(11)
ju
(12)
123
henry s,
109 absolute
2
j
log
+1
(13)
(14)
In these equations the logarithm is the natural logarithm, which is most conveniently derived by dividing the common or 10 logarithm by 0.4343.*
Discussion of inductance. 45. In equations (11) to (14)
C.
ductors.
If s is large
s is
compared with
immaterial whether
as s
considered the distance between the conductor centers, or between the insides, or outsides, etc.; and, in calculating the inis
ductance of transmission-line conductors, this is the case, and it therefore is immaterial which distance is chosen as s; and usually,
in speaking of the "distance
between the
s.
line conductors,"
no
attention
is
Fig. 61.
However,
if
s is of
r,
ductors of cables, the meaning of s has to be specified. Let then in Fig. 61 r = radius of conductors, and s = distance
then
is
as
0.4343
log
10 *,
124
The
3>i,
in Fig. 61.
$3,
and thereby
J5,
the flux external to A, which passes through conductor B incloses the conductor A and part of the conductor
less
than
i,
that
is,
gives
s
F %
<
1.
That
is,
r<x<s +
F
1
-1
'
~7v"
<
3,
LS resulting from it, is complicated, and, due to the nature of the phenomenon, the result could not be accurate; and an approximation
is
sufficient in giving
of
the
if
give an inductance, but, alternating, produces a potential difference between the two sides of conductor B, and thereby a higher current density on the
side of
B
it
toward A; and as
this effect
current,
etc.,
given.
cannot be determined without having the frequency, The same applies for the flux $1, which is reduced by
unequal current density due to its screening effect, so that in the limiting case, for conductors of perfect conductivity, that is, zero resistance, or for infinite, that is, very high frequency, only the
magnetic flux $1
and $3 are
zero,
in Fig. 5;
but
<J> 2
(15)
125
in other words, with small conductors and moderate currents, the total inductance in Fig. 61 is so small compared with the inductances in the other parts of the electric circuit
that no very great accuracy of its calculation is required; with large conductors and large currents, however, the unequal current distribution and resultant increase of resistance become so considerable, with
ical,
round conductors, as to make their use uneconomto the use of flat conductors.
With flat conductors, the value of inenter into however, conductivity and frequency ductance as determining factors.
and leads
of the inductance of
round
is
parallel
only of
but rarely of practical, importance. approximate estimate of the inductance L 3 is given by considering two extreme cases: (a) The return conductor is of the shape Fig. 62, that is, from
An
r to s
+ f the m.m.f.
varies uniformly.
B
Fig. 62.
Fig. 63.
(6)
is
is,
the
r to
m.m.f. of the return conductor increases uniformly from r. s, and then decreases again from s to s
(a)
For
<
<
r, it is
-f r
2r
hence by
(8),
/
s +r
2r
_|_
2r
r*+*dx
(16)
_r
fa x
r
J_
a
(17)
by the approximation
log (1
x)
(18)
126
it is
,
log
+r=
log
+r-
log
L
(l
log
+ r\ -)
.
/.,
- r\ =
-)
rt
r
,
2g
log(l
hence
r
(6)
For
<
<
s, it is
f-l-sl^^r^h
and
for s
(20)
<
<
r, it is
:'
hence,
'-
and integrated
this gives
if
(23)
L,-^, O
that
is,
(24)
should
lie
the same value as (19); and as the actual case, Fig. 60, between Figs. 61 and 62, the common approximation of
4.
the latter two cases should be a close approximation of case That is, for conductors close together it is
L=
L!
+L +L
2
(25)
However,
1
(
-- )=
s/
log
o
_
bining log
-y
T
log
and substituting
h log
by com-
log
(26)
127
distance between conductor centers, as the closest approximation in the case where the distance between the con-
ductors
is
small.
This
is
In view of the secondary phenomena unavoidable in the conductors, equation (26) appears sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, except when taking into consideration the secondary phenomena, as unequal current distribution, etc., in which case
etc.,
are required.
D. Calculation of capacity.
46.
The
conductor
are straight
radial lines,
tial lines
shown dotted
in Fig. 64,
Fig. 64.
If e = voltage between conductor A and return conductor B, and s the distance between the conductors, the potential difference between the equipotential line at the surface of A, and the equipotential line which traverses B, must be e. If e = potential difference or voltage, and I = distance, over
which
G=
(27)
128 and
where
K=4
v
2
=
Trf
2
L 4 irV ^
(28)
is
10 10 cm.
is
sec.
velocity of light;
(29)
of
medium,
1 in air.
The
dielectric
where
A =
Or
inversely:
:
-IS?*
If
||
(32)
dielectric flux, in Fig. 60, at a distance x from the conductor A, in a zone of thickness dx, and section 2 TTZ, the voltage
then
^=
is,
by
(32),
de
x\
and x2 thus
is
ei
/*2
/
de
Xz L log-, = 2v ^ ^2
:
(34)
C2
i
r
5
K
*
/'Q^^
(po)
then
of the conductor A against the return conductor B the capacity of the space from the distance Zi = r to the distance x^ = s, hence is, by (35),
The capacity
is
C=
2t; 2
per cm.
log-
(36)
129
reduced to farads,
* 1Q9
C=
and
in air, for K
/per cm.,
2z;
2
(37)
log-
1H9 (38)
Immediately
it
by
(9),
Li
and multiplying
this
CL =
>
'
or
(39)
that
is, the capacity equals the reciprocal of the external inductance times the velocity square of light. The external inductance LI LI would be the inductance of a conductor which had perfect con-
It is
VLC
=
less
velocity of propagation of the electric field, and this velocity is than the velocity of light, due to the retardation by the power
dissipation in the conductor, and becomes equal to the velocity of if there is no power dissipation, and, in the latter case, L would be equal to LI, the external inductance.
light v
The equation
in
(39)
is
complex systems of
circuits
measured capacity,
More
is
CLt
^,
/*
(40)
permeability of
130
E.
47.
field of
conductor
and return conductor B, at distance s from each other, Fig. 9, the lines of magnetic force from conductor A to the center line CC' are equal in number and in magnetic energy to the lines of magnetic force which surround the conductor in Fig. 59, in concentric circles up to the distance s, and give the inductance L of conductor A. The lines of dielectric force which radiate from conductor A up to the center line CC', Fig. 9, are equal in number and in dielectric energy to the lines of dielectric force which issue as straight lines from the conductor, Fig. 8, up to the distance s, and represent the capacity C of the conductor A. The center line CC' is a dielectric equipotential line, and a line of magnetic force, and therefore, if it were replaced by a conducting plane of perfect conductivity, this would exert no effect on the magnetic or the dielectric field between the conductors A and B. If then, in the electric field between overhead conductor and
we
ground, we consider the ground as a plane of perfect conductivity, get the same electric field as between conductor A and central
plane CC' in Fig. 9. That is, the equations of inductance and capacity of a^conductor with return conductor at distance s can
be immediately applied to the inductance and capacity of a conductor with ground return, by using as distance s twice the distance of the conductor from the ground return. That is, the inductance and capacity of a conductor with ground return are
its
the same as the inductance and capacity of the conductor against image conductor, that is, against a conductor at the same dis-
tance below the ground as the conductor is above ground. As the distance s between conductor and image conductor in the case of ground return is very much larger usually 10 and
more times
return conductor, the inductance of a conductor with ground return is much larger, and the capacity smaller, than that of the
same conductor with overhead return. In the former case, however, this inductance and capacity are those of the entire circuit,
ground return, as conducting plane, has no inductance and capacity; while in the case of overhead return, the inductance of the entire circuit of conductor and return conductor is twice, the capacity half, that of a single conductor, and therefore the total inductance of a circuit of two overhead conductors is greater,
since the
131
The conception of the image conductor is based on that of the ground as a conducting plane of perfect conductivity, and assumes that the return is by a current sheet at the ground surface. As regards the capacity, this is probably almost always the case, as even dry sandy soil or rock has sufficient conductivity to carry, distributed over its wide surface, a current equal to the capacity current of the overhead conductor. With the magnetic field, and
thus with the inductance, this is not always the case, but the conductivity of the soil may be much below that required to conduct the return current as a surface current sheet. If the return current penetrates to a considerable depth into the ground, it may be represented approximately as a current sheet at some distance below the ground, and the "image conductor " then is not the
the distance
s in
is
more,
and often much more, than twice the distance of the overhead conductor above ground. However, even if the ground is of relatively low conductivity, and the return current thus has to
penetrate to a considerable distance into the ground, the inductance of the overhead conductor usually is not very much increased,
as
it
varies only
little
is
s.
overhead conductor
inductance would be
r
and 25
i";
25'
600", hence
2400,
and
L=
log
+Z
10~9
\
16.066
10~ 9
h.
If, however, the ground were of such high resistance that the current would have to penetrate to a depth of over a hundred feet, and the mean depth of the ground current were at 50 feet, this
would give
75'
1800", hence
18.264
=
h,
7200, and
L=
or only 13.7 per cent higher.
10-9
132
as 800 feet,
tion available for the return current, assuming its effective width would be 80,000 square feet, or 60 million times
greater than the section of the overhead conductor. Thus only with very high resistance soil, as very dry sandy soil, or rock, can a considerable increase of the inductance of the over-
head conductor be expected over that calculated by the assumption of the ground as perfect conductor.
F.
48.
circuits
is
the ratio
magnetic flux produced by this current and interlinked with the second circuit. That is,
j Lim
of the current in
$2 ~
ll
_ $1 --r
li
where $2 is the magnetic flux interlinked with the second which is produced by current i\ in the first circuit.
.
circuit,
In the same manner as the self-inductance L, Lm between two circuits is the while (external) self-inductance corcalculated;
responds to the magnetic flux between the distances r and s, the mutual inductance of a conductor A upon a circuit ab corresponds to the magnetic flux
the distances
B
k a
'
produced by the conductor A and passing between Aa and Ab, Fig. 65. Thus the mutual inductance between a circuit AB and a circuit ab is mutual inductance of A upon ab,
Fig 65
-
Jiutual inductance of
upon
ab,
AB
and
ab,
where
A a,
conductors, as
shown
in Fig. 66.
133
by the
one or both circuits have ground return, they are replaced circuit of the overhead conductor and its image conductor
circuits
and ab is great compared to the distance S between the conductors of circuit A B, and the distance s between the con= angle which ductors of circuit ab, and the plane of circuit AB makes with the
distance D, ty the corresponding angle of circuit a&, as shown in Fig. 66, it is
AB
approximately
Fig. 66.
Aa = D
Ab =
Ba =
Bb =
hence
-f-
cos
+ - cos
- cos
D+
D
cos
A
(42)
cos
2i
-{-
~ cos
2i
- cos
^ cos
= 21og-
n D+
,
D - I- cos 2
~ cos
2 log
D 2
(7:COS0 -fxCOS
COS COS
2
2 log
jz
hence by
(
log
io~s
/?,
__
rt
134
thus
2 **!()-.*.
(43)
Lm
is
a minimum,, and
Mutual capacity between circuits. 49. The mutual capacity between two circuits is the ratio of the voltage between the conductors of one circuit into the dielectric flux produced by this voltage between the conductors of the other circuit. That is
where
the
^
=
is
the dielectric flux produced between the conductors by the voltage e\ between the conductors of
If e
and B, the
dielectric flux
of conductor
is,
by
(36),
t=
where R is the radius from each other.
Ce
(32),
(44)
of these conductors
and S
their distance
and
Aa
Aa
g and the
difference
e
2 Ba. - -fr, = 2v lg^r>
'
dielectric
flux of
conductor
no
is
2v 2iK
substituting (44) into (47),
e
AbBa.
Ab Ba
135
e
f
difference e"
Ab Ba
log- log
2 v log
log
or,
by approximation
(18), as in (43),
Cm =
&***
if
1( y ,.
(49)
conductors
and
the case
if
for instance
e2 ,
where
e\
+e =
2
e,
as
0, 6 2
e,
(50)
of
the dielectric fluxes of the two conductors are different, and that A is: crt/r; that of B is: c2 ^, where
=
2
f2 ' e
.
and
+c =
Aa AO
,
2,
(52)
^
1"
Ba
(53)
i j
//
e"
e'
Y - -^
(
s'<
ir
c2 log
BT
r*\r\
-,
./I rt
/\ r\
ci
log^r
[ \
(54) %
-
<f
136
Cm =
-i-
-,
*i
C2
log^ Bo
c,
log^ Ab
|
\
lO- 9 /
(55)
v 2 log
log -5
42):
Ba ~5l
COS
S
c i lo
Aa gT7
COS
+ SCOS'
COS
S
+
and
this gives
:
COS
ir^-)Ci) s
2D
COS
(56)
fe
cos
D
hence
+
.
+
^
Cfc)
/Ss
c.=-
fe-cO^+fe + d)
,
S COS
2D
and
for
61
0,
and thus
c\
0, c2
(57) 2:
COS
cos
<t>
9 ^
LJ
io9 /,
(58)
However, equation (58) larger than (49). the applies only, ground is at a distance very large compared with Z), as it does not consider the ground as the static return of
hence very
if
much
the conductor B.
H. The three-phase
50.
circuit.
The equations
of the inductance
of a
conductor
(26)
109 /
(37)
137
apply equally to the two-wire single-phase circuit, the single wire circuit with ground return, or the three-phase circuit. In the expression of the energy per conductor:
Li'
(59)
and
e'
i',
per
conductor:
=
(60)
i is
the current in the conductor, thus in a three-phase system the or star current, and e is the voltage per conductor, that is, the
is
the
voltage between the conductors of a three-phase circuit (that is, it is the Y or star voltage), and is the voltage of the circuit in a
s is the distance between the conductors, and twice the distance from conductor to ground in a single conductor with ground return.*
conductor to ground,
is
the conductors of a three-phase system are arranged in a s is the same for all three conductors; otherwise the different conductors have different values of s, and B
If
triangle,
different values of
for its
common arrangement
other,
s is
of the
o^
or beside
the distance
between middle conductor and outside conductors, the distance between the two outside conductors is 2 s. The inductance of the middle conductor then is:
OQ
Fig. 67.
(61)
The inductance
is,
with respect
138
With
L=
The inductance
(62)
2Jlogy
applies
(63)
^jlO-U.
component
of
to the
current,
which returns over the middle conductor, the inductance (63), which is larger, to the component of current which returns over the other outside conductor. These two currents are 60 degrees displaced in phase from each other. The inductance voltages, which are 90 degrees ahead of the current, thus also are 60 degrees displaced from each other. As they are unequal, their resultant is not 90 degrees ahead of the resultant current, but more in the
The inductance voltage one, less in the other outside conductor. of the two outside conductors thus contains an energy component,
which
That
Fig.
positive in the one, negative in the other outside conductor. is, a power transfer by mutual inductance occurs between
is
The
investigation
of
C.
M. Davis
in the Electrical
April 1, 1911. If the line conductors are transposed sufficiently often to average their inductances, the inductances of all three conductors, and also
equal, and can be calculated by using the average of the three distances s, s, 2 s between the conductors,
their capacities,
become
that
s
is,
4 o
s,
or
more
,
accurately,
is:
of the log
>
log
2s
that
In the same manner, with any other configuration of the line conductors, in case of transposition the inductance and capacity
Q
between
The
calculation of the
mutual inductance and mutual capacity circuit and a two-wire circuit is made
139
same manner as in equation (41), except that three terms appear, and the phases of the three currents have to be considered.
Q^
if
A, B, C are the three three-phase conductors, and a and b the conductors of the second circuit, as shown in Fig. 68, and if ii, iz i 3 are
Thus,
,
OB
b
Fig. 68.
angles
the three currents, with their respective phase 71, 72, 73, and i the average current,
a
o
denoting:
1\ 12
^3
conductor
gives:
conductor B:
Lm " =
conductor C:
c2 cos 08
- 120240
72)
log!?, no
Lm '" =
hence,
2 c 3 cos (0
73)
log^?>*
Lm =
ci
cos 03
71) log
4r + C
cos 08
120
72) log
|?,
4- c3 cos (0
- 240-
73) log
10-9
|
/i,
and
in analogous manner the capacity Cm is derived. In these expressions, the trigonometric functions represent a rotation of the inductance combined with a pulsation.
INDEX.
PAGE
Acceleration as mechanical transient
single-energy transient Admittance, natural or surge, of circuit
undamped
oscillation
phenomena
as transients
reduction to permanents
Alternators, momentary short-circuit currents construction
calculation
Arcing grounds
Armature transient
4 8 61, 84 97 9 9 37 40 44 97 41
81,
123
62
18 127 12
13
Capacity
calculation
of circuit, definition
current
definition
effective, of line transient
119
75
129 136
PARALLEL
119
134, 138
16, 17,
CONDUCTORS
Capacity, mutual, calculation
specific
.T
18 14
13
Charge,
electric, of
conductor
Charging current
Circuit, dielectric
14, 17,
18
of distributed capacity
electric
and inductance,
18 18
Ill, 112
108
open
circuit
142
Condenser current Conductance
effective, of line transient
INDEX.
PAGE
13
18
78
18
Conductivity, electric
Cumulative
oscillation
97
18
Current, electric
in field at alternator short circuit
transient pulsation
permanent pulsation
transient,
40 43 45
61
maximum
27
21
Decrement
of distance
and
of time
wave
4 59 94 88 92
16, 17, 18
18
15, 17,
magnetic
Dielectric field
18
11
as stored energy
forces
flux
15, 17,
3
10
18
18
gradient
transient, duration Dielectrics
59
15, 17, 18
63
94
109
compound
line
circuit
double-energy transient
dielectric energy in double energy-transient exponent of double-energy transient of magnetic energy in double-energy transient Distortion of quadrature phase in single-phase alternator short Distance decrement Distributed capacity and inductance
circuit
68 78 67 68 67 47 94 73
7
DOUBLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS
Double frequency pulsation of
short circuit
field
69 59 45 68 22, 27 59 41
INDEX.
Effective values, reducing A.C.
143
PAGE
to permanents
phenomena
Elastance
Elastivity Electrifying force Electromotive force
Electrostatic, see Dielectric.
18
18
15,
17
15, 17, 18
Energy, dielectric
of dielectric field
dielectric
18
13
of transient
and magnetic,
67
18 12
3
magnetic
of magnetic field storage as cause of transients
Exponential decrement
21
7
numerical values.
..'..-
23
40 43
45
10
permanent pulsation
FIELD, ELECTRIC
rotating, transient
construction
calculation
34 120 38 40 44
11,
Flux, dielectric
15
10, 14
79 66 78 53
81
Gradient, electric
15, 17, 18
Grounded phase Grounding surge of circuit Ground return of conductor, inductance and capacity
97 62 130
144
Half- wave oscillation
INDEX.
PAGE 82
9 4
Image conductor of grounded overhead line Impedance, natural or surge, of circuit Impulse propagation over line and reflection
as traveling wave Increase of power flow in traveling wave Independence of rotating-field transient from phase at start Inductance of cable
calculation
61,
of three-phase circuit
definition
effective, of line transient
119
75
123, 126, 131
132, 138
12,
18 18
16, 17,
magnetic
15, 17, 18
52 57
53
109 62 89 112
72 74
Length of
circuit in velocity
measure, calculation
wave
LINE OSCILLATION
general form
also see Transmission line.
Magnetic
field
10
3
14, 17, 18
as stored energy
flux
forces
duration
14,
14, 14,
Maximum
transient current
61
voltage
61
INDEX.
Maximum
value of rotating-field transient
145
PAGE 36
104 4
Measurement
Momentary
construction
calculation
37 40 44 24
134, 138
Natural admittance and impedance of circuit Nonperiodic transient Nonproportional electric transient surge of transformer
Open-circuit compound oscillation Oscillating currents.
voltages
Oscillation frequency of line transient
84
9
52 64
113
Oscillation of
open compound
circuit
62 62 78 113
72
COMPOUND CIRCUIT
108
Oscillatory transient of rotating field Oscillograms of arcing ground on transmission line cumulative transformer oscillation
36 98 99
91
101
wave
high-frequency waves preceding low-frequency oscillation of
compound
circuit
102, 103
106
50 48 49 57 76, 77 64
8 66 60 72 9
Pendulum
Periodic
component
146
Period and
INDEX.
PAGE
wave length
in velocity units
92
1
15, 17, 18
Permeance
Permittance
Permittivity
18 18
16, 17, 18
117
line
75
Phenomena, transient,
oscillograms
see Transients.
48,
Power diagram
of
44 49 114 88 108 66
18
Ill, 113
double-energy transient
electric
flow in
compound
circuit
of 'line transient
of line oscillation
sectiDn of
compound circuit
in compound-circuit oscillation
of traveling wave Progressive change of phase of line oscillation Propagation of transient in line
90 88, 89 79 94 108 90 95
75
74
74
129
Proportionality in simple transient Pulsation, permanent, of field current in single-phase alternator short
circuit
4
45
61
and
field
current at poly-
circuit
41
88
14
81,
82
37 37 88
118
wave
at transition point
118
81
101
18
18
INDEX.
Resistance
effective, of line transient
147
PAGE
18 78 18 30 40 34
12
Resistivity
Resolution into transient and permanent Rise of field current at alternator short circuit
Rotating
field,
transient
permanent
27,
30
7
momentary
surge of circuit
37 40 44 62 4
6 45 50 45 48, 50 7
SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENT OF IRON-CLAD CIRCUITS. SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS, CONTINUOUS CURRENT. SINGLE-ENERGY TRANSIENTS IN A.C. CIRCUITS
Specific capacity
52
19
30
97
16, 17, 18
Standing waves
originating from traveling
see
Stationary oscillation
101
101
transmission
line,
oscillogram
magnetic
circuit
57 86 76, 77 34 32 28 32
81
Stationary oscillation of open line see Line oscillation and Standing wave.
Steepness of ironclad transient
86
58
105
and power-transfer constants of impulse Step-by-step method of calculating transient of ironclad circuit
front
wave
53
3
120
61, 84 Surge admittance and impedance of circuit 9 Symbolic method reducing A.C. phenomena to permanents Symmetrical pulsation of field current at single-phase alternator short 45 circuit
.
148
Terminal conditions of
oscillograms
INDEX.
PAGE
line oscillation
current transient
.-.
magnetic-field transient
Time constant
decrement
of
compound
circuit
by
in
traveling
wave
circuit oscillation circuit
compound
Transformation ratio at transition point of compound Transformer as generator of transient energy Transformer surge Transient current in A.C. circuit
double-energy
power transfer
in
compound-circuit
27,
34 30 37 40 44
72 59 3 4 4 2
1
and
Transients, double-energy
fundamental condition of appearance general with all forms of energy as intermediate between permanents nature single-energy A.C. circuit
continuous current
Transition point, change of phase angle
reflection
30
19
117
118 117
63 73
TRAVELING WAVES
Traveling wave, equation as impulses
preceding stationary oscillation of very high frequency
104
INDEX.
Turboalternators, momentary short-circuit current construction
calculations
149
PAGE
37 40 44
97 60 92
Undamped
oscillations
Unsymmetrical pulsation of
circuit
field
46
64 83
81
109
74, 129
7 83 92 104
18
15,
17 17
compound
oscillating circuit
47
117
at transition point of
compound oscillation
27
61
maximum
Wave
front of impulse
105
79,
and period
in velocity unit
80 92 88
WAVES, TRAVELING
33417
TOO
i
749213
753
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