13.2.1. Luminance in The Access Zone: Tunnel Lighting
13.2.1. Luminance in The Access Zone: Tunnel Lighting
13.2.1. Luminance in The Access Zone: Tunnel Lighting
TUNNEL LIGHTING
levels of the different zones. Nomenclature and a corresponding definition of such lighting engineering levels is established below: L20 = Lth Ltr Ln Lex = = = = Luminance in access zone. Luminance in the threshold zone. Luminance in the transition zone. Luminance in the interior zone. Luminance in the exit zone.
Entrance
Direction of traffic
Exit
Lin
Access zone DS
Interior zone
Exit zone DS
Figure 4
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Exit
CHART A AVERAGE LUMINANCE OF THE ACCESS ZONE L20 (Kcd/m2) SKY PERCENTAGE (%) IN CONICAL VISUAL FIELDS AT 20 35% ROAD TYPES B Brightness situation in the visual field (1) Security distance 60 m Security distance 100 to 160 m Being: 1) Effect fundamentally depends on tunnel orientation: B: Low; In the north hemisphere: southern entrance. A: High; In the north hemisphere: northern entrance. For eastern and western entrances intermediate values between low and high must be chosen. 2) Effect fundamentally depends on brightness of surroundings: B: Low; Low reflectances of surroundings. A: High; High reflectances of surroundings. 3) Effect fundamentally depends on tunnel orientation: B: Low; In the north hemisphere: northern entrance. A: High; In the north hemisphere: southern entrance. For eastern and western entrances intermediate values between low and high must be chosen. 4) For a stopping distance of 60 m, in practice, there are no sky percentages of 35$.
Notes: northern entrance means the entrance for drivers circulating southwards. southern entrance refers to the entrance for drivers circulating northwards.
(4) 4 6 4
3.5 1.5
Chart 8 Exact method Luminance of the access zone L20 is the average luminance contained in a conical field of vision represented by an angle of 20%, with its vertex in the position of the drivers eye. It is located at a distance before the tunnel equal to the stopping distance, and the cone oriented towards the tunnel portal on a point situated at a height of 1/4 of the tunnel mouth. Determining luminance for the access zone L20 is extremely relevant since it predetermines the level to be obtained by means of lighting in the threshold zone. Such luminance of the access zone depends on the atmospheric conditions of the place where the tunnel is located. The calculation of the luminance of the access zone L20 is obtained from a sketch of the surroundings of the tunnel zone. The formula below is used: L20 = a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE + d * Lth where: a = % of the sky. Sky luminance. % of the road. Road luminance. % of the surroundings. Surrounding luminance. % tunnel entrance. Threshold zone luminance. a+b+c+d=1 Lc = b = LR c LE = = =
d = Lth = with:
The unknown factor to be determined in the formula is the value of the luminance in the threshold zone (Lth). When stopping distances higher than 100 m. are faced, the mouth entrance percentage of tunnels is low (< at 10%) and since Lth also has
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a low value with respect to other luminance values, the contribution of Lth may be disregarded. For a stopping distance of 60 m., the norm establishes that: L20 = (a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE) / (1 / K) Because K never exceeds 0.1, the result is: L20 = a * Lc + b * LR + c * LE being a + b + c < 1. If the data to know exactly the value for a, b, c and d are not available, the ones defined in the following charts will be used. If surrounding values are not available, the following are used:
Surroundings (LE) Rocks 3 2 1 Edifices 8 6 4 Snow 15 (M, H) 10 (M) 15 (H) 5 (M) 15 (H) Chart 9 2 Kcd/m2 Grass 2 2
In this chart, the value for L is known. In order to define the percentage of the sky which contributes to the value L20 in the installation under study, Fig. 5 is used.
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tunnel mouth and the transition zone. 13.2.2.1. Lighting levels for threshold zone The threshold zone is the first part of the tunnel located directly after the portal, thus, beginning at its entrance. The luminance level Lth (average luminance in service of the roadway surface with maintenance of the installation), which must be provided by lighting during the day at the beginning of the threshold zone, is a percentage of the luminance of the access zone L20; thus, it is verified: Lth = k L20 Factor k is established in Chart 10 taking into account the lighting system adopted (counterflux or symmetrical), security distance (DS) and lighting class defined in Chart 7, depending on ponderation factors (traffic intensity and composition, visual guidance and vehicle driving comfort).
VALUES FOR k 103 FOR THE THRESHOLD ZONE LIGHTING SYSTEM Lighting class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 60 m 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 COUNTERFLUX Security distance (DS) 100 m 15 20 30 35 40 45 50 160 m 30 40 45 50 55 60 70 60 m 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 SYMMETRIC Security distance (DS) 100 m 20 25 35 40 50 55 60 160 m 35 40 45 50 65 80 100
Notes: For security or stopping distances (DS) ranging between (60-100 and 160 m), values for factor (k) are obtained by linear interpolation between the figures established in the chart. Values for factor (k) for the lighting system at counterflux have been determined to guarantee, in most situations, a degree of security and comfort, at least, comparable to that achieved with the symmetric lighting system. Security or stopping distances for 60, 100 and 160 m are respectively equivalent to design speeds of the tunnel of 60, 80 and 100 km/h.
Chart 10 13.2.2.2. Threshold zone length Length of the threshold zone must be, at least, equal to the security distance (DS). For the first half of such distance (DS), luminance on the roadway will be equal to Lth, that is to say, the value at the beginning of the threshold zone. Half of the security distance (DS) onwards, luminance of the roadway may gradually and linearly decrease down to a value, at the end of the threshold zone, equal to 0.4 Lth (Fig. 6). The gradual reduction in the second half of the threshold zone may take place in a staged way, so that ratio between stages does not exceed the ratio 3:1 and luminance does not go under those values corresponding to linear gradual decrease. 13.2.2.3. Luminance of walls Wall average luminance in the threshold zone, up to a height of 2 m., must be similar to average luminance of the roadway surface. 13.2.2.4. Luminance and length of the transition zone The transition zone is that part of the tunnel following the threshold zone, as indicated in Fig. 4. Therefore, it begins at the end of the threshold zone and finishes at the beginning of the interior zone.
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L%
100 80 60 40
Lth Ltr = Lth(1.9 + t)-1-428 Ltr = Lth(1.9 + t)-1-428 with Lth = 100% and t = time in seconds
20 10 8 6 4
60 Km./h 100 m. 100 m. 100 m. 100 m. 200 m. 200 m. 300 m. 200 m. 300 m. 400 m. 200 m. 300 m. 400 m. 500 m. 300 m. 80 Km./h 400 m. 100 Km./h 500 m. 120 Km./h 600 m.
Minimum luminance in entrance zone. The 100% value corresponds to the first half of the threshold zone
Figure 6 According to Fig. 6, the length of the transition zone is the distance a vehicle must travel to go from the level of luminance at the end of the threshold zone, up to the luminance value at the beginning of the interior zone, visual adaptation supposed. Consequently, for each speed of the vehicle, the allowed reduction of luminance in the transition zone Ltr, depends on the distance travelled in the mentioned zone. Average luminance in service of the roadway with maintenance of the installation of the transition zone Ltr decreases gradually, from the luminance of the threshold zone down to the luminance of the interior zone. In any position in the transition zone, luminance of the roadway surface must be equal or exceed luminance established in Fig. 6. The curve of Fig. 6 is the result of numerous experimental tests depending on eye adaptation, from high luminance levels to very low values which have given rise to a mathematical approximation corresponding to the following formula: Ltr = Lth (1.9 + t)-1.428 being: t = time in seconds. In practice, a decrease in the luminance in the transition zone may take place through a series of stages which must be lower than the ratio 3:1. Luminance cannot reach values lower than those of the curve in Fig. 6. The end of the transition zone is reached when its luminance is equal to three times the level of the interior zone of the tunnel. It is compulsory that wall average luminance of the tunnel up to a 2 m. height, in any specific position of the transition zone, must not be lower than average luminance of the roadway in such a place.
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established in Chart 11 depending on the security distance (DS) and the lighting class defined in Chart 7. Up to a height of 2 m., the walls of the tunnel must have an average luminance similar to the roadway average luminance in service with maintenance of the installation Lin. The luminance level in the interior zone of the tunnel must allow to reach the following objectives: - Visibility of any eventual obstacle on the roadway at a distance, at least, equal to the security distance, bearing in mind opacity of the atmosphere of the tunnel due to vehicle toxic fumes. - Guidance of vehicles without ambiguities. - Good quality of the luminous environment, whose psychological effect above all is important in very long tunnels. It must be stated that levels of the interior zone are achieved in all the length of the tunnel. Also, in the so- called lighting reinforcement zones (entrance zone and, exit ones, too), where this lighting is called basic lighting.
LUMINANCES IN cd/m2 IN THE INTERIOR ZONE LIGHTING SYSTEM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 60 m 0.5 1,5 2,5 2,5 2,5 3,5 3,5 Chart 11 SECURITY DISTANCE (DS) 100 m 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 160 m 3 4 5 6 6 8 10
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LUMINANCE UNIFORMITIES ON THE ROADWAY SURFACE LIGHTING CLASS 1-2-3 4-5-6-7 Overall U0 0.3 0.4 Chart 12 UNIFORMITY Longitudinal U1 0.5 0.6
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related to speed of change from light to dark is minimized, the flickering or Flickers effect perceived becomes insignificant, due to the fact that the lighting installation may be similar to a continuous line. In order to calculate the flickering frequency or Flicker in a zone of the tunnel, speed of traffic is divided in metres/ second by the separation between luminaires in metres. Example: v = 60 Km/h. = 16.6 m/s. Luminaire separation = 4 m. Flickering frequency or Flicker = 16.6 / 4 4.2 Hz. Flickering frequencies or Flicker (luminance variation) ranging between 2.5 Hz. and 15 Hz. at driving speed for more than 20 seconds must be avoided, given the fact that the flickering effect may be disregarded for frequencies under 2.5 Hz. and above 15 Hz.
LUMINANCES OF NIGHT TIME LIGHTING IN cd/m2 LIGHTING CLASS 1-2 3-4-5-6-7 Chart 13 AVERAGE LUMINANCE CD/M2 0.5 1
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Figure 7. View of a short tunnel with a frame or dark background. Short tunnels and underpasses shorter than 25 metres in length, normally do not require installation of day- time lighting. When the short tunnel length is slightly higher than 25 metres, the dark background formed by the walls and ceiling of the tunnel, as well as by the roadway itself, may hamper the vision of vehicles and, in turn, of pedestrians crossing it (see Fig. 7), difficulting perception. In this case day- time lighting must be installed in the tunnel or underpass.
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75 to 125 NO
Daytime lighting for A type tunnels, short or urban tunnels or by- passes (highways and dual carriageways excluded), with limited circulating speed between 40 and 60 km/h. Chart 14 Short tunnels B type Chart 15. Bidirectional intercity tunnels, considering a dense amount of traffic when daily average intensity of vehicles is higher than 5 000 (IMD > 5 000).
Length (m) Visible exit? Speed 80 Km/h Traffic density Lighting required
0 to 80 YES YES
> 150
Limited day-time Complete day-time lighting Long tunnel lighting lighting Chart 15
Day-time lighting for type B short, urban, bidirectional tunnels (dense traffic when IMD > 5 000).
Short tunnels C type Chart 16. One- way intercity tunnels (motorways and dual carriageways), estimating a dense amount of traffic when daily average intensity of vehicles is higher than 10 000 (IMD > 10 000).
Length (m) Visible exit? Speed 80 Km/h Traffic volume Lighting required
100 to 150 NO NO Light Dense YES Limited day- time lighting NO Light Dense
Day-time lighting for type C short urban unidirectional tunnels for highways and motorways (dense traffic when IMD > 10 000). Chart 16 Short tunnels D type Chart 17. Intercity tunnels with low speed traffic (speed limit considerably lower than 80 Km/h.), and a traffic density notably lower than a daily average intensity of 5 000 vehicles (IMD < 5 000). Length (m) Visible exit? Lighting required 0 to 100 YES 101 to 150 NO YES 151 to 200 NO Complete day- time lighting > 200 Long tunnel lighting
Day- time lighting for type D tunnels, intercity, short with low speed traffic (lower than 80 Km/h) and traffic density lower than 5 000 vehicles in a day (IMD < 5 000). Chart 17
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For each type of short tunnel in guiding diagrams and in their left part, the following four questions are posed: length, exit visibility, speed and traffic density.
- Length (m): Four sorts of length are established for each guiding diagram for short tunnels or underpasses, expressed in metres. - Visible exit?: In each guiding diagram it is considered, whether the exit of the tunnel or underpass is visible or not when the driver of the vehicle approaches the tunnel and finds himself, at least, at a distance equal to that of security distance (DS) before the tunnel entrance. - Speed [80 Km/h: In guiding diagrams 2 and 3, corresponding to tunnels of the B and C type, the speed of the tunnel or underpass design is thought to be higher or lower than 80 Km/h. The design speed is very important in relation to security distance (DS), as well as regarding risk of accidents and their severity. - Traffic density: In guiding diagrams 2 and 3, it is born in mind and it may be classified as light and dense.
In diagram 2 corresponding to short tunnels of the B type (two- way intercity), a dense amount of traffic is valued when daily average intensity of vehicles is higher than 5 000 (IMD > 5 000). In diagram 3, which makes reference to short tunnels of the C type (one- way intercity of motorways and dual carriageways), a dense amount of traffic is estimated when daily average intensity of vehicles in higher than 10 000 (IMD > 10 000). Four diagrams are established constituting a guide of an orientative nature. They also provide help to decide whether the short tunnel or underpass needs day- time lighting or not. If necessary, the type of lighting to be adopted is also detailed. For example, the case of a short tunnel of 120 metres in length, located on an intercity road with slow moving traffic (v < 60 Km/h.) and a daily average intensity of IMD < 3 000. It is necessary to decide whether day- time lighting must be provided and, in case it is required, to determine the type of lighting to be installed. The working system is the one described below: Following guiding diagram n. 4, the tunnel is located within the corresponding interval of lengths. That is to say, between 101 and 150 metres. The second question, visible exit?, is answered. For an affirmative answer, day- time lighting is not required according to diagram 4. For a negative answer, due to the existence of curves or slopes in the interior of the tunnel, limited day- time lighting is installed. Supposing the same short tunnel but with a length of 170 metres, according to diagram 4, the only two alternatives are, in case the tunnel exit is not visible, the installation of limited day- time or complete day- time lighting respectively. Diagrams constitute a practical guide that, for each concrete situation, will be adapted to the type of road bearing in mind:
- The real structure of the tunnel, its access and exit roads. - Traffic density and composition, either motorized or mixed, including slow and fast moving vehicles, bicyclists, pedestrians, etc. Guiding diagrams may be considered to be orientative for the design, working and maintenance of short tunnels and underpasses lighting. The following technical and economic considerations will be taken into account:
- Performance of a detailed analysis of the risk of accidents and security in relation to lighting (quality and quantity). - Study of convenient marking at the entrance of the tunnel, especially regarding the limit speed, turn- on of vehicle headlights, etc. - Performance a meticulous exam of installation costs and annual exploitation of lighting, including working, maintenance and repairing costs in relation to security and comfort provided by such an installation (costs/ benefits binomial).
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13.5. Maintenance
The maintenance factor used in lighting studies normally covers luminaire depreciation (dirtiness) and lamp (loss of luminous flux). In the case of tunnels which are installations with a high degree of atmospheric pollution, it is very important to have a maintenance program (cleaning of walls and luminaires) defining the cleaning cycles which will allow to comply with the factor established in the study. The norm recommends to use a maintenance factor of 0.7 to define the value of the average level of the luminance of the roadway and 0.5 for the walls. Relamping will be performed when the average level is under the one established or the lack of uniformity is unacceptable.
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SHORT TUNNELS TYPES OF TUNNELS Length TYPE A DIAGRAM-1 < 25 25 to 75 75 to 125 > 125 YES NO Speed < 80 km/h Traffic density TYPE B DIAGRAM-2 < 80 80 to 120 120 to 150 > 150 YES NO YES NO LIGHT DENSE
* In type B tunnels, traffic density is high when IMD > 5 000. ** In type C tunnels, traffic density is high when IMD > 10 000.
TYPE C DIAGRAM-3 < 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 > 200 YES NO YES NO LIGHT DENSE
TYPE D DIAGRAM-4 < 100 100 to 150 150 to 200 > 200 YES NO
Visible exit?
Chart 18
If lighting is foreseen on the road, this will be installed in such a way that an adequate penetration of lighting inside the short tunnel or underpass is guaranteed. The content of guiding diagrams for short tunnels and underpasses detailed in section 13.3. are summarized in the previous chart. A high reflectance of walls is important to increase brightness of the background against which objects may be seen. In short tunnels, where the exit is not visible from the security distance (DS) in front of the tunnel entrance, reflectance of walls is particularly important. The reason is that reflectance of high walls will secure that a great amount of day- time lighting, entering through the exit mouth, is reflected towards drivers. Walls with a diffused reflectance in service higher than 40% are known as HIGH, and walls with less than 40% of reflectance, are called LOW (the depreciation or maintenance factor must be considered). In any tunnel, walls must have a white covering of up to 2 m. in height, with a flat surface and a high specular reflectance in service or maintained. The low part down to 0.50 m. and lateral sidewalks may be blackened or painted black, basically when the roadway covering is light or white, due to vehicle driving needs with a good maintained contrast, in order to improve total perception. When reflectance of the walls is classified as LOW, length signalled in each of the four guiding diagrams must be reduced in a 20%. The degree of day- time light entering the exit is also important. Thus, a tunnel with a big transverse section, for example, of three lanes or wider, and a flat exit or with a downward slope and facing south, will admit a maximum of day- time light and will contribute considerably to visibility in the tunnel. Moreover, day- time light may be poor when the tunnel has two or fewer lanes, in case the exit is located in a cut or is surrounded by high buildings. Also when the road has an upward slope from the exit or in case the exit faces north. The importance of day-time light near the exit decreases with the length of the tunnel. When day- time light is GOOD, the length indicated for each of the four guiding diagrams must be increased up to a 20%. As far as tunnel geometry and access roads are concerned, lighting design of the tunnel must follow the most conservative route for each guiding diagram. The same attitude must be considered when: - The tunnel has a slope first and a ramp later (changes in vertical curvature). - There are geometrical discontinuities or singularities.
In case the tunnel presents a bad total perception, lighting design must follow a conservative path for each of the four guiding diagrams. A specific analysis is needed when transportation of dangerous cargo is frequent. In this case, lighting design in the tunnel must be performed following the most conservative path for each of the guiding diagrams.
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In order to secure an adequate visual guidance, the separation between luminaires will not be higher than 25 m. In curved tunnels, at least four luminaires will be visible. Regarding separation between luminaires this could be reduced. 13.9.1.2. Visual guidance in the interior zone for tunnels. Lighting class 1 In the interior zone of tunnels, lighting class 1 (Chart 19), the luminaires installed will have luminous intensities towards the driver that will comply with what has been established in Chart 20.
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CHART II LUMINOUS INTENSITIES IN TUNNEL INTERIORS LIGHTING CLASS 1 ANGLE TIME Day and night 80 < < 87.5 INTENSITY (cd) MIN. 8 Chart 20 MAX. 50 MIN. = 87.5 INTENSITY (cd) MAX. 25
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Chapter14.
LIGHT POLLUTION
14.1 General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 14.2 Lighting and security levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 14.3 Contrast vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 14.4 Zoning system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 14.5 Lamp selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 14.6 Upper hemisphere flux limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 14.7 Other characteristics of luminaires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 14.8 Distances between zones and point of reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 14.9 Pavement photometric characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 14.10 Lighting level temporal variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 14.11 Recommendations to reduce lighting pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 14.12 Appendix: Recommendable orientative values to limit disturbing light coming from exterior lighting installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
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Visual task and pedestrians needs differ from drivers in many aspects. The speed of movement is lower, and the perception of objects surrounding pedestrians is more important than seeing objects that are further away. Therefore, quality criteria of pedestrian lighting cannot be equal to those of road traffic. In urban areas, perception of their immediate environment is more important for pedestrians, in order to avoid any type of crime (thefts, vandalism, sexual harassment, terrorist acts, etc.). The decision whether lighting for a public road in a certain area or place must be provided or not must be taken based on a detailed study. Once the decision to service a lighting installation has been made, design criteria and lighting levels will be adjusted, avoiding exceeding the criteria established in the following C.I.E. publications: - Publication C.I.E. 47: 1979 - Publication C.I.E. 66: 1984 - Publication C.I.E. 92: 1992 - Publication C.I.E. 115: 1995 - Publication C.I.E. 126: 1997 Road Lighting for Wet Conditions. Road Pavement and Lighting. Guide to the Lighting of Urban Areas. Recommendations for the Lighting of Roads for Motor and Pedestrian Traffic. Guidelines for Minimizing Sky Glow.
Nevertheless, lighting levels established in the publications above may be exceeded up to a 20%, except for cases correctly justified in which it would be possible to exceed such percentage. As far as those elements which constitute the installation, LIGHTING ENGINEERING calculations, measurements, maintenance, etc. whatever is established in the following C.I.E. publications will be observed: - Publication C.I.E. 30.2: 1982 - Publication C.I.E. 31: 1976 - Publication C.I.E. 32/AB: 1977 - Publication C.I.E. 33: 1977 - Publication C.I.E. 34: 1977 - Publication C.I.E. 121: 1996 Calculation and Measurement of Luminance and Illuminance in Road Lighting. Glare and Uniformity in Road Lighting Conditions. Lighting in Situations Requiring Special Treatment (in Road Lighting). Depreciation of Installations and their Maintenance. Road Lighting Lantern and Installation Data.Photometrics, Classification and Performance. The Photometry and Goniophotometry of Luminaires
C= Being: L0= Object luminance. Lf= Background luminance. Contrast C may be either positive or negative: If L0 >Lf If L0 <Lf
C > 0 positive contrast (the object is lighter than its background). C < 0 negative contrast (the object is darker than its background). 0<C< -1 < C < 0
Contrast C may acquire the following values: Positive contrast (light object) Negative contrast (dark object)
Light pollution or night- time luminous glare in the sky produces a veil in the observation field which has its own luminance L v. At the same time, this luminance is added to the luminance of the object and its background. Thus, the new contrast C is the following:
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C =
L0 Lf Lf LV
It is always verified that C < C, given that the dividend is the same and the divisor is always greater. When veiling luminance Lv increases, the observed object may disappear from the field of vision, specially in the case of astronomic observations when a star or celestial object with a very weak luminance L0 is under study.
DESCRIPTION DARK SURROUNDING AREAS: International category astronomic observatories AVERAGE BRIGHTNESS AREAS: Residential urban areas HIGH BRIGHTNESS AREAS: High night- time activity in urban centers Chart 1. Description of zoning system.
National parks and areas with a special natural beauty will receive the same treatment as the "E 1" zone, as far as installed upper hemisphere flux limitations go, as established in Chart 2. Distance regime shown in Chart 4 is not applied to the rest of the zones.
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ZONE CLASSIFICATION E1 E2 E3 E4
INSTALLED FHSinst UPPER HEMISPHERE FLUX (%) 0 0-5 0-15 0-25 Chart 2. Limit values for the installed upper hemisphere flux.
As a way of an example, Chart 3 contains the type of astronomic observations possible for each zone.
ZONE CLASSIFICATION E1 E2 E3 E4
ASTRONOMIC ACTIVITIES International Category Observatories Academic and Postgraduate Studies Observatories Amateur Observatories Sporadic Observations Chart 3. Astronomic activities possible for each zone.
Nevertheless, in the case of lighting of highways and dual carriageways, important urban routes, by-passes, etc. it is recommended to install luminaires with an Installed FHSinst 5% upper hemisphere flux. In the case of pedestrian lighting, as well as artistic with lanterns, historic devices, etc., an FHSinst 25% is suggested When the life of lighting installations is exhausted, or renovation is needed for any reason, it is recommended to install luminaires with the upper hemisphere flux limitations shown above in this section. It is advisable to have a replacement program of existent luminaires whose installed upper hemisphere flux is greater than 25% (FHSinst/25%), installing luminaires which comply with the values recommended in this section.
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DISTANCE BETWEEN LIMITS IN ZONES E2-E3 10 1 WITHOUT LIMITS Chart 4. Minimum distances in Km. between limits for each zone. E3-E4 100 10 1
For the correct use of Chart 4, the zone where the "point of reference" is located must be first selected. Afterwards, in Chart 4, the minimum distance in Km. is obtained, where the following zone begins, and so on for the rest of adjacent areas. Values recorded in Chart 4 have been deduced from practical experience, even when the number of cases under study has been limited.
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NO
YES
YES
Figure 1 If there is no possibility to direct lighting downwards and not upwards, use screens and paralumens to avoid dispersion of
NO
YES
YES
Figure 2 To install lighting equipments which will reduce the dispersion of light on the horizontal plane of the luminaire, with
minimum values or even none over such plane (Figs. 3 and 4).
NO
YES
Figure 3
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YES NO
Figure 4 For glare to be minimum, direct light ray beams downwards keeping them under 70. If mounting height is increased, light ray beams shoud be lowered. In places with low environmental light, glare may be very disturbing. Due to this reason, positioning, aiming or orientation of luminaires may be carefully attended (Fig. 5).
YES
90 70 <70
O.K.
NO
Figure 5 When possible, it is recommended to install luminaires with an asymmetric reflector which will permit to maintain their front closing parallel or almost parallel to the surface that needs to be illuminated (Fig. 6).
NO
YES
Figure 6 In order to avoid installing excess of light, recommendations which fix levels to light different tasks with tolerances permited must be observed. In the case of small safety lighting installations and house lighting, there are two solutions: Passive detectors of infrared rays may be effectively used if correctly installed and lined. In general, a 150 W. halogene lamp is more than enough. 300/500 W. lamps provide too much lighting, greater glare and darker and more emphasized shadows.
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Permanent illuminations with low brightness during all night. are equally acceptable. In the case of a porch in a house, a compact fluorescent lamp of 9 W. (600 lm.) is adequate for most cases. - For motor traffic lighting, flux emitted above the horizontal plane must be reduced and close light must be restricted.
14.12. Apendix: "Recommended orientative values for limiting bothering light coming from exterior lighting installations"
Division 5 of the C.I.E. elaborated a roughdraft of a technical report "Guide on the limitation of the effects of bothering light coming from exterior lighting installations" through its Technical Committee TC 5-12, at the end of 1995 . Given its empirical nature and subject to modifications resulting from observing parameters included in the mentioned Guide, the most adequate attitude seems to be including such parameters as a way of orientation and not as obligatory values to be applied. This way, their incorporation has been performed by means of limitation charts like an appendix and not as part of the present chapter. The intention being that consignated valued will be compared with our own experience in our country. Five types of specific effects produced by bothering lighting coming from exterior lighting installations may be considered. These are the following: Effects on astronomical observations Lighting engineering parameters implied are: - Night- time lighting of the sky by dispersion of light coming from exterior lighting installations (night- time luminous glow). It depends on the (FHSinst) installed upper hemisphere flux as well as on the reflected flux. - Spectral characteristics of night- time luminous glow. It is equivalent to speaking about wavelengths coming from luminous emissions (types of lamps). - Direct light on the astronomical observatory itself. Effects on residents Lighting engineering parameters to be considered are the following: - Vertical illuminance (EV) on face surfaces, for example, bedroom windows. -Luminance (L) of luminaires, given the fact that their direct vision may be disturbing. Due to the difficulty in predetermining such luminance, this parameter is substituted by luminous intensity () of the source of light in the potential direction of the bothering source of light. Effects on citizens Lighting engineering parameters to bear in mind when talking about the effects of lighting on citizens in general (passers-by, tourists, etc.) are the following: - Average luminance (Lm) of surfaces of vertical faces in edifices. Sometimes, as a consequence of excessive lighting, they may be bothering instead of highlighting decorative or ornamental aspects. Effects on users of transportation systems Significative lighting engineering parameters are the following: - Increase of threshold contrast (TI) which expresses limitation of disturbing glare in the lighting of motor roads. This also constitutes the measurement through which a loss of sight caused by such glare is quantified. - Visual caos originated by signalling observation against bright backgrounds produced by intense luminous sources. Effects on transportation signalling systems Significative lighting engineering parameters are the following: - Disturbing glare represented by an increase in the threshold area (), defined as the amount of extra contrast, with regards to the original contrast, necessary to see the object again when there is glare. - In case transportation systems work near lighting installations, as in the case of maritime transport, aviation, etc., relevant authorities will establish adequate norms. According to the classification of zones established in Chart 1, recommendations as a way of orientation for limiting bothering or discomforting light coming from exterior lighting installations, are expressed as maximum values in the following chart:
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INTENSITY OF SOURCE Before ** reduced time 0 50 100 100 After reduced time 0 0.5 1.0 2.5
Chart 5. Limitations of bothering light coming from exterior lighting installations. FHSinst EV Lm T * ** *** Maximum permited percentage of installed upper hemisphere flux in percentage. Vertical illuminance in lux. Luminous intensity in Kilocandelas (Kcd.). Average luminance in cd/m2. Contrast threshold increase in percentage. Acceptable only for lighting installations of motor traffic roads. Applicable to each source of light in the potential direction of the bother. In order to avoid excessive lighting, luminance is limited in edifices. It must coincide with the general luminosity of the area.
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