Software
Software
Software
1. SOFTWARE: It is a set of instructions, which is known as program, are combined together to perform special task. There are three types of software: a. System software b. Application software c. General purpose software 2. SYSTEM SOFTWARE: It comprises of those programs that control and support the computer system and its data processing applications. In other words, it is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation of computer system. There are following types of system software: I. Programming Language: Programming languages are used to develop programs or software which is used for data processing or any special tasks. Every programming language has its own set of commands or instructions, standard and rules of uses that is known as syntax of programming language. If any programmer wants to develop any special programming language then he has to learn the syntax of that programming language. Over the years many programming languages have been developed and these programming languages are known as: a. Machine Language: It is also known as 1st generation language of computers. Machine language means that language which the computer can understand without any translation. In machine language, all the programs were written in the binary codes (0 and 1) only which are difficult to understand for programmers; therefore these codes are replaced with decimal codes which were easy to remember than binary codes. A machine language is a system dependent language; therefore this language is also known as Low level language. b. Assembly Language: It is known as 2nd generation language of computers. Assembling language was developed to remove the programming difficulties of machine language.
In assembly language, all the programs were written in the symbolic language (English language code) in place of binary codes. A computer can understand only a machine language, therefore the programs written in the assembly language need to be translated into a machine language by using a language translator known as assembler. An assembly language is also a system dependent language; therefore this language is also known as Low level language. c. High level language/complier/procedural language: It is also known as 3rd generation language of computers. High level languages are system independent languages because the programs developed in these languages can be executed in any type of computer systems, without any modifications. In high level language, all the programs are written in the simple English language. A computer can understand only a machine language, therefore the programs written in the high level language need to be translated into a machine language by using a complier or interpreter. The high level languages are easy to learn. Here are some popular high level languages: COBOL (for business purpose) BASIC (for general purpose) FORTRAN (for science applications) etc. d. 4th Generation Language: 4th GL are known as very high level language because these languages are easier to use and learn than 3rd GL. The 4th GL are non-procedural language i.e. works on the principle of what to do while 3rd GL which are procedural languages i.e. works on the principal of how to do. In the 4th GL, a user is not required to go through an entire procedure to solve a problem. It uses readymade tools/software for programming to save a lot in terms of cost, time & efforts.
There are two types of 4th GL: i. Production oriented 4th GL: These 4th GL are designed by computer professionals to develop programs without writing entire procedure of problems solution. Thus, program development does not require huge time & efforts. E.g. IDEAL, Rational Rose, Natural2 etc. ii. User oriented 4th GL: These 4th GL are designed for end users (users like us who are not the professional programmers) to develop simple database programs without depending upon expert programmers. E.g. QBE (Query by Example), SQL (Structured Query Language), & FOCUS etc. e. Object-Oriented programming & languages: OOP languages are latest development in the programming languages. These languages works on the principle of write once use many times. In these languages, the programs are written in the form of objects which can be used anywhere as per requirement. OOP languages help to develop better quality programs in less time. E.g. Java, C++, and VB (Visual Basic) etc. II. Operating System: Operating system acts as a mediator between man and machine (i.e. OS provide an interface to user for working on computer). The operating system may be defined as an integrated system of programs which supervises the operation of the CPU, controls the input/output functions of the computer system and translates the programming languages into the machine languages. OS is also known as an executive of computer because it performs various functions for efficient management of computer system. There are following functions performed by OS: a. Memory Management b. Processing Management c. Hardware & Software Management d. Files Management e. Security Management f. Job Scheduling g. User management h. Interrupt management (Request management)
Types of OS a. DOS (Disk Operating System): MS-DOS was one of the most popular operating system made by Microsoft Corporation used in IBM PCs. It was released in 1981 by IBM. There are following features: i. Single tasking OS i.e. it can execute only one task at a time. ii. It is based on character User Interface (CUI) for working on computer. iii. It is 16 bits OS. iv. DOS is a single user OS and it can be used only in personal computer. b. Microsoft Windows: Windows is the most popular OS from Microsoft Inc. for personal computers. It is based on Graphical User Interface (GUI) for working on computer. Window is a multitasking OS i.e. it helps to execute many task simultaneously. Over the years, many versions of window OS have been released by Microsoft e.g. window 1.0, window 2.0, window 3.0, window 95, window 98, window Mi (Mi=Millennium), window 2000 professional, window XP, window Vista, Window 7. Window 95 32 bits OS Released in 1995 First OS from Microsoft to provide internet and network ready applications like browsers, e-mail etc. Window 98 32 bits OS Released in 1995 Plug and play technology enables users to connect various peripheral devices with minimum effort. Window NT Windows New technology (NT) is an operating system for servers or networks. 32 bits OS Multiprogramming (Execute many programs simultaneously) or Multiprocessing (Execute work with many processors).
It is a portable operating system i.e. it can work with any type of processors.
Window 2000 This was the OS which was released for both PCs and Servers applications. Released in 2000 It was built on Window NT platform and it provided the enhanced reliability & security features. Over the years, Window NT has also been introduced in the market with many versions such as Windows XP for home use/PCs and Window 2003 for servers. Window XP It was released in 2001. Available in both 32 bits/64 bits versions It was the most popular OS in the window series of OS. The name of XP is short name of Experience. It was built on Windows NT architecture. It has many improvement over the previous versions of windows like Fast startup, Enhanced security features, Enhanced graphics capability, Remote desktop capability i.e. allows users to connect to any computers anywhere using internet.
Windows Vista It was released in 2007. It has further improvement features of window XP in terms of Enhanced Security Updated GUI Better Visual Large numbers of multimedia tools like DVD maker etc. Vista aims to increase the level of communication between machines on a home network.
Windows 7 It was released in 2009. This OS has some further improvement over the previous versions of windows. This OS has also removed some of the applications of window vista like Windows mail, windows movie maker etc. OS/2
In 1987, IBM and Microsoft announced a new PC OS called OS/2 (Operating System Two). It was not very successful due to following reasons: Slow Speed Unable to support many existing PC Applications. Memory capacity
UNIX It is a multiuser, multitasking and multiprocessing OS that are used in bigger size machines like mainframe and minicomputers. It was developed by AT&T Bell Labs around 1970. LINUX It has emerged from UNIX OS. It can be used in wide range of devices from PC to supercomputers. It is available under open source license i.e. anyone can read and modify this OS. Mac OS It is a popular Graphical User Interface developed by Apple Inc. Early versions of this OS were only compatible with Motorola 68000 series of processors but now these are compatible with Intel Processors also. ADVANCE CONCEPTS OF OS a. Multiprogramming: It is a technique in which many users program are executed by CPU simultaneously. The main purpose of multiprogramming is to increase the utilization of a computer and its resource.
In multiprogramming, CPU works in time sharing mode i.e. CPU allocates its processing time to all the users program equally. b. Multiprocessing: It is a technique in which more than 1 processor or CPU is used to execute many users program simultaneously. It helps to increase the processing speed of computer for executing programs. It is also known as parallel processing because in this technique more than 1 processors works in a parallel to execute programs. c. Multitasking: It is an ability of a system to execute more than one task simultaneously by a single user. Multitasking helps to increase the productivity of users by executing many tasks simultaneously. In the past, there was used a single user OS like DOS etc. which were able to execute one task at a time. If a user wants to execute another task then first opened task should be switched off to execute another task. But the OS like windows etc. are multitasking OS; and these OS allow users to execute many tasks simultaneously. For example: we can open MS-Word documents as well as MS-Excel document to work at the same time. d. Virtual Memory: Virtual memory means not an actual memory. It is a technique which helps to execute big size programs with small size available primary memory or RAM. In other words, if the program and related data are larger than the capacity of memory, then the programmer has to use the concept of Virtual Memory. In virtual memory technique, the big sizes of programs are divided into small size of segments and these segments are loaded into primary memory and secondary memory.
e. Spooling: Spooling technique is used to reduce the time gap between high speed CPU and slow speed peripheral devices. Spooling is, primarily, used for printing purpose. For Example: When a user provides many documents together for printing to printer then CPU being a high speed component immediately process all the given documents and provides these documents to printer for printing. But printer being a slow speed device cannot print all the jobs at same speed as processed by CPU. Here the spooling technique is used which allows the processed jobs of CPU to be arranged in a separate area in the memory known as spooling area or buffer memory and CPU remains free for other jobs. And printer as when become free from printing previous job automatically takes up the next job from spooling area. f. Foreground and Background Processing: Foreground Process: The process being executed in front of user is known as foreground process. Foreground process are called high priority jobs/tasks. For Example: Tally program execution, Excel program execution etc. Background Process: The process not executed in front of user is known as background process. Background processes are called low priority jobs/tasks. For Example: Auto backup of data etc. In order to reducing the idleness of CPU time, if foreground job is executed then CPU is given the instruction to execute foreground process with high priority like program processing data and if there is no foreground process executed then CPU automatically switch to background job like doing auto backup of processed data.
g. Timesharing: It is used by means of multiprogramming & multitasking. It divides/allocates the available time of CPU among many users. III. Utility Program: Utility programs are those programs that provide some basic working facilities to users. For Example: Sorting utilities, copy program, delete program, paste program, WinZip program etc. These programs are normally provided by computer manufacturer or operating system. It is also called service program. There are following types of utilities available in the market: a. Sort Utility Program: This program is used to arrange the data in ascending or descending order. This program is either provided by operating system to arrange files and folders in ascending/descending order or sort utility program are part of electronic spreadsheet (Excel) and database management software (MS-Access). b. Text Editor: This program is used to create and modify the text files. Text editors are also used for exchange of data from one computer to another. Notepad is the most popular text editor program in the market for creating text files. c. Spooling Software Program: Spooling technique is used to reduce the time gap between high speed CPU and slow speed peripheral devices. Spooling is, primarily, used for printing purpose. d. Other utility: Disk or File Copy Program Disk Formatting Program (prepare a new/blank disk ready to use) Deletion Program Viewing Program Directory Program (view names, sizes etc. of stored files)
IV. Sub-routine: Sub-routines are small programs for routine tasks. These programs are written once and called in main program whenever required. Sub-routines help programmer to improve their productivity for programming. V. Diagnostic Routine: This programs helps to diagnosis i.e. detect and remove hardware and software problems of a computer. These programs are normally provided by Operating System. Control Panel is a diagnostic program provided by window OS to detect and remove hardware and software problems in a computer. Similarly Norton Antivirus is a popular diagnostic program for detection and removal of viruses from computer. VI. Language Translators: This program is used to convert one language program into another language program. There are mostly three types of language translator used: a. Compiler: It converts high level language program into machine language program with all program lines together. Most of high level languages like FORTRAN, C, PASCAL and COBOL etc. are complier based languages. Complier is more efficient conversion program than interpreter. It requires high memory space. b. Interpreter: It converts high level language program into machine language program with line by line. BASIC is the only popular based interpreter language. Interpreter is less efficient conversion program than complier. It requires less memory space. c. Assembler: It converts assembly language programs into machine language program. Assembly language is used only with Assembler. Assembler is considered most efficient language translator than interpreter. It requires least memory space.
Loader
CPU Processing
Results or output
Step: 1 Complier converts the program written in High Level Language (Source Program) into Machine Language (Object Program). Step: 2 This object program is linked with other object program with the help of linker which provides an Executable Program. Step: 3 Then, This Executable Program is loaded into CPU (Main memory) with the help of Loader which generate the desired output. 3. SHORT NOTES: I. User Interface: It is a medium of interaction or communication between the user and the computer. There are two types of interface for PCs: a. Character User Interface (CUI): In this type of interface, every instruction to computer is given by character based commands which are to be typed through keyboard. It is provided in DOS based Application. It is not more popular interface. b. Graphical User interface (GUI): In this type of interface, commands are provided in the form of Menu Driven options and user just have to click the required command from given options. It is provided in Window based Application. Almost all the software in the market is based on this type of interface.
II. Virus: Virus is a malicious program or dirty code which may corrupt other programs, data and resources (Memory) in computer. Viruses are originated from portable memories and internet. To detect and remove a virus from computer, anti-virus software can be used like Avast, Quick heal, Norton etc. Norton anti-virus is the most popular software for detecting and removing virus from computer. III. Device Drivers: Device drivers are the program/files that act as an interface between hardware and operating system. OS accepts request from users for the operation of any device and then activate driver of that device which perform the required operation. Device drivers include keyboard, mouse, modem, printer, scanner, digital camera etc. IV. Firmware: Firmware is a term used for component in between hardware and software. Firmware is instructions or programs built in some microprocessors or ICs which help to substitute some hardware component in computer. In other words, Firmwares are special programs or instructions stored in CPU so that the most basic operations such as addition, multiplication, move data etc. are carried out. For Example: ROM, BIOS etc. It is provided by the manufacturer. 4. General Purpose Softwares: Software which usually solves common or general problems that are not unique to any user or organization is called General purpose software. This software is in the form of package software and this software is easy to learn. There are three types of general purpose software: a. Commercial Software: These are the common readymade pre-package licensed software like Tally etc. b. Shareware: It is a software developed by individuals or small companies that cannot afford to market their software worldwide or wants to release a demonstration version of their commercial product (Demo Version). This type of software helps to reduce software licensing cost for the organizations because this type of software is available on use basis.
c. Open Source Software: This type of software is created by generous programmers for public use. These are available free of cost from internet. This type of software are regularly modified and upgraded by programming community. For Example: LINUX OS is open source software. There are following some popular general purpose software: a. Word Processor: A word processor is computer software which is used for documentation purpose. This software has various features like editing, formatting (bold, italics, underline, indenting, justification, mail-merge & so on). These are various popular word processing softwares like MS-Word, Word-Pro, Word-Perfect etc. MS-Word is the most popular word-processing software. b. Spreadsheet Program: Spreadsheet software is used for financial, mathematical and statistical analysis of data. A spreadsheet contains large numbers of intersected rows and columns in the form of cells. It has inbuilt functions and formulas. c. Data Base Management Systems (DBMS): DBMS is software designed to manage collection of records as database. For Example: MS-Access, ORACLE etc. a large
d. Internet Browser: Internet browser is used for browsing or accessing internet data and applications. Internet Explorer, Mozilla, Firefox and Netscape are some popular internet browsers. 5. Application Software: The software which is designed for any specific purpose like accounting, banking, inventory control etc. is called Application software. Usually different organization requires different programs; hence it is difficult to write general standardized programs. There are some popular software as follows: a. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): An ERP system is a fully integrated business management system covering all functional areas of enterprises like production, Finance, Accounting, Marketing and Human Resources. ERP aims at one database, one application and one user interface for the entire business. Examples: SAP, ORACLE Applications etc.
b. Decision Support System (DSS): DSS is used for solution of semi-structured and unstructured management problems for improved decision making. This is frequently used by accountants, managers, auditors etc. DSS are normally prepared in Excel spreadsheet. DSS are used for following purposes: I. In Capital Budgeting for Investment Analysis. II. In Cost Accounting for Break-even analysis. III. In General Accounting for Ratio Analysis, Receivable Analysis etc. COMPONENTS OF DSS I. User: The User of DSS is a person who has knowledge of unstructured or semi-structured problems to solve. Normally a user of DSS is a manager or analyst. II. Planning Language: The Planning Language is a set of interactive commands in a DSS. A user communicates and commands the DSS through Planning Language. A user can use two types of Planning Language: General Purpose Planning Language: This type of planning language allows the user to perform routine task. For Example: Retrieving data from database or performing statistical analyses. Special Purpose Planning Language This type of planning language allows the user to perform specific tasks like mathematical, financial or structural analysis etc. III. Database: The DSS includes one or more databases. These databases contain data from both internal and external data sources. Internal data comes from within the organization while External data comes from outside the organization. IV. Model Base: Model Base is known as brain of DSS because Model Base provides the structure of problem to be solved by the user.
c. Artificial Intelligence: It is an application system or software which replicates or mimics human behavior like human thinking, communication and recognition characters etc. There are various types of AI which are based on Human Intelligence i.e. given below: Neural Network (Mimic Human thinking characteristics) Natural Language Communication (Mimic Human communication characteristics) Voice Recognition (Mimic Human natural recognition capability) Voice Synthesizer (Mimic Human speech construction capability) Robotics (Mimic Human working capability) d. Expert System: It is a computer based information system which provides the solutions of given problems, just like the human expert. Expert System based on the principle of Artificial Intelligence. It is also called Knowledge based system because these systems contain the expert knowledge in structured manner to solve the problems. COMPONENTS OF EXPERT SYSTEM I. User Interface: This component helps a user to communicate the problem to expert system. It also display the solutions provided by Expert System. II. Inference Engine: It is the most important component of expert system. It is like a search engine on Internet. It contains various rules and logics to arrive at solution which is obtained from knowledge base and user inference. III. Knowledge Base: It contains the past knowledge of experts for problem solutions in a systematic manner. IV. Knowledge acquisition Facility: This component is used by Programmers/Engineers for collecting & arranging the experts knowledge for problem solutions in knowledge base. V. Explanation Facility: It is like a reporting system. It provides an explanation of logics to users for solution arrived at expert system.
ADVANTAGES OF EXPERT SYSTEM I. Provide low cost solutions & advice II. Provide solutions & advice based on the knowledge of many experts III. Always available for solutions and advice. IV. Helps users in better decision making DISADVANTAGES OF EXPERT SYSTEM I. Costly and complex system to develop (a lot of time to develop an expert system) II. Difficult to obtain the knowledge of experts III. Difficult to develop the programs of expert system based on the knowledge of experts. USES OF EXPERT SYSTEM I. Doctors use to diagnose the patient disease II. Indian revenue Department uses Tax expert system to investigate tax evasions and frauds.
For example: A file containing transactions occurred during a year in a company. If the same file is arranged, processed and financial statements are prepared, then it becomes Information. Such statements are very much useful for managers or others. F. DATA FILE: It is a collection of related records that are treated as a unit. It may be a master file for permanent data and to use transaction files containing day to day data of temporary nature. G. FILE: It refers to a collection of data or information in an organized form. For Example: database files, text files, master files etc. H. DATA REPRESENTATION: Computer is an electronic machine and it can represent the data with the help of digital signals only. But these digital signals are replica to binary language character (in 1 or 0). Therefore we can say computer represent the data in binary form (1 or 0) and process the data also in binary form. The processing results are again converted back into characters form on display devices. Inside computer
Data in the form of character entered through keyboard Input data is converted into binary data Processing of binary data Decoding of data
In order to communicate human data to computer and vice versa; a relationship between human data and computer data is devised with the help of following systems: a. Number system b. Coding system I. NUMBER SYSTEM: Number system is used to represent numeric data. There are 4 popular number systems used for representing numeric data. a. Decimal Number System: It is used for representing numeric data in business applications. It contains 10 digits (Digits 0 to 9). b. Binary Number System: It is used in the form of digital signals inside the computer. It contains 2 digits (Digits 0 to 1).
c. Octal Number System: It is used by the system software professionals for memory addressing purpose. It contains 8 digits (Digit 0 to 7). d. Hexadecimal Number System: It is also used by the system software professionals for memory addressing purpose. It contains 16 digits (Digit 0 to 9 and A to F) J. CODING SYSTEM/PURE BINARY SYSTEM: It is used to represent any type of data like numeric (0 to9), alphabetic (A to Z), and some special character (like :, # etc.). There are 4 types of coding system as follows: a. Binary Coded Decimal (BCD): There are two categories of BCD in coding system: (I) BCD for decimal numbers only: This code uses 4 bit code to represent every character. Each decimal digit is represented by equivalent four digit binary numbers. And to convert any decimal number into binary number each of the digits of decimal number will be substituted by equivalent four digits binary numbers. Decimal Digit Equivalent Binary Decimal Digit Equivalent Binary 0 0000 5 0101 1 0001 6 0110 2 0010 7 0111 3 0011 8 1000 4 0100 9 1001 For Example: 751 = 0111 0101 0001 957 = 1001 0101 0111 (II) BCD for all types of characters: This code uses 6 bit code to represent every character. Presently each and every character is represented by 6 bit code. There are 64 [(2)6 = 64] ways/code of representing digits, alphabets and special symbols. For Example: 9 = 00 1001 A = 11 0001 b. ASCII: ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. This is the most popular coding system to represent data in computer system. This code uses 8 bit code to represent every character but normally only 7 bit of these 8 are used.
There are 256 [(2)8 = 256] ways/code to represent characters but due to 7 bits are used, therefore Maximum 128 ways to represent the characters. A letter, digit or special symbol is called a character. Here the first 3 bits are zone bits and the remaining 4 bits represent digit values. It is mainly used in small computers (like PC and minicomputers), peripherals, instruments and communication devices. c. EBCDIC: EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. This coding system is an extension of BCD coding system. This code uses 8 binary digits to represent every character. These 8 bits are divided into 2 parts. First 4 bits are known zone bits and remaining 4 bits are known as digit or numeric bits. For Example: 1 = 1111 0001 There are 256 [(2)8 = 256] ways/code to represent characters. This coding system is used all types of data (numeric, alphabetic and special symbols). d. UNICODE: This is a 16 bits coding system. There are 65,536 or (2)16 ways/code to represent characters. The first 256 codes in the Unicode are similar to 256 codes of ASCII system. The Unicode was developed in 1991 by a joint research team from Apple Inc and Xerox Inc. This coding system is supported by popular systems like windows and OS/2. K. BITS, BYTES Bits: Bit is known as Binary Digit e.g. 0 & 1. Byte: A byte is a grouping of bits that computer operates on as a single unit. It consists of 8 bits i.e. every character is represented with 8 bits. 1 byte = 8 bits = 1 character A byte is used to represent a character by the ASCII and EBCDIC coding systems.
S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Name/Unit Abbreviation /symbol Kilobytes Kb Mega bytes Mb Giga bytes Gb Terabytes Tb Petabytes Pb
Size in bytes 210 = 1024 220 = Approx. 1 Million(>1 Millions) 230 = Approx. 1 Billion (> 1 Billions) 240 = Approx. 1000 billion 250
L. DATA CHARACTERISTICS/ KEY A key is a set of one or more columns whose combined values are unique among all occurrences in a given table. For Example: A/c number, PNR, PAN number. There are following types of keys: Name City Mobile No. Employee No. E 101 E 102 E 103 a. Primary Key: The data fields with the unique value are called Primary key. E.g. Employee no. in the above table is selected as Primary Key. b. Secondary Key: The data field which can provide unique value but not selected as Primary key. E.g. Mobile no. in the above table is as secondary key. c. Candidate Key: The data fields which can be selected as primary key are known as candidate key. E.g. Employee no. and Mobile no. are candidate keys in the above table. d. Alternate Key: The data fields which are not selected as primary key are known as Alternate key. E.g. Mobile no. in the above table is as alternate key. M. DATA PROCESSING: It is a series of actions that converts data (input) into useful information (output).
Data Processing Information
STEPS IN DATA PROESSING: There are following steps involved in data processing to convert data into information. a. Preparation of Source document b. Recording Input data c. Processing of data It includes following operations i. Classifying: It involves grouping of similar items or transactions. Data are generally classified according to alphabetic or numeric code. ii. Sorting: Sorting means arrangement of data or transactions in ascending or descending order. Sorting may be done on numeric or alphabetic data. iii. Calculating: It includes adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing data to produce useful results. iv. Summarizing: It involves consolidating of data, emphasizing main points. Generally, it involves finding out totals, calculating percentages etc. d. Information (Reporting) e. Data Storage N. DATA MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUE: Data management means to manage the data very efficiently because data is very crucial for an organization. There are two ways to manage the data : a. File System/Traditional File System b. Database Management System File system: It is an old technique for managing organization data. Here all data is managed in flat files with the help of programs like simple text file. Database Management System: It is software that is used for efficient data management of an organization. For example: Oracle, MS-Access, SQL Server etc. Here a specialized software is used to create database and manage database (i.e. delete, update, insert new data, search required data etc.) from created database efficiently.
O. MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS WITH FILE SYSTEM [D, I, I, D, S]: Data files can be kept manually or electronically. Traditional file system is based on manual paper files. There are following management problems with file system: a. Data Duplication/Redundancy [D]: Same data is recorded or stored in several files which provide data redundancy. b. Low Data Integrity (Orphan Records) [I]: The record may exist in transaction file but does not have their corresponding reference in master file. Therefore there is a risk of data manipulation by unauthorized people. c. Data Inconsistency [I]: It means same data may have different values in different files because files are not linked with each other. d. Data Dependence [D]: In file system, data remains dependent on a particular program i.e. it can be accessed or stored by using particular program only. e. Security Problem [S]: File system does not provide high security to managed data. 2. FILE/DATA ORGANIZATION METHOD: It means to arrange and store the data in files. In other words, it refers that how data will be stored in coputer. A good file organization provides fast, access and storage of data. There are three methods to organize or store data: a. Serial File Organization: This is the simplest file organization scheme. In this method, records can be arranged one after another in chronological order. In other words, arrange the records in the serial as records are entered into file. Serial organization is commonly found in transaction files. E 105 Customer No. E 101 500 578 Amount E.g. Daybook E102 700 E 104 400 E103 287
b. Sequential File Organization: In sequential file organisation, all records are arranged in ascending or descending order, according to a unique value. For example: In Payroll master file, records will be arranged in ascending order by employee number. This file organization is suitable for master files. Records are arranged sequentially on magnetic tape. E102 E103 E 104 E 105 Customer No. E 101 Amount 500 700 287 400 578 E.g. Ledger
c. Direct Access File Organization: In this method, any individual records are accessed or stored immediately on the file. There are two types of direct access file organization: i. Direct Sequential Access method: In this method, data is stored sequentially but accessed directly. There are two types of direct sequential access method: (a) Self Addressing Method (b) Indexed Sequential Addressing Method Basis Meaning Self Addressing Method In this method, storage area is divided into buckets and every bucket can store fixed number of fixed length records. Records are arranged sequentially according to the record key. In other words, logical address itself becomes the physical address. No need to store index table. Indexed Sequential Addressing Method In this method, data can be arranged on storage device by using Index table. In other words, an index table is prepared for the records of logical address and physical address for direct access of data.
Advantage
Disadvantage
Records can store only fixed length. When some records are detected their storage space remains empty.
Suitable for variable length records. Provide fast access and storage of required data. Any empty space for deleted record can be utilized. Expensive hardware and software. Index table requires an extra space. It is relatively expensive.
ii. Random Access Method: In this method, records are stored or accessed randomly. Here, a record does not follow any order or unique sequential arrangement. It is the fastest storage and access method because randomize procedure is used to search the desired record directly. For example: airline or railway reservation etc.
3. THE BEST FILE ORGANIZATION: Every organization is required to manage data efficiently because an efficient data management helps in fast storage and access of required data. Therefore best file organization is depend on the several factors i.e. given below: a. File Volatility: It refers to the frequency of data additions and deletions from the file in a given period of time. b. File Activity: It is the proportion of master file records that are actually used or accessed in a given period of time. c. File Interrogation: It refers to retrieval of information from a file. d. Data Volume/File Size: It means quantum of data to be stored in the file. If File size is small and file volatility is high, then Random File organization is the best file organization. If File size is large and files volatility is low, then Index Sequentially Access Method (ISAM) is considered as best file organization method. 4. DATABASE: Database is an organized collection of related data (i.e. records and file) that provides a base or foundation for procedures such as retrieving information, drawing conclusion and making decisions. The DBMS software is used to manage an efficient database. DBMS Software: It is software that is used for efficient data management of an organization. For example: Oracle, MS-Access, SQL Server etc. Here a specialized software is used to create database and manage database (i.e. delete, update, insert new data, search required data etc.) from created database efficiently.
ADVANTAGES OF DBMS There are following advantages of DBMS as given below: a. Controlling Redundancy b. Restricting unauthorized access c. Providing backup and recovery d. Reducing Inconsistency e. Provide faster accessibility and data sharing f. Rapid access to all stored data g. Provides various security features Limitation of DBMS There are following disadvantages of DBMS as given below: a. Data Security and Integrity b. Insufficient database Expertise c. Increased Data Processing and Maintenance Cost d. Extra storage memory required e. Complexity to understand 5. ARCHITECTURE OF DBMS: It means the arrangement of database for different users. In other words, Database Architecture refers that how the data are viewed or retrieved from the computer file system. LEVELS OF DATABASE ARCHITECTURE There are three levels of database architecture: a. External View/User View/Sub-Schema: This layer or view is available to end users. It shows that portion of database which is of concern to user in a given situation. It is the highest level of the database abstraction (concept). E.g. users working on banks computers are use this view of database. b. Global View/Conceptual View/Logical Schema: This layer or view is available to database Administrator (DBA). It shows complete database with all its records relationship etc. It is the moderate level of the database abstraction. c. Physical View/Internal View/Physical Schema: This view is not available to any user or DBA. It is at storage level and cannot be viewed practically. It shows an arrangement of data on Hard disk and it is used by system programmers who develop DBMS. It is the lowest level of the database abstraction.
6. RECORD RELATIONSHIP IN DATABASE: Relational databases are organized in logical records which are related with each others. There are several types of record relationships that can be represented in database: a. One to One Relationships: When one record in a file has only one corresponding record in another file i.e. called one to one relationships. 1 1
Employee Loan
E.g. one employee can be given one loan only b. One to Many Relationships: When one record in a file has many corresponding record in another file i.e. called one to many relationships. 1 M
Employee Loan
L 102
E.g. many employees can be given many loans and one loan can belong to many employees together 7. DATABASE STRUCTURE/DATABASE MODEL: Database structure is the definition of data records in which information is stored. The data in a database is organized in such a way that it is easy for people to understand. TYPES OF DATABASE STRUCTURE The database organization is based on one of 3 approaches for arranging data in a database. There are three types of database structure:
Database Structure
Hierarchical Structure
Network Structure
Relational Structure
Fixed Assets
Current Assets
Capital
Current Liabilities
Sundry Debtors
Cash
Current Assets
This structure provides a record relationship model i.e. all the master records are related with each other. In this structure, all relationships between groups of data are only one to one or one to many relationships.
This is easy to understand structure but this structure is inflexible i.e. difficult to change. This structure is like an inverted tree. The top record in hierarchical is known as Root record and next all keep record are called parent child relationship. b. Network Database Structure: It is an extension of hierarchical database structure. In this structure, all the records are related with each other in a network form. This structure provides all types of relationship.
Supplier 1 Supplier 1
Product 1
Product 2
Product 3
In this structure, change of record is a difficult task i.e. this structure is also an inflexible structure. c. Relational Structure: This is a most popular database structure. Almost all the DBMS are based on this structure. E.g. ORACLE, DB2, MS-Access etc. In this structure, all the data is presented in tables. This structure provides a flexible model in which records can be added or deleted without difficulty or changing the structure. This structure also provides all types of relationship. OTHERS DATABASE MODELS: a. Distributed Database: This type of database provides common data which can be shared by the many users of the organization from any location. For Example: Banking and Mobile Phone services. These databases are generated by local work groups, departments at regional offices, branch offices, manufacturing plants and other work sites. There are two techniques used to create distributed databases: I. Replication Technique: When similar database is used at all the locations of organization and these are connected with each other using network i.e. called Replication Technique. This technique is very costly.
BR 1 BR 2 BR 5
HO
BR 3 BR 4
Figure: Replication Technique II. Partitioning Technique: When common database is maintained at one location which is shared by all the other locations of the organization. This technique is more popular than replication technique.
BR 1 BR 2 BR 5
HO
BR 3 BR 4
Figure: Partition Technique b. Object Oriented Database: This is the latest development development in database technology. These databases are based on the principle of object oriented programming language i.e. create once and use many times at anywhere. These databases will increase the productivity of DBA for designing database and It will also increase the quality of database in terms of its use and management. c. Client Server Database: It is a database which is loaded at a server computer to be accessed by client computers, to ask it question or instruct it to perform job. These databases are also known as database server i.e. provides data related services. In this one or more database server is used and many clients (Work station) interact with these servers to obtain requested data.
Server
For Example: ATM machine is a client and it always remains connected with bank database server to provide banking services to customers. There are two popular methods to use Client/Server databases model: (I) 2-Tier: When client directly interact with database server i.e. called 2-Tier architecture. It has only two levels first client & second server. It is used in small network. (II) 3-Tier: When client interact with database server through an intermediate server/applicaion server i.e. called 3-Tier. It has three levels first client, second application & third database server. It is used in large network.
Response
Response
Request
Client
Application Server
Server
Request
d. Knowledge Database: It is a collection of knowledge of experts in an organized form. The knowledge of experts helps in the problems solution. Such database are part of DSS (Decision Support System), Expert System and EIS (Executive Information System). ENTITY RELATIONSHIP MODEL [E-R Model]: It is a specialized graphic model which provides relationship between entities in a database. E-R model provides a design or conceptual schema of database.
Client
8. DATABASE USERS: There are following users of database: a. Nave or New Users: They are not aware about the database system. b. Online Users: They communicate with database either directly through online terminal or indirectly through user interface or application programs. Usually they acquire at least some skill and experience to communicate with the database. c. Application Programmers: They are responsible for developing application programs and user interfaces. d. Data Base Administrator: He can execute centralized control and is responsible for maintaining the database. He is the most familiar person with the database. 9. COMPONENTS OF DATABASE/DATABASE LANGUAGE: There are two types of components/languages of database: a. Data Definition Language (DDL): It is a language of DBMS used to define or create the structure of database likes tables, relationship etc. This language accepts, create tables, and alter tables commands of SQL. It is used by Database Administrator. DDL is a link between the logical and physical structure of the database. Here, logical means the way user views data; physical means the way data is physically stored. b. Data Manipulation Language (DML): It is also a language of DBMS used for modification on database such as addition of data, deletion of data etc. This language supports, delete, update and select commands of SQL. It is used by users. 10. DBMS STRUCTURE: In DBMS Structure, various components or managers are used to manage database efficiently: There are following components of DBMS Structure: a. DDL Complier: It converts data definition statements into set of tables. Tables contain Meta data (data about data) relating to database. b. Data Manager: It is a central software component. It helps in managing records & in Data Processing. c. File Manager: This component manages database files.
d. Disk Manager: It is a part of operating system. It manages all inputs and outputs operation of data physically from disk. e. Query Manager: It interprets users online query. It converts these queries into efficient operations for database. f. Data Dictionary: It maintains information about the structure of database such as table names, field names of tables and field types (Numeric, text) etc. Data Dictionary is also known as Meta data (data about data). 11. TYPES OF DATABASES: There are following types of databases: a. Operational Database: This database maintains day to day working information of an organization for current year. This database maintains data or information about customer, employees, supplier etc. b. Historical/Information Warehouse Database: This database maintains data or information of previous or current years. Such type of data helps users in various analyses such as sales analysis etc. c. Management Database: This database maintain that data and information which helps management in the decision making process. These databases store data and information extracted from operational and external databases. Management databases are also called information database. These databases are part of decision support system and executive information system to support the decision making process of management. d. External Database: This database is created by some external organization like banks and stock exchange etc. and Organizations download the required information from this type of database for their use. These databases are also known as online databases. It is provided by various organizations either free or at a nominal fee. e. Distributed Database: This type of database maintains common data which can be shared by the other branches of the organization also.
These databases are generated by local work groups, departments at regional offices, branch offices, manufacturing plants and other work sites. f. User Database: This type of database maintains data and information created by a particular user [End User or Manager] for his reference. These databases consists of various data files of word, excel and PDF which is generated by end user for his reference. 12. SHORT NOTES: A. STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL): It is a database language which contains set of commands for creating, updating and accessing data from database. The important commands of SQL are create, update, delete, select, insert etc. SQL helps the users to retrieve/access data from database directly without the help of Programmers/Application Programs. There are two types of commands used in SQL as follows: a. Data Definitions Commands: These commands are used for creating database structure. E.g. CREATE and ALTER etc. b. Data Manipulation Language: These commands are used for working on data values. E.g. SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE and INSERT etc. SQL is known as Natural Language or Universal Language. B. DATA ADMINISTRATOR: It is a person who normally helps organization to make policies regarding database development and its controls. Data administrator decides that what data will be stored in databases, who are eligible to access such type of data? etc. C. DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR: DBA is a person who is responsible for developing, implementing & maintaining database in an organization. There are following functions of database administrator: a. To carrying out the policies developed by Data Administrator. b. DDL (create and alter the structure of the database) c. DML (updating, deleting and changing the records) d. Security Features e. Set up procedures for identifying & correcting violations of standards & rules. D. DATA STORAGE/LIBRARY: Data library refers to the place, department or a system having a collection of various electronic data files of an organization. The Operational Management of any organization must keep a collection of all data in a library for usage as well as security purpose.
There are four functions for data storage: a. Ensuring that removable storage media are stored in a secure and clean environment. b. Ensuring that storage media are used for authorized purposes only. c. Ensuring that maintenance of storage media in a good working condition. d. Ensuring that location of storage media at on-site/off-site facilities. For managing a removable storage media efficiently, an automated library system is needed which records the following: a. An identifier of each storage medium i.e. a unique number for every CD. b. Location where each storage medium is at present placed. c. Identify the person responsible for storage medium. d. List of files stored on each medium. e. List of authorized persons to access. f. Date of purchase and history of use. g. Date of expiry when contents of the storage medium can be deleted. E. DOCUMENTATION LIBRARY/ DOCUMENTS MANAGEMENT: Documentation library refers to the place, department or a system having a collection of various documents and papers in an organization. There are following documentation required to support a system in an organization: a. Strategic and operational plans b. Application systems and program documentation c. System software and utility program documentation d. Database documentation e. Operational manuals f. User manuals g. Standards manuals (Internal Control) These documents are created by different users at different locations, therefore there may be following issues raised in the organization: a. Same (duplicate) documents can be created. b. Documents are not organized properly. c. Documents are not managed, updated and accessed with appropriate security. Therefore, a document librarian may be employed (engaged) to manage documents in an efficient manner whose responsibilities are as follows: a. Documents are stored with proper security b. Only authorized users can access documents c. Documents are updated regularly d. Adequate backup exists for the documents. e. Not allowing the duplication of documents.
F. PROGRAM LIBRARY: Program library refers to the collection of various application programs that are required in an organization. To manage documents or programs, an organization can use software known as Program Library Management System or Document Library System. This software provide the following features to manage programs or documents efficiently: a. Security: It provides the following features: ID & Password Data Encryption Automatic Backup b. Integrity: It provides the following features: Track all the changes in previous documents Track of documents deleted and new documents added etc. c. User Interface: It provides the following features: To access and store documents/programs efficiently. d. Reporting: It provides the following features: List of documents Types of documents Added and deleted documents by data and month etc. 13. EXPLAIN THE FOLLOWING: A. BACKUP: Backup means maintaining duplicate form of data at some other location. It is an additional copy of any file kept for security purpose which can be used if original file is lost or damaged. TYPES OF BACKUP There are three types of backup as given below: a. Offline Backup: Offline backup is performed when the system is shut-down i.e. called offline back up. In other words, this is performed when users are not working on system. b. Online Backup: Online backup is performed when the system is in use i.e. called online backup. In other words, this is performed when users are working on system. c. Live Backup: This is an advance form of online backup. This data backup is taken at the same instant when the data is entered into the working system.
It is carried out by using the BACKUP utility with the command option. TECHNIQUES OF BACKUP There are following backup techniques : a. Full Backup: It means to take a backup of full system. Copies of all files or records.
b. Differential Backup: It means to take a backup of files that have changed since the last backup. Copies only records changes after last full backup. c. Incremental Backup: It means to take a backup of files that have changed since the last full backup/differential backup. Copies records changed after last full backup or differential backup or incremental backup. d. Mirror Backup: It means to take a backup of full system with the exception that files are not compressed in zip files and not protected with a password.
COMPONENTS OF DATABASE TO BE BACKUP There are following components included while creating a backup of database: a. Root File: When we create a database, a main database file or root file is created. This main database file contains database tables, system tables indexes etc.
b. DB Space: The database files consist of a database root file, log file, mirror log file and other database files called DB Spaces. c. Transaction Log: Transaction log is a file that records database modifications. Database modifications consist of inserts, updates, deletes, commits, rollbacks and database schema (design) changes. A transaction log is not compulsory, but it is recommended. d. Mirror Log: A mirror log is an optional file. It has a file extension of .mlg. It is a copy of the transaction log and provides additional security against the transaction log.
B. RECOVERY: It is a process of restoring file from the backup files. In other words, it is a sequence of tasks performed to restore the database either a hardware or media failure. Hardware failure is a physical component failure in the machine such as, disk drive, controller card or power supply. Media failure is the result of unexpected database error while processing data. C. DATA WAREHOUSE: It is an advance technique to collect data from multiple sources at single location to provide efficient management and useful information for data. Data warehouse technique is used in those organizations where large volume of data is generated in different formats at multiple locations. E.g. Banks, Mobile co. etc. It is centralized storage of data collected from different sources. STAGES OF DATAWAREHOUSE There are following stages of data warehouse: Stage I Stage II Offline Operational Database Offline Data Warehouse Real Time Warehouse Data This warehouse is created by collecting copy of data from multiple sources. This data warehouse is updated on a regular time cycle (Usually daily, weekly or monthly) from the operational system. This data warehouse is updated on a transaction or event basis from an operational system/database. It provides reporting and analysis based on always updated information. This data warehouse is used to generate activity or transactions that are passed back into the operational systems for use in the daily activity of the organization.
Stage III
Stage IV
Integrated Warehouse
Data
Advantages & Disadvantages of Data warehouse Advantages of Data Warehouse Disadvantages of Data Warehouse Provide all data at one source Extracting, cleaning and combining (centralized data) data can be time consuming process. Increase productivity of user by Costly because require high providing quality reports maintenance Increased consistency of data Training to end-users on how to use it. Helps to provide useful information Problems of compatibility of based on multiple data sources different sources.
COMPONENTS OF DATA WAREHOUSE There are following components used in the process of data warehouse:
Meta Data Layer
Operation Layer
Figure: Components of Data Warehouse S. No. Components 1. Data Sources Description It refers the sources of data for data warehouse. It collected data from various locations in the various formats like tables, text files, spreadsheets etc. This component receives data from various sources and It cleans and standardizes it i.e. it transform data of data sources available in various format to a standard format. This maintains the data in standard and organized form to support required analysis and reporting. This component is most popular components of data warehouse. Because it provides useful reports or information from data warehouse. This component provides rules for data collection into data warehouse. It contains process of loading, manipulating and extracting data from data warehouse. This component is used to inform operators and users of the data warehouse about its status and the nature of information held in the data warehouse. It contains data in terms of type, date and owners of information etc.
2.
Data Transformation
3.
4.
5.
Operation
6.
D. DATA MART: A database which contains selective data from a data warehouse for a specific function or department is called Data Mart. E. DATA MINING: Data Mining is a technique of finding unusual pattern from large volume of data automatically. In other words, it is extraction of useful data or information from large volume of data just like extraction of gold from a coal mine. This technique helps to management in decision making process because it converts a raw data into knowledge, not in just simple information. STEPS/STAGES OF DATA MINING: There are following steps involved in the process of data mining:
Data Selection
Targeted Data
Preprocessing
Processed data
Transformation
Transformed Data
Data Mining
Pattern
Knowledge
Step 1
Selection
Step 2
Pre-processing
In this step, Targeted data is selected from a large volume of data sources. E.g. Customers are not paying bills on time. In this step, targeted data is cleansing i.e. unwanted data are removed from targeted data. In other words, process the targeted data as per the given rules to provide a processed data, so that useful data is extracted. E.g. Rules such as delayed payment on giving continuous intimation to customers i.e. customer paid his bill but after intimations. In this step, Processed data is transformed in a form, so that it can be easily navigated (search). In this step, Transformed data is converted into certain patterns for extracting knowledge. In this step, Pattern data are converted into useful information which helps to management in better decision making process.
MODEM
Communication Device
Receiver/ Sender In other words, it converts digital computer signals into the analog telephone signals are called Modulation and When, it converts analog telephone signal into digital computer signals are called Demodulation. There are two types of MODEM: Internal and External (Portable MODEM).
c. Multiplexer: It is a device that combines many low channels (lines) into a single high bandwidth channel (line) for data transmission. Slow speed channels Multiplexer Multiplexer can scan each device to collect and transmit data on a single line to the CPU. It can also transmit data from CPU to appropriate terminal linked to the Multiplexer. For Example: Telephone lines can carry thousands of our conversations at the same time using multiplexing. d. Repeater: It is a device that transforms a low strength signal into a high strength signal. Repeater In other words, it is a device that simple repeats the incoming signal for outgoing communication channel but with increased strength. It is also known as amplifier or signal booster which helps for error free transfer of data over a long distance. e. Protocol converters: It is a device which converts one protocol data into another protocol data.
Protocol Converter Network 1 Network 2
Router
Network 2
g. Bridge: It is a device which is used to connect two networks working on same protocols.
Protocol Converter
Network 1
Network 2
h. Gateway: It is a device which is used to connect multiple networks working on different protocols. It is a combination of router and protocol converter.
TATA Indicom (CDMA) Gateway Airtel (GSM) Reliance (CDMA) Vodafone (GSM)
Idea (GSM)
i. Switch: It is a hardware device that are used to direct messages across a network. Switches create temporary point to point links between two nodes on a network and send all data along that link.
Figure: Star Topology ADVANTAGE It is easy to expend (i.e. add or remove nodes). If a node is failure, then no problem with other nodes. It is easier to detect network problems through a central hub. A new connection does not slow down the communication between networks. DISADVANTAGE If central system is not working, then entire network will not work. It is costly network in comparison to other topology. The performances of the nodes are depending upon central server/hub.
Figure: Ring Topology In other words, the network cables passes from one node to another until all nodes are connected in the form of loop or ring. ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE It offers high performance for a small Difficult to detect default cable. number of workstations. It is easy to expand. Failure of one computer on the network can affect the whole network. It performs better than star topology. Adding or removing computers can disturb the whole network. It is more reliable since communication It is expensive and difficult to install between 2 computers is not dependent in comparison to bus topology. on a single host computer. d. MESH TOPOLOGY: In this structure, computers and devices are connected with each other through multiple paths. This structure provides a direct (Point-to-Point) communication between connected devices. Here every node is connected with every other node in mesh network. This concept is applicable to wired and wireless networks.
7. COMMUNICATION CHANNEL: It is a medium through which data is transmitted between link devices (sender and receiver) in a network. There are various popular communication channel like Guided Media (Optical Fiber, twisted-pair, co-axial cable) or Unguided Media (Wireless Network). CHARACTERISTIC OF COMMUNICATION CHANNEL a. Bandwidth: Every communication channel has certain data carrying capacity known as bandwidth of communication channel. In other words, Bandwidth refers to channels of data carrying capacity. It is measured in Kbps, Mbps & Gbps. b. Reliability (Consistency) c. Transmission Rate: It is the data transmission capacity of a telecommunication channel. It depends on the bandwidth. The greater the bandwidth higher will be the transmission rate. d. Security e. Cost 8. COMMUNICATION SERVICES: When communication channels are provided by telecom organizations (like BSNL, VSNL, Airtel, Reliance etc.) as a service known as communication services. There are following types of communication services: a. Narrow Band: It provides slow speed communication channels for data transmission. Usually, this service is used where data volume is relatively low. The data transmission rates usually range approx. from 45 to 300 bits per second.
Transmission
Transmission Mode
Transmission Techniques
Transmission Transmission technologies has been explained as follows: a. SERIAL & PARALLEL TRANSMISSION: These have been explained as follows: Basis Meaning Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission When data is transmitted bit When data is transmitted by by bit on single using multiple bits together communication channel on multiple communication between connected devices channel between connected i.e. called Serial devices i.e. called Parallel Transmission. Transmission. & 10101010111 10101010111 C2 C2 C1 C 1 00101010101 The bits of each byte are sent along a single path one after There are separate parallel the other. paths corresponding to each
Diagram Path
b. SYNCHRONOUS & ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION: These have been explained as follows: S. No. Synchronous Transmission 1. When sender and receiver communicate the data at same speed i.e. known as synchronous transmission. 2. It does not use starts and stop bits for sending data segment. 3. 4. 5. 6. Data transmission rate is fast. It provides 64 to 128 Kbps speed. It is expensive. It is more efficient. Asynchronous Transmission When sender and receiver do not communicate the data at same speed i.e. known as asynchronous transmission. It uses start (0) and stop (1) bits to identify the beginning and ending of the word. Data transmission rate is slow. It provides 38.4 Kbps speed. It is less expensive. It is less efficient.
c. TRANSMISSION MODE: It indicates the direction of data communication on communication channels. There are three different types of data communication modes as follow: i. Simplex Mode: Data is transmitted in one direction only. The devices connected in simplex mode can send only (transmitter) and receive only (receiver). For Example: TV and Radio.
Transmitter Receiver
Figure: Simplex Mode (One way communication) ii. Half Duplex Mode: Data can be transmitted in both directions but only one side at a time. The devices connected in half duplex can send and receive data but only one activity at a time. For Example: Walky Talky, LAN Network.
Figure: Half Duplex Mode (Two way communication, one at a time) iii. Full Duplex Mode: Data can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. The devices connected in full duplex can send and receive data simultaneously. It uses two separate circuits for communication i.e. one for sending data and other for receiving data. For Example: Telephone line connection.
Transmitter/ Receiver Receiver/ Transmitte
Figure: Full Duplex Mode (Two way communication simultaneously) d. TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES: It is used for data communication i.e. data is commutated directly or in the form of packets and messages. There are three popular transmission techniques: i. Circuit Switching: A permanent path is established between sender and receiver for duration of data communication i.e. called circuit switching. Here a special circuit is used for the duration of the call/transmission to transmit data. Once a circuit is established between two stations, it is exclusively used by the two parties and the dedicated link becomes unavailable to others till the call is terminated by either party. This will be the experience of every person using the telephone. When we make a call and either we get our destination party or encounter a busy signal. For example: Circuit Switching is used for voice communication on telephone. ii. Packet Switching: It is the latest technique of data communication. In this technique, firstly message is broken into small parts (i.e. known as packets) and then these packets are transmitted on network from source to destination on available routes.
6.
7.
For remembering the OSI layers Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away OR All People Seem To Need Data Processing A PROTOCOL STOCK is a combination of a set of protocols defined in different layers where each layer is handled by different protocol.
Application Software
Server
b. 3-Tier Architecture: In this architecture, there are three components in 3 Tier. One is Client, second is Application software and third is Server. In this architecture, Presentation on client, processing on middleware and database on server. This is the most popular. c. Multi-Tier Architecture (N-Tier Architecture): In this architecture, there can be more than three layers for data exchange between client and servers.
Presentation Client
and
vii. News Server: It connects several news groups to provide news to its users. This server also helps to the user to share their views with each other on particular subject. viii. Gopher Server: This server provides fast access/search of required files, data and images from several web servers.
2. 3.
4.
TIERS OF DATA CENTER There are four types of tier in data center: Tiers in data center Tier 1 Description It is the most basic and inexpensive data center. It does not have redundant (Extra) power and cooling infrastructure. It can tolerate upto 28.8 hours of downtime per year. It can be easily setup. It is used by enterprise data centers. It is better than Tier 1 data center. It has redundant (Extra) power and cooling infrastructure. It is used by enterprise data centers. It is little less than Tier 4 data center. It may have some arrangement for redundant (Extra) power and cooling infrastructure.
Tier 2
Tier 3
2.
Assets Identification
3.
Assets Valuation
4.
Threats identification
5.
6. 7.
21. WRITE SHORT NOTES ON THE FOLLOWING : A. VIRUS: Virus is a malicious program or dirty code which may corrupt other programs, data and resources (Memory) in computer. Viruses are originated from portable memories and internet. To detect and remove a virus from computer, anti-virus software can be used like Avast, Quick heal, Norton etc. Norton anti-virus is the most popular software for detecting and removing virus from computer. There are following controls to safeguards against the viruses: a. Preventive Control like Using only clean and licensed copies of software Downloading files or software only from reliable websites, Checking new files/software with software with anti-virus software before installation. b. Detective Control like Regularly running anti-virus software. Date/time comparisons to detect any unauthorized modifications. File size comparison to observe whether the size of programs has changed. c. Corrective Control like Maintaining a clean backup Having a recovery plan from virus infections Regularly running-antivirus software (which is useful for both detection & removal of virus). B. HACKING: It refers to any unauthorized entry in a system by circumventing (i.e. avoiding) the access controls. Some hackers may just trespass and read the files without making any changes to them. Some hackers may cause destruction by deleting critical files, disrupting / suspending operations, stealing sensitive data or programs.
Application Firewall
Network Firewall
Figure: Firewall
USES OF INTERNET ARE GIVEN BELOW: 1. Data communication: Internet helps to provide low cost data communication from anywhere in the world through various services. For e.g. e-mail, chat, bulletin boards, file transfer etc. 2. Data retrieval or access: Internet is a hub of information on various subjects. Internet provides required information to the users with the help of www service. There are also various search engines which help in efficient access of required information. For e.g. Google, AltaVista, Yahoo, MSN etc. 3. Data publishing: Internet is a low cost medium for advertising products and services of organizations. The information about products and services of organizations can be published on internet in the form of website which can be accessed from anywhere of the world. TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTIONS: 1. Analog/Dial-up connection: It provides access by dialing ISP number. It is no more popular internet access method due to its slow speed internet access (less than 56 kbps). 2. ISDN connection: ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network. It provides communication of voice, data, and video over digital telephone lines. It speed ranges from 64 kbps to 128 kbps. 3. B-ISDN connection: B-ISDN stands for broadband integrated services digital network. It is similar to ISDN but it transfers the data at higher speed. 4. DSL connection: DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line. It provides an always connection by dial-up line for internet access. It does not require tying up the phone for internet access. There are 3 types of DSL connection:i. ADSL connection: ADSL sands for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line. It supports same data rate of about 1.5 to 9 Mbps for downloading and upto 640 kbps while uploading. ii. SDSL connection: SDSL stands for Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line. It supports same data rate (about 3 Mbps) for uploading and downloading therefore it is called Symmetric DSL. iii. VDSL connection: VDSL stands for Very High Digital Subscriber Line. It supports faster data rate than DSL.
iv. Cable connection: It uses the TV cable for providing internet connection at very high speed at about upto 20 Mbps. 5. Wireless internet connection: It is wireless broadband. It is the newest internet connection service and provides high speed internet connection. 6. T-1 lines connection: This is popular leased line option for internet connection. It is normally used by organisation to provide internet access to many users simultaneously. 7. Bonded T-1 connection: There are two or more T-1 lines are joined together to provide further high speed internet access. 8. T-3 connection: This connection provides very high speed internet access. It contains large number of individual channels to provide very high internet access speed to big organizations. 9. Satellite connection: It provides the internet connection over satellite to provide internet access from anywhere in the earth. b) Internet service provider: ISP is an agency that provides internet access to its clients (i.e. individual user or companies) for a payment through any medium like telephone or wireless. In India, popular ISPs are MTNL, BSNL, TATA, AIRTEL etc. c) Webpage: It is a collection of several pages of information containing text audio, video, pictures etc. that are registered under one domain name such as ICAI.org which can be accessed from anywhere in the world by internet. Such pages are stored on special computers i.e. called web-servers/ websites. d) Uniform Resource Locators (URL): It is used to address and access a specific information or websites/web pages through internet by using a standard format. The format of URL is protocol / internet address /web page address. e.g. http://www. icai.org /admission.html e) Hyper Text Markup Language [HTML]: It is a language by which webpages are written. f) Browsing: The process of linking or connecting to internet and opening and viewing websites is called browsing/surfing.
g) Web browser: Special software is required to access and view the websites over the internet is called web browser. E.g. Internet Explorer, chrome, Mozilla firebox etc. h) Hyper Text Transfer Protocol [HTTP]: It is a protocol followed by content or information that can be displayed itself in the web server. i) Hyper Text Markup Languages (HTML): Web pages are created with the help of HTML. It allows the creator of web pages to specify how the text will be displayed and how a web page would be linked with other web pages. j) World Wide Web (WWW): WWW is a link of internet sites. It is the most popular internet service. This service help to access the required information located in different servers in the form of web pages. WWW helps to connect to a website server, request a web page and received the content for display. Internet Contains Web servers Contains Websites Contains linked Web pages Can be viewed Using web browser k) E-mail: It is the most popular internet service. E-mail helps to send or receive messages from one user to another from anywhere in the world electronically. It is a low cost data communication. It is provided by popular websites such as Gmail, Hotmail, Yahoo, Rediff etc. There are the following main features of E-mail : a. Compose/Compile new message b. Reply to mail received c. Forwarding of mails received to others d. Maintaining address book of E-mail address for friends, relatives, customers etc. e. Attachments f. Block sender
B. Write short notes on the following: a. File Transfer Protocol Service: It is a popular service used for sending and receiving files from a local computer to web-server or from a web-server to a local computer. This service is used for publishing web pages on internet. There are various software that provide FTP services like Microsoft web publisher, cute FTP etc. b. Push/Pull Technology: 1. Push Technology/Webcasting: It allows users to passively receive broadcast information rather than actively search the web for information just like we receive a lot of messages over our mobile phone without asking them. In other words, Webcasting is based on push technology in which data is transmitted to many users automatically without requesting for it i.e. called Push technology. Examples: broadcasting in Radio, tele-casting in T.V. or live events on internet such as sports match, fashion events, cricket match etc. 2. Pull technology: Normally all the services of internet are based on pull technology that mean user can pull the required information from a webserver. In other words, when users receive a piece of information after asking for it, it is called pull technology. Examples: a user searches particular information through a search engine and receives a list of links through several websites. Push Technology Send (Without asking) Meaning Example Bulk SMS etc. Very fast (One to many) Speed Efforts by Sender Basis Pull Technology Ask & get Search on Google etc. Slow (one to one) Receiver
c. Intranet & Extranet 1. Intranet: Intranet is a private network that helps an organisation employee to access organisation network (database) from anywhere in the world by using internet. Intranet provides services to its organisation employees. E.g. Banks, private network available to its employee only. There are following features/benefits of using Intranet: a. Reduced administrative costs printing, paper, software distribution, mailing, order processing, and telephone. b. Easily access of an organisation network (database) c. Easier access to customers and partners.
d. e. f. g.
Low cost to access information from anywhere Collaborative and group working Availability of updated information Easily communication among departments hence better Co-ordination
2. Extranet: It is an extension of intranet that provides to access information to outside companies or individual also, whether who is not a part of the intranet. Extranet provides services to its customer and business associates such as buyer, partner and supplier. E.g. Banks that portion of networks which is available to banks associates. Extranet = Intranet + Access to related parties (user id & password) It provides privacy & secrecy to organisation by way of encryption, password, access rights etc. d. E-commerce: It is a process of doing various business activity and related processes electronically (online) by way of computers & internet. In e-commerce, the transactions happen without the movement of any paper i.e. it happen with exchange of binary signals. It is not a single technologies or service. It is a collection of various technologies like www, e-mail, telephone, fax machine, EFT etc. Benefits/Role/Advantage of E-commerce a. Creation of new markets b. Immediate processing of transactions c. Immediate payment d. Updated information about goods & services etc. e. Reduced advertising costs f. Business activity all over the world g. Reduced delivery cost or cost to suppliers or buyers. h. Better customer service i. Global Reach Limitation of E-commerce a. Security b. problems for data and payments c. False claim from supplier d. Payments modes are risky (like payment through credit card etc.) e. Presence of goods on net does not assure that actual goods would be same.
Types/Models of E-commerce a. B2B: In this type of model transactions one business organisation transact with another business organisation. Normally, it is done between businesses of same area. These applications provide high value (Amount) and low volume (Number of transaction) transactions. It involves exchange of goods/services/information among various organizations. For Example: Maruti Suzuki and its distributors, Intel and its distributors etc. b. B2C: This is the most common and popular types of e-commerce applications. In this model a customer or consumer directly interact with business organizations. These applications provide high volume (Number of transaction) and low value (Amount) transactions. It involves exchanges of goods/services/information from a business to customers. There are two types of B2C e-commerce: I. Direct Sellers: That companies provide products or services directly to customers are called direct sellers such as: E-tailers (who buy from manufacturers & sell to customers), Manufacturers (who sell directly to customer by using internet. II. Online intermediaries: Those companies that provide transactions on-line between buyers and sellers for a commission are called online intermediaries such as: Brokers (who connect buyer or seller online) Intermediaries (who provide information to buyer about seller and their offer). There are two types of B2C e-commerce sites: Social sites: Such e-commerce sites provide information only to customers about goods & services. E.g. www.infosys.com, www.tisco.com etc. Transactional sites: Such e-commerce sites help to customer to transact with business for goods and services. E.g. www.amazon.com A customer is directly interacting with business organisation.
c. C2C: In this model one customer directly interact with another customer. E.g. www.ebay.com . Such e-commerce sites are also known as auction sites where one customer can auction the goods and services for another customer. This type of E-commerce is a low volume business (number of transaction) that is suitable for services like selling old cars, matrimonial services etc. e. Customer Relationship Management (CRM): CRM is an important concept to maintain a good relationship with customer. It is a system which enables business organisation to manage their customer relationship with the help of improved processes and procedures by using new technology. To be an effective/good CRM 1. Identify customer both present and potential 2. Identify their needs 3. Identify their behavior 4. Identify their trends of buying 5. Create a customer based culture 6. Developing an efficient business process to serve customers 7. Recommended how to help a customer having a problem. Purpose of CRM CRM is a technique of managing interaction between customers and business. CRM provides customer services through all possible methods. There are following purpose of CRM: a. Provide product information, use & technical assistance (help) to customers, b. Helps to acquire and retain new customers, c. Helps to increase the brand image of organisation, d. Help to identify problem areas quickly, e. Provide a user friendly mechanism to register customer complaints, f. Customers are given the required services and their complains are resolved on time, g. Helps to provide better services and best possible manner. Architecture of CRM 1. Operational CRM: In this method, an organisation provides front end services to their customer by opening service offices at various parts of city & country etc. Through such method customers can directly interact with organization executives to avail services and to resolve complains. E.g. Reliance web world etc.
Operational CRM covers the following three general areas of business: a. Sales force automation: to manage the work of sales staff. b. Customer service and support: in much easier & efficient way. c. Enterprise marketing automation: to manage in-house marketing operations. 2. Analytical CRM: This method is known as backroom operation. In this method, organisation analyses the customer quality of services on various parameters such as no. of complaints lodged by customers & no. of complaints resolved in last month. It involves the data collection, analysis & reporting. It helps in designing campaigns like: a. Acquisition: making new customers. b. Retention: retaining customers who leave due to maturity or attrition. c. Information: providing timely and regular information to customers. d. Modification: alteration nature of customers relationship. 3. Collaborative CRM: Under this method, it helps to interact with customers through all possible channels such as internet, phone, fax, e-mail, letter etc. It is a solution that brings people, processes and data together so companies can better serve and retain their customers. Collaborative CRM provides the following benefits: a. Enables efficient customer interaction, b. Reduces customer service costs c. Integrates call centers enabling personal customer interaction. d. Provide all details of the customers while interaction. f. Supply Chain Management: SCM refers to the management of all activities starting from procuring raw materials & ending with providing delivery & services to customers to provide best satisfaction to customer. Supply Chain Management (SCM) is the process of planning, implementing and controlling the operations of the supply chain with the purpose to satisfy customer requirements as efficiently as possible.
Raw Material
Storage
Work in-progress
Finished goods
Dispatch
SUPPLY CHAIN
Transport
Warehouse
Customers
Dealer
Distributor
It involves all movement and storage of raw materials, work-inprocess inventory, and finished goods from point-of-origin to pointof consumption. Advantage/Opportunities of SCM a. Fulfillment: Ensure that right quantity is always available of raw materials for production and finish goods for sale at right time by efficient communication. b. Logistics: Ensure that transport costs as low as possible with safe and timely deliver. c. Production: Helps to provide smooth production by ensuring availability of required materials and parts. d. Revenue/Profit: No loss of sales order because of sufficient stocks. e. Costs: Keeping the cost of purchases at acceptable levels i.e. minimum purchasing cost. f. Co-operation: Among supply chain partners to ensure mutual success. Problems areas of SCM a. Distribution Network Configuration: Setting up appropriate number and locations of suppliers, production facilities, distribution centers, warehouse and customers is a big challenge.
b. Distribution strategy: Establishing a strategy to ensure smooth flow of materials and goods is another big task. c. Information sharing: Information sharing among various locations is another issues for establishing successful SCM. d. Inventory management: Deciding an appropriate quantity of materials and goods to be maintained is another big stress area in SCM. SCM Activities All the SCM activities can be group into three activities. a. Strategic SCM: This is planned by top executives for long term. E.g. 1. Planning numbers, locations and size of warehouse and distribution network. 2. Deciding on partnership with suppliers and buyers. 3. Set up information technology infrastructure to support supply chain operations. 4. Make or buy decisions 5. Product design co-ordination b. Tactical SCM: This is a planned for sourcing of raw materials, production of goods and their distribution etc, in short term such as monthly basis. 1. Production decisions 2. Inventory decisions 3. Transportation decisions 4. Payment terms structuring 5. Comparison of all operations with competitors and implementation of best practices. c. Operational SCM: This supply management planned for day-to-day operation to provide smooth movement of goods in the chain. 1. Daily purchasing, production and distribution planning. 2. Planning to meet demand 3. Daily inventory control 4. Logistics control 5. Performance tracking of all activities
C. Write short notes on the following: a. Bullwhip effect in Supply Chain Management. (5 Marks) In a supply chain many entities are involved from customer to supplier. An organization normally source the raw materials from supplier based on expected customer demands. Bullwhip effect which was described by whiplash that indicates a continuous error in the forecasted demand at various points in the chain can provide large impact on the organisation planning. It indicates a continuous error in the forecasted demand as we go farther from consumer to supplier and resulting excess or shortages of inventory known as bullwhip effect. It can provide high losses to the organizations and to overcome this effect. Organizations should have dynamic demand forecasting system. The following factors contribute to the Bullwhip Effect: a. Forecast Errors b. Lead Time Variability (change) c. Price Fluctuations d. Batch Ordering e. Change in method of buying, producing, selling etc. Measures of Bullwhip Effect: f. Vendor Managed Inventory (VMI) g. Just In Time purchasing (JIT) h. Strategic Partnership with vendors, buyers etc. (SP) b. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI): It is a protocol or rules and regulations which help to exchange one form of data into another electronically. EDI refers to the exchange of data & information between two or more individuals/organizations in a standard format by using computer. Any business documents like purchase order, invoice, quotation, delivery challan etc. can be send electronically by converting it into a standard format by using computer hardware & software. Advantages of EDI 1. Issue and receive order faster 2. Reduction in paper documents 3. Provide quotation/information to customer quickly 4. Always updated information which helps in better decision making. 5. Low cost transaction 6. Sales more easily 7. Immediate payment
How EDI works? EDI allows transmission of documents between trading partners like buyers and suppliers electronically.
Data Sender EDI Data Receiver
Step 1: Sender prepares the data as per his database format in his system. Step 2: Senders provide this data to EDI for transmission with receiver profile. Step 3: EDI converts this data into a receivers database format. Step 4: EDI transmits this data into the receiver database. Step 5: Receiver can view/use the received data as per his convenience. c. Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT): EFT is a system of sending or receiving money by way of electronic. EFT is faster and safer money transfers method and money is transferred immediately into an account by using online banking solutions in place of cheques and drafts which take time for money transfer. The different EFT systems in operation are as follows: 1. Automated Teller Machines (ATMs): This allows the consumer to do their banking without assistance of a human teller. These machines are used with a debit or EFT card and a code, which is often called a Personal Identification Number or PIN. 2. Point-of-Sale (POS) Transactions: Some debit or credit cards allow transfer of funds electronically from the consumers account to the merchants account while shopping. 3. Telephone Transfers: Consumer can transfer funds from one account to another account by telephonic instructions. 4. Preauthorized Transfers: The account holder authorizes the bank or a third party to withdraw or deposit the funds from or into his account. Normally this is used by consumers to authorize their banks to allow withdrawal of funds from their account for payment of bills, insurance premium etc.
d. Payment system in E-commerce: There are 3 popular systems in e-commerce applications: 1. Electronic payment system: This is the most popular payment system in e-commerce application. In this payment system debit card, credit card and EFT are used for payment for purchased goods & services. In this payment system security of payment and user credentials always remains a big concern. 2. Payment through clearing cheque: This payment is used only in trusted party in B2B applications. In this method a clearing exchange acts as settlement house which debit or credit money in the buyer supplier account as per the given information of goods & services. E.g. inter banking transactions, stock exchange settlement between broker accounts. 3. Digital Cash or Electronic Money: This payment system is like use of travellers cheque for purchasing of goods & services on internet. This is also an online payment mechanism, in which money is exchanged in coded form between supplier and buyer. In this system user is given digital cash in exchange of physical cash, which he can use for online buying of goods & services. This is not a popular method of payment due to complexities involved in the exchange of cash. e. Internet risk & security: Internet use in businesses is continuously increasing but internet has some inherent risk. Every organisation in concerned for the security of internet. Therefore every organisation should establish security for the protection of business data and e-commerce activities. There are following risk for business organisation setting-up E-commerce application: 1. Payment security 2. Hacking of important data and information 3. Reliability of services: E-commerce services are reliable in terms of always available or not. 4. Protection of data and information from viruses. 5. Loss of paper based audit trail: E-commerce services are kept in electronic form therefore management remain concerned about the loss of paper based audit trail as it is difficult to create audit trail for electronic transactions.
6. Business continuity: A total dependence on electronic business exposes organizations to failure of electronic system or business continuity. 7. Safe retention and easy retrieval of data in storage devices: There is some mandatory requirement for retaining data in electronic form as per specific format. f. Legal issues for e-commerce: There are the following legal issues regarding e-commerce: 1. Taxation issue: If law is not clear, then it is difficult to determine tax liabilities and jurisdiction area in case of e-commerce transaction. 2. No Papertrail: Paper document are prime evidence in manual system which are missing in e-commerce. 3. Fraud detection: It is very difficult to detect global fraud & fix punishment for the fraudster. g. Security Tools in E-commerce application: The tools which can protect data and information of organization from misuse, intrusion and viruses are called security tools. There are following security tools in e-commerce application to protect private network data: 1. Firewall: It is the most popular techniques of network security. It is a computerized electronic system that is installed on computer/networks to protect from unauthorized entry [Intrusion]. 2. Data Encryption: This technique helps to transfer data between authorized users and private network in a coded form (encrypted form) which helps to avoid mis-use of such data, if it is hacked by the hackers. 3. Message Authentication: It means to make sure that the information received has been sent by authentic sender only like Digital Signature. 4. Site Blocking: It means to prohibit access certain websites by an organization. This help to avoid downloading of unwanted content such as viruses etc. to private network to public network.
D. Write short notes on the following: a. Bluetooth (5 Marks) (PCC-May 2007) It is popular technique for data exchange between the devices without using of any wire or cable. It provides the wireless exchange of data such as music and video files etc. It transmits the data within small range of 10 m. It requires a low cost transceiver chip in each device that enables to transmit and receive the data in certain predefined frequency. The transceiver transmits and receives in a frequency band of 2.45 GHz. b. Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity. This technology is used to create a wireless local area network (WLAN) of computers and devices. A building or campus can be converted into a Wi-Fi zone by installing Wi-Fi devices. The Wi-Fi zones covered by one or several access point are called Hotspot. It is a popular technique for connecting a large number of computers to the internet by providing a wireless LAN in the organization, cybercaf, building or even a public place like Airport, Railway, Public Park etc. In this technique, laptop/computers with Wi-Fi modem and services from Wi-Fi ISP are used to remains connected with internet at everywhere particularly public places such as railway station, Airports, Markets etc. c. M-commerce: This is an extension of e-commerce. M-commerce is buying and selling of goods & services through wireless hand-held devices such as mobile phone and PDA (Personal Digital Assistants). It is based on a protocol known as WAP (Wireless Application Protocol). This protocol helps to convert normal e-commerce site content into a form that can be displayed on mobile phone. This is known as next generation e-commerce.