1.

Composite Wall
Aim:
1. To determine total thermal resistance and thermal conductivity of composite wall. 2. To plot temperature gradient along composite wall structure.

Theory:
Many engineering situation involves the use of composite materials consist of two or more materials of different conductivities. Some situations involved are walls of the building, refrigerators, furnace cold storage etc. The knowledge of thermal conductivity of such composite materials helps in better design of equipments.

Description:
The apparatus consists of a central heater sandwiched between two sheets. Three types of slabs are provided on both sides of heater, which forms a composite structure. A small hand press frame is provided to ensure the perfect contact between the slabs. A dimmerstat is provided for varying the input to heater and measurement of input is carried out by a voltmeter, ammeter. Thermocouples are embedded between interfaces of the slabs, to read the temperature at the surface. The experiments can be conducted at various values of input and calculation can be made accordingly.

Apparatus:
1) Slab assembly arranged symmetrically on both sides of heater. 2) Heater- Nichrome heater wound on mica former and insulator with control unit capacity 300 watt maximum. 3) Heater control unit: 0-230 V, 0-2 amps, single phase dimmerstat (1No.) 4) Voltmeter 0-100-200 Volts. Ammeter 2 Amps. 5) Temperature indicator (digital type) 0-2000C . Single phase 230 V electric supply.

Precautions:
1. Keep dimmer stat to zero before start. 2. Increase the voltage slowly. 3. Keep all the assembly undisturbed. 4. Remove air gap between plates by moving hand press gently. 5. While removing the plates do not disturb the thermocouples. 6. Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.

Procedure:
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1. See that plates are symmetrically arranged on both sides of the heater plates. 2. Operate the hand press properly to ensure perfect contact between the plates. 3. Close the box by cover sheet to achieve steady environmental conditions. 4. Start the supply of heater. By varying the dimmer stat, adjust the input at the desired value. 5. Take the readings of all the thermocouple at an interval of 10 minutes until fairly steady temperatures are achieved and rate of rise is negligible. 6. Note down the readings.

Observations:
Composite slabs: 1. Wall thickness : .i) Bakelite ii) Plywood = 10 mm = 12 mm

iii) Mild steel = 08 mm 2. Slab diameter = 25 cm. Voltage (V) = Volts ; Current (C) = Amp

Observation Table:
Thermocouple Temperature 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Calculation:
TA = TC =
T1 + T2 , 2
T5 + T6 , 2

TB = TD =

T3 + T4 2

T7 + T8 2

i) Heat flow rate for one side of slab. q=

V .I 2

= ---------W.

ii) Area of slab A=

D
42
2

= --------------- m2
T A TD = ( Rth ) pr = ----- K

iii) Total thermal resistance for slab = q b iv) (K composite slab) Pr = ( R th )Pr x A

Where b = b1 + b2 + b3 = --------------- m

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 (K comp.slab )Pr = --------- W/mK. v) Now, K for all material at 300 K is given by K Wood = 0.017 W/mK KC.I. = 48 W/mK. Kbakelite = 1.4 W/mK. vi) Theoretical conductivity of composite slab Kth :Rw = Rwood = = Rc = Rc.I = =
b2 kC.I . . A

-----

--------

Rb = Rbackelite =

b3 kb .A

= -----

( Rth )th = Rw + Rc + Rb = (Kcom.) th = -----

K
b

Rth ) th x A
K W

= -----

Results
We have got the following values of thermal resistance and thermal conductivity practically and theoretically:

Practical Thermal resistance ( K

Theoretical

W .)

Thermal conductivity (W/mk.)

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Plot the temperature gradiant through slab along thickness of slab.

Conclusion ; ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Review questions:

1. What are various applications where principal of composite wall is used? 2. What is thermal conductivity? 3. What is thermal resistance? 4. What do you mean by contact resistance? 5. What is electrical analogy of heat conduction?

2. Thermal Conductivity of Insulating Powder

Aim: To determine Thermal conductivity of Insulating Power.

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Theory: It is necessary to minimize the heat loss to the surrounding in case of heat exchanger
equipments. Hence the exterior surface of the equipment if covered with the materials of lower thermal conductivity called as insulators. Because of demand of such materials many industries have come up to produce such materials in different categories, shapes and sizes. One important category of insulating materials is powder form. The powder can take any complicated shapes between any two containing surfaces. In addition, its thermal conductivity is much lower than that of its basic solid form because of large number of air gaps present between the particles.

Description:
The apparatus consists of two thin walled concentric copper spheres. The inner sphere houses the heating coil. The insulating powder (Asbestos powder lagging material) is packed between the two shells. The power supply to the heating will is by using dimmerstat and is measured by voltmeter and ammeter. Chromel alumel thermocouples are used to measure the temperatures. Thermocouples (1) to (4) are embedded on inner sphere and (5) to (10) are embedded on outer shell. These readings in turn enable to find out the thermal conductivity of insulating powder packed between the two shells. We assume the insulating powder as an isotropic material and the value of thermal conductivity to be constant. The apparatus assumes one dimensional radial heat conduction across the powder and thermal conductivity can be determined. Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of a hollow sphere formed by the insulating powdered layer packed between two thin copper spheres. Let ri = Inner radius in meters. ro = Outer radius in meters. Ti = Average temperature of the inner surface in 0C. To = Average temperature of outer surface in 0C. Where, Ti = T 1 + T2 + T3 + T 4 and To = T 5 + T6 + T7 + T 8 + T9 + T 10 Note that T1 to T10 denotes the temperature of the thermocouple (1) to (10). From the experimental values of Q Ti and To the unknown thermal conductivity K can be determined as... K=
Q( r0 ri ) 4 ( r r ) (T - To ) 0 i i
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Specifications:
1. Radius of the inner copper sphere, ri = 50 mm. 2. Radius of the outer copper sphere, ro= 100 mm. 3. Voltmeter 0-100 200 V. 4. Temperature Indicator 0-300 5. Ammeter 0-2 Amps.00C. Calibrated for Chromel Alumel. 6. Dimmerstat 0 - 2 Amps, 0 - 230 Volts. 7. Heater Coil Strip heating element sandwiched between Mica sheets. 8. Chromel Alumel Thermocouples Nos. (1) to (4) embedded on inner sphere to measure Ti 9. Chromel Alumel Thermocouples No.5 to 10 embedded on outer sphere to measure T0 10. Insulating Powder Asbestos magnesia commercially available powder and packed between the two spheres.

Procedure:
1. Insert male socket of unit in control panel, and connect thermocouple band on temperature indicator and test set up in proper position and start the main switch of control panel. 2. Increase slowly the input to the heater by the dimmerstat starting from zero volt position. 3. Adjust input equal to 40 Watt max by voltmeter & ammeter Wattage = VI. 4. See that this input remains constant through the experiment. 5. Wait till fairly steady state condition is reached. 6. Note down the readings.

Precautions:
1) Keep dimmerstat to zero volt position before and after the experiment. Check this before switching on the supply. 2) Handle the changeover switch of temperature Indictor gently.

Observations:
1) Voltmeter reading (V) = 2) Ammeter reading (I) = V. A.

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3) Heater input = Q = VI (W)

Observation Table:
1) Inner sphere: Thermocouple Temperature C 2) Outer sphere: Thermocouple Temperature C
0 0

T1

T2

T3

T4

TI (Mean Temp) Ti = (T1 + T2 + T3 T4 ) / 4

T5

T6

T7

T8

T9

T1

To (Mean Temp) = (T5 + T6 + T7 + T8 + T9 + T10)/ 6

calculation:
Using equation: K= K=
Q( r0 ri ) 4 ( r r ) (T - To ) 0 i i

W/mk W/mk.

Result:
Thermal conductivity of insulating powder is Kpr =

Conclusion:
The standard value of thermal conductivity of asbestos is W/mk. The practical value of thermal conductivity of asbestos. Kpr = ------W/mk. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Review questions
1. What are uses of insulating powder? 2. Why is the thermal conductivity of insulating powder is less than that their parent solids? 3. What do you understand by isotropic & anisotropic materials?

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4. What is insulating materials? 5. What is critical radius of insulations?

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3. Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod

Aim:
1. To determine the thermal conductivity of given metal rod. 2. To study the variation of thermal conductivity with respect to temperature.

Theory: Thermal conductivity is an important thermo-physicals property of conducting

materials, by virtue of which the materials conducts the heat energy through it. From Fouriers law of heat conduction the thermals conductivity is defined as
k = QdT dT = q W mK Adx dx

Where,

Q = heat transfer rate in Watts, q = heat flux,

mK

A = area normal to heat transfer, m2

dT = Temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow. dx

The thermal conductivity for a given materials depends on its state and it varies with direction, structure, humidity, pressure and temperature

Description:
It consists of a metal rod, which is insulated all over its surface with a thick layer of insulating material. An electric heating coil is fixed to one end of rod while, the other end protrudes into a water jacket. A number of thermocouples are fitted along the length of rod. Thermocouples are also provided to measure the temperature inside the insulation and at water inlet and outlet. The control panel consists of a digital temperature indicator with a selector switch. A voltmeter and on ammeter are provided to measure voltage and current supplied to the heater. A dimmerstat is provided to control the voltage supplied to the heater. A measuring flask and to stop watch are used to measure the mass flow rate of water through the cooling jacket.

Procedure:
a. Start the water circulation through the water Jacket. b. Put the heater switch ON. Adjust the voltage supplied to the heater coil with the help of the dimmerstat.
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c. Wait until steady state is reached. d. Note down the values of following parameters. I. Temperature at the various points on the metal rod (as T1, T2 , T6) II.Temperature of insulation between the sections A-B as T7 and T9. III. Temperature of insulation between section B-C as T8 and T10 . IV. Inlet and outlet temperatures of jacket water as T11 & T12 V. Mass flow rate of water as m. VI. Plot the graph of Temperature of the rod Vs distance along the rod. VII.Measure the slopes of the curve at the sections A-A, B-B, C-C as
dT dx
A A

dT dx

B B

dT dx

C C

Specifications:
1) Length of the metal rod = 300 mm. 2) Diameter of the metal bar = 25 mm. 3) No. of thermocouples mounted on bar : 6 4) No. of thermocouples in insulation shell : 4. 5) Heater coil Nichrom heater. 6) Cooling Jacket dia. 90 mm. 7) Temp. indicator 0-2000C. with multichannel switch Position 1-6. Thermocouple position on metal bar. Position 7-10 Thermocouple position on shell. Position 11-12 To measure rise in temperature of cooling water. 8) Dimmerstat for heater coil: 2A / 230 V. 9) Voltmeter 0.100/200 V. 10)Ammeter 0.2 Amps.

Observations:
1) Thermal conductivity of insulating powder: W/mk. 2) Inner radius: ri = 50 mm. 3) Outer radius: ro = 100 mm.

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4) Mass flow rate of water :

kg/s (mw)

5) SP. HEAT OF WATER : cpw = 4.187

Observation Table:
Thermocouple Temperature 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Calculations:
1. Thermal conductivity at section c-c : By Fouriers law Q = KA dt/dx = KA (T1-T6)/L - {1}

Heat by convection assorbed by water Q = mwCpw(T12-T11) Q = mwCp(T12-T11) Thus. From eqn 1 K=QL/A(T1-T6) w/m-k - {2}

Conclusion:
Std. Value of k Practical Value Difference

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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Review Questions
1. What is heat conduction? 2. What is thermal conductivity? 3. What is fundamental law of heat conduction? 4. State Fourier Law 5. What is potential for heat conduction? 6. What is effect of temperature on thermal conductivity of metals? 7. What is effect of temperature on thermal conductivity of non-metals?

4. Natural Convection
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Aim: To determine heat transfer coefficient in natural convection.

Theory:
Molecules of liquid and gases have freedom of motion & in moving they carry over their energy.

The transfer of heat from one region to another due to such motion in a liquid or gas, added on the energy transfer by conduction is called heat transfer by convection. When liquid motion occurs due to density variation caused by temperature difference, the situation is said to be natural or free. If the Convection temperature of a solid surface is greater than that of the surrounding fluid, then the fluid in its immediate vicinity gets heated leading to decrease its density to move in upward motion.

Description:
1. Copper Tube: The copper tube is used to study the phenomenon of natural convection. It is vertically held inside the cabin. Seven thermocouples are placed on it in vertically equal distance at exactly center of the wooden box. 2. Heater: Heater is held vertically inside the tube in which the air gap is present between heater and copper tube. By neglecting resistance of air passage, we directly take the readings of copper tube (i.e. temperature of copper tube) Heater is constantly heating the copper tube. As air is passing from bottom of the box moves upward side of the box due to less density of the air. 3. Sensor: We are using' k ' type sensors for the measurement of temperature in which 07 sensors are used for the measurement of outer surface temperature of copper tube and one sensor is used to measure the ambient temperature.(T8) 4. Temperature Indicator: It is digital indicator used to indicate the temperatures at the respective thermocouples and the power input to heater. 5. DIMMERSTAT; It is used to change the input power

Specification:
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Temperature indicator range = 0 to 200C Diameter of copper tube = 0.038m Length of copper tube= 0.53 m

Experimental Procedure:
1. Adjust the power input to heater to 100 Watt i.e. 0.1 kW. 2. Temperatures along the cylinder surface (T1 - T) will start increasing. till all temperatures become stable (Steady state is reached). This may take about 1- 2 hours. 4. When steady state is reached; Note the readings. 3. Wait

OBSERVATIONS;.1. O. D. of the cylinder 2. Length of the cylinder 3. Input Voltage 4. Input Current (d) 38mm 530mm

OBSERVATION TABLE :Thermocouple Location 1. 2. .3. 4. .5. 6. 7. 8. ( Ta ) Time in min

CALCULATIONS :Calculate the value of average Heat transformer coefficient using equation

q ha = -------------------------------------------14

W/M
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A S X (Ts - Ta ) Where, h = Heat Tranfer coefficient Q = V X I watts. As = Surface area of cylinder in m r = radius of pipe. I = Length of pipe. Ts = Average of the surface temperature i. e. T1 - T7 T = Ambient temperature i. e. T h ( Therotical ) Ra = Gr. Pr. 9BTL 1 ) Where, Ra = ------------------------------ (Pr ) V2 T = Ts - T Ts = T1 + --------- T7 ------------------------------ : T=T8 7 1 B = -----------------------T mean (k) Nu = 0.59 ( Ra ) ors Nu = 0.1 ( Ra )1/3 hL 3) Nu = [ Ra > 10 ]
9
9

Ts + Tn (T mean = -------------) 2

[ Ra < 10

---------------------kair

=> h = w/ m

Note= All properties of air to be evaluated from property tables at Tmean temperature.

Conclusion:

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-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Review questions:
1. What is the co-relation for natural convection? 2. What is the boundary layer? 3. What is the driving potential for natural convection and forced convection? 4. Give physical significance of dimensionless groups used in natural convection 5. Comment on practically obtained value of h. 6. Compare the values of h in forced & natural convection.

5. PIN FIN APPARATUS

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Aim: 1.To study the temperature distribution along the length of a pin fin in forced
convection. And Natural Convection 2. To evaluate fin performance parameters

Theory
Extended surfaces or fins are used to increase the heat transformer rate from a surface to a fluid whenever it is not possible to increase the value of the surface heat transfer coefficient or the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid. The use of this is very common and they are fabricated in variety of shapes (fig.no. 1) circumferential fins around the cylinder of a motor cycle engine and fins attached to condenser tubes of a refrigerator are a few familiar examples. It is obvious that a fin surface stricks out from the primary heat transfer surface. The temperature difference with surrounding fluid will steadily diminish as one moves out along the fin. The design of the fins therefore requires a knowledge of the temperature distribution in the fin. The main object of this experimental set up is to study the temperature distribution in a simple pin fin.

Consider a fin connected at its base to a heated wall and transferring heat to the surroundings. Let A = Cross sectional area of fin. C = Circumference of the fin. L = Length of the fin. T1 = Temp.of the fin at the beginning (T1 thermocouple) Tf = Duct fluid temp. (ambient) (T6 thermocouple) P = T- Tf The heat is conducted along the rod and also lost to the surroundings fluid by conduction. Let h = heat transfer coefficient W/m K. k = Thermal conductivity of the fin material. Applying the first law of thermodynamics to a controlled volume along the length of the fin at x resulting equation of heat balance appears as:
d 2 h.c =0 dx 2 k . A

This is the equation for the temperature distribution along the given length of the fin. It is seen from the equation that for a fin of given geometry with uniform cross section the temperature at any given point can be calculated on knowing the values of T 1 , Tf & x. Temperature Tf and Tp will be known for a given situation and the value of h depends on whether the heat is lost to the surroundings by free convection or forced convection.

Description:
17 UCOER, PUNE

A brass fin circular cross section is fitted in a long circular duct. The other end of the duct is connected to the suction side of the blower and air flows past the fin perpendicular to its axis. One end of the fin projects outside the duct and is heated by a heater. Temperatures at five points along the length of the fin are measured by Chromel Alumel thermocouples connected along the length of the fin. The air flow rate is measured by an orifice meter fitted on the delivery side of the blower.

Specification:
1. Duct size = 15 cm x 10cm. 2. Diameter of the fin = 12.7 mm 3. Diameter of the orifice = 1.4 cm. 4. Diameter of delivery pipe (Internal) = 36 mm. 5. Coefficient of discharge (Orifice meter ) Cd = 0.64 6. Centrifugal blower H.P. single phase motor. 7. Number of thermocouples on fin = 5. 8. Thermocouple 6 reads temp of air inside the duct after the fin. 9. Thermal conductivity of fin material (brass) =110.45 W/m0C. 10. Temp.indicator 0 - 3000C with compensation of ambient temp.upto 500C. 11. Dimerstat for heat input control 230 V, 2 Ams. 12. Heater suitable for mounting at the fin end outside the duct. 13. Voltmeter 0-100 /200 V. 14. Ammeter 0 - 2 Amp

Precautions:
1. Ensure proper electrical connection before starting. 2. Ensure proper connection of thermocouples before starting. 3. Ensure zero setting on dimmerstat before starting. 4. Bring dimmer to zero position before switching off.

Procedure:
1) Start the blower and observe the airflow rate with the help of manometer. 2) Start heating the fin by switching on the heater and adjust voltage through dimmer. 3) Note down the temperature readings 1 to 6 at a time interval of 10 minutes. 4) Record the readings up to steady state temperature are reached.

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Observations:
1) Voltmeter reading = Volts. 2) Ammeter reading = Amp 3) Manometer level difference = (hw) =.

Observation Table:
Thermocouple reading T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Ambient Temp.T6= Tf T6 = Tf

Where ,

w = water density a = air density

hw w = ha a

ha =

hw w a

ha = ------------- m of air column.

2. Velocity of air through outlet pipe
Va = 2 gha

Va =

m sec

3. Discharge of air through outlet pipe.

Q = C d AoVo Q = m3 sec

4... Velocity of air through outlet pipe:

Vm = T f + 273 Q = m sec , C Area T + 273 S

Tf = Avg Air temperature in the duct and T is

ambient temperature. 5. Reynoldss No. =

V m .D

D = Dia of fin in m.

= Kinematic viscosity of air of Tf 0 C. (all properties are to be evaluated at Tf)

a = -------- Kg/m3

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 = ---------- N.S./m2
a =
= --------m2/S a

Prandtl no. Pr = a Cpa / Ka

0.8 6. Nu = 0.023 ( Re ) Pr 0..4

7.

Nu = K air

h.D

h = W m2K
8. m =
h.c k.A

Where, c = circumference of fin (.d ) K = Thermal conductivity of fin material. A = Area of fin. 9.
q fin = h. p.k fin Acb tanh ( mL )

= ------ W

10. Temperature distribution along the length of fin = =

T T cosh .m( L x ) = T T cosh ( mL )
tanh .m.L m.L

11. fin =

12. Effectiveness : = tan h (ml) /

hA k. p

Conclusion:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Graph: Plot the graph Temp. (T) Vs Length of fin (L)(Theoretical as well as Practical
variation)

Review Questions
20 UCOER, PUNE

1. What is a fin? 2. When a fin is called as pin fin? 3. What do you understand by annular fin? 4. What do you understand by longitudinal fin? 5. What is profile area of fin? 6 Why fin tip is considered insulated in most of the cases? 7. What is fin efficiency? 8. When the use of fin is justified, in forced or natural convection? 9. What are applications of longitudinal fin? 10. What is the mechanism of heat conduction in solids?

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6. Heat transfer in Forced Convection

Aim: To determine average surface heat transfer coefficient for a pipe losing heat by forced
convection to air flowing through it.

Theory:
Convection is the energy transfer between the surface and adjacent fluid. In the forced convection process the fluid is circulated with help of external agent like pump and blower. The heat transfer coefficient is very important to determine for calculating the heat transfer rate in convection. This experiment deals with the experimental determination of this coefficient. In forced convection, the velocity gradient is more effective than density gradient. The forced convection heat transfer occurs in heat exchangers like automobile radiators, condensers, coolers etc.

Description:
The apparatus consists of blower unit fitted with the test pipe. The test section is surrounded by Nichrome band heater. Six thermocouples are embedded on the test section and two thermocouples are placed in the air stream at the entrance and exit of the test section to measure air temperatures. The test pipe is connected to the delivery side of the blower along with the orifice to measure flow of air through the pipe. Input to the heater is given through dimmerstat and is measured by meters. It is also noted that only a part of the total heat supplied is utilized in heating the air. A temperature indicator with cold junction compensation is provided to measure the temperature in the pipe wall in the test section.

Specifications:
i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) Pipe diameter (Do). - 43 mm. Inner diameter of pipe (Di). - 37 mm. Length of test section, L - 50 cm. Blower Motor - 1. H.P. Orifice diameter (d) - 14 mm connected to water manometer. Dimmerstat - 0 to 2 amp. 2 - 260 VAC. Temperature indicator range - 0-300 0C. Calibrated for Chromel Allumel Thermocouple. Voltmeter 0-100 / 200 V., Ammeter 0 -2 A. Nichrome wire heater wound on test pipe.

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Precautions:
i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) i) Keep the Dimmer stat to zero position before switching on the power supply. Start the blower unit. Increase the voltage gradually. Do not stop the blower between testing periods. Do not disturb the thermocouple while testing. Operate selector switch of the temperature gently. Do not exceed 200 Watts. Start and adjust the flow by means of a valve to some desired difference in the manometer level. ii) Start the heating of the test section with the help of dimmer stat and adjust the desired heat input by means of voltmeter and ammeter. iii) Take the reading of all thermocouple at an interval of 10 min. until the steady state is reached. iv) Wait for the steady state take readings of all thermocouples at steady state. v) Note down the heater input.

Procedure:

Observation Table:
Sr. Air Temp. Outlet T8 T1 Test Section temperature T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 Voltage V Volts Current hW I Amp. cm

No. Inlet T7

Calculations:A . practical value of h => 1) Velocity of air Va = Where, h =

hw .

2 gh

w a

= ------- m
T7 + T8 determine density of air, cpa., 2

And from Property table at

2) Area of orifice, Ao = /4 x d20 = m2 1) Discharge of air, Qa = Cd x Ao Va.

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Cd = 0.64 (given) Qa = --------------- m3/s 4) Mass flow rate of air, ma = Qa x a = 5) Heat carried by air (qa ) : qa = ma . Cpa (T8 - T7 ) = -------- W 6) Inner surface area of pipe (Ai ): Ai = Di x L =
qa = Ai T

kg/s

m2

7) Practical heat transfer coefficient for given situation: h pr =

W m2 K

Where, T = (Tavg ) Pipe - (Tavg) air (Tavg ) Pipe = (Tavg )air =

T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 = 0 C 6 T7 + T8 = 0 C 2

B. theoretical valve of h 1. Re = Pa Va Di / a 2. Pr = a Cpa / Ka 3.Nu = 0.023(Re)0.8Pr0.4 hth Di 4. Nu = -------------------Ka 5. hth = W/m2K.

Conclusion: We have got the value of average value of transfer coefficient, hpr = ---- W/m2 and hth = W/m2k ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24 UCOER, PUNE

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Review Questions.
1. What is the difference between forced convection & natural convection? 2. What are the dimensionless parameters which governs the force convection? 3. List the applications where force convection is used. 4. What is significance of dimensionless groups in forced convection?

7. Stefan Boltzmann Apparatus

Aim: To determine the Stefan Boltzmann constant experimentally.

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Theory:
The most commonly used law of thermal radiation is the Stefan Boltzmann Law which states that radiation heat flux or emissive power of a black surface is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature of the surface and is given by,
Q = .b = .T 4 W/m2 A

The constant of proportionality is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and has the value of 4.876 x 10-8 Kcal/hr. m2 k4 or 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2k4. The Stefan-Boltzmann law can be derived by integrating the planks Law over the entire spectrum of wavelengths from 0 to , though historically it is worth noting that the Stefan Boltzmann Law was independently developed before Planks law. The object of this experimental setup is to measure the value of this constant fairly close, by an easy arrangement.

Description:
The apparatus is centered on a flanged copper hemisphere B fixed on a flat non-conducting plate A. The outer surface of B is enclosed in a water jacket used to heat B to some suitable constant temp. The hemispherical shape of B is chosen solely on the grounds that it simplifies the task of draining the water between B and C. Four chromel alumel thermocouples are attached to various points on a surface of B to measure its mean temperature to be read by a temperature indicator. The disc D, which is mounted in an insulating bakelite sleeve S is fitted in a hole drilled in the center of base plate A. The base of S is conveniently supported from underside of A. A chromel alumel thermocouple is used to measure the temp.of D (T 5). The thermocouple is mounted on the disc to study the rise of its temp.When the disc is inserted at the temperature T5 (T5 T) i.e. the temperature of the enclosure. The response of temp. change of disc with time is used to calculate the Stefan Boltzmann constant.

Specifications:
1) Hemispherical enclosure diameter = 200 mm. 2) Water Jacket for the heating of hemispherical enclosure. 3) Base plate (Bakelite) diameter = 240 mm. 4) Sleeve diameter = 44 mm. 5) Test disc diameter = 20 mm.
26 UCOER, PUNE

6) Mass of test disc = 0.007 Kg 7) Specific heat of the test disc = 877 J/Kg K 8) Number of thermocouples on hemispherical enclosure = 4. 9) Number of thermocouples on the disc = 1. 10)Temperature indicator (digital) = 0 -200 0C. 11) Immersion water heater. 12) Tank for hot water.

Precautions:
1. Ensure that electrical and thermocouple connections are correct. 2. Note down the temp. of disc immediately after the hot water is allowed to fall on hemispherical shell.

Procedure:
1. The water in the tank is heated by immersion heater up to temperature of about 95 0C. 2. The disc is removed before pouring the hot water in the jacket. 3. The hot water is poured in the water jacket. 4. The hemispherical enclosure unit will come to uniform temp.in short time after filling the hot water in the jacket. 5. The disc is now inserted. 6. Record the temperature indicated by thermocouples at an interval of 5 seconds.

Observations:
1. Mass of the test disc (m) = 0.007 Kg 2. Specific heat of disc material (Cpd) = 877 J/Kg K 3. Diameter of disk (d) = 0.02 m

Observation Table:
Thermocouple No. T1 T2 T3 T4 For Thermocouple T5 Time.(Sec) 0 5 10 15
27

Temperature ( 0C )

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

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Temp.(T5)0C

Calculations:
1) Average temp. of shell : T shell =
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 4

TShell = ---------- K. 2) Average temp.of Disc D at the instance it is inserted. i.e. at t = 0, T disc = ----0 C. 3. To obtain slope from the graph (
dT dt

dT dt

):

t= 0

= Slope of time temperature curve at t = 0.

4. Value of

can be obtained by using:

dT md .c pd = dt t =0 4 4 A.d Tshell Tdisc

)
m2k 4

= -------------- W
Conclusion:

The Practical value of Stefan-Boltzmann constant is standard (Actual) value of

= ------- W/m2 K4 and the

= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4.

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Graph: Plot the of Temperature Vs Time

Review questions.
1. On what basic thermodynamic principle, the Stefan-Boltzman apparatus works? 2. State the laws of thermal radiation. 3. Justify the assumption that only radiation is the mode of heat transfer between the enclosure and test disc. 4. Define black body, opaque body and white body.

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8. EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT
Aim: To determine emissivity of a test plate (Grey surface).
Theory:

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All substances at all temperatures emit thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is an electromagnetic wave and does not require any material medium for propagation. All bodies can emit radiation and have also the capacity to absorb all or a part of the radiation coming from the surrounding towards it. An idealized black surface is one, which absorbs all the incident radiation with reflectivity and transitivity equal to zero. The radiant energy per unit time per unit area from the surface of the body is called as the emissive power and is usually denoted by e. The emissivity of the surface is the ratio of the emissive power of the surface to the emissive power of a black surface at the same temperature. It is noted by E. Thus,

E=+

For black body absorptivity = 1 and by the knowledge of Kirchoff's Law emissivity of the black body becomes unity. Emissivity being a property of the surface depends on the nature of the surface and temperature. It is obvious from the Stefan Boltzmans Law that the prediction of emissive power of a surface requires knowledge about the values of its emissivity and therefore much experimental research in radiation has been concentrated on measuring the values of emissivity as function of surface temperature. The present experimental set up is designed and fabricated to measure the property of emissivity of the test plate surface at various temperatures. Table 1 gives approximate values of emissivity for some common materials for ready reference. Material Metals
Polished copper, Steel, Stainless Steel, Nickel,

Table : 1 Temperature 200 C 90 - 5400C. 20-1000C. Emissivity 0.15 increases with temperatures. 0.2 to 0.33 0.8 to 1.

Non-m.

Aluminum (Oxidized) Brick, wood, Marble water.

Description:
The experimental set up consists of two circular Aluminum plates identical in size and is provided with heating coils sandwiched. The plates are mounted on brackets and are kept in an enclosure so as to provide undisturbed natural convection surroundings.

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The heat input to the heater is varied by separate dimmerstats and is measured by using an ammeter and a voltmeter with the help of double pole double throw switches.The temperature of the plates is measured by thermocouples. Another thermocouple is kept in the enclosure to read the ambient temperature of enclosure. Plate 1 is blackened by a thick layer of lamp black to form the idealized black surface where as the plate 2 is the test plate whose emissivity is to be determined. The heater inputs to the two plates are dissipated from the plates by conduction, convection and radiation. The experimental set up is designed in such a way that under steady state conditions the heat dissipation by conduction and convection is same for both the plates, when the surface temperatures are same and the difference in the heater input readings is because of the difference in radiation characteristics due to their different emissivities. The schematic arrangement of the set up is shown in Fig.

Procedure:
1. Start the supply. 2. When both the toggle switches are downward direction black plate dimmerstat operate Where as when both the toggle switches are in upward direction test plate dimmerstat operate. 3. Gradually increase the input to the two plates with small time intervals & adjust the heter input to test plate slightly less than the black plate. 4. Check the temperatures of the two plates with small times intervals & adjust the input to test plate only by the dimmerstat so that the two plates will be maintained at the same temperature. 5. This will require some trail & error & one to wait sufficiently to obtain the steady state condition. 6. After attaining the steady state condition record the temperatures & voltmeter & ammeter readings for both plates. . NOTE: There is a possibility of getting absurd results if the supply voltage fluctuating. OBSERVATIONS : 1. Heater input to black plate V= I= OBSERVATION TABLE 2. heater input to test plate V= I =

Observations:

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Sr.No

Heat input to Black Plate

Heat input to Test Plate

Temp.of Black Plate

Temp.of Test Plate

Ambient Temp.

Precautions:
1) Use stabilized A.C. Single phase supply (preferably). 2) Always keep the dimmer stat at zero position before start. 3) Use the proper voltage range on Voltmeter. 4) Gradually increase the heater inputs. 5) See that the black plate is having a layer of lamp black uniformly. There is a possibility of getting absorbs results if the supply voltage is fluctuating or if the input is not adjusted till the satisfactory steady state condition reached.

Specifications:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) Test plate == 170mm Black Plate == 170mm Heater for (1) Nichrom strip wound on mica sheet and sandwiched between two mica sheets. Heater for (2) as above. Dimmer stat for (1) 0-2A, 0-260 V. Dimmer stat for (2) 0-2A, 0 -260 V. Voltmeter 0-100-200 V, Ammeter 0-2 Amp. Enclosure size 58 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm approx. with one side of Perspex sheet. Thermocouples - Chromel Alumel - (3 Nos.) Temperature Indicator 0-3000C. With compensation for Room temperature. D.P.D.T.Switch. qb = Eb Ab(TB4 - TD4 ) qs = Es As(TS4 - TD4) Where, qb = heat input to disc coated with Lamp black (Kcal/hr) = Vb X Vb qs = heat input to Specimen disc. = Vs X Is {1} {2}

Calculation:

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 = Stefan Boltzmann Constant = 5.678x10W/mK A = Area of disc (m3) = Ab = As Ambient temperature of enclosure OK (i.e. T3) (Qb - Qs) 0.86 = ( b - ) A (TS4 - TD4) Eb = Emissiuity of black plate = 1 From eqn 1 & 2 qb = qs (Adjusted) & Eb = 1 Ab(TB4 - TD4 ) A b = As Es = (TB4 - TD4 ) / (TS4 - TD4) The emissivity of the test plate can be calculated at various surface temperatures of the plates. With increase in temperature, the test surface becomes somewhat dull and therefore its emissivity increases with increase of surface temperature. This fact could be verified by performing the experiments at various values of T S and can be plotted in a graph. = Es As(TS4 - TD4) TS = Surface temperature of Discs. OK (i.e.T1 and T2) TD = Es = Emissivity of specimen to be determined (absorpting)

Conclusion:
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Review Questions.
1. What is emissive power? 2. What is emissivity? 3. Define black body? 4. What is grey body approximation? Why is it important? 5. What is Kirchoffs law of thermal radiation? 6. Why the red signal can be seen from large distance in comparison to green signal?

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9. CRITICAL HEAT FLUX

Aim: To determine the value of actual critical heat flux for given metal wire.
Theory: Pool Boiling:
When heat is added from a submerged surface, which is at higher temperature than saturation temp., the phenomenon is known as pool boiling phenomenon. In pool boiling the fluid is hot forced to flow by a mover such as a pump and any motion of the fluid due to natural convection currents and the motion of the babbles under the influence of buoyancy. According to the temp of the surrounding liquid pool boiling is classified as: a) Sub cooled or local boiling: - When the liquid is below the saturation temp. b) Saturated or bulk boiling: - When the liquid is at saturation temp. Depending upon the difference in wall temp and the saturation temp. It can be explained with the help of a graph known as Typical pool boiling curve and it shows three different zones as follows: 1. Natural Convection region: This region is obtained where the temp.is very small (T < 50C). In this region the heat flux increase with increase in temp.difference. Heat transfer takes place similar to natural convection. In this region vapour is produced at free surface at fluid by the evaporation. Hence it is called as zone of interference evaporation. 2. Nucleate Boiling region: This region is obtained where the temperature difference is in the range from 5 0C to 300C. Heat flux is increased by rapidly with temp.difference. And reaches to peak value. Due to high temp. difference bubbles of vapour are formed. In the initial portion (5 0C < T< 110
0

C ),the formation of bubble rate is very slow due to loss of heat to final the vapour get While in the following portion (100C < T < 300C ) the rate of formation of bubble is large

condensed and the bubbles are collapse. Because of this no. bubble reach to interface. at various locations. As the bubble leaves the metal surface is always available for heat transfer and hence in this region heat transfer rate increases continuously till it attains a maximum value. The peak value of heat flux is known as critical or burnout heat flux.

3. Film boiling region:

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As the temperature diff. Increases the rate of formation of bubbles becomes very high as the heat transfer coeff. of vapour is very small it acts as shield over metal surface. Initially the film is unstable, with increase in temp.diff. the film get stabilized and it offers more resistance to heat flow. The heat flux decreases continuously and finally become somewhat steady when the film become steady at (1200C < T < 10000C.)

Critical /Burnout heat flux:

At the end of nucleate boiling region the heat flux attains a max value. This value of heat flux is known as peak flux or critical heat flux.

Significance:
While designing the boiler, evaporators the major criteria is to obtain higher rate of heat flow from min. possible area. This is obtained by max. rate of heat flux. But as a poolboiling curve temp.difference increased the heat flux up to certain limit. Further increase in temp.difference. Heat flux reduces and thus there is a no of points in designing the equipment for temperature difference above that value correspond to critical heat flux. On the other hand if some one takes design heat flux value above critical flux, the req. temp.difference is much higher. this large temp.differance. may exceed melting point and failure of system may occur.

APPARATUS ; The apparatus consists of a cylindrical glass container housing the test heater and a heater coil for initial heating of the water. This heater coil is directly connected to the mains series while a voltmeter across it to read the current and voltage. on a stand. The schematic arrangement of the apparatus is shown in fig. (heater R 1) and the heater (Nichrome wire) is connected also to mains via a dimmerstat. An ammeter is connected in The glass container is kept

Specifications:
1. Glass container dia. = 200 mm. 2. Heater = Nichrome heater (RI ) = 1 KW. 3. Test heater Nichrome wire 4. Length of test heater (R2 ) = 100 mm. 5. Dimmerstat 10 A - 230 V. 6. Voltmeter 0 to 50 / 100 V. 7. Ammeter 0 to 10 Amp.
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8. Thermometer 0 to 1000C. 9. Dia. of the test heater wire = 0.12 mm

Precautions:
1.Keep the variac to zero position before starting the equipment. 2. Take sufficient amount of distilled water in container so that both the heaters are completely submerged. 3. Connect the test heater wires across the studs tightly. 4. Dont touch the water or terminal points after patting the switch on ON position. 5. Very gently operate the variac in steps and allow sufficient time in between. 6 After the attainment of critical heat flux condition, decrease slowly the voltage and bring it to zero.

Procedure:
1. Switch on the bulk heaters till the water attains the required temperature. 2. With the help of dimmerstat gradually increase the voltage supplied to the nichrome wire. 3. Observe the voltage and current reading continuously. 4. Record the voltage and current at the instant when the nichrom wire melts. 5. Observe the different types of boiling occurring on nichrom wire.

Observations:
1. 2. Voltage V = Current I = Critical heat flux Volts. Amp. =
VI A
KW

Calculations:
=
m2 MW m2 MW m2

VI dl

= ----=

-----

Result: The critical heat flux for given nichrom wire is Conclusion:

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-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Review Questions.
1. What is Stefan-Boltzman law? 2. What is heat convection? 3. What is potential for heat convection? 4. Differentiate between natural convection & forced convection? 5. Define Reynolds number, Prandtl number, and Grashoff number. 6. What are pool boiling, nucleate boiling and film boiling? 7. What is critical heat flux?

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HT Lab Manual

10. Parallel & Counter flow heat exchanger

Aim: To determine and compare -i) Temperature distribution. ii) Heat transfer rate. iii) Overall heat transfer coefficient. iv) To obtain the effectiveness of the parallel and counter flow heat exchangers.

Theory:
Heat exchangers are the devices in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another fluid. The necessity of doing this arises in number of industrial applications. Common examples of heat exchangers are the radiators of cars, the condenser of the refrigerator and the steam boiler of thermal power plant. Heat exchangers are classified as: 1. Transfer type. 3. Direct contact type. A transfer type is one in which both the fluid passes simultaneously through the device and is transferred through separating valves. In practice most of the heat exchangers used are transfer type. The transfer type heat exchangers are further classified according to the flow arrangement as: 1) Parallel flow. 2) Cross flow. A simple type of transfer type exchanger can be in the form of a tube in tube type arrangement as shown in fig 1. one fluid flowing through inner tube and other through the annulus surrounding it. The heat transfer takes place across the walls of the inner tube. 2) Counter flow 2. Storage type.

Description:
The apparatus consists of a tube in tube type concentric tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid is hot water which is obtained from electric geyser and it flows through the

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HT Lab Manual

inner tube while the cold fluid is cold water flowing through the annulus. The hot water flows always in one direction and flow rate of which is controlled by means of the valves. The cold water can be admitted at one of the end enabling the exchanger to run as a parallel flow or a counter flow. This is done by valve operation as shown in fig.

Apparatus:
i) Concentric tube type heat exchanger. ii) Electric geyser. iii) Valves to regulate water flow rate and to change direction. iv) Temperature indicator. v) Stop watch.

Specifications:
i) Inner diameter of inner tube (mtl. - Copper) di = 10.5 mm. ii) Outer diameter of inner tube do = 12.5 mm iii) Outer diameter of outer tube: Do = 33.8 mm. iv) Inner diameter of outer tube: Di = 27.5 mm. v) Length of the heat exchanger L = 1.65 m. vi) Geyser: Single phase type to obtain hot water supply. vii) RTD for temperature measurement 4 nos.

Procedure:
1) Start the flow of hot water side. 2) Start the flow through annuals & run the exchanger as parallel flow unit put on geyser. 3) Adjust the flow rate on hot water side between the range of 1.5 to 4 lit/min. 4) Adjust the rate on cold water side between the range of 3-8 Lit/min. 5) Keeping the flow rates same wait till the steady state conditions are reached. 6) Record the temp.of hot water and cold water side and also the flow rates accurately. 7) Repeat the experiment -th a counter flow under identical flow conditions.

Precautions:
1) Ensure that electrical connections are correct before 2) Check the pipe / hose connections as per chart for paralleled flow and counter flow heat exchanger. 3) Handle the RTDs gently.

Observation Table:
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HT Lab Manual

Flow Type Parallel Counter

Hot water Side Flow rate m Thi (Kg./min) ( 0C)

Tho ( 0C)

Cold water side Flow rate m Tci (Kg./min) ( 0C)

Tco ( 0C)

Calculations:
A) For parallel flow : 2) Qh = heat lost by hot water = mh. Cph. (Thi - Tho) Tmean =
Thi + Tho 2

= KJ

C.

Where, (Cph ) = (Cpc) = Qh = kW

kg .K

2) Qc = heat gained by cold water. = m c pc (Tco Tci ) ) Qc = Q avg = kW

q h + qc = 2

kW

3) LMTD Log Mean Temperature Difference. LMTD = Tm = LMTD =

Ti T0 log e ( Ti To )
K

2) Overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by-

Q = UA x Tm U=
Q A Tm

Overall heat transfer coeff. based on inner diameter, Ui = Ui =

Q Ai Tm

KW / m2K

Overall heat transfer coeff. based on outer diameter,

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HT Lab Manual

Uo = A T o m Uo = KW / m2K
Thi Tho Thi Tci

Effectiveness of heat exchanger: =

=
B) For counter flow: 3) Qh = heat lost by hot water = mh. Cph. (Thi - Tho) Tmean =
Thi + Tho 2

= KW

C.

Qh =

2) Qc = heat gained by cold water. = m c pc (Tco Tci ) ) Qc = ---------- KW Q avg =

q h + qc 2

3) LMTD Log Mean Temperature Difference. LMTD = Tm = LMTD =

Ti T0 log e ( Ti To )

3) Overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by-

q = UA x Tm U =
Q A Tm

Overall heat transfer coeff. based on inner diameter, Ui =

Q Ai Tm

Ui = --------- KW / m2K Overall heat transfer coeffs. based on outer diameter, Uo = A T o m Uo = -------------- KW / m2K
Q

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HT Lab Manual

Effectiveness of heat exchanger:

=
Thi Tho Thi Tci

= -------Conclusion:
The effectiveness and LMTD for counter and paralleled flow are as follow: Flow Type Parallel Counter Effectiveness LMTD

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Review questions
1. What are the classifications of heat exchangers? 2. Draw the temperature distribution of parallel flow & counter flow heat exchanger 3. What is LMTD? Why is more for counter flow heat exchanger? 4. Define for heat exchanger, effectiveness and NTU. 5. List various examples of heat exchangers.

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