CALI FORNI A

HEALTHCARE
FOUNDATION
June 2009
Physician Assistants and
Nurse Practitioners in
Specialty Care:
Six Practices Make It Work
June 2009
Physician Assistants and
Nurse Practitioners in
Specialty Care:
Six Practices Make It Work
Prepared for
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
by
Catherine Dower, J.D.
Sharon Christian, J.D.
Center for the Health Professions
University of California, San Francisco
2009 California HealthCare Foundation
About the Authors
Catherine Dower, J.D., is the associate director for research, and
Sharon Christian, J.D., is a senior research analyst at the Center for
the Health Professions, University of California, San Francisco.
The Centers mission is to transform health care through workforce
research and leadership development. For more information, visit
www.futurehealth.ucsf.edu.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the numerous study participants
and individuals who provided information for this report.
About the Foundation
The California HealthCare Foundation is an independent
philanthropy committed to improving the way health care is
delivered and nanced in California. By promoting innovations in
care and broader access to information, our goal is to ensure that all
Californians can get the care they need, when they need it, at a price
they can afford. For more information, visit www.chcf.org.
Contents
2 I. Executive Summary
3 II. Introduction and Background
Specialty PA and NP Workforce Data
General Education
Specialty Training Programs
5 III. Methodology
6 IV. Findings
Practice Models
Patient Caseload
Level of Supervision and Independent Practice
Training
Reimbursement and Sustainability
Effect on Access, Quality of Care
Few Regulatory Hurdles
Physician Acceptance and Perspectives
Six Examples of Specialty Practices
18 V. Conclusion
20 Endnotes
2
|
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
I. Executive Summary
IN CALIFORNIA, AS IN OTHER STATES,
consumers are having difculty getting access
to physicians in some specialties, including
gastroenterology, orthopedics, and dermatology.
1

The challenges may be particularly acute for patients
of community clinics and public hospitals. Many
specialty medical practices have incorporated
physician assistants (PAs) and nurse practitioners
(NPs) into their outpatient settings to improve access
to care, reduce wait times, and improve quality of
care.
A study by the Center for the Health Professions
at the University of California, San Francisco,
examined these emerging models to evaluate
their success and identify strategies that could be
replicated. The study focused on outpatient care in
three specialties with particularly high demand rates:
orthopedics, gastroenterology (GI), and dermatology.
The research found that utilization of physician
assistants and nurse practitioners varied across these
specialties. For example:
Orthopedics. Orthopedic practices commonly
rely on physician assistants to do many
orthopedic assessments and procedures. The
prevalence and long track record of this model
throughout the United States suggests it will
become even more widely adopted.
Gastroenterology. A growing number of GI
practices employ NPs and PAs to increase follow-
up patient volume, freeing physicians to do high-
level procedures. The business model is strong,
suggesting that this approach will become more
widespread.
Dermatology. Some practices employ PAs as
clinical providers for routine cases, allowing
supervising physicians to focus on complex cases
and surgeries.
The study found that these models generally
improved access, reduced wait times, and proved
nancially sustainable. Although quantitative
evidence is scarce, qualitative information points to
maintenance or improvement in quality of care.
The successful models have implications for
practitioners and delivery site managers, including
those at community clinics and public hospitals
where some patients experience signicant delays
in getting specialty care. Some sites might want to
develop a system relying on teams of physicians,
NPs, and PAs to provide specialty care. Others could
benet from fully understanding how such systems
work to facilitate efcient and effective referrals.
There are challenges to implementing these
models. Most PAs and NPs must be trained on the
job because of the small number of postgraduate
medical specialty programs. In addition, all
practitioners physicians, PAs, and NPs must be
aware of everyones strengths and limitations, must be
able to work collaboratively, and must keep lines of
communication open.
Sustainable nancing can be accomplished
with attention to the details of the practice model,
including incorporating time for supervision and
mentoring into the daily routine. Although state laws
and regulations regarding legal scopes of practice
for NPs and PAs should be considered, the legal
environment was not found to be a signicant barrier
to implementing these models.
Physician Assistants and Nurse Practitioners in Specialty Care: Six Practices Make It Work
|
3
II. Introduction and Background
DELAYS IN GETTING ACCESS TO SPECIALISTS IN
gastroenterology, orthopedics, and dermatology are primarily driven
by changing disease patterns and gaps between physician supply
and population demand. When demand for care exceeds capacity,
practices typically look to add another doctor. But this is not always
feasible, due to either a shortage of specialists or prohibitive salary
requirements, so new thinking has emerged regarding provider roles
and practice models. This study was designed to explore medical
practices across the United States that are integrating physician
assistants and nurse practitioners to provide high-level specialty care
and reduce backlogs. The movement appears to have gained some
traction, as evidenced by workforce data and education and training
opportunities.
Specialty PA and NP Workforce Data
Approximately 80,000 PAs practice in the United States. The
American Academy of Physician Assistants (AAPA) estimates that
over 60 percent of physician assistants practice in specialty (non-
primary) care areas, and most of these are in surgery including
orthopedics and emergency medicine. An estimated 10 percent of
PAs practice in internal medicine (which includes the subspecialty
of gastroenterology) and 4 percent in dermatology.
2
An estimated
140,000 NPs were practicing in the U.S. in 2004.
3
Given the current
NP data collection methods, it is difcult to estimate how many NPs
practice in medical specialties.
A limited but growing body of workforce analysis conrms the
integration of PAs and NPs into specialty care practices. One study
predicted that increased demand by older patients for specialist
gastroenterology treatment will put signicant pressure on the existing
workforce. It argued that research is urgently needed to determine
the best practice model for delivery of gastroenterological care,
including looking at models that utilize NPs and PAs in clinic and
hospital settings.
4
A 2008 study concluded that U.S. dermatologists
are increasingly employing NPs and PAs, though with signicant
variations in supervision and utilization patterns.
5
Data from the
Limited access to specialty care calls
for new thinking around provider
roles and practice models.
4
|
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
American Academy of Dermatology indicate that
an unmet demand for NPs and PAs likely persists,
as practice patterns differ signicantly among
dermatologists of different ages.
6, 7

General Education
The rationale for integrating PAs and NPs into
medical specialty practices is grounded in an
understanding of the education, training, and
competence of these practitioners. The average
physician assistant curriculum is 26 months of
didactic and clinical education under a generalist
medical model of care. Students may participate in
specialty rotations, typically a few weeks in duration,
while in school. PAs receive a general license and
may practice in primary care or in any specialty.
California requires national certication for initial
licensure and continuing education for re-licensure.
Physician assistants who choose to maintain national
certication must pass the national PA examination
every six years.
Nurse practitioners in California must have
at least a masters degree in nursing. They are
educated and trained to practice independently
and collaboratively with other practitioners such
as physicians. With few exceptions (such as nurse
anesthetists and nurse midwives), NPs are not
licensed in any particular specialty. NP specialty
certications tend to be in primary or hospital-
based care, including such areas as family practice,
pediatrics, geriatrics, womens health, and acute care.
They are not usually certied in medical specialty
areas. Licensed NPs must meet general continuing
education requirements every two years for re-
licensure.
Specialty Training Programs
While NPs have responded to specialty opportunities
and physician shortages with comprehensive
doctoral-level training programs, PAs have focused
on establishing specialty-specic programs.
10, 11
The
Association of Postgraduate Physician Assistant
Programs (APPAP) lists over 40 postgraduate
programs in 16 specialties, with the large majority
in surgery, emergency medicine, and other hospital-
based specialties.
12
Two postgraduate programs in
dermatology and three in orthopedics are available
to PAs. The APPAP does not recognize any
postgraduate training programs in gastroenterology,
although, as discussed below, some industry-
sponsored GI fellowships have been offered.
California Nursing Practice Act
Nurse practitioners in California must work in
collaboration with a supervising physician under
written standardized procedures. Within parameters
spelled out in the standardized procedures, they may
diagnose patients, order tests, and order or furnish
drugs.
8
California law requires that a physician may
supervise no more than four NPs who are furnishing
drugs. There is no legal limit on the number of NPs a
physician may supervise if the NPs are not furnishing
drugs.
California PA Practice Act
Physician assistants in California work with physician
supervision under a delegation of services agreement
that allows physicians to delegate duties within the
physicians scope of care, the PAs competencies, and
state law. PAs may take patient histories, perform
physical exams, order laboratory tests, establish
treatment plans, prescribe medications, and provide
patient education.
9
A physician may supervise no more
than four PAs at a time.
Physician Assistants and Nurse Practitioners in Specialty Care: Six Practices Make It Work
|
5
III. Methodology
THE LITERATURE REVIEW WAS CONDUCTED
using electronic searches for relevant publications
in health care and health policy databases such
as PubMed and the Cochrane Collaboration.
The Google Scholar database was searched for
professional association information, popular
literature, and examples of interdisciplinary teams.
Collectively, the searches generated hundreds of
potentially relevant documents, which were then
reviewed for direct applicability. The priority in this
study was to examine literature on practices offering
high-demand outpatient specialty services. Interview
subjects provided background information and
direction regarding the literature search.
Regulatory review sources included the California
Business and Professions Code and the California
Code of Regulations. Work previously published by
the authors regarding scope-of-practice regulation of
NPs and PAs was also reviewed for relevance.
13
In 2008, staff compiled a list of potential
interview subjects based on the literature and queries
to the Center for the Health Professions professional
network, including senior fellows, advisory
committee members, leadership fellowship program
representatives, and partner institutions. Potential
interview subjects were primarily physicians, NPs,
and PAs in medical specialty practices that included
NPs or PAs as providers, as well as knowledgeable
stakeholders. Over 50 letters of invitation to
participate were sent in late 2008 and early 2009, and
more than 30 telephone interviews were completed.
Structured interviews and data management were
conducted in accordance with UCSF Committee on
Human Research guidelines.
6
|
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
IV. Findings
TO COMPLEMENT EXISTING DATA AND TO GAIN NEW
information, in late 2008 and early 2009, UCSF staff interviewed
over 30 individuals in more than a dozen medical specialty practices
across the United States that used PAs and/or NPs to provide
advanced clinical care to patients. Most participants reported that NPs
or PAs were an integral part of their specialty practice because they
signicantly eased the bottleneck of patients awaiting care. Although
interviewees noted some challenges, which are explored below, the
overwhelming majority reported positive outcomes from utilizing NPs
and PAs. Most agreed that their care delivery model should be widely
adopted, given the increased patient satisfaction and improved quality
of care credited to the assistance of these clinicians.
Acting as both communication links between patients and
specialists and as care providers themselves, NPs and PAs improved
coordination, reduced wait times, and increased access to care.
Further, NPs and PAs helped free physicians to attend to more
complicated cases, which translated to a positive bottom line for
practice revenue. Many study participants reported that their practices
successfully expanded to meet increasing patient populations.
Practice Models
At the specialty practice sites in this study, NPs and PAs generally
shared responsibilities with specialist physicians and saw both new
and follow-up patients. NPs and PAs commonly ordered tests, devised
treatment plans, and assisted with surgeries and procedures. Specic
practice duties differed among the specialties, as outlined below.
Orthopedics
Study participants reported that PAs and NPs were already widely
used in many orthopedic practices. PAs were more deployed than
NPs, although supervising physicians noted no other reason besides
tradition. Ten percent of PAs (6,900 in the United States) who
practice in a surgical specialty are in orthopedics.
14
Orthopedic
PAs typically see patients, order and interpret diagnostic studies,
rotate in hospitals, set fractures, apply casts, and inject steroids.
At the specialty practice sites in
this study, NPs and PAs generally
shared responsibilities with specialist
physicians and saw both new and
follow-up patients.
Physician Assistants and Nurse Practitioners in Specialty Care: Six Practices Make It Work
|
7
Some community clinics host a weekly or monthly
orthopedic clinic staffed by a nurse practitioner
employed by a local orthopedic group. These NPs
generally perform nonsurgical orthopedic services,
such as injecting joints; setting broken bones;
assessing the severity of strains or sprains on hips,
shoulders, and knees; and evaluating the need for
surgery.
15
PAs practicing in orthopedic outpatient
settings may also have local hospital privileges. These
hospitalist PAs responsibilities typically include
performing minor surgical procedures, such as
debridement and pin removal; rst assisting in the
operating room; conducting post-surgery rounds;
and ordering X-rays.
Gastroenterology
PAs and NPs in gastroenterology and hepatology
perform a wide range of diagnostic and therapeutic
procedures, including exible sigmoidoscopies,
paracentesis, liver biopsies, esophageal studies,
assisting with percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy
tube placement, and ongoing counseling for patients
with diseases such as hepatitis. Many evaluate
patients for colon cancer. They treat patients for
gastroesophageal reux disease, pancreatic diseases,
hepatitis, cirrhosis, and inammatory bowel
diseases.
16
Both NPs and PAs were employed equally in
gastroenterology; physicians sought competent
clinicians, preferably with some prior experience in
the specialty. Study participants reported that NPs
and PAs typically require six months of training in
core gastroenterology conditions, such as stomach
bleeding, colon cancer, and nausea and vomiting,
to handle their own patients. Years of additional
training, however, are required for prociency in
advanced GI areas such as pancreatic issues, cirrhosis,
and inammatory bowel disease. Most of the
clinicians interviewed for this study did not receive
formal GI training but were trained on the job.
To keep up with colon cancer screening demand
that is exceeding GI physician supply, some hospitals
run small, very efcient endoscopy centers using
PAs to help handle the patient volume. One care
provider suggested developing a colonoscopy center
model with one gastroenterologist on-site while NPs
or PAs performed concurrent colonoscopies. The
specialist would be in a control room with monitors
to supervise each patient, enabling the physician to
communicate verbally with clinicians or attend to
patients with problems.
17
Dermatology
Study participants reported that PAs were more
likely than NPs to be working in dermatology.
Dermatology PAs typically manage chronic
conditions such as psoriasis, rosacea, vascular
abnormalities, eczema, and acne. Since all PAs receive
suture training, they are well suited to perform
biopsies and simple excisions in dermatology ofces.
They may also perform skin cancer screenings
and minor surgeries, and assist in major medical
procedures such as Mohs surgery.
18
Additionally,
some PAs perform cosmetic procedures including
laser resurfacing, dermabrasion, and chemical peels.
One care provider said dermatology is a great
eld for PAs, since roughly 25 percent of her practice
covers primary care skin conditions.
19
She believes
the repetitive nature of dermatology especially in
cases of acne, warts, and psoriasis means PAs may
quickly become procient. It can be an excellent
specialty for PAs to handle the bulk of simple cases,
allowing physicians to attend to more complex
surgical or cosmetic procedures.
8
|
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
Patient Caseload
Some PAs and NPs carried their own patient
loads from start to nish, allowing for continuity
of care. Other NPs and PAs shared patients to
evenly distribute the burden of caseloads. Practices
reportedly functioned optimally when specialists
were condent in both the clinicians skills and their
discretion in knowing when to bring complex cases
to supervising physicians. Also key was respecting
patients and referring physicians requests to
see a physician specialist, particularly for initial
workup. Study participants also reported that some
highly specialized NPs and PAs (in liver disease,
for example) served as resources to their physician
colleagues.
Level of Supervision and Independent
Practice
Some PAs and NPs worked with several physicians,
while others partnered with only one specialist.
Supervising physicians were usually on-site or
available by phone, but most NPs and PAs reported
that they condently handled most outpatient needs
without direct supervision. Physicians conrmed
these assessments. Some clinicians practiced at
one site (clinic or hospital) full time while their
supervising physicians traveled among sites or split
their time between hospital and clinic work. Other
NPs and PAs worked at multiple sites.
Training
Presently, postgraduate training in the specialties
is limited. In PA programs, students are trained
in general surgery and may participate in elective
rotations in their specialty of choice. Many PAs
reported that they were hired by the practices where
they had done their rotations. NPs may elect to earn
postgraduate certications in areas such as womens
health or pediatrics, but certicates in the outpatient
medical specialties of this study are not offered.
To supplement their skills and fulll re-licensure
requirements, nurse practitioners and physician
assistants often take continuing medical education
courses alongside specialist physicians. Study
participants in California noted the Orthopaedic
Surgery Physician Assistant Residency Program
at Arrowhead Regional Medical Center. It is a
12-month intensive didactic and clinical training
program designed to prepare PAs for careers in
orthopedic surgery. Several care providers said they
prefer to hire graduates of this program.
Given the limited availability of postgraduate
training, NPs and PAs in specialty care typically
receive the bulk of their specialty training from their
supervising physicians on the job. One interview
subject suggested that NPs and PAs practicing in
academic centers may be more fortunate because
hospitals have formal specialty training programs for
their fellows. Other practices may have less structured
procedures for on-the-job training. According to
study participants, it can take several months to
a year of on-the-job training for NPs and PAs to
perform to the level of competency required by
employers. Observing and shadowing physicians is
critical, regardless of prior experience and formal
institutional training.
However, some training could be standard and
theoretically completed prior to beginning work.
Several NPs and PAs indicated they would be
interested in formal procedure- or condition-specic
training courses, if they were available. Several
specialist physicians reported interest in standard
postgraduate programs to facilitate the hiring process
and streamline on-the-job orientation and training.
There is an ongoing national debate regarding
the establishment of specialty certication for
PAs. Given their generalist education, PAs may
choose any medical specialty after graduation. In
Physician Assistants and Nurse Practitioners in Specialty Care: Six Practices Make It Work
|
9
addition, certication by the National Commission
on Certication of Physician Assistants (NCCPA),
which is required by all states as a prerequisite
for licensure, is a general, non-specialty focused
certication. Many PAs move among specialties
throughout their careers and enjoy a range of practice
settings. Stakeholders reluctant to formalize specialty
training are concerned that such certication
requirements could impede the professional mobility
of PAs and NPs by pigeonholing them into certain
specialties, creating additional barriers to access. One
study participant cautioned that any certication
scheme that requires experience in the specialty prior
to certication will discourage new PAs from entering
the specialty.
20
Some postgraduate programs could
nd accreditation and recognition requirements
challenging, such as granting degrees or being
afliated with academic institutions. On the other
hand, the lack of standardization and individual
focus currently required to train each clinician could
impede practitioner mobility among practices within
specialties. This, in turn, could hamper access to care
by perpetuating the insufcient workforce supply and
difculties in recruitment.
Several independent professional organizations
have moved to establish their own postgraduate
programs. For example, the American Association
for the Study of Liver Diseases has offered highly
selective fellowship programs for NPs and PAs
specializing in hepatology, supported by funding
from pharmaceutical companies. The national
Gastroenterology Physician Assistants association
is developing a standardized core curriculum with
continuing medical education organizations. The
NCCPA has recently decided to take the rst steps
toward offering a voluntary PA specialty credential.
21
Reimbursement and Sustainability
Generally, third-party payers reimburse practices
for services provided by NPs and PAs but policies
vary depending on the service and the level of
clinician independence. When these clinicians
independently provide services to patients, Medicare
typically reimburses at 85 percent of the physician
reimbursement rates.
Outpatient services may alternatively be billed
under Medicares incident to physician care
provisions, which reimburse at 100 percent of the
physicians reimbursement rate if the following
guidelines are met: 1) the physician is physically
on-site when the NP or PA provides care; 2) the
physician personally treats and diagnoses patients
on their rst visit for a particular condition, though
NPs and PAs may provide subsequent care; and
3) patients with new conditions are treated and
diagnosed by the physician, though NPs and PAs
may provide subsequent care. Further, the physician
must remain involved in the patients care.
22
Under Medi-Cal, Californias Medicaid program,
services provided by PAs and NPs may be reimbursed
at 100 percent of the amount payable to a physician
for the same service. Medi-Cal rates are notoriously
low, however, and while any service provided by a PA
working under a physician may be billed to Medi-
Cal, only primary care services provided by NPs
may be billed.
23
Despite these limitations, Medi-Cal
may be critical to specialty services for some patient
populations. A recent analysis found that recent
policy changes permit Federally Qualied Health
Centers to provide preventive and screening specialty
services; these services are associated with enhanced
Medi-Cal reimbursement, which is key to nancing
specialty care services at safety-net clinics.
24, 25

Services provided to patients enrolled in Medi-
Cal managed care plans are reimbursable under
varying plan policies. Similarly, while many private
10
|
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
third-party payers follow Medicare guidelines,
individual plan policies may vary.
Practices that participated in the study reported
being in good nancial positions in large part because
of their integration of physician assistants and nurse
practitioners. Many ofces arranged their practice
models to comply with Medicare policy, allowing
them to bill NP and PA services at 100 percent of
the physician rate. Even if they billed some services
at 85 percent, the increased patient volume and the
lower salaries of NPs and PAs contributed to solid
nancing. In many practices, the increased patient
volume was divided: Routine, follow-up patients
were directed to NPs and PAs and new, more acute,
or complex cases were seen by physicians. These
acute and complex cases are often associated with
high-level procedures, which are reimbursed at high
rates.
Published studies examining how integration
of PAs and NPs into specialty practices has affected
costs are sparse but noteworthy. A 2006 article
regarding NPs and PAs in a GI practice found that
billing charges were two and a half to four times the
salaries of the NPs and PAs, making them extremely
cost-effective.
26
Additional research has shown that
PAs generate revenue far greater than the cost of their
compensation.
27

Effect on Access, Quality of Care
Study participants reported that in addition to
the nancial benets, integrating NPs and PAs
contributed to positive results in terms of access and
quality. Especially notable were reduced wait times
for patients to secure appointments and increases
in the overall number of patients or appointments.
This increase in volume was directly associated with
PAs and NPs assuming signicant patient caseloads.
Study participants also reported improved care
coordination, which leads to patient satisfaction
and better quality care. When PAs and NPs handled
many routine and follow-up patient visits, specialty
physicians were freed to focus on complex cases.
The better match of expertise between provider and
patient reportedly improved the quality of care.
Published outcomes data on NPs and PAs in
specialty medical practice is limited but consistent
with the interviews and with long-established
research that has found NP- and PA-provided
primary care comparable to care provided by
physicians.
28
In specialty practices, outcomes were
almost always positive and were measured in terms
of clinical and cost effectiveness, increased physician
time for more complex duties, increased capacity to
accept new patients, and decreased lengths of stay
and readmission rates for inpatients.
29
Numerous
studies compared the work of NPs and PAs to a
variety of other clinicians, including primary and
specialty physicians, residents, and certied nurse
specialists, and found comparable competence.
30

For example, a study measuring patient quality of
life and treatment outcomes found that hepatology
NPs can be as effective as physicians.
31
Several
articles have specically examined the dynamics of
interdisciplinary practices using providers of various
professions, including NPs and PAs. Most studies
concluded that these teams achieved positive clinical
outcomes.
32

Few Regulatory Hurdles
All of the study participants reported being able to
implement successful practice models integrating PAs
and NPs as clinicians well within their state legal and
regulatory frameworks. Responses varied, however,
with regard to whether state scope-of-practice
laws were appropriately broad. One GI physician
assistant described struggling with her states vague
laws regarding authority to discharge patients. A few
clinicians were dissatised with state rules prohibiting
Physician Assistants and Nurse Practitioners in Specialty Care: Six Practices Make It Work
|
11
them from prescribing controlled substances, though
most practitioners could work with the prohibition
because they had access to prescribing specialists.
Other care providers reported that physician chart
sign-off requirements were time-consuming and
unnecessary.
Most study participants were satised with
the range of services they provided and the level
of physician oversight. Exceptions included rare
occasions when specialists were not readily available
when needed, and when NPs or PAs felt rotating
physicians didnt trust them. Most physicians
reported satisfaction with state scope-of-practice laws
and regulations regarding NPs and PAs, although one
asserted that his practice model worked as well as it
did because its monitoring system was stricter than
required by the state. Study participants who had
overlapping inpatient and outpatient responsibilities
noted increasing requirements to comply with
hospital policies and credentialing rules, which can
encompass matters already covered by state practice
acts, such as scope of practice, safety, privacy,
and billing. Additionally, these requirements may
vary among different sites, creating confusion for
clinicians who practice at multiple sites or wish to
move from one site to another.
Physician Acceptance and Perspectives
Several study participants noted that some physicians
were initially reluctant to fully accept NPs and PAs
as clinicians. Some suggested that physicians who
had not worked with NPs or PAs as colleagues before
often were unaware of what they could do in a
clinical setting. Others stressed that some physicians
were very concerned about the competence of PAs
and NPs. Some thought that community practice
physicians, particularly those just starting their
careers, might be uncomfortable bringing an NP or
PA into the practice before the practice is nancially
well established, out of concern for competition.
Other physicians were troubled by the amount of
time they would need to dedicate to training and
mentoring NPs and PAs, time that would need to be
taken from already busy schedules.
All of the study participants reported that any
hesitancy among physicians was overcome with
time, comprehensive practice procedures, and daily
interactions with NPs and PAs. Some physicians
probably will always want tighter control and
supervision over PAs and NPs. But it appears
that once physicians work with competent and
appropriately trained NPs and PAs, they understand
and appreciate how such an arrangement can work
for the benet of everyone involved.
At the same time, a few study participants
cautioned that some physicians in other settings may
have gone too far with their use of NPs and PAs.
They thought these practitioners may be excessively
or inappropriately used. They warned of consequent
decreases in quality of care, especially where NPs
and PAs are insufciently trained and/or do not
understand their limitations. Physicians and other
clinicians said the greatest potential issue is not
always PAs or NPs overstepping boundaries, but can
be doctors acting irresponsibly when working with
NPs and PAs.
12
|
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
Six Examples of Specialty Practices
In-depth follow-up interviews were conducted with
representatives from two sites in each of the three
specialties to get a detailed picture of how these
models work. These case studies are examples of
specic practices that have integrated PAs and NPs
into their clinical settings.
Orthopedics
KAISER PERMANENTE FONTANA MEDICAL CENTER,
ORTHOPEDIC DEPARTMENT, FONTANA, CA
members.kaiserpermanente.org/kpweb/facilitydir/facility.do?
id=100127&rop=SCA#anchor1
The Kaiser Fontana Medical Center Orthopedic
Department relies on 13 physician assistants and
one nurse practitioner to provide a broad range of
out- and inpatient services, including rst call
for all orthopedic consult requests from urgent
care, primary care, emergency, or inpatient services.
Although Kaisers closed nancing model is unique,
the orthopedic practice model is worth noting
because of the range and quality of services PAs
provide.
PAs conduct all initial evaluations and fully
handle an estimated 80 percent to 90 percent
of patient cases, with the remainder such as
fractures that are not reducible and may require
surgery referred to physicians. PAs order and
read imaging studies and other tests, apply casts, set
bones such as wrists, prescribe medications (except
schedule II drugs at discharge), and provide most
other orthopedic treatment. Fourteen physicians
supervise the PAs. A team of four rotating PAs works
essentially as PA hospitalists to support inpatient care
and work closely with three internist physicians. The
nurse practitioner works in podiatric surgery.
Kaiser Fontana orthopedic PAs work fairly
independently. Although supervising physicians are
usually available on-site, the model is structured
for PAs to see and treat patients on their own
without direct physician oversight at all times. PAs
and NPs are considered active clinical partners and
professional colleagues; they not only attend but also
deliver departmental lectures on specic conditions
or procedures. Jim Delaney, PA-C, sees the Kaiser
practice as notable in its recognition of competence
of PAs and the role they can play.
Kaiser relies heavily on the nearby postgraduate
orthopedic training offered at Arrowhead Regional
Medical Center, which in turn depends on Kaiser
for student rotation opportunities. Mary Hurley,
M.D., chair of the orthopedic department at Kaiser
Fontana, noted that the department only hires PAs
who have completed an orthopedic postgraduate
program at one of the few such programs in the
country. After they are hired, the physician assistants
are expected to become PA IIs, a job classication
that indicates a high level of competency. The
department continues to work on its commitment
to adequately proctor and mentor PAs during this
process.
Representatives from Kaiser Fontana see
themselves as having been on the cutting edge of
the movement to bring PAs fully into orthopedic
practice, a movement that could still go further
throughout California and the United States. Both
Dr. Hurley and Mr. Delaney indicated that the
integration of PAs had enabled the department to
meet an extremely high and growing demand for
orthopedic services. Indeed, Dr. Hurley said she
did not know how the department would function
without PAs. She also believes quality of care has
improved with the PAs rounding and seeing hospital
patients, in large part because of the PAs attention to
detail.
Physician Assistants and Nurse Practitioners in Specialty Care: Six Practices Make It Work
|
13
ST. JOHNS CLINIC ORTHOPEDIC SPECIALISTS,
SPRINGFIELD, MO
www.stjohns.com/healthinfo/adult/orthopaedics
St. Johns Clinic Orthopedic Specialists provides a
full range of orthopedic services within an integrated
health care system owned and operated by the Sisters
of Mercy. Approximately 13 physician assistants
work with 16 orthopedic physicians providing
both in- and outpatient clinical care. The clinic is
probably a good example of many practices across the
country that have incorporated signicant numbers
of PAs into clinical care due to increased demand.
Jeff Del Vecchio, MPAS, PA-C, who has worked
at the clinic for 11 years, noted that the clinic has
grown signicantly in numbers of physicians and
PAs and volume of patients during that time. In
addition to hospital responsibilities such as daily
patient rounds, assisting in the operating room,
and call duty, Mr. Del Vecchio provides outpatient
care in the clinic. Outpatient services provided by
the PAs include seeing and evaluating patients,
applying and removing casts, prescribing medications
(except narcotics), ordering and interpreting tests,
and delivering joint injections. Physicians and PAs
usually work together in teams of two, though some
physicians in the group do not work with any PAs.
With the one-on-one team approach, PAs always
have access to a physician and receive both direct and
general supervision.
The practice experimented with allowing
experienced PAs to see some new patients but
modied its policy due to concerns from some
community primary care physicians. Now, all new
patients see a physician in addition to a PA. Patients
are seen exclusively by PAs for many follow-up visits,
although physicians emphasize to PAs during their
orientation and training that they must continuously
sharpen their skills regarding patient satisfaction and
assess whether a patient may want to see a physician
instead of, or in addition to, the PA.
Training for PAs at St. Johns is mostly on the job
and through continuing medical education courses,
which are readily available. Fred McQueary, M.D.,
an orthopedic surgeon and St. Johns Springeld
division president, noted that although it is not
required of the PAs with whom he works, he sees
advantages to having a specialty-focused postgraduate
training program for PAs because it would permit
them to practice more independently more quickly.
However, there would still need to be some
orientation time six to 12 months, perhaps for
each PA to learn how the physician with whom
he or she will be working thinks, treats, and deals
with patients. The clinic offers orthopedic rotation
opportunities to students at a local physician assistant
program where Mr. Del Vecchio teaches, and has had
success hiring from the programs graduates.
With a large and varied patient population,
reimbursement options and rates differ from patient
to patient. As in other settings, reimbursement
rates for PAs can be lower than those for physicians.
However, even if PAs are reimbursed at a lower rate,
patient access to care can be increased with this
model because PAs can see follow-up patients, freeing
physicians to see new consults, perform surgeries,
and care for patients with complex conditions. As
Dr. McQueary pointed out, though, the integration
of PAs into an orthopedic practice is not so much a
cost-saver as a lifestyle-saver. Once a new physician
has built up enough of a patient caseload to justify
the cost of a PAs salary, it is worth bringing one into
the practice so the team can handle on-call and
other patient care demands.
14
|
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
Gastroenterology
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA, DEPARTMENT OF MEDICINE,
DIVISION OF GASTROENTEROLOGY, HEPATOLOGY &
NUTRITION, GAINESVILLE, FL
www.medicine.u.edu/gastro
The Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Nutrition
Division within the University of Floridas (UF)
Department of Medicine is a top-ranked unit in the
United States. A team of 14 medical doctors, four
PAs, and three NPs work to meet extremely high-
volume demands for GI services ranging from basic
assessments to liver transplants. Chris Forsmark,
M.D., professor of medicine and chief of the
gastroenterology division, underscored that the unit
could not function without PAs and NPs.
Physician assistants and nurse practitioners focus
on outpatient needs and function similarly to medical
fellows or junior attending physicians. Working
collaboratively with the physicians, the PAs and NPs
have broad scopes of responsibility and competence.
The unit stresses communication among all clinicians
and works to ensure that PAs and NPs have access to
physicians whenever needed. Specic responsibilities
vary. Rick Davis, PA-C, who has been working as a
licensed PA in GI settings for 26 years including
15 years at UF works closely with an attending
physician and the medical director to evaluate and
treat patients with advanced GI and liver diseases.
Nurse practitioner Mitzi Tucker, who focuses on
hepatology, runs the hepatitis C treatment program.
After an initial evaluation by a physician, patients are
seen and treated by Ms. Tucker throughout their six-
to-18-month course.
Practitioners have different education and
training backgrounds. Ms. Tucker worked in liver
disease as a registered nurse prior to her NP studies.
As an NP, she completed a fellowship with the
American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases.
Dr. Forsmark noted that the division seeks PAs and
NPs with some experience, preferably in GI. Even
a GI rotation in school is not sufcient, however. It
is expected to take at least six months of on-the-job
training to grasp the basics of disease management
and up to 12 months to be competent to see patients
independently and draft well-reasoned treatment plan
letters. From Dr. Forsmarks perspective, postgraduate
GI programs for PAs and NPs would be a signicant
contribution. He also said he sees potential for
identifying competent GI centers for training PAs
and NPs so future employers would have condence
in training quality.
NP and PA services covered by public insurance
programs can be billed at 85 percent of the
physician rate, permitting physicians to focus on
fully reimbursable procedures and complex clinical
services. Private insurance contracts with UF do not
allow billing for independent NP and PA services,
which perpetuates backlogs of patients who must
wait to see a physician. In response, several clinics
now see Medicare and Medicaid patients exclusively.
At some of these clinics, PAs such as Mr. Davis
practice quite independently and treat patients on
their own, checking in with physicians only as legally
and medically indicated. These clinics have been
successful in providing patients access to quality GI
care they otherwise would not have received. The
only other challenges UF clinicians noted related
to state practice laws. The co-signature rule has just
been deleted by Florida state laws; NPs and PAs both
have prescriptive authority in the state, but not for
controlled substances.
The integration of physician assistants and nurse
practitioners into UFs GI unit has been invaluable.
As Dr. Forsmark noted, they make the whole process
much more efcient. He estimated that patient wait
times have been reduced from six months to three
over a two-year period in part due to the PAs and
NPs. Without them, he said, the system would grind
to a halt. With them, the division has increased the
Physician Assistants and Nurse Practitioners in Specialty Care: Six Practices Make It Work
|
15
volume and number of procedures performed, which
in turn has boosted revenue streams.
DIGESTIVE HEALTH SPECIALISTS, FEDERAL WAY, WA
www.digestivehlth.com
Digestive Health Specialists (DHS) is a specialty
group of medical doctors and non-physician clinical
staff working at nine gastroenterology outpatient
clinics and four endoscopy centers in and around
Tacoma, Washington. Collectively, eight physician
assistants and ve nurse practitioners complement
a team of about 20 gastroenterologist physicians
to provide care in outpatient settings and at several
afliated local hospitals for inpatient services. DHS
hired its rst non-physician provider in 1987 to help
meet demand that was outpacing provider supply.
33

The group has continued to expand its overall size
and the number of NPs and PAs in the practice ever
since.
Although specic duties and responsibilities may
vary, the PAs and NPs work fairly independently and
provide a full range of medical care except high-
level diagnoses and procedures such as endoscopy
and colonoscopy. For example, Timothy Morton,
PA-C, who focuses on liver disease, follows patients
continuously from initial consult through treatment.
With physicians always available to answer questions,
his practice includes making decisions regarding
diagnosis, medication, treatment, and laboratory
tests. Mr. Morton has also developed a strong
professional relationship with gastroenterology
specialists at the local academic center and teaching
hospital, whom he can call for complex questions or
cases.
Because there is no standard training pathway for
PAs and NPs in gastroenterology, the backgrounds
of these practitioners at Digestive Health Specialists
vary. Mr. Morton took advantage of a one-year GI
fellowship that was offered to PAs and NPs by
Schering-Plough Corporation, a pharmaceutical
company that makes, among other products,
interferon for treatment of hepatitis C. This
fellowship provided him with a good working
knowledge of gastroenterology. He still had close
physician oversight for his rst four to six months at
DHS before taking broad responsibilities for patient
care. Other PAs and NPs, especially new graduates,
have come to DHS with more general family practice
backgrounds that sometimes necessitate longer on-
the-job training periods.
The stafng model at DHS ensures physicians are
always available and incorporates time for physician
review so PA and NP services are billed as incident
to physician services, at 100 percent of the physician
reimbursement rate. An article by James Wagonfeld,
M.D., former CEO of DHS, included billing data
and productivity comparisons that demonstrated
charges generally running at two and a half to four
times the non-physician provider (NPP) salary.
Although productivity must be mitigated by the need
for physician supervision, which can require as much
as 25 percent of a physicians time with inexperienced
practitioners, Dr. Wagonfeld noted that the value of
NPPs cannot be overemphasized. To underscore the
business case, he went on to state that NPPs do an
outstanding job of handling 80 percent of the cases at
a fraction of a physician salary.
34
The model at Digestive Health Specialists, which
fully integrates PAs and NPs into the practice as
collaborative providers, has been very successful. As
noted in the conclusion of Dr. Wagonfelds article,
NPPs greatly enhance physician productivity,
revenue, and patient and physician satisfaction.
16
|
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
Dermatology
DERMATOLOGY CLINIC, P.C., SALEM, OR
www.salemdermatology.com
The Dermatology Clinic is a private group practice
composed of four dermatology physicians and three
physician assistants. Each PA has his or her own
patient caseload, which is generally equal to the
physician caseloads. Compared with physicians, PAs
for the most part provide a similar scope of clinical
services. Exceptions include some complicated
surgeries and diagnostically complex patients,
whom the physicians handle. PAs see patients, write
treatment plans, prescribe medication, perform
biopsies for skin cancer, make incisions, and provide
some laser treatments. PAs work collaboratively with
physicians on-site, requiring minimal supervision
but under a rigorous monitoring policy. PAs do not
see patients without a physician on-site. All new
patients are seen by a physician and a PA at their
rst visit. PAs may see the patients on their own for
follow-up visits when there is no change in treatment
plans; if any questions arise, the PA consults with
the physician to resolve the question, reevaluate the
patient, and/or re-establish a treatment plan. If any
new problems arise, the patient sees the physician. All
PAs work with all physicians and interact regularly
throughout the day.
The PAs in the group came from different
backgrounds. Amy Ullan, PA-C, for example,
worked for several years as a medical assistant in
the Dermatology Clinic before going to PA school.
Carolyn Greenwade, administrator at Dermatology
Clinic, stressed that the practice relies heavily on
graduates from the physician assistant program at
Oregon Health & Science University because it is
a good program and offers dermatology rotations
at local settings such as the clinic. Although some
dermatology postgraduate programs are available
nationally, most postgraduate training for PAs at this
practice is intensive on-the-job training, including
seeing every patient jointly with a physician for
several months. Some continuing education and
conferences are also available. An estimated three
to six months is required to train new graduates
from a PA program sufciently to permit them to
see their own patients. Jon Denton, M.D., who has
been at Dermatology Clinic since 1987, sees value in
developing more postgraduate dermatology programs
for PAs. Dr. Denton said he thinks standard
postgraduate programs would make it easier to hire
PAs in this specialty and would encourage greater
acceptance of PAs by physician dermatologists.
Without such formal training, some physicians in
this eld are reluctant to accept PAs.
Most of the clinics patients have health
insurance through Medicare or other government
programs. Under the monitoring and practice
guidelines outlined above, most PA services are
billed at 100 percent of the physician rate. The time
physicians spend overseeing the PAs work is offset
by the volume of patients that can be seen, and the
practice is in good nancial shape.
Dermatology Clinic sees itself as one of the
early leaders in the area to integrate PAs into a
dermatology practice. Today, many local practices
rely on PAs to some degree, although there may be
differences in practice protocols and monitoring
guidelines. Despite initial reluctance among
some physicians in the group, Dr. Denton has a
high opinion of the PAs and values their work.
As other physicians have come to trust the PAs
and the monitoring system that is in place, their
concerns particularly around the PAs technical
and diagnostic skills were resolved and clinicians
are very comfortable with the model. PAs do a
great deal of work well within their training and
competence. Although the group has not done any
formal measurements, it appears that the practice
Physician Assistants and Nurse Practitioners in Specialty Care: Six Practices Make It Work
|
17
functions well and that they are seeing more patients
in less time.
CENTRAL CAROLINA DERMATOLOGY CLINIC INC.
HIGH POINT, N.C.
www.centralcarolinaderm.com
This six-physician dermatology group employs one
physician assistant, Gary Engstrom, PA-C, who sees
25 to 40 patients per day. He does evaluations, orders
laboratory tests, orders ultraviolet light treatment,
and performs biopsies and excisional surgeries
(though not aps, grafts, or Mohs surgeries). He has
prescriptive authority but no Drug Enforcement
Agency number, by choice, so he does not prescribe
narcotics. He has worked with this practice for ve
years and previously was at another dermatology
practice for seven years. With this experience, he
works fairly independently and occasionally consults
with the physicians for second opinions or complex
cases.
Mr. Engstrom is aware of the two dermatology
postgraduate programs currently available but, aside
from his dermatology rotation during physician
assistant school, most of his specialty training
has been on the job. He has taken advantage of
continuing education courses, distance learning
programs, and national conferences devoted to
dermatology. For his rst six to 12 months, he only
saw patients with a physician also present. By that
point, he estimated, he could provide most of the
dermatological services provided by a primary care
physician (e.g., routine acne, warts). By his second
year in dermatology practice, he had sufcient
condence and trust from his physician colleagues to
see his own patients.
For Central Carolina Dermatology patients
covered by private insurance, PA services are usually
reimbursed at the physician rate. As in other settings,
the Medicare rate for PA services is 85 percent
that of the physician rate if the PA sees the patient
independently. If the PA sees the patient incident
to the services of the physician, the reimbursable
rate is 100 percent.
Mr. Engstrom emphasized the importance of
PAs knowing their limitations when practicing
dermatology. Physicians working with PAs also
have a responsibility to train and trust their PA
colleagues, and not to misuse them in any way.
While the practice has not formally collected data,
Mr. Engstrom said that well-trained PAs free up
physicians to do higher-level procedures, and he
noted that six-month wait times for appointments
are now a thing of the past at the clinic.
18
|
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
V. Conclusion
A NUMBER OF MEDICAL SPECIALTY PRACTICES ACROSS
the United States rely in part on NPs and PAs to provide clinical
care, including high-demand specialties such as orthopedics,
gastroenterology, and dermatology. These practices have successfully
improved access to care for patient populations that had been
experiencing signicant wait times to see specialists. This has been
accomplished with sustainable nancial systems. Safety and quality
of care has been maintained, if not improved. The literature, while
limited in this area, supports the notion that such practice models can
have positive impacts on access, cost, and quality of care.
With many Californians experiencing long wait times to see
specialists in these elds, it is worth exploring the possibility of
replicating these practice models throughout the state. Particular
attention could be placed on replicating these models for patients of
community clinics and public hospitals, which have been reporting
severe bottlenecks in referring patients to specialist practices.
While these models are persuasive evidence that alternative ways
to provide care can be better than historical models, some areas
of further research and improvement are recommended. There is
room for education and information-sharing among all types of
practitioners about these models, how they work best, and their
limitations. In addition, further quantitative research about their
impact on access, cost, and quality could better inform all involved.
Finally, the limited availability of postgraduate programs in the
medical specialties for PAs and NPs could be explored and addressed
to better prepare these clinicians to provide specialty patient care.
The successful medical specialty practice models that have
integrated PAs and NPs as clinicians have several important
implications for practices in California, particularly for community
clinics and public hospitals that are facing patient demand exceeding
current capacity.
Replication of practice models. Some community clinics and
public hospitals may be able to replicate these models by hiring
PAs and/or NPs to complement part- or full-time specialist
With many Californians
experiencing long wait times to
see specialists in these fields, it is
worth exploring the possibility of
replicating these practice models
throughout the state.
Physician Assistants and Nurse Practitioners in Specialty Care: Six Practices Make It Work
|
19
physicians in the specialties that are in highest
demand for their populations. The model clinics
discussed in the case studies are in a strong
position to inform clinics across California
about maximizing utilization of NPs and PAs.
Investment money from the federal government
35

might stimulate adoption of these models but
current reimbursement policies, if applied to a
well-administered practice, should be sufcient
to support the models. There does not appear
to be any legal or regulatory prohibition to
implementing these models in California.
Collaboration with specialty practices. Some
clinics and hospitals would be well served to
understand and collaborate with practices that
employ NPs or PAs. For example, physicians
might feel more condent about referring patients
to these practices if they understood when
patients would be seen by a physician specialist,
when they would be seen by a PA or NP, and
what practice guidelines and protocols were in
place to ensure safe, high-quality care. Sharing
more information through in-person meetings,
Web site posts, or other communications could
go far in helping these arrangements work well.
Expansion of postgraduate opportunities.
One of the biggest challenges identied by
study participants was the amount of on-the-
job training required to bring an NP or PA,
particularly a recent graduate, up to the level
of competence necessary to see patients in a
busy specialty practice. Although some on-the-
job training will always be necessary, standard
postgraduate opportunities could be explored
in some specialties. A starting point would be
to compare current NP and PA programmatic
elements to the needs of specialty practices, with
attention to both procedural and cognitive skills.
Additional research. Finally, stakeholders need
more outcomes studies on the deployment of
NPs and PAs in specialty care. To both encourage
adoption of these models and ne-tune their
implementation, practitioners, administrators,
and consumers need to see more research on
how they work. Although there is compelling
anecdotal information indicating NPs and PAs
improve access to care by reducing wait times to
see specialists, hard data are needed. In particular,
stakeholders need facts and analyses regarding
impacts on clinical patient outcomes, patient and
practitioner satisfaction, access to care, and cost
of care.
20
|
CALIFORNIA HEALTHCARE FOUNDATION
Endnotes
1. Kaiser Permanente, et. al., January 14, 2008. Specialty
Care Access Survey: Preliminary Findings.
2. American Academy of Physician Assistants. 2008. 2008
AAPA Physician Assistant Census Report (www.aapa.org/
images/stories/2008aapacensusnationalreport.pdf );
see also McCann. October 1, 2005. Graham Center
One-Pager: Physician Assistant and Nurse Practitioner
Workforce Trends. American Family Physician.
3. Health Resources Services Administration. 2004. The
Registered Nurse Population: National Sample Survey of
Registered Nurses March 2004: Preliminary Findings.
4. Hall K., et al. 2005. American Gastroenterological
Association Future Trends Committee Report: Effects of
Aging of the Population on Gastroenterology Practice,
Education and Research. Gastroenterology 129: 1305 38.
5. Resnick, J., and A. Kimball. February 2008. Who Else
Is Providing Care in Dermatology Practices? Trends in the
Use of Nonphysician Clinicians. Journal of the American
Academy of Dermatology 58(2): 211 6.
6. Kimball, A.B., and J.S. Resneck Jr. 2008. The
U.S. Dermatology Workforce: A Specialty Remains
in Shortage. Journal of the American Academy of
Dermatology 59(5): 741 5.
7. Jacobson, C., et al. December 2004. Generational
Differences in Practice Patterns of Dermatologists in the
United States: Implications for Workforce Planning.
Archives of Dermatology 140: 1477 82.
8. 16 California Code of Regulations 1480(a), 1485;
California Business & Professions Code 2725, 2725.1,
2836.1.
9. B&PC 3502(c) (2008); 16 CCR 1399.540-1399.546
(2008); B&PC 3502.1 (2008) (www.pac.ca.gov/about_
us/lawsregs/law-booklet.pdf ).
10. Cooper, R.A. 2007. New Directions for Nurse
Practitioners and Physician Assistants in the Era of
Physician Shortages. Academic Medicine 82(9): 827 8.
11. Larson, E.H., and L.G. Hart. 2007. Growth and
Change in the Physician Assistant Workforce in the
United States, 1967 2000. Journal of Allied Health
36(3): 121 30 (cited in Dill, J., and E. Salsberg. 2008.
The Complexities of Physician Supply and Demand:
Projections Through 2025. Association of American
Medical Colleges Center for Workforce Studies, pp.
65 7).
12. Association of Postgraduate Physician Assistant Programs.
AAPAP Programs by Specialty (www.appap.org/prog_
specialty.html).
13. Christian, S., C. Dower, and E. ONeil. 2007. Chart
Overview of Nurse Practitioner Scopes of Practice in the
United States. University of California San Francisco,
Center for the Health Professions; Christian, S., C.
Dower, and E. ONeil. 2007. Overview of Nurse
Practitioner Scopes of Practice in the United States:
Discussion; Dower, C., S. Christian, and E. ONeil.
2007. Promising Scope of Practice Models for the Health
Professions. UCSF Center for the Health Professions.
14. AAPA. October 6, 2007. 2007 AAPA Physician Assistant
Census Report.
15. Solomon, Neil, M.D. January 9, 2009. Personal
communication to the authors.
16. AAPA. Physician Assistants in Gastroenterology and
Hepatology (www.aapa.org/images/stories/gastro.pdf ).
17. Solomon, personal communication.
18. AAPA. February 2009. Physician Assistants in Dermatology
(www.aapa.org/images/stories/derm.pdf ).
19. Ullan, Amy, PA-C. February 13, 2009.
20. Carpenter, D. August 2006. Perspectives on
the Physician Assistant Specialty Credentialing
DebateEducation, Not Certification. Journal of the
American Academy of Physician Assistants 19(8).
21. National Commission on Certification of Physician
Assistants. 2009. Public Statement Regarding NCCPAs
Commitment to Offer a Voluntary Credential for PAs
Practicing in Specialties (www.nccpa.net/news_a_
specialtycredential.aspx).
Physician Assistants and Nurse Practitioners in Specialty Care: Six Practices Make It Work
|
21
22. Balanced Budget Act of 1997, Public Law 105 217
4512 (1997); AAPA. February 2009. Third-Party
Reimbursement for Physician Assistants
(www.aapa.org/images/stories/3rdparty.pdf ).
23. California Department of Health Care Services.
Medi-Cal Provider Manual. Part 2. Non-Physician Medical
Practitioners.
24. Wunsch, Bobbie. January 2009. A Slippery Slope:
Financing Specialty Services in Californias Safety Net.
Pacific Health Consulting Group.
25. Health Resources and Services Administration. Specialty
Services and Health Centers Scope of Project. Policy
Information Notice (PIN) 2009 02 (bphc.hrsa.gov/
policy/pin0902/default.htm); HRSA. Defining Scope
of Project and Policy for Requesting Changes. PIN
2008-01 (bphc.hrsa.gov/policy/pin0801).
26. Wagonfeld, James B. October 2006. The Nonphysician
Provider in the Gastroenterology Practice.
Gastroenterology Endoscopy Clinics of North America
16(4): 719 25.
27. Medical Group Management Association. 2008.
Physician Compensation and Production Survey (cited
by American Academy of Physician Assistants. February
2009. Physician Assistants in Dermatology.).
28. Mundinger, M. O., R. L. Kane, et al. 2000. Primary
Care Outcomes in Patients Treated by Nurse Practitioners
or Physicians: A Randomized Trial. Journal of the
American Medical Association 283(1): 59 68.
29. Kirkwood, B.J., et al. 2006. Ophthalmic Nurse
Practitioner Led Diabetic Retinopathy Screening: Results
of a 3-Month Trial. Eye 20(2): 173-7; Riportella-Muller,
R., et al. 1995. The Substitution of Physician Assistants
and Nurse Practitioners for Physician Residents in
Teaching Hospitals. Health Affairs (Millwood) 14(2):
181 91; Baker, K.E. 2000. Will a Physician Assistant
Improve Your Dermatology Practice? Seminars in
Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery 19(3): 201 3.
30. Ahern, M., J. Imperial, et al. 2004. Impact of a
Designated Hepatology Nurse on the Clinical Course and
Quality of Life of Patients Treated with Rebetron Therapy
for Chronic Hepatitis C. Gastroenterology Nursing 27(4):
149 55; Hillier, A. 2001. The Advanced Practice Nurse
in Gastroenterology: Identifying and Comparing Care
Interactions of Nurse Practitioners and Clinical Nurse
Specialists. Gastroenterology Nursing 24(5): 239 45;
Oliveria, S.A., K.S. Nehal, et al. 2001. Using Nurse
Practitioners for Skin Cancer Screening: A Pilot Study.
American Journal of Preventive Medicine 21(3): 214 7.
The minority of studies that yielded negative or mixed
results addressed specialties that were not the focus of
this report: Krein, S.L., M.L. Klamerus, et al. 2004.
Case Management for Patients with Poorly Controlled
Diabetes: A Randomized Trial. American Journal of
Medicine 116(11): 732 9; PriceWaterhouse Coopers.
February 1999. The Use of Therapeutic Pharmaceutical
Agents by Optometrists in California: A Study of
Competence and Cost-Effectiveness.
31. Ahern, Impact of a Designated Hepatology Nurse.
32. Salvana, J., et al. 2005. Chronic Osteomyelitis:
Results Obtained by an Integrated Team Approach to
Management Connecticut Medicine 69(4): 195 202;
Conger, M., and C. Craig. 1998. Advanced Nurse
Practice: A Model for Collaboration. Nursing Case
Management 3(3): 120 7; Lieberman, D. A., and
J.M. Ghormley. 1992. Physician Assistants in
Gastroenterology: Should They Perform Endoscopy?
American Journal of Gastroenterology 87(8): 940 3;
Walter, F.L., N. Bass, et al. 2007. Success of Clinical
Pathways for Total Joint Arthroplasty in a Community
Hospital. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research 457:
133 7.
33. Wagonfeld, The Nonphysician Provider.
34. Ibid.
35. The federal government intends to spend $2 billion over
the next two years to support innovation, health IT and
other improvements in community clinics nationwide.
Rauber, C. March 3, 2009. Pleasanton Clinic Wins
$1.3M in Federal Stimulus Funding. San Francisco
Business Times.
1438 Webster Street, Suite 400
Oakland, CA 94612
tel: 510.238.1040
fax: 510.238.1388
www.chcf.org
CALI FORNI A
HEALTHCARE
FOUNDATION