GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 30

UNIT-II
DC GENERATORS

2.1 Introduction:
An electrical machine, deals with the energy transfer either from mechanical to electrical
form or electrical form to mechanical form. This process is called electromechanical energy
conversion.
An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into electrical
energy (or power) called an electric generator.
While an electrical machine which converts an electrical energy into mechanical energy
is called an electrical motor.
The d.c. Machines are thus classified as,
1. The D.C. generators: These machines convert mechanical input power into electrical
input power.
2. D.C. Motors: These machines convert d.c electrical power into mechanical power.
The construction of both the types d.c machines basically remains same.
2.1.1Working Principle of D.C. Machine as a Generator:
All generators work on the principle of dynamically induced e.m.f.
This principle is nothing but the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. It states
that, whenever the number of magnetic lines of force i.e. flux linking with a conductor or a coil
changes, an electromotive force is set up in that conductor or coil.
The magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a conductor is proportional to the rate of change of
flux associated with the conductor. This is mathematically given by
e( magn|tude)
d
dt

The relative motion can be achieved by rotating conductor with respect to flux or by rotating flux
with respect to a conductor.
So a voltage gets generated in a conductor, as long as there exists a relative motion between
conductor and the flux.
Such an induced e.m.f which is due to physical movement of coil or conductor with respect to
flux or movement of flux with respect to coil or conductor is dynamically induced e.m.f.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 31

So a generating action requires following basic components to exist ,
i) The conductor or a coil
ii) The flux
iii) The relative motion between conductor and the flux.
2.2 Simple loop Generator:
Working principle of a DC Generator:-
An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into
electrical energy (or power). The energy conversion is based on the principle of the production of
dynamically induced EMF.
As seen whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux in it according to Faradays laws
of electromagnetic induction. This EMF causes a current to flow if the conductor circuit is
closed.
Construction: - Fig.2.1 shown a single turn rectangular copper coil ABCD rotating about its
own axis in a magnetic field provided by either permanent magnet (or) electromagnets. The two
ends of the coil are joined to two slip-rings a & b which are insulated from each other and
from the central shaft.

Fig.2.1 Simple loop Generator
Two collecting brushes (of 1, 2 carbon or copper) press against the slip rings. Their
function is to collect the current induced in the coil and convey it to the external load resistance
R.
The rotating coil may be called armature and the magnets as field magnets

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 32

Working: - Imagine the coil to be rotating clockwise direction. As the coils assumes successive
positions in the field, the flux linked with it changes. Hence an e.m.f. Is induced in it which is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages i.e.


When plane of the coil is at right angles to the lines of flux. i.e when it is at position 1 ,
then flux linked with the coil is maximum but rate of change of flux linkages is minimum.
It is do because in this position, the coil sides AB and CD do not cut or shear the flux;
rather they slide along them i.e. they move parallel to them. Therefore EMF induced in the coil
is zero.
As the coil continuous making, the rate of change of flux linkages increases gradually till
position 3 is reached where 0 =90. Here coil plane is parallel to the line of flux. As seen, the
flux linked with the coil is minimum but rate change of flux linkages is maximum. Hence
maximum EMF is induced in the coil when in this position shown in Fig.2.2 and Fig.2.3.

In the next quarter revolution i.e., from 90 to 180 the flux linked with the coil gradually
increases, but the rate of change of flux linkages decreases. Therefore the induced EMF
decreases gradually till in position (5) of the coil. It is reduced to zero.
So we find out that in the first half revolution of the coil, no EMF is induced in it when in
position (1), maximum EMF induced when in position (3) & no EMF induced when in position
(5). The direction of this induced EMF can be determined by applying Flemings Right Hand
Rule which gives direction from A to B & C to D. hence the direction of current from ABMLCD
i.e., current through load R flow from M to L.
In the next half revolution i.e., from 180 to 360 the variation in the magnitude of EMF are
similar to those in the first half revolution. Its value is maximum when coil is in position (7) &
e =N
d
dt


GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 33

minimum when in position (1).It is seen that the direction of the induced current is from D to C
& B to A as shown Fig.2.1 Hence the path of the current flow is along DCLMBA & current
through load R is from L to M.
Therefore, we find that the current which we obtain from such a simple generator reverses its
direction after half revolution. Such a current is called an alternating current. For making the
flow of alternating current into unidirectional current in the external circuit. The slip-rings are
replaced by split rings (or) commutator shown in Fig.2.4. These slip rings made of conducting
cylinder which cut into two halves (or) segments insulated from each other by a thin sheet of
mica or some other insulating material shown in Fig.2.5.

Fig.2.6(a) shows that in the first half revolution current flows along(ABMNLCD) i.e., the
brush no.(1) in conduct with segment a acts as the +ve end of the supply and b as ve end.

In the next half revolution [Fig.2.6 (b)] the direction of the induced current in the coil is reversed.
But the same time position of segment a & b have also reversed with result that brush no.1
comes in touch with the segment which is +ve i.e., segment b in this case. Hence the current in
the load resistance again flows from M to L. The waveform of the current through the
external circuit is shown in Fig.2.7.

This current is unidirectional but not continuous like direct current

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 34

2.3 Construction of DC Machines:
As stated earlier whether a machine is d.c. generator or a motor the construction basically
remains the same as shown in the Fig.2.8 and Fig.2.9

Fig. 2.8 Cross view of D.C. Generator

Fig. 2.9 a cross section of typical D.C. Machine




GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 35

It consists of the following parts:
2.3.1 Yoke or Magnetic frame
The outer frame of a dc machine is called the yoke and generally made of cast iron or
fabricated steel for large machines.
The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose.
It provides mechanical support for poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine and
It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
In small generators where cheapness rather than the weight is the main consideration, yoke is
made of cast iron. But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed. The feet
and terminal box etc, are welded to the frame afterwards. Such yokes possess sufficient
mechanical strength and have high permeability.
It provides a return path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
2.3.2 Poles
Each pole is divided into two parts namely, a) Pole core and b) Pole shoe.
This is shown in the Fig. 2.10


Fig.2.10 Pole structure
The pole cores which support the field windings are mounted on the inside circumference
of the yoke. The core is made of cast steel or sheet steel laminating high permeability.
The pole faces are shaped to fit the curvature of the armature as shown in fig. and is
known as the shoe of the pole. Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come
across the flux , while necessary to produce larger induced e.m.f . To achieve this , pole
shoe has been given particular shape.
The pole core is usually smaller cross section than the pole shoe (pole face).
Due to following reasons
(a) The reduced cross section of the pole core requires less cu for the field winding.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 36

(b) The large pole shoe area increases the flux per pole entering the armature, due to the
reduction in air gap reluctance.
(c) Pole shoe provide mechanical strength and support to the field winding.
2.3.3 Field winding
The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction
a) Functions : To carry due to which pole core , on which the field winding is placed
behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary flux. As it helps in producing the
magnetic field i.e. exiting the pole as an electromagnet it is called field winding or exiting
winding.
b) Choice of material: It has to carry current hence obviously made up of some conducting
material. So aluminium or copper is the choice. But field coils are required to take any
type of shape and bend about pole core and copper has good flexibility i.e. it can bend
easily. So copper is the proper choice.
Field winding is divided into various coils called field coils. These are connected in series
with each other and wound in such a direction around pole cores , such that alternate N and
S are formed.
The total number of poles is denoted by P.
2.3.4 Armature
The armature is further divided into two parts namely,
i) Armature core and ii) Armature winding
i) Armature core: Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It consists of
slots on its periphery and the air ducts to permit the air flow through armature which
serves cooling purpose.
a) Functions:
1. Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e. armature conductors.
2. To provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux produced by the field
winding.
b) Choice of material; as it has to provide a low reluctance path to flux, it is made up of
magnetic material like cast iron or cast steel.
It is made up of laminated construction keep eddy current loss as low as possible. A
single circular lamination used for the construction of the armature is shown in Fig.
2.11

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 37


ii) Armature winding: Armature winding is nothing but the interconnection of the
armature conductors, placed in the slots provided on the armature core periphery.
When the armature is rotated in case of generator, magnetic flux gets cut by
armature conductors and e.m.f gets induced in them.
a) Functions:
1. Generation of e.m.f. takes place in the armature winding in case of generators.
2. To carry the current supplied in case of d.c. Motors.
3. To do the useful work in the external circuit.
b) Choice of material: As armature winding carries entire current which depends on
external load, it has to be made up of conducting material, which is copper.
2.3.5 Commutator
The basic nature of e.m.f. induced in the armature conductors is alternating. This needs
rectification in case of d.c. Generator, which is possible by device called commutator.
a) Functions:
1. To facilitate the collection of current from the armature conductors.
2. To convert internally developed alternating e.m.f. to unidirectional (d.c) e.m.f.
3. To produce unidirectional torque in case of motors.
b) Choice of material: As it collects current from armature, it is also made up of copper
segments.
It consists of number of wedge shaped segments (or) bars made of high conductivity that
is assembled to form a cylinder.
These segments are insulated from each other by thin layers of mica. Each commutator is
connected to one end of the coil. The numbers of commutator segments are decided by the

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 38

number of coils. The commutator along with the brush gear helps to convert the ac voltage
induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional voltage across the brushes.
2.3.6 Brushes and Brush gear
Brushes are stationary and resting on the surface of the commutator
a) Functions: To collect current from the commutator and make it available to the
stationary external circuit.
b) Choice of material: Brushes are normally made up of soft material like carbon.
To avoid wear and tear of commutator , the brushes are made up of soft material like
carbon.
Bearings: Ball bearings are usually used as they are more reliable. For heavy duty
machines roller bearings are preferred.
2.4 Types of Armature winding
The number of armature conductors is connected in a specific manner to give armature winding.
According to way of connecting the conductors, the armature winding has two types,
a) Lap winding
b) Wave winding
In lap type, the connections overlap each other as the winding proceeds as shown in Fig.2.12

Fig.2.12 Lap winding
Due to the this, number of parallel paths in which conductors are divided is P where P =number
of poles in the machine.
A=P =Number of parallel paths for lap
Large number of parallel paths indicate high current capacity of machine hence lap winding is
preferred for high current rating generators.
In wave type, the winding travels ahead avoiding the overlapping as shown in the Fig.2.13 in a
progressive fashion.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 39


Fig.2.13 Wave winding
Due to this, the armature conductors always get divided into two parallel paths, irrespective of
number of poles.
A=2 =Number of parallel paths for wave
2.5. DC Generator construction parts and their purpose and material used
S
No.
Parts Purpose Material used
1 Yoke Provides mechanical support for the poles acts as a
protecting cover for the whole machine carries the
magnetic flux.
Cast iron, cast steel
(or) rolled steel.
2 Pole cores Consists field winding Cast iron (or) cast
steel laminating.
3 Pole shoe Spreads out the flux in the air gap reduces the
reluctance supports the exciting coils.
Cast iron (or) cast
steel laminating.
4 Inter poles Located in b/w main poles to reduce the armature
reaction produces MMF & armature current
Cast iron (or) cast
steel laminating
4 Brushes To collect current fromthe commutator and delivers it
to the load.
Carbon (or) graphite
(or) cu.
5 Brush holders To support the brushes Metal
7 Pole coils To electro magnetize the poles and produce the
necessary flux.
Cu wire or strip
8 End bells &
bearings
To enclose the m/c support the armature shaft Ball bearings (or)
roller bearings
9 Armature core Rotating part of the m/c support the armature shaft Steel laminating
10 Armature
winding
Placed in the armature slots and are insulated fromeach
other to carry armature current
Cu
11 Commutator Convert ac voltage induced in armature conducting to
dc voltage in the external circuit
Wedge shaped cu
segments.


GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 40

2.6 E.M.F. Equation of a D.C Generator.
The DC Generator operates on the principle of the Faradays law of electromagnetic
induction. Its states that E.M.F. will be induced in the armature conductor when the armature is
rotated such as to cut the magnetic flux.
Let =useful flux per pole in Wb.
P =total no. of poles
Z =total no. of armature conductors
=No. of slots x No. of conductors /slot
A =No. of parallel paths
N =Speed of the armature in rpm.
E =E.M.F. induced in the armature conductor.
Generated E.M.F. E
g
=e.m.f. generated by any one of the parallel paths i.e E
Average e.m.f. generated /conductor =
d
dt
volts (n =1)
Now , flux cut/ conductor in one revolution d=P Wb
No. of revolutions /second =N/60 ( time for one revolution , dt=60/N second)
Hence , according to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction,
E.M.F. generated /conductor =
d
dt
=
PN
60
:olt
This is the e.m.f. induced in one conductor. Now the conductors in one parallel path are
always in series. There are total Z conductors with A parallel paths , hence
z
A
number of
conductors are always in series and e.m.f remains same across all the parallel paths.
Total e.m.f can be expressed as,
F =P
N

Z
A
uu|tx
This is nothing but the e.m.f equation of a d.c. generator.
So
F =
PN

Z
A
uu|tx
F =
NZ

uu|tx for lap type as A=P

F =
PNZ
12
uu|tx for wave type as A=2



GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 41

Solved Examples:
Example 2.1: Calculate the e.m.f. generated by a 6 pole lap wound armature with 65 slots and 12
conductors per slot, when driven at 1000 r.p.m. the flux per pole is 0.02 Wb.
Solution: Given data P=6 , =0.02Wb , N=1000 r.p.m , A=P as lap wound
Z=Slots x Conductors /slot =65 x 12 =780
E
g
=
zNP
60A
=
0.02 X6X1000X780
60X6
=260I
Answer : Generated e.m.f =260V
Example 2.2: The armature of 8 pole D.C. generator has 960 conductors and runs at 400 r.p.m.
The flux per pole is 40mWb.
a) Calculate the induced e.m.f , if armature is lap wound.
b) At what speed it must be driven to generate 400 V, if the armature is wave connected.
Solution: P=8, N=400 r.p.m , =40mwb , Z=960
a) Lap wound , A=P=8
E
g
=
ZNP
60A
=
40X10
-3
X8X400X960
60X8
=256I
b) Wave connected , A=2 , E
g
=400V
E
g
=
ZNP
60A
i.c. 400=
40X10
-3
X8 X N X960
60X8

N = 156.25 r.p.m
Example 2.3: A d.c generator generates an e.m.f of 520V. It has 2000 armature conductors ,
flux/pole of 0.013Wb , speed of 1200 r.p.m and the armature winding has 4 parallel paths . Find
the number of poles.
Solution: Given data
Generated e.m.f =520V, Z=2000 , flux/pole =0.013Wb and
Speed =1200 r.p.m
Number of parallel paths =A =4 .
Number of poles =?
We have Generated e.m.f =E
g
=
zNP
60A

P =
L
g
X60XA
zN

P =
520 X60 X4
0.013 X2000 X1200
=4
Answer : Number of poles =P=4

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 42


2.7 Symbolic Representation of D.C. Generator
The armature is denoted by a circle with two brushes. Mechanically it is connected to another
device called prime mover. The two ends of armature are denoted as A
1 -
A
2
. The field winding
is shown near armature and the two ends are denoted as F
1 -
F
2.
The representations of field vary
little bit, depending on the type of generator.
The symbolic representation is shown in the Fig. 2.14. Many times an arrow () is indicated near
armature. This arrow denotes the direction of current which induced e.m.f. will set up, when
connected to an external load.

Fig.2.14.Symbolic representation of D.C. generator
Key point: Every practical generator needs a prime mover to rotate its armature. Hence to avoid
complexity of the diagram, prime mover need not be included in the symbolic representation of
generator.
2.8 Types of D.C. Generators
2.8.1 Methods of Excitation
The magnetic field required for the operation of a d.c. generator is produced by an
electromagnet. This electromagnet carries a field winding which produces required magnetic flux
when current is passed through it.
Key point: The field winding is also called exciting winding and current carried by the field
winding is called an exciting current.
Thus supplying current to the field winding is called excitation and the way of supplying the
exciting current is called method of excitation.
There are two methods of excitation used for d.c. generators,
1. Separately excitation 2. Self excitation.
Depending on the method of excitation used, the generators are classified as,

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 43

1. Separately excited generator 2. Self excited generator.
In separately excited generator, a separate external d.c. supply is used to provide exciting current
through the field winding.
The d.c. generator produces d.c. voltage. If this generated voltage itself is used to excite the field
winding of the same d.c. generator, it is called self excited generator.
The various types of d.c generators are shown in Fig.2.15.

Fig.2.15. Types of D.C. Generators
2.8.2 Separately Excited Generator
When the field winding is supplied from external, separate d.c. supply i.e. excitation of field
winding is separate then the generator is called separately excited generator. Schematic
representation of this type is shown in the Fig.2.16
The field winding of this type of generator has large number of turns of thin wire. So length of
such winding is more with less cross-sectional area. So resistance of this field winding is high in
order to limit the field current.


Fig.2.16. separately exited generator

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 44

2.8.2.1 Voltage and Current Relations
The field winding is excited separately, so the field current depends supply voltage and
resistance of the field winding.
For armature side, we can see that it is supplying a load, demanding a load current of I
L
at a
voltage of

V
t
which is called terminal voltage.
Now I
a
= I
L
The internally induced e.m.f. E is supplying the voltage of the load hence terminal voltage V
t

is a part of E. but E is not equal to V
t
while supplying a load. This is because when armature
current I
a
flows through armature winding,

due to armature winding resistance R
a
ohms, there is
a voltage drop across armature winding equal to I
a
R
a
volts. The induced e.m.f. has to supply this
drop, along with the terminal voltage V
t
. To keep I
a
R
a
drop to minimum, the resistance R
a
is
designed to be very very small. In addition to this drop, there is some voltage drop at the
contacts of the brush called brush contact drop. But this drop is negligible and hence generally
neglected. So in all, induced e.m.f. E has three components namely,
i) Terminal voltage V
t

ii) Armature resistance drop I
a
R
a

iii) Brush contact drop V
brush

So voltage equation for separately excited generator can be written as,
E = V
t
+

I
a
R
a
+ V
brush
+ Armature reaction drop
Where E =
PN

Z
A
= Generated e.m.f
Generally V
brush
is neglected as is negligible compared to other voltages.
2.8.3 Self Excited Generator
When the field winding is supplied from the armature of the generator itself then it is said to be
self excited generator. Now without generated e.m.f., field cannot be excited in such generator
and without excitation there cannot be generated e.m.f. so one may obviously wonder, how this
type of generator works. The answer to this is residual magnetism possessed by the field poles,
under normal condition.
Practically though the generator is not working, without any current through field winding, the
field poles posses some magnetic flux. This is called residual flux and the property is called
residual magnetism. Thus when the generator is started, due to such residual flux, it develops a
small e.m.f. which now drives a small current through the field winding. This tends to increase
the flux produced. This in turn increases the induced e.m.f. and further increases the field current

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 45

and the flux. The process is cumulative and continues till the generator develops rated voltage
across its armature. This is voltage building process in self excited generators.
Based on how field winding is connected to the armature to derive its excitation, this type is
further divided into following three types:
i) Shunt generator
ii) Series generator
iii) Compound generator.
Let us see the connection diagrams and voltage, current relations for these types of generators.
2.8.3.1 Shunt Generator
When the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature and the combination across the
load then the generator is called shunt generator.
The Fig.2.17. Shows the symbolic representation of d.c. Generator.
The field winding has large number of turns of thin wire so it has high resistance. Let R
sh
be the
resistance of the field winding.

Fig.2.17. D.C .Shunt generator
From Fig.2.17 we can write
I
a
= I
L
+ I
sh

Now voltage across load is V
t
which is same across field winding as both are in parallel with
each other
I
sh
=
Vt
R
sh

While induced e.m.f. E, still requires supplying voltage drop Ia Ra and brushing contact drop.
E = V
t
+

I
a
R
a
+ V
brush
where E =
PN
60
Z
A

In practice, brush contact drop can be neglected.
The output of a d.c. Generator is given by product of terminal voltage and the load current.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 46

While the product of generated e.m.f. and the armature current is called power developed in a
d.c. generator.
P
g
=power developed =E x I
a

P
out
=power output =Vt x I
L
2.8.3.2 Series Generator
When the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding while the supplying the
load then the generator is called series generator. It is shown in the Fig.4.5.
Field winding, in this case is denoted as S
1
and S
2
. The resistance of series field winding is very
small and hence naturally it has less number of turns of thick cross-section wire as shown in the
Fig. 2.18
Let R
se
be the resistance of the series field winding.

Fig.2.18. Series Generator
Voltage and Current Relations
As all armatures, field and load are in series they carry the same current.
I
a =
I
L
= I
sc

Where I
sc
= current through series field winding.
Now in addition to drop I
a
R
a
, induced e.m.f. has to supply voltage drop across series field
winding too. This is I
se
R
se
i.e. I
a
R
se
as I
a
=I
se
. So voltage equation can be written as,
E = V
t
+

I
a
R
a
+I
se
R
se
+V
brush
E = v
t
+ I
a
(R
a
+R
sc
) + Vbrush

Where E =
PN
60
Z
A
volts
2.8.3.3 Compound Generator
In this type, the part of the field winding is connected in parallel with armature and part
in series with the armature. Both series and shunt field windings are mounted on the same poles.
Depending upon the connection of shunt and series field winding, compound generator is further
classified as:

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 47

i) Long shunt compound generator and ii) Short shunt compound generator.
i) Long Shunt Compound generator
In this type, shunt field winding is connected across the entire series combination of armature
and series field winding as shown in Fig.2.19.

From the Fig.2.18, I
a
=I
se

I
a
= I
sh
+I
L
Voltage across shunt field winding is V
t

I
sh
=
v
t
R
sh
Where R
sh
=Resistance of shunt field winding.
And voltage equation is
E = V
t
+I
a
R
a
+I
a
R
sc
+V
brush
Where R
sc
=Resistance of series field winding.

Fig.2.19 Long shunt compound generator
ii) Short Shunt Compound Generator
In this type, shunt field winding is connected , only across the armature, excluding series field
winding as shown in Fig.2.20.

Fig.2.20 short shunt compound generator
For the Fig.2.20, I
u
=I
sc
+I
sh

And I
se
=I
L

I
u
=I
L
+I
sh


GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 48

The drop across shunt field winding is drop across the armature only and not the total V
t
, in the
case.
So drop across shunt field winding is E- I
a
R
a.

Now the voltage equation is
Now, I
se
=I
L
hence , we can write ,
i.e.

Any of the two above expressions of can be used, depending on the quantities known while
solving the problems.
Solved Examples:
Example 2.4: A shunt generator delivers 450A at 230V and the resistance of the shunt field and
armature are 50 and 0.03 respectively . Calculate the generated e.m.f.
Solution: Given data Terminal voltage (V
t
) =230V , R
a
=0.03 , R
sh
=50 and I
L
=450A
Generator circuit is shown in Fig.2.21.

Current through shunt field winding is I
sh
= = =4.6A
Load current I
L
=450A
Armature current I
a
=I
L
+I
sh
=450+4.6=454.6A
Armature voltage drop I
a
R
a
=454.6 x 0.03 =13.6V
Now E
g
=Terminal voltage +armature drop
= V
t
+I
a
R
a

= 230+13.6 =243.6V
Answer: E.M.F generated in the armature =243.6V

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 49

Example.2.5: A long shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 50A at 500V and has
armature, series field and shunt field resistances of 0.05, 0.03 and 250 respectively.
Calculate the generated voltage and the armature current. Allow 1V per brush for contact drop.
Solution: Given data, load current =50A , Terminal voltage =500V
R
a
=0.05 , R
se
=0.03 and R
sh
=250
Generated voltage =? and Armature current =?
Generator circuit is shown in Fig.2.22


Current through armature and series winding is
I
a
=I
se
= I
L
+I
sh
=50 +2 =52A
Voltage drop on series winding =I
se
R
se
=52 x 0.03 =1.56V
Armature Voltage drop =I
a
R
a
=52 x 0.05 =2.6V
Drop at brushes =2 x 1 =2V
Now E
g
= +I
a
R
a
+I
se
R
se
+brush drop
= 500 +2.6+1.56+2 =506.16 V
Answer : Generated Voltage (E
g
) =506.16 V and Armature current =52A
Example.2.6: A d.c. shunt generator runs at 400 r.p.m and delivers 500kW to bus bars having a
constant voltage of 400V. Assuming the field excitation to be constant at 5A. Calculate the speed
at which the generator must run if the load on it is to be reduced to 300kW. The armature
resistance is 0.015 .
Solution: We have
In the present problem , is given to be constant , therefore

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 50

Initial conditions :
Load current I
1
=
500X10
3
400
=1250A
Armature current I
a
=I
1
+I
f
=1250 +5 =1255A
Generated e.m.f E
g1
=V
t
+I
a
R
a
=400+1255 X 0.015 =418.8V
Final conditions : Load current I
2
=
300X10
3
400
=750A
Armature current I
a
=I
2
+I
f
=750 +5 =755A
Generated e.m.f E
g2
=V
t
+I
a
R
a
=400+755 X 0.015 =411.3V
Now
L
g2
L
g1
=
N
2
N
1

N
2
=
L
g2
L
g1
N
1
=
411.3
418.8
X400=393 r.p.m
Answer: Speed =393 r.p.m





















GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 51

DC MOTORS
2.9 Principle and operation of DC Motor
1. Motor: An electric motor is a machine which converts electric energy into mechanical
energy.
2. Principle of operation: motor action is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. Force direction
is given by Flemings left-hand rule and whose magnitude is given by
F =BIL Newton
3. Constructional there is no difference between a D.C generator and D.C motor. In fact the
same d.c machine can be used
2.10 Back E.M.F in a D.C. Motor:
It is seen in the generating action, that when a conductor cuts the lines of flux, e.m.f. gets
induced in the conductor. In a d.c. motor, after a motoring action, armature stars rotating and
armature conductors cuts the main flux. So is there a generating action existing in a motor after
motoring action.
There is an induced e.m.f. in the rotating armature conductors according to Faradays law
of electromagnetic induction. This induced e.m.f. in the armature always acts in the opposite
direction to the supply voltage. This is according to the Lenzs law which states that the direction
of the induced e.m.f. is always so as to oppose the cause producing it.
In a d.c. motor, electrical input i.e. the supply voltage is the cause for the armature current and
the motoring action and hence this induced e.m.f. opposes the supply voltage. This e.m.f. tries to
set up a current through the armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which supply
voltage is forcing through the conductor.
As this e.m.f. always opposes the supply voltage, it is called back e.m.f. and denoted as
E
b
, basically it gets generated by the generating action which we have seen earlier in case of
generators. So its magnitude can be determined by the e.m.f. equation which is derived earlier.
So,
E
b
=
PNZ
A
volts
Where all symbols carry the same meaning as seen earlier in case of generators.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 52

Thus e.m.f. is shown schematically in the Fig. 2.23(a). so if V is supply voltage in volts
and R
a
is the value of the armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be shown as in
the Fig. 2.23(b).

2.10.1 Voltage Equation of D.C. Motor
From the equivalent circuit, the voltage equation for a d.c. motor can be obtained as,
V =E
b
+I
a
R
a
+Brush drop
The brush drop is practically neglected.
Hence the armature current I
a
can be expressed as,
I
a
=
V-E
b
R
a

2.10.2 Significance of Back E.M.F.
Due to the presence of back e.m.f. the d.c. motor becomes a regulating machine i.e. motor
adjusts itself to draw the armature current just enough to satisfy the load demand.
The basic principle of this fact is that the back e.m.f. is proportional to speed, E
b
N.
When load is suddenly put on to the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the
motor reduces due to which back e.m.f. also decreases. So the net voltage across the armature
(VE
b
) increases and motor draws more armature current.
Due to the increased armature current, force experienced by the conductors and hence the
torque on the armature increases. The increase in the torque is just sufficient to satisfy increased
load demand.
When load on the motor is decreased, the speed of the motor tries to increase. Hence back
e.m.f. increases. This causes (V E
b
) to reduce which eventually reduces the current drawn by
the armature. The motor speed stops increasing when the armature current is just enough to
produce the less torque required by the new load.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 53

So back e.m.f. regulates the flow of armature current and it automatically alters the
armature current to meet the load requirement. This is the practical significance of the back
e.m.f.
At start the speed N of the motor is zero hence the back e.m.f. is also zero.
2.11 Torque equation of D.C motor :
Torque: The turning or twisting about an axis is called torque.
Torque =force radius at which this force acting =F x r
Consider a pulley of radius r meter acted by circumferential force of F Newton which causes it to
rotate at N rpm as shown in Fig.2.24.

T = F x r (N-M)
Work done by this force in one revolution =force x distance =Fx2nr
Power developed =
workdonc
tImc
=
Fx2r
tImc Ior onc rcvoIutIon
=
Fx2r
60
N

=
(Fx)x2N
60
= T x W
P = T x W T in Nm W in rad/sec
Power in armature = Armature torque x W
E
b
I
a
= T
a
x
2N
60

But E
b
=
ZN

x
P
A


ZN

x
P
A
x I
a
= T
a
x
2N
60

T
a
=
I
a

2n
x
P Z
A
= 0.159 I
a

P Z
A
N-m
T
a
=0.159I
a

P Z
A
N-m T I
a

Armature Torque (T
a
) : Torque developed in armature is called armature torque.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 54

Lost Torque (T
I
) : The torque required to overcome frictional, windage and iron losses is called
T
I
.
Shaft Torque (T
sh
) : the torque which is available at the shaft for doing the useful work is known
as load torque or shaft torque denoted as T
sh
.
2.12 Types of D.C motor
The classification of d.c motors is based up on how the armature winding is connected
with field winding. The different types of d.c motors are (i) series motors (ii) shunt motors (iii)
compound motors. Compound motors are further classified as short compound and long
compound motors.

Fig.2.25 Classification of DC motor
2.12.1 D.C series motors
In this type of motor, field winding is connected in series with armature winding as well as
power supply as shown in Fig.2.26
Let R
se
the series field winding resistance and it is very small and it is made of small no of turns
having large cross sectional are (thick wire).
I
L
=line current drawn from the supply
I
L
= I
sc
= I
a


Dc Motor
Series Shunt compound
Differentially
compound
Cummulatively
Compound

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 55

Applying the KVL in the above connection diagram of d.c series motor
-V+I
sc
R
sc
+ I
a
R
a
+E
b
+ V
brush
=0
V = E
b
+I
a
(R
a
+R
sc
) + V
brush
[ I
sc
= I
a
]
V
brush
(Voltage drop across brushes) is small
neglected V = E
b
+ I
a
(R
a
+R
sc
)
In d.c series motor, entire armature current is passing through the series field winding.
produced is proportional to I
a

I
sc
I
a
for series motor
2.12.2 D.C Shunt motor
In this type, the field winding is connected across (parallel) the armature winding and
combination is connected across the supply , as shown in the Fig.2.27

Let R
sh
is the shunt field winding resistance and it is quite large and is made up of large no of
turns and thin wire.
The value of armature resistance (R
a
) is small.
I
L
= I
a
+ I
sh

I
a
= I
L
I
sh

And I
sh
=
V
R
sh

Applying KVL -V+E
b
+I
a
R
a
+ V
brush
=0
V = E
b
+I
a
R
a
+ V
brush

In shunt motor, flux produced by field winding is proportional to the field current I
sh
.
I
sh

Here, the input voltage is constant and so the flux is constant. Therefore shunt motor is a
constant. Flux motor or constant speed motor.


GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 56

2.12.3 D.C Compound motor :
It consist of two field windings one field winding is connected in series with armature
called series field winding and another winding connected across the armature is called shunt
field winding. It is further classified as
a) Long shunt compound motor
b) Short shunt compound motor.
a) Long shunt compound motor :
In this type of motor, the shunt field winding is connected across the combination of armature
winding and series field winding as shown in Fig.2.28

Let R
se
be the resistance of series field and R
sh
be the resistance of the shunt field winding.
The total current drawn from supply is I
L.
So I
L
=I
sc
+I
sh

But I
sc
=I
u
i.e. I
L
=I
u
+I
sh
and I
sh
=
v
R
sh

and I =E
b
+I
u
R
u
+I
sc
R
sc
+I
bush
but as I
sc
=I
u

I =E
b
+I
u
(R
u
+R
sc
) +I
bush

b) Short shunt compound motor :
In this type, the shunt field is connected purely in parallel with armature and the series field is
connected in series with the combination shown in the Fig.2.29.


GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 57

The entire line current is passing through the series field winding .
I
L
=I
sc
and I
L
=I
u
+I
sh

Now the drop across the shunt field winding is to be calculated from the voltage equation.
So I =E
b
+I
u
R
u
+I
sc
R
sc
+I
bush

But I
sc
=I
L

I =E
b
+I
u
R
u
+I
L
R
sc
+I
bush

Drop across the shunt field winding = I I
L
R
sc
=E
b
+I
u
R
u
+I
bush

I
sh
=
I I
L
R
sc
R
sh
=
E
b
+I
u
R
u
+I
bush
R
sh

2.13 Necessity of Starter:
The starter is required to start a d.c. motor but it enables us to start the motor in a desired safe
way.
At the starting instant the speed of the motor is zero, (N=0) . As speed is zero, there cannot be
any back e.m.f as E
b
N and N is zero at start.
E
b
at start =0
The voltage equation of a d.c motor is , V =E
b
+I
a
R
a

So at start, V=I
a
R
a
as E
b
=0
I
a
=
V
R
a
At start
Generally motor is switched on with normal voltage and as armature resistance is very small, the
armature current at start is very high.
So at start, motor is showing a tendency to draw an armature current which is 15 to 20 times
more than the full load current.
Such high current drawn by the armature at start is highly objectionable for the following
reasons:
1. It may affect the performance of the other equipments connected to the same line.
2. Such excessively high armature current, blows out the fuses.
3. A large armature current flowing for a longer time may burn the insulation of the
armature winding.
To restrict this high starting armature current, a variable resistance is connected in series
with the armature at start. This resistance is called starter or a starting resistance. So starter is
basically a current limiting device.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 58

In the beginning the entire resistance is in series with the armature and then gradually
cuts off as motor gathers speed, producing the back e.m.f.
In addition to the starting resistance, there are some protective devices provided in a
starter.
2.13.1 Three Point Starter
The Fig.2.30 shows three point starter.

Fig.2.30.Three point starter.
The starter is basically a variable resistance, divide into number of sections. The contact
points of these sections are called studs and brought out separately shown as OFF, 1, 2, up
to RUN.
There are three main points of this starter:
1. L Line terminal to be connected to positive of supply.
2. A To be connected to the armature winding.
3. F To be connected to the field winding.
Point L is further connected an electromagnet called Overload Release (OLR). The
second end of OLR is connected to a point where handle of the starter is pivoted. This handle is
free to move from its other side against the force of the spring. This spring brings back the
handle to the OFF position under the influence of its own force.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 59

Another parallel path is derived from the stud 1, given to the electromagnet called No
Volt Coil (NVC). The NVC is further connected to terminal F. The starting resistance is
entirely in series with the armature.
The OLR and NVC are the two protecting devices of the starter.
Initially the handle is in the OFF position. The d.c. supply to the motor is switched on.
Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make a contact with stud No. 1.
At this point, field winding gets supply through the parallel path provided to starting resistance,
through NVC. While entire starting resistance comes in series with the armature and armature
current which is high at start, gets limited.
As the handle is moved further, it goes on making contact with studs 2, 3, 4 etc.., cutting
out the starting resistance gradually from the armature circuit. Finally when the starter handle is
in RUN position, the entire starting resistance gets removed from the armature circuit and
motor starts operating with normal speed.
Functions of no volt coil:
1. The supply to the field winding is derived through NVC. So when field current flows, it
magnetizes the NVC. When the handle is in the RUN position, soft iron piece
connected to the handle gets attracted by the magnetic force produced by NVC. Design of
NVC is such that it holds the handle in RUN position against the force of the spring as
long as supply to the motor is proper. Thus NVC holds the handle in the RUN position
and hence also called hold on coil.
2. Whenever there is supply failure or if field circuit is broken, the current through NVC
gets affected. It loses its magnetism and hence not in a position to keep the soft iron piece
on the handle, attracted. Under the spring force, handle comes back to OFF position,
switching off the motor. This prevents the damage of the motor caused due to accidental
starting.
3. NVC performs the similar action under low voltage conditions and protects the motor
from such dangerous supply condition as well.
Action of over load release:
The current through the motor is taken through the OLR which is an electromagnet.
Under overload condition, high current is drawn by the motor from the supply which
passes through OLR.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 60

Below this magnet, there is an arm which is fixed at its fulcrum and normally resting in
horizontal position.
Under overloading, high current through OLR produces enough force of attraction to
attract the arm upwards. Normally magnet is so designed that up to a full load value of current,
the force of attraction produced is just enough to balance the gravitational force of the arm and
hence not lifting it up.
At the end of this arm, there is a triangular iron piece fitted. When the arm is pulled upwards the
triangular piece touches the two points which are connected to the two ends of NVC. This shorts
the NVC and voltage across NVC becomes zero due to which NVC looses bits magnetism. So
under the spring force, handle comes back to the OFF position, disconnecting the motor from the
supply.
Thus motor gets saved from the overload conditions.
2.14 Losses in D.C. machine:
The various losses in a d.c. machine whether it is a motor or a generator are classified into three
groups as:
1. Copper losses
2. Iron or core losses
3. Mechanical losses.
2.14.1 Copper Losses:
The copper losses are the losses taking place due to the current flowing in a winding. There are
basically two windings in a d.c. machine namely armature winding and field winding. The
copper losses are proportional to the square of the current flowing through these windings. Thus
various copper losses can be given by,
Armature copper loss =I
a
2
R
a
Where R
a
= Armature winding resistance
And I
a
= Armature current
Shunt field copper loss = I
sh
2
R
sh
Where R
sh
= Shunt field winding resistance
And I
sh
= Shunt field current
Series field copper loss = I
sc
2
R
se

Where R
se
= Series field winding resistance
And I
se
= Series field current.

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 61

In a compound d.c. machine, both shunt and series field copper losses are present. In addition to
the copper losses, there exists brush contact resistance drop. But this drop is usually included in
the armature copper loss.
2.14.2 Iron or Core Losses:
These losses are also called magnetic losses. These losses include hysteresis loss and eddy
current loss.
The hysteresis loss is proportional to the frequency and the maximum flux density B
m
in the air
gap and is given by,
Hysteresis loss = B
m
1.6
f V watts
= Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
Where V = Volume of core in m
3

f = Frequency of magnetic reversals.
This loss is basically due to reversal of magnetization of the armature core.
The eddy current loss exists due to eddy currents. When armature core rotates, it cuts the
magnetic flux and e.m.f. gets induced in the core. This induced e.m.f. sets up eddy currents
which cause the power loss. This loss is given by,
Eddy current loss = K B
m
2

2
t
2
V watts
Where K = Constant
t = Thickness of each lamination
V = Volume of core
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals.
The hysteresis loss is minimized by selecting the core material having low hysteresis coefficient.
While eddy current loss is minimized by selecting the laminated construction for the core.
These losses are almost constant for the d.c. machines.
2.14.3 Mechanical Losses:
These losses consist of friction and windage losses. Some power is required to overcome
mechanical friction and wind resistance at the shaft. This loss is nothing but the friction and
windage loss. The mechanical losses are also constant for d.c. machine.
The magnetic and mechanical losses together are called stray losses. For the shunt and
compound d.c. machines where field current is constant, field copper losses are also constant.
Thus stray losses along with constant field copper losses are called constant losses. While the

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 62

armature current is dependent on the load and thus armature copper losses are called variable
losses.
Thus for a d.c. machine,
Total losses = Constant losses +Variable losses
The power flow and energy transformation diagrams at various stages, which taken place in a
d.c. machine are represented diagrammatically in Fig.2.31 (a) and Fig.2.31 (b).


2.14.4 Efficiency of a D.C. Machine:
For a d.c. machine, its overall efficiency is given by,
% =
TotaI output
TotaI Input
100
Let P
out
= Total output of a machine


P
in
= Total input of a machine
P
cu
= Variable losses
P
i
= Constant losses
Then P
in
= P
out
+ P
cu
+ P
i

%Efficiency =
Pout
PIn
100 =
Pout
Pout+Iosscs
100
%Efficiency =
Pout
PIn + Pcu + PI
100

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 63

Condition for Maximum Efficiency:
In case of d.c. generator the output is given by,
P
out


= VI
P
cu
= Variable losses = I
a
2
R
a
= I
2
R
a
I
a
= I ..Neglecting shunt field current
%Efficiency =
VI
VI+ I
2
Ra+P

100 =
1
1+
IR
a
V
+
P

VI
x 100
The efficiency is maximum, when the denominator is minimum. According to maximum minima
theorem,
J
JI
_1+_
IR
a
V
+
P
I
VI
]_ =0
R
a
V

P
I
VI
2
=0
I
2
R
u
P

=0
I
2
R
u
=P

=P
cu

Thus for the maximum efficiency, the condition is,
Variable losses =Constant losses
Solved examples:
Example.2.7: A 440V, shunt motor has armature resistance of 0.8 and field resistance of 200.
Determine the back e.m.f when given on output of 7.46kW at 85 percent efficiency.
Solution: Given data V=440, R
a
=0.8, R
sh
=200
Power output =7.46kW and efficiency =85%
Back e.m.f (E
b
) =?
Motor input Power =
Powcr output
L]ccnc
=
7.46 X10
3
0.85
=8776.4W
Motor input current =
7460
0.85
x440=19.95A
I
sh
=440/200 =2.2A
Armature current I
a
=19.95 -2.2 =17.75A
Now , E
b
=V-I
a
R
a

E
b
=440-(17.75 x0.8) =425.8V
Answer: Back e.m.f =425.8 V

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 64

Example 2.8: A 250V shunt motor takes a total current of 20A.the shunt field and armature is
2000 and 0.3 0 respectively. Determine: a) The back e.m.f. b) Gross mechanical power
developed.
Solution: V=250V, R
u
=o.3 0 I
L
=20A , R
sh
=200 0
I
sh
=
v
R
sh
=
250
200
=1.25A
I
u
=I
L
I
sh
=201.25 =18.75A
a) E
b
=I I
u
R
u
=250-18.750.3 =244.375I
b) P
m
=E
b
I
u
=244.37518.75 =4582.0312w
Example. 2.8: A 20 kW, 250V D.C. shunt generator has armature and field resistance of 0.1 0
and 125 0 respectively. Calculate the total armature power developed when running 1) As a
generator delivering 20kW output 2) As a motor taking 20kW input.
Solution:
1. As a generator
P
out
=20kw, I
t
=250:
I
L
=
P
cut
v
t
=
2010
3
250

=80A
I
sh
=
v
t
R
sh
=
250
125
=2A
I
u
=I
L
+I
sh
=80+2 =82A
E
g
=I
t
+I
u
R
u
=250+820.1=258.2
P
g
=E
g
I
u
=258.282=21.172kwarmature power developed
2. As a motor
P
n
=20kw, V=250V
I
L
=
P
in
v
=
2010
3
250
=80A
I
sh
=
v
R
sh
=
250
125
=2A
I
u
=I
L
I
sh
=802=78A
E
b
=I I
u
R
u
=250-780.1 =242.2I
P
u
=E
b
I
u
=242.278 =18.8916kwArmature power developed


GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 65

Previous years questions:
1. Deduce the relation between the Torque and armature current of D.C. Motor.
November/December, 2012
2. A 4-pole dc generator has a lap wound armature having 400 conductors. It generates an
e.m.f of 300V when flux per pole is 0.02Wb. Find the speed of rotation of its armature.
November/December, 2012
3. A) Derive EMF equation of a D.C generator.
B) With a neat diagram, explain the operation of a three point starter used in D.C motor.
May-June, 2012, Set-1, 15 Marks
4. Derive the torque equation of a D.C motor.
May-June, 2012, Set-2,7 Marks
5. A) Derive the torque equation of a D.C motor.
B) Mention three types of DC generators and write the application of each generator
C) Explain the working principle of DC generator.
May-June, 2012, Set-3, 15 Marks
6. A) Mention three types of DC motors and write the application of each motor.
B) Derive the torque equation of a D.C motor.
C) Draw a neat sketch of three point starter.
May-June, 2012, Set-4, 15 Marks
7. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Function of a commutator in DC machines
(b) Armature reaction in DC motors and remedies
(c) Speed-torque characteristics of a DC motor
(d) Back e.m.f in DC motors.
May, 2011, Set-2, 15 Marks
8. A 6-pole, 12 KW, 240 V, DC-machine is wave connected, if the same machine is lap
Connected, all other things remain same. Calculate its voltage, current and power ratings.
May, 2011, Set-4,15 Marks
9. A) Explain the principle of operation of DC motors. What is back e.m.f in DC
Motors? What are its effects?
B) How is back e.m.f produced in a DC motor? Also derive an expression for this e.m.f.
May, 2011, Set-3,15 Marks

GNIT EEE DEPARTMENT Electrical and Electronics Engineering 66

10. A) Draw a neat sketch of a dc generator. State the functions of each part.
B) A 110V dc generator delivers a load current of 50A. Its R
a

= 0.2; R
f
= 55. It is
rotating with speed of 1800 rpm, has 6poles, lap wound, 360 conductors. Calculate the
no-load voltage at the armature and flux per pole.
December, 2011, Set-1,15 Marks
11. Explain in detail the principle of operation and construction of a dc motor and also derive
the torque expression.
December, 2011, Set-3,15 Marks
12. A) Derive the EMF equation of a dc generator.
B) A dc shunt motor connected to a 230V dc supply takes a line current of 12A at same
load. If the field resistance and armature resistance are 230 and 1 respectively.
Calculate back e.m.f.
December, 2011, Set-4,15 Marks
13. A 4-pole, long shunt, lap wound generator supplies 25 KW at a terminal voltage of 500
V. The armature resistance is 0.03 ohms, series field resistance is 0.04 ohms and Shunt
field resistance is 200 ohms. The brush drop may be taken as 1 V. Determine:
(a) the EMF generated
(b) Cu -Losses & iron Losses
(c) Efficiency at full load
November, 2010, Set-1,15 Marks