2021

TASK:2

1.Generators and Motors ; 2.Trasnformers

2.1 Generators and Motors:
1. Describe the construction, characteristics and principles of operation of a
basic DC electromagnetic generator. Use images as well as text. Further
explain what factors influence the output voltage and how these are
maximized in a practical generator. (Include reference to the generator
equation).
Answer:

Construction:
A DC Generator is an electrical device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
It mainly consists of three main parts, i.e. magnetic field system, armature and commutator and
brush gear. The other parts of a DC Generator are magnetic frame and yoke, pole core and
pole shoes, field or exciting coils, armature core and windings, brushes, end housings, bearings
and shafts.

The diagram of the main parts of a 4 pole DC Generator or DC Machine is shown below:

.
Characteristics:
The characteristic of the DC generator can be defined as the graphical representation among
the two separate quantities. This graph will show the steady-state characteristics which explain
the main relationship between the terminal voltage, loads & excitation through this graph. The
most essential characteristics of this generator are discussed below.

Magnetization Characteristics

The magnetization characteristics provide the difference of producing voltage otherwise no-load
voltage through field current at a stable speed. This kind of characteristic is also known as an
open circuit otherwise no-load characteristic.

Internal Characteristics

The dc generator’s internal characteristics can be plotted between the load current as well as
generated voltage.
 External or Load Characteristics

The load or external type characteristics provide the main relationships among the load current
as well as terminal voltage at a stable speed.

Principles of operation of a basic DC electromagnetic generator:

The main function of DC generators is to change mechanical energy into electricity. DC’s generators
produce electrical power based on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

A DC generator is an energy converter that turns mechanical energy into electrical. This change in
the form of energy happens based on the principle of electromagnetic induction which means
wherever a change in the magnetic flux happens associated with a conductor, an EMF or an
electromagnetic force is induced in it. DC generator operates on the principle of the dynamically
induced electromagnetic force. When a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an
electromotive force gets induced within the conductor. This induced e.m.f magnitude is measured
using the equation of the electromotive force of a generator. If the conductor is provided with a
closed path, the induced current will circulate within the closed path. In this generator, field coils will
generate an electromagnetic field as well as the armature conductors are turned into the field.
Therefore, an electromagnetically induced electromotive force (e.m.f) will be generated within the
armature conductors. The path of the induced current is provided by Fleming’s right-hand rule.

Factors influence the output voltage:

The output of the d.c. generator is not steady but is always in the same direction. The maximum
output voltage occurs when the coil is horizontal and is cutting the field at right angles and at
maximum rate.

In Practical Generator:

The size of the voltage can be varied by three factors:

1. The size of the magnetic field.  The more flux lines there are, the more flux lines there
are for the conductor to cut.  The strength of flux is directly proportional to the induced voltage.
2. The active length of the conductor.  Active length meaning the part of the conductor that
actually passes through the field.  The active length is directly proportional to the induced
voltage.
3. The speed at which the conductor passes through the field.  The faster the conductor
passed through the field, the greater the voltage induced.  The speed is directly proportional to
the induced voltage.

These relationships to voltage can be broken into this formula:  e = βlv.

Where:

e = peak voltage induced in the inductor (volts)

B = field strength between the poles (Tesla)

l = active length of conductor (meters)

v = velocity of the conductor through the field (m/sec)

The faster the coil rotates the faster will it cut the magnetic field and bigger will be the output
voltage. Thus you can increase the output voltage of a generator by rotating it faster, increasing
the number of turns on the coil, or using stronger magnets.

2. An armature in a DC motor has a resistance of 0.18 ohms and creates a

voltage drop of 6.5V when the machine is connected to a 240V d.c. supply.
Calculate (a) the back e.m.f. of the motor (b) the current flowing in the armature.

Answer:
Given data;

Ra =0.18 ohms

Va =6.5V

V =240V

(a)-

As we know that;

V = E + IaRa ------------------- (1)

Where,

Ia = Va/Ra

=6.5/0.18

Ia =36.11 A ---------------- (2)

Putting (2) in (1) gives;

E= V – IaRa

E=240 – (36.11)(0.18)

E= 233.5 V
(b)-

Ia = Va/Ra

=6.5/0.18

Ia =36.11 A

3- The generated voltage of a DC generator is 240V and it has an armature

resistance of 0.35 ohms. Calculate the terminal supply voltage when the
armature current is (a) 10A (b) 25A (c) 50A

Answer:
Given data,

E =240V

Ra =0.35 ohms

Vt =?

(a)- Ia =10 A

Vt= E- IaRa

Vt= 240- (10)(0.35)

Vt= 236.5V

(b)- Ia =25 A

Vt= E- IaRa

Vt=240- (25)(0.35)

Vt =231.25V

(c)- Ia =50 A

Vt= E- IaRa
Vt= 240- (50)(0.35)

Vt= 222.5 V

4. A shunt DC motor has a motor constant of 0.025, armature resistance of 1.4

Ω and is supplied with 10Vdc by substituting for E and Ia in the motor
equation find the speed in rad/s for a motor torque of 0.05Nm

Answer:
Given data;

Km=0.025

Ra =1.4 ohms

T =0.05Nm

Speed= Ѡ= ?

The KVL equation for a shunt motor is;

Vt= E+ IaRa

Vt= Km- IaRa

Where,

T= Km .Ia

And , Ia= T/ Km

Now from above equation, we have;

Vt= Km. Ѡ –( T/ Km).(Ra)

Finally solving for motor’s speed yields;

Ѡ= ( Vt /Km) - (Ra/Km. Km)(Ra)

Ѡ= (10 / 0.025 )- (1.4/0.025*0.025)(0.05)

Ѡ= 288rpm

Ѡ= (60/2*3.14)(288)

Ѡ= 2750.19 rad/sec
2.2 Transformers:
1. Write a short report detailing the construction, application and
principle of operation of a transformer, include the energy losses that
occur in a real transformer and methods adopted to improve
transformer efficiency.

Answer:

Construction:

Basically, a transformer is made up of two parts which include; two

inductive coils and a laminated steel core. The coils are insulated from each other and also
insulated to prevent contact with the core.

The construction of the transformer will thus be examined under the coil and core construction.

Transformer’s Core
The core of the transformer is always constructed by stacking laminated sheets of steel
together, ensuring a minimum air-gap exists between them. The transformers core in recent
times is always made up of laminated steel core instead of iron cores to reduce losses due to
eddy current.

There are three major shapes of the laminated steel sheets to choose from, which are E, I, and
L.

When stacking the lamination together to form the core, they are always stacked in such a way
that the sides of the joint are alternated. For example, of the sheets are assembled as front
faced during the first assembly, they will be back faced for the next assembly as shown in the
image below. This is done to prevent high reluctance at the joints.
When constructing a transformer, it becomes very important to specify the type of transformer
as either step up or step down as this determines the number of turns that will exist in the
primary or secondary coil.

Application:
Transformers are used in most electronic circuits. A transformer has only 3 applications;

1. To step up voltage and current.

2. To Step down voltage and current
3. To prevent DC – transformers can pass only Alternating Currents so they totally prevent
DC from passing to the next circuit.
But the application of these 3 applications are endless which is why they have a place in lots of
circuits.

Principle of operation of a transformer:

The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits
which is linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that are
electrically separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance. The
working principle of the transformer can be understood from the figure be:
As shown above the electrical transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core
laminations are joined in the form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are
some narrow gaps right through the cross-section of the core. These staggered joints are said to
be ‘imbricated’. Both the coils have high mutual inductance. A mutual electro-motive force is
induced in the transformer from the alternating flux that is set up in the laminated core, due to
the coil that is connected to a source of alternating voltage. Most of the alternating flux
developed by this coil is linked with the other coil and thus produces the mutual induced
electro-motive force. The so produced electro-motive force can be explained with the help of
Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction as:

e=M*dI/dt

If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and thus electrical energy is transferred
magnetically from the first to the second coil.

The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called as the primary
winding. The energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be called as the secondary
winding.

In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:

1. Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.

 2.  Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
3. Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
4. The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.
Losses in Transformer:
In any electrical machine, 'loss' can be defined as the difference between input power and
output power. An electrical transformer is an static device, hence mechanical losses (like
windage or friction losses) are absent in it. A transformer only consists of electrical losses (iron
losses and copper losses). Transformer losses are similar to losses in a DC machine, except
that transformers do not have mechanical losses.
Losses in transformer are explained below:

(I) Core Losses Or Iron Losses

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used
for the construction of core. Hence these losses are also known as core losses or iron losses.

 Hysteresis loss in transformer: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in

the transformer core. This loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency
of magnetic reversals and value of flux density. It can be given by, Steinmetz formula:
Wh= ηBmax1.6fV (watts)
where,   η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant
             V = volume of the core in m3
 Eddy current loss in transformer: In transformer, AC current is supplied to the primary
winding which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with secondary
winding, it produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets linked with other
conducting parts like steel core or iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced
emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in them. This current is called as eddy
current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of heat.

 (Ii) Copper Loss In Transformer

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.  Copper loss for the primary
winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current in primary and
secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary
winding respectively. It is clear that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current, and current
depends on the load. Hence copper loss in transformer varies with the load.

Methods adopted to improve transformer efficiency:

Transformer performance depends a great deal on its efficiency. In theory, a transformer is
designed to never suffer from load losses. However, in reality, transformers used in real-time
applications suffer from load as well as no load losses. Loss of efficiency leads to lack of
transformer performance
The more efficient transformers require less cooling, which in turn saves more energy .Here are
solutions to reduce the losses, leading to enhanced efficiency of transformers.
No load loss:
No load loss is also known as core loss. The main constituent of core loss is hysteresis loss and
eddy current loss. Hysteresis loss depends on permeability and eddy current loss inversely
depend on thickness. Therefore, for minimising core loss, it will be better to use high
permeability thin core lamination.

Interlaminar losses
The core laminations are coated with very thin inorganic coating (few microns) to keep the
space factor high. The coating is not a perfect insulator. Thus, Eddy current driven by the bulk
flux in the core can flow across the stacked laminations, the coating must be good enough
insulator to keep these low.

Load losses
The constituents of load losses are: I²R loss, stray losses, Eddy current losses in the coil, tie
plate losses, tie plate and core loss due to unbalanced cross flux, tank and clamp losses, tank
losses due to nearby bus bar, tank losses in bushing turret, and winding losses.

I²R loss
I2R loss is the major component of load loss. They are normally computed value of resistivity.
This value varies depending on current density used. The reference temperature for loss
measurement is 75C.

Stray loss
These are losses generated by leakage flux. The stray flux depends on the winding sizes and
spacing, the tank size, the clamp position etc. The losses generated by this flux depend on
whether shunt or shield is present. Also, the geometric and material parameters can have
impact on loss reduction. In addition to the coil flux, there is flux produced by the leads.

  These are some steps towards improving energy efficiency. This has resulted
in the increase or enhancement in the efficiency of the transformer.

2. A transformer with a step up ratio of 1 : 6 has a full load secondary

current of 5A at 240V.
The primary winding has 1500 turns.`

Assuming ideal conditions determine the following :

(i) The number of turns on the secondary coil.

(ii) The voltage and current in the primary winding.
(iii) If the transformer has losses due to a secondary resistance of
0.35Ω and no other losses, determine the efficiency of the
transformer.

Answer:
Give data;

a= 1:6

Is= 5A

Vs= 240V

Np= 1500 turns

Rs =0.35 ohms

(i)-

a= Np/Ns

1/6= 1500/Ns

Ns= 9000 turns

(ii)-

a=Vp /Vs

1/6= Vp/ 240

Vp =40V

Ip will be:

Ip/Is=1/a

Ip/5=6

Ip=30A

(iii)-

Efficiency,
η = Power Out/Power In

P out = Is2.Rs

= (5)2 (0.35)

P out= 8.75 W

And;

Pin= Vp.Ip

=(40)(30)

Pin =1200W

Hence from equation;

η=8.75/1200

η=0.729%

2.3 AC theory:

A resistor of value 50Ω is connected in series with a capacitor of 1000µF and an

inductor of 420 mH and a 200V r.m.s. , 50Hz supply is applied across the ends.
Determine the (a) impedance, (b) the phase angle between the voltage and
current (c) the rms current (d) the voltage across the coil.

Answer:
Given data;

R=50 Ω

Capacitor=C=1000 µF

Inductor=L=420 mH

Vrms=200V

Frequency=f=50 Hz

(a) -

Z= ( Xl−Xc)2 + R2
√
Where;

XL = 2πfL

= 2π*(50)(420m)

XL =131.946 H

And;

Xc = 1/2πfC

=1/2π(50)(1000 µF)

Xc =3.183 F

Now the impedance will be:

Z=√ (131.946−3.183)2+50 2

Z=118.65 ohms

(b)-

Ø= Tan’ (Xl-Xc/R)

Ø=Tan’ (131.946-3.183/50)
Ø= 68.778°

(c)-

Vrms =Irms*R

Irms= Vrms/R

Irms=200/50

Irms=4A

(d)-

Vrms=V/√ 2

V=Vrms*√ 2

V=200*√ 2

V=282.84V

2.4 – Applications of D.C Motors:

Explain with the aid of a diagram the construction of a D.C. Motor with series
windings and shunt windings.

Explain the operating characteristics of both and explain the advantages and
disadvantages of both.

List examples where each may be used. Include the characteristic speed vs torque
graphs to aid your explanations

Answer:

Construction of a D.C. Motor with series windings:

The DC Series Motor is similar to any other motor because the main function of this motor is to
convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. The operation of this motor mainly depends on
the electromagnetic principle. Whenever the magnetic field is formed approximately, a current
carrying conductor cooperates with an exterior magnetic field, and then a rotating motion can be
generated.
In this motor, field, as well as stator windings, are coupled in series by each other. Accordingly
the armature and field current are equivalent. Huge current supply straightly from the supply
toward the field windings. The huge current can be carried by field windings because these
windings have few turns as well as very thick. Generally, copper bars form stator windings.
These thick copper bars dissipate heat generated by the heavy flow of current very effectively.
Note that the stator field windings S1-S2 are in series with the rotating armature A1-A2.

DC Series Motor Circuit Diagram

In a series motor electric power is supplied between one end of the series field windings and
one end of the armature. When voltage is applied, current flows from power supply terminals
through the series winding and armature winding. The large conductors present in the armature
and field windings provide the only resistance to the flow of this current. Since these conductors
are so large, their resistance is very low. This causes the motor to draw a large amount of
current from the power supply. When the large current begins to flow through the field and
armature windings, the coils reach saturation that results in the production of the strongest
magnetic field possible.
The strength of these magnetic fields provides the armature shafts with the greatest amount of
torque possible. The large torque causes the armature to begin to spin with the maximum
amount of power and the armature starts to rotate.

Characteristics Of DC Series Motors:

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)

This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is directly
proportional to the product of armature current and field flux, Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia. In DC series motors, field
winding is connected in series with the armature, i.e. Ia = If. Therefore, before magnetic
saturation of the field, flux ɸ is directly proportional to Ia. Hence, before magnetic saturation Ta
α Ia2. Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for smaller values of Ia.
After magnetic saturation of the field poles, flux ɸ is independent of armature current Ia.
Therefore, the torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T ∝ Ia. Therefore, after magnetic
saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes a straight line.
The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses. Hence, the curve
Tsh vs Ia lies slightly lower.

In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature
current, these motors are used where high starting torque is required.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N ∝ Eb/ɸ

For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small
and it may be neglected. Hence, for small currents speed is inversely proportional to ɸ. As we
know, flux is directly proportional to Ia, speed is inversely proportional to Ia. Therefore, when
armature current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a series
motor should never be started without some mechanical load.

But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is low which results in
decreased back emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.

DC Series Motor Advantages

The advantages of the DC series motor include the following.
 Vast starting torque
 Easy assembly and simple design
 Protection is easy
 Cost-effective
DC Series Motor Disadvantages
The disadvantages of DC series motor include the following.

 The motor speed regulation is fairly poor. When the load speed increases then the
machine speed will decrease
 When the speed is increased, then the DC series motor’s torque will be decreased
sharply.
 This motor always needs the load before running the motor. So these motors are not
suitable for where the motor’s load is totally removed.
Characteristic speed vs torque graphs:

T α Ia2

N α 1/Ia
Hence we can write;

N α1/ √ T

In this way as torque increases when load increases, the speed decreases .On no load, torque
is very small and hence speed increases to dangerously high value.

Construction of a D.C. Motor with shunt windings:

The DC shunt motor construction is the same as any type of DC motor. This motor can be
constructed with the basic parts like field windings (stator), a commutator and an armature
(rotor).
The working principle of a DC Shunt Motor is, whenever a DC motor is turned ON, then DC
flows throughout stator as well as the rotor. This current flow will generate two fields namely
pole as well as the armature.

In the air gap between armature and field shoes, there are two magnetic fields, and they will
respond with each other for revolving the armature.

The commutator overturns the armature current flow direction at ordinary gaps. So the

armature field is repelled with pole field for all time, it keeps revolving the armature within the
equal direction.
The DC shunt motor circuit diagram is shown below,
In case of the shunt wound DC motor, this current supply will divide into two ways like Ia,& Ish,
where ‘Ia’ will supply throughout the ‘Ra’ resistance armature winding. In the same way, ‘Ish’ will
supply through the ‘Rsh’ resistance field winding.

Therefore, we can write it as Itotal = Ia + Ish

We know that Ish = E/ Rsh

Otherwise Ia = Itotal- Ish= E/Ra
Generally, when the DC motor is in running state & the voltage supply voltage is stable and the
shunt field current given by

Ish = E/Rsh
But we know that the armature current is proportional to the field flux (Ish ∝ Φ). Thus
the Φ remains more otherwise less stable, due to this reason; a shunt wound DC motor can be
named as a constant flux motor.

Characteristics Of DC Shunt Motors:

The characteristics of shunt DC motor include the following.
 This DC motor works at a fixed speed once the voltage supply is set.
 This DC motor is upturned by the turn around the motor connections like a series motor.
 In this type of DC motor, by a rising motor current, torque can be improved without
reducing in speed.
Advantages of DC Shunt Motors
 direct current machines can use for heavy industrial applications where torque
and speed wider range.
 Shunt wound motor able to runs at a predetermined speed.
 The power supply of DC motor is any way cheap.
Disadvantages of DC Shunt Motors
 Installation of  DC machines is expensive compare with other types of machines.
 Since Shunt motors are constant speed motor, it would be a disadvantage where
it’s necessary to operate under variable speed.
 DC motors are unreliable at low speeds operations.
 The Size of DC motors is large compared with Alternative Current Motors.
Characteristic speed vs torque graphs:
T α ØIa

T α Ia

N α (V-IaRa/Ø)

Ø= constant

N α V – IaRa

From above equation we conclude that Speed and Torque both have linear relationship.

This curve shows that the speed is almost constant through torque changes from no load to full
load conditions.

END