AIR VELOCITY BY DWYER INSTRUMENTS

In air conditioning, heating and ventilating work, it is helpful to

understand the techniques used to determine air velocity. In this
field, air velocity (distance traveled per unit of time) is usually
expressed in feet per minute (f.p.m.). By multiplying air velocity by
the cross section area of a duct, you can determine the air volume
flowing past a point in the duct per unit of time. Volume flow is
usually measured in cubic feet per minute (c.f.m.).

Velocity or volume measurements can often be used with

engineering handbook or design information to reveal proper or
improper performance of an airflow system. The same principles
used to determine velocity are also valuable in working with
pneumatic conveying, flue gas low and process gas systems.
However, in these fields the common units of velocity and volume
are sometimes different from those used in air conditioning work.

To move air, fans or blowers are usually used. They work by

imparting motion and pressure to the air with either a screw
propeller or paddle wheel action. When force or pressure from the
fan blades causes the air to move, the moving air acquires a force or
pressure component in its direction or motion due to its weight and
inertia. Because of this, a flag or streamer will stand out in the air
stream. This force is called velocity pressure. It is measured in
inches of water column (w.c.) or water gage (w.g.). In operating duct
system, a second pressure is always present. It s independent of air
velocity or movement. Known as static pressure, it act equally in all
directions. In air conditioning work, this pressure is also measured in
inches w.c.

In pressure or supply systems, static pressure will be positive on the

discharge side of the fan. In exhaust systems, a negative static
pressure will exit on the inlet side of the fan. When a fan is installed
midway between the inlet and discharge of a duct system, it is
normal to have a negative static pressure at the fan inlet and
positive static pressure at its discharge.

Total pressure is the combination of static and velocity pressures,

and is expressed in the same units. It is an important and useful
concept to us because it is easy to determine and, although velocity
pressure is not easy to measure directly, it can be determined easily
by subtraction static pressure from total pressure. This subtraction
need not be done mathematically. It can be done automatically with
the instrument hook-up.

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Sensing Static Pressure

For most industrial and scientific applications, the only air measurements needed are those of
static pressure, total pressure and temperature. With these, air velocity and volume can be
quickly calculated.

To sense static pressure, six types of devices are commonly used. These are connected with
tubing to a pressure indicating instrument. Fig. 1-A shows a simple thru-wall static pressure tap.
This is a sharp, burr free opening through a duct wall provided with a tubing connection of some
sort on the outside. The axis of the tap or opening must be perpendicular to the direction of flow.
This type of tap or sensor is used where air flow is relatively slow, smooth and without
turbulence. If turbulence exists, impingement, aspiration or unequaled distribution of moving air
at the opining can reduce the accuracy of readings significantly.

Fig. 1-B shows the Dwyer No. A-308 Static Pressure Fitting. Designed for simplified installation,
it is easy to install, inexpensive, and provides accurate static pressure sensing in smooth air at
velocities up to 1500 f.p.m.

Fig. 1-C shows a simple tube through the wall. Limitations of this type are similar to wall type 1-
A.

Fig. 1-D shows a static pressure tip which is ideal for applications such as sensing the static
pressure drip across industrial air filters and refrigerant coils. Here the probability of air
turbulence requires that the pressure sensing openings be located away from the duct walls to
minimize impingement and aspiration and thus insure accurate readings. For a permanent
installation of this type, the Dwyer No. A-301 or A-302 Static Pressure Tip is used. It senses
static pressure through radially-drilled holes near the tip and can be used in air flow velocities up
to 12,000 f.p.m.

Fig. 1-E shows a Dwyer No. A-305 low resistance Static Pressure Tip. It is designed for use in
dust-laden air and for rapid response applications. It is recommended where a very low
actuation pressure is required for a pressure switch or indicating gage - or where response time
is critical.

Under field conditions, air turbulence in a duct or plenum often makes it impossible to quickly
install and align a rigid static pressure sensor to take accurate readings. Under these
circumstances, the Dwyer Trail-Tail® Static Pressure Sensor (Fig. 1-F), can be quickly inserted
through a small hole in the duct and will trail into automatic alignment with the air stream. The
pressure sensing holes in this device are thus presented at a 90° angle to actual air flow
assuring quick, consistent, accurate readings.

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Measuring total pressure and velocity pressure

In sensing static pressure we make every effort to eliminate the effect air movement. To
determine velocity pressure, it is necessary to determine these effects fully and accurately. This
is usually done with an impact tube which faces directly into the air stream. This type of sensor
is frequently called a "total pressure pick-up" since it receives the effects of both static pressure
and velocity pressure.

In Fig. 2, note that separate static connections (A) and total pressure connections (B) can be
connected simultaneously across a manometer (C). Since the static pressure is applied to both
sides of the manometer, its effect is canceled out and the manometer indicates only the velocity
pressure.

To translate velocity pressure into actual velocity requires either mathematical calculation,
reference to charts or curves, or prior calibration of the manometer to directly show velocity. In
practice this type of measurement is usually made with a Pitot tube which incorporates both
static and total pressure sensors in a single unit.

Essentially, a Pitot tube consists of an impact tube (which receives total pressure input)
fastened concentrically inside a second tube of slightly larger diameter which receives static
pressure input from radial sensing holes around the tip. The air space between inner and outer
tubes permits transfer of pressure from the sensing holes to the static pressure connection at
the opposite end of the Pitot and then, through connecting tubing, to the low or negative
pressure side of a manometer. When the total pressure tube is connected to the high pressure
side of the manometer, velocity pressure is indicated directly. See Fig. 3.

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Since the Pitot tube is primary standard device used to calibrate all other air velocity measuring
devices, it is important that great care be taken in its design and fabrication. In modern Pitot
tubes, proper nose or tip design - along with sufficient distance between nose, static pressure
taps and stem - will minimize turbulence and interference. This allows use without correction or
calibration factors. All Dwyer Pitot tubes are built to AMCA and ASHRAE standards and have
unity calibration factors to assure accuracy.

To insure accurate velocity pressure readings, the Pitot tube tip must be pointed directly into
(parallel with) the air stream. As the Pitot tube tip is parallel with the static pressure outlet tube,
the latter can be used as a pointer to align the tip properly. When the Pitot tube is correctly
aligned, the pressure indication will be maximum.

Because accurate readings cannot be taken in a turbulent air stream, the Pitot tube should be
inserted at least 8½ duct diameters downstream from elbows, bends or other obstructions which
cause turbulence. To insure the most precise measurements, straightening vanes should be
located 5 duct diameters upstream from the Pitot.

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How to take traverse readings

In practical situations, the velocity of the air stream is not uniform across the cross section of a
duct. Friction slows the air moving close to the walls, so the velocity is greater in the center of
the duct.

To obtain the average total velocity in ducts of 4" diameter or larger, a series of velocity pressure
readings must be taken at points of equal area. A formal pattern of sensing points across the
duct cross section is recommended. These are known as traverse readings. Fig. 4 shows
recommended Pitot tube locations for traversing round and rectangular ducts.

In round ducts, velocity pressure readings should be taken at centers of equal concentric areas.
At least 20 readings should be taken along two diameters. In rectangular ducts, a minimum of
16 and a maximum of 64 readings are taken at centers of equal rectangular areas. Actual
velocities for each area are calculated from individual velocity pressure readings. This allow the
readings and velocities to be inspected for errors or inconsistencies. The velocities are then
average.

By taking Pitot tube readings with extreme care, air velocity can be determined within an
accuracy of ±2%. For maximum accuracy, the following precautions should be observed:

1. Duct diameter should be at least 30 times diameter Pitot.

2. Located the Pitot tube section providing 8 ½ or more duct diameters upstream and 1½ or
more diameters down stream of Pitot tube free of elbows, size changes or obstructions.
3. Provide an egg-crate type of flow straightener 5 duct diameters upstream of Pitot.
4. Make a complete, accurate traverse.

In small ducts or where traverse operations are otherwise impossible, an accuracy of ±5% can
frequently be achieved by placing Pitot in center of duct. Determine velocity from the reading,
then multiply by 0.9 for an approximate average.

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Calculating air velocity form velocity pressure

Manometers for use with a Pitot tube are offered in a choice of two scale types. Some are made
specifically for air velocity measurement and are calibrated directly in feet per minute. They are
correct for standard air conditions: i.e. air density of .075 lbs. Per cubic foot which corresponds
to dry air at 70°F, barometric pressure of 29.92" Hg. To correct the velocity reading for other
than standard air conditions, the actual air density must be known. It may be calculated if
relative humidity, temperature and barometric pressure are known.

Most manometer scales are calibrated in inches of water. Using readings from such an
instrument, the air velocity may be calculated using the basic formula:

With dry air at 29.9 inches mercury, air velocity can be read directly from curves on the following
page. For partially for fully saturated air a further correction is required. To save time when
converting velocity pressure into air velocity, the Dwyer Air Velocity Calculator may be used. A
simple slide rule, it provides for all the factors needed to calculate air velocity quickly and
accurately. It is included as an accessory with each Dwyer Pitot tube.

To use the Dwyer Calculator:

1. Set relative humidity on scale provided. On scale opposite known dry bulb temperature, read
correction factor.
2. Set temperature under barometric pressure scale. Read density of air over correction factor
established in #1.
3. On the other side of calculator, set air density reading just obtained on the scale provided.
4. Under Pitot tube reading (velocity pressure, inches of water) read air velocity, feet per minute.

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Determining volume flow

Once the average air velocity is know, the air flow rate in cubic feet per minute is easily
computed using the formula:
Q = AV
Where: Q = Quantity of flow in cubic feet per minute.
A = Cross sectional area of duct in square feet.
V = Average velocity in feet per minute.

Determining air volume by calibrated resistance

Manufactures of air filters, cooling ad condenser coils and similar equipment often publish data
from which approximate air flow can be determined. It is characteristic of such equipment to
cause a pressure drop which varies proportionately to the square of the flow rate. Fig. 5 shows
a typical filter and a curve for air flow versus resistance. Since it is plotted on logarithmic paper,
it appears as a straight line. On this curve, a clean filter which causes a pressure drop of .50"
w.c. would indicate a flow of 2,000 c.f.m.

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For example, assuming manufacturer's specification for a filter, coil, etc.: Given Flow Q (ft3/min.)
= at differential "h" (inches w.c.)

To determine flow at other differentials the formula is: Qn (other flows) = Q

Other devices for measuring air velocity

A wide variety of devices are commercially available for measuring air velocities. These include
hot wire anemometers for low air velocities, rotating and swinging vane anemometers and
variable area flowmeters.

The Dwyer No. 460 Air Meter is one of the most popular and economical variable area
flowmeter type anemometers. Quick and easy to use, it is a portable instrument calibrated to
provide a direct reading of air velocity.

A second scale is provided on the other side of the meter to read static pressure in inches w.c.
The 460 Air Meter is widely used to determine air velocity and flow in ducts, and from supply
and return grilles and diffusers. Two scale ranges are provided (high and low) with calibrations
in both f.p.m. and inches w.c.

To check accuracy
Use only devices of certified accuracy. All anemometers and to a lesser extent portable
manometers should be checked regularly against a primary standard such as a hook gage or
high quality micromanometer. If in doubt return your Dwyer instrument to the factory for a
complete calibration check at no charge.

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GAGE READING WITH PITOT TUBE (VELOCITY PRESSURE) IN INCHES

OF WATER

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 AIR VELOCITY BY DWYER INSTRUMENTS

GAGE READING WITH PITOT TUBE (VELOCITY PRESSURE) IN INCHES

OF WATER

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