British StudiesU1 2 3 4 .Revazut

British Studies
Introduction to the British Studies Course

The British Studies Course is structured in four units divided in turn into chapters and subchapters. The four units are interconnected, and a number of key-words and cultural concepts are to be found in all of them. The main goal of all these units is to enable you to identify and critically relate to fundamental aspects of contemporary British society such as cultural identity, the ethnogenesis* of the British people, multiculturalism, traditional political and cultural institutions currently undergoing radical changes. urther on, such ac!uisitions and skills will help you to make more sense of your own society and its mechanisms in the age of globali"ation, enabling you to analyse, compare, e#pand concepts and also integrate the knowledge and these skills at various levels of the curricular area. The new concepts are not only presented in a summary at the end of each unit and sub-unit but also defined in the Glossary section $the words and concepts to be defined are marked with an asterisk *%. &ictures of important personalities and institutions are also provided. The heroes and heroines of our 'story( are featured in the Gallery of Famous Brits at the end of the course $the personalities whose pictures you can see in the Gallery are marked with the symbol *%. The content and the themes of the units are not meant to stimulate mechanical reproduction but first and foremost to challenge and !uestion your received notions and )udgments, to permanently encourage you to resort to your own life and cultural e#perience, to your values and mind-sets. Throughout the course you will be stimulated to construct logical argumentation, to base your assumptions on logical arguments and facts and thus to steer clear of emotional side-taking, to engage in a civili"ed and meaningful dialogue of ideas. *t is also the goal of this course to stimulate you to go beyond simplifying and reductionist* oppositions such as national identity vs. globali"ation, nationalism vs. multiculturalism. The course attempts to mentally e!uip you with new, more integrative approaches and strategies of analysing the phenomena of the contemporary world. Throughout the course you are given ample opportunities to critically reflect on the new material and new ideas presented by solving the tasks assigned+ Think First and SAQs $you can compare your answers to !uestions with answers provided at the end of each unit or chapter%. The main ob)ective of the tasks is to help you make use of and integrate previously ac!uired knowledge and skills and to discover, on your own, new concepts. ,ach unit and chapter specify in their ob)ectives the skills and competences targeted and that is what you will actually be able to do after you have covered a certain unit. Thus you will be able to take responsibility for your own learning process, as you will be in a position to monitor and assess your own progress and take initiative for further action.
&roiectul pentru *nvatamint -ural
British Studies
The four units are the following+ .. /ho 0re the British1 British *dentity 2 a &rocessual 0pproach 3. Britain 2 a 4ulticultural Society1 5. British 4onarchy in the Third 4illennium 6. British 7emocracy in 0ction The units are further subdivided into the following chapters+ 89*T .+ /ho 0re the British1 British *dentity 2 a &rocessual 0pproach Ten :uestions and 0nswers about the British *sles from the ;eographical, 7emographic, -eligious, <inguistic and Socio-cultural &erspectives The 4aking of a 9ation+ =istorical *nvasions and their Contribution to the ,thnogenesis of the British. The 4a)or /aves of *mmigration 89*T 3+ Britain 2 a 4ulticultural Society1 Britishness>,nglishness>,uropeanness taken as =ybrid, &lural *dentities *nter--acial -elations in Contemporary Britain 89*T 5+ British 4onarchy in the Third 4illennium British 4onarchy - =ow ?alid an *nstitution in the Third 4illennium1 or or 0gainst the 4onarchy1 89*T 6+ British 7emocracy in 0ction 0 Brief =istorical @utline of the British &arliament. The =ouse of <ords and its -adical -eform under 9ew <abour British 7emocracy in 0ction+ the =ouse of Commons, the Thrust towards 7ecentrali"ation *nstruments of ,valuation 0t the end of each unit you will be asked to submit a test paper to your tutor who will check it and return it to you complete with feedback and grading.
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UNIT 1 ho Are the British! British Identity " a #rocessual A$$roach
Unit %utline
... C&A#T'( I Ten Questions and Ans)ers a*out the British Isles *s there any difference between the 8nited Bingdom and ;reat Britain1 /hat is the population of Britain1 /hich are Britain(s largest ethnic minority groups1 /hich religions are represented in Britain1 /hat does the 8nion Eack stand for1 7oes Britain have a 9ational 7ay1 A A C C D F F
..... ....3 ....5 ....6 ....A ....C ....D ....F ....G
/hat are Britain(s floral symbols1 G =ow do the British celebrate traditional and religious G holidays1 .3 .3 .5 .A .F 3A 3A
..3
=ow many people speak ,nglish worldwide1 .....H 7o /ales, Scotland and 9orthern *reland have their own languages1 ...... British *dentity between @neness and =ybridity .....3 IThe way we never wereJ. Cultural icons and their value Glossary Ans)ers to SAQs C&A#T'( II The +akin, of a Nation- &istorical In.asions and their Contri*ution to the 'thno,enesis of the British. The +a/or a.es of Immi,ration ..3.. /hat is a nation1 ..3.3 The Celtic past and its posterity ..3.5 The -oman Con!uest - a 'blessing in disguise(1 ..3.6 The 0nglo-Sa#on invasion ..3.A The ?iking invasion ..3.C The 9orman Con!uest and its conse!uences ..3.D 0 =istory of our 9ations1 The 4a)or /aves of *mmigration Summary Glossary Ans)ers to SAQs SAA No.1
3C 3F 5H 55 5C 5D 5F 63 63 6A 6F
This introductory unit assumes the form of a !uestionnaire in its first part, as * think that this constitutes a most motivating and
&roiectul pentru *nvatamint -ural 3
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awareness-raising activity enabling us as teachers to revisit and brush up our students( knowledge of Britain and things British. This unit also deals in its first part with cultural stereotypes and clichKs and offers ways of challenging such reductionist views. *t is also meant to rid our minds of ethnical, racial, and national purism. *t aims to clarify the role that the historical invasions played in the ethnogenesis of the British people. *t challenges traditional approaches that view such comple# phenomena as 'historical disasters( suggesting instead an analysis that views them in their entirety, as important moments in the shaping of a national identity. *t is also meant to establish a clear-cut distinction between invasions and immigration underlining their defining and distinctive traits. 0fter you have completed the study of this unit, you should be able to+ describe and analyse demographic, religious, linguistic, cultural and political aspects of the constituent units of ;reat BritainL identify cultural icons, accounting for their relative epistemological* valueL draw parallels between traditional practices, customs, holidays in Britain and -omaniaL challenge old-fashioned and counterproductive references to nation-states critici"e arguments in favour of a monolithic perception of the British as a homogeneous entity, one nation, one race, or even as four nations in oneL identify the specific contribution of various ethnic groups to the moulding of a plural identity confidently talk about British identity as hybrid, plural and diverseL clearly distinguish between invasion and immigration draw parallels between ethnogenetic processes in Britain and -omania recogni"e and use specific concepts and cultural studies terminology.
British Studies
1.1
Ten 0uestions and ans)ers a*out the British Isles
1.1.1 Is there any difference *et)een the United 1in,dom and Great Britain! Think First! Mou might wish to look at a map or try to remember which are the parts of ;reat Britain. This will certainly help you to answer the !uestion. 8se the space provided below to write your answer.
Fi,. 1 A +a$ of the United 1in,dom
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/e generally use the term Britain informally to mean the 8nited Bingdom of ;reat Britain and 9orthern *reland. The 8nited Bingdom is made up of the countries of ,ngland, Scotland, /ales and 9orthern *reland and its full name is the 8nited Bingdom of ;reat Britain and 9orthern *reland. Being made up of ,ngland, Scotland and /ales, ;reat Britain is the largest island of the British *sles, whilst 9orthern *reland and the *rish -epublic form the second largest island. The *sle of 4an and the Channel *slands $;uernsey, Eersey, 0lderney and Sark% are not part of the 8nited Bingdom. They are largely self-governing with their own legislative assemblies and systems of law. 9evertheless, the British government is responsible for their defence and international relations. 1.1.2 hat is the $o$ulation of Britain! 0ccording to the last census* of 3HH., the population of the 8B rose to almost AG million people $it has more than doubled since the beginning of the 3Hth century% and the segment of population that has increased most dramatically is that of the ethnic minorities $from CN of the total population in .GG. to GN in 3HH.%. 1.1.3 hich are Britain4s lar,est ethnic minority ,rou$s! Think First! Before you answer this !uestion reflect for a minute on the uni!ue contribution that the ethnic minorities have made over recent decades to the overall picture of British society today. Can you mention any of the rock, hip-hop and pop artists, fashion trends, famous novelists, film stars or football players belonging to ethnic minority groups1 &lease use the space provided below to write down your answer.
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The largest ethnic minority is that of the 0fro-Caribbeans $over ..5HH.HHH%, followed by *ndians, &akistanis and Bangladeshis $altogether 3 million people%. Considerable numbers of Chinese, *talians, ;reek and Turkish Cypriots, &oles, 0ustralians, 9ew Oealanders, people from the 8S0 and Canada are also resident in Britain. <ondon boasts the largest ethnic population amongst all ,uropean cities $ethnic minority groups representing 3DN of its total population%. 1.1.5 hat reli,ions are re$resented in Britain! Think First! Before you answer the !uestion could you take some time and think back to the census we had in -omania three years ago1 /hat did you e#perience when the census clerk asked what your religious faith was1 /ere you tempted, even for a second, to )oke about such a !uestion1
Several religions are represented in Britain. @ne British citi"en in .H is -oman-Catholic and there are almost 3 million members of the 0nglican Church -- the ,stablished Church, that is the church legally recognised as the official church of the state. The &resbyterian Church is the ,stablished Church of Scotland. *n 9orthern *reland nearly 6HN are Catholic, while half of the population is &rotestant. *n /ales the 0nglican religion was disestablished in .G3H, hence there is no ,stablished Church, but 4ethodism and Baptism are the two most widespread religions. Britain also boasts one of the largest 4uslim communities in /estern ,urope - over ..A million people and over CHH mos!ues and prayer centres. The Sikh* community is also !uite substantial, mostly concentrated in <ondon, 4anchester and Birmingham. There are over .CH =indu temples in the 8B, whilst the Eewish faith and several other religions are also represented. 0ccording to the latest census, H.DN of the British -- who are no longer a nation of church-goers -- declared their religion to be 'Eedi(*, some of them in )est but !uite a few of them in response to an online campaign that urged British people to register as Eedi since
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.H.HHH recordings of it would render the religion of the EediP official.
Fi,. 2 The Union 6ack
1.1.7
hat does the Union 6ack stand for! 0mong the most cherished national symbols we should mention the 8nion lag or as it is commonly known, the 8nion Eack $which derives its name from its use on the )ack-staff of naval vessels to show their nationality% which brings together and embodies the emblems of its three constituent units. The crosses that appear on the union lag are those of the three patron saints of the constituent countries+ the red cross of St. ;eorge, for ,ngland, on a white ground, the white diagonal cross of St. 0ndrew, for Scotland, on a blue ground and the red diagonal cross of St. &atrick, for *reland, on a white ground. The final version of the 8nion lag appeared in .FH. when the union of ;reat Britain with *reland was completed with the inclusion of the cross of St. &atrick. IThe fiery dragon of /alesJ on a field of white and green is not represented on the 8nion Eack since /ales was already united with ,ngland, but it is of course widely used throughout /ales.
1.1.8 9oes Britain ha.e a National 9ay! Scotland(s national day is St. 0ndrew(s 7ay $5H 9ovember%, although Burns( 9ight $see section ....F% has tended to overshadow it lately. St. 7avid(s 7ay $. 4arch% is the national day of /ales, and it is commemorated by the wearing of daffodils or leeks* by patriotic /elsh women and men. ,ngland(s national day is St. ;eorge(s 7ay $35 0pril%. The military saint(s name, rescuer of a hapless maid and slayer of dragons had his name used as a battle cry by ,nglish knights who fought beneath the red cross banner of St. ;eorge during the =undred Mears /ar $.55F-.6A5%. St &atrick(s 7ay $.D 4arch% is the national day of 9orthern *reland. The work of St. &atrick was a vital factor in the spread of Christianity in Celtic *reland in the Ath century. Born in Britain, he was carried off by pirates and spent si# years in slavery before escaping and training as a missionary. The day is marked by the wearing of
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shamrocks*, the national badge of both 9orthern *reland and the -epublic of *reland. 1.1.: hat are Britain4s floral sym*ols! The national flower of ,ngland is the rose and it has been adopted as an emblem since the time of the /ars of -oses $.6AA.6FA%. The /ars of the -oses were the civil wars waged by the royal houses of <ancaster $whose emblem was a red rose% and that of Mork $whose emblem was a white rose%. 0fter his victory over -ichard ***, =enry of <ancaster inaugurated the Tudor dynasty and married ,li"abeth of Mork. Thus the two roses were symbolically united in the new Tudor rose $a red rose with a white centre%. The Scottish national flower is the thistle*. *t is customary to display the three flowers beneath the shield on the royal coat of arms*. 1.1.; &o) do the British cele*rate traditional and reli,ious holidays! Think first! Before you read the answer, write in the space below what holidays British and -omanians might share. 7o you know any specific British holidays1
=olidays in ,ngland are either common law holidays such as ;ood riday and Christmas or bank holidays $since on these days banks are legally closed%. 4ost of the bank holidays fall on a 4onday thus e#tending the weekend. There are si# bank holidays in ,ngland and /ales+ 9ew Mear(s ,ve, ,aster 4onday, 4ay 7ay, Spring and <ate Summer bank holidays and Bo#ing 7ay $3C 7ecember%. Some traditional holidays recall ancient or more recent historical events or religious festivals, and they deserve special attention+ &allo)een which falls on 5. @ctober is thought to be derived from the most important of the four holidays of the British Celts $first millennium BC% the festival of Samhain, a critical moment of the year when spirits were believed to circulate freely between the world of the living and the underworld, the realm of the dead. &eople had to arm themselves with the right incantations and rituals so as to keep the evil spirits at bay. ;houlish* costumes, apple bobbing*, =alloween lanterns, pumpkins carved in the shape of human faces $glowing when candles are lit inside% and the custom of 'trick or treat(
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are characteristic of contemporary celebrations of =alloween. *t is mostly associated with 0merica today, although the custom originated in Celtic Britain. *n some villages and market towns Christmas )aits $carol singers% and )assailers $people who carry boughs and cribs of ribbon and evergreen% or mummers who perform old, traditional plays based on St. ;eorge and the 7ragon are still a common sight during the festive season. First footin, is another old tradition. 0t midnight on 5. 7ecember first footers $traditionally tall, dark, good-looking men% step over the threshold bringing the 9ew Mear(s <uck, usually a piece of coal, a loaf and a bottle of whisky. They enter the house, place the fuel on the fire, put the loaf on the table and pour a glass for the head of the house and they do not speak as a rule before wishing everyone I0 =appy 9ew MearJ. *n Scotland the 9ew Mear remains the greatest of all annual festivals. *t is called &o,manay and its culminating point is at the stroke of midnight with huge gatherings of people greeting the new year by linking arms and singing Auld Lang Syne $see below%. Think first! *n our increasingly urbani"ed world, customs and ritual practices that have been observed since times immemorial are gradually dying out. ;ive e#amples of such traditions and practices and suggest ways in which they could be rescued from e#tinction.
Burns4 Ni,ht commemorates the birthday of the great Scottish poet -obert Burns $.DAG-.DGC% and it is celebrated on 3A Eanuary, a day of traditional meals, pride of place being held by haggis minced mutton, offal*, oatmeal, onion, herbs and spices all boiled in a sheep( stomach. &eople gather in great numbers in inns and Burns clubs, link arms at the end and sing the most famous song Auld Lang Syne whose verses were written by -obert Burns+ Should auld acquaintance be forgot, And never brought to min? Should auld acquaintance be forgot And days o auld lang syne? For auld lang syne, my dear, For auld lang syne,
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Well take a cu o kindness yet For auld lang syne!
SAQ 1 Could you translate the poem by Burns from Scots into ,nglish1 8se the space provided to write your translationL then check it against the answer at the end of this unit.
0nother custom this time linked to ,aster and the <enten* fast preceding it is #ancake 9ay whose religious name is Shro.e Tuesday. *t is the day preceding 0sh /ednesday $a day of penitence )ust before the start of <ent% and derives its name from the compulsory confessions made on that day $'shrifts( from the verb shrive, shrove, shriven, 'being absolved(, 'having your sins forgiven(%. @n this specific day all the goodies in the pantry have to be finished off, making room for the ascetism of the <enten fast. Some villages have won some fame as pancake race organi"ers. The oldest and most famous among them is @lney in Buckinghamshire. The race is only 5FH metres long but not a piece of cake for the competitors $women over .C wearing a cap and apron% who have to run it and at the same time toss their pancakes at least three times during the race. Guy Fa)kes Ni,ht brings to mind the plot of .CHA when ;uy awkes, a fervent -oman Catholic at the head of a group of conspirators, attempted to blow up Bing Eames ** $the first of the Stuarts% and the =ouses of &arliament, as they disagreed with the Bing(s &rotestant policies. They managed to store about 5H barrels of gunpowder in the cellar under the =ouses of &arliament, but before the State @pening - which fell on A 9ovember that year - the gunpowder plot was discovered. ;uy awkes together with his fellow plotters were e#ecuted for high treason. @n 9ovember A th people symbolically celebrate the victory of order, law, tradition and of the ,stablishment over disruption, anarchy and lawlessness. Bonfires are lit, effigies, stuffed figures of ;uy awkes are burnt and there are also firework displays. Children traditionally parade their home-made 'guys( on the streets of their town or villages and ask passers-by for 'a penny for the guy(, this money being used as a contribution towards their fireworks.
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Fi,. 3 Guy Fa)kes meets his intended .ictim <1in, 6ames I=
Fi,. 5 Guy Fa)kes
Several weeks before (emem*rance 9ay, which falls on the Sunday closest to .. 9ovember, the day the peace treaty was signed that put an end to /orld /ar * $0rmistice 7ay%, the British wear red paper poppies on the lapel of their coats thus paying homage to the nation(s heroes, those who lost their lives in the two world wars and subse!uent conflicts like the alklands /ar, the ;ulf /ar or the *ra! and 0fghanistan wars, more recently. The flower badges represent the poppies that grew in the cornfields of landers in Belgium, where many thousands of British soldiers lost their lives in the irst /orld /ar. The !ueen leads the ceremonies held on -emembrance Sunday, when at .. am a two-minute silence is observed at the Cenotaph in /hitehall, <ondon and elsewhere in the country and when again wreaths of poppies are left at the Cenotaph and other war memorials in the country. 1.1.> &o) many $eo$le s$eak 'n,lish )orld)ide! -ecent estimates suggest that over 55D million people speak ,nglish as their first language, with possibly some 5AH million speaking it as a second language and a further .HH million others use it fluently as a foreign language. ,nglish is the official or semiofficial language in over CH countries. @ver two thirds of the world(s scientists write in ,nglish and over FHN of the world(s electronically stored information is in ,nglish. ,nglish is the lingua franca* of the contemporary world as <atin was the lingua franca of mediaeval times. 1.1.1? 9o ales@ Scotland and Northern Ireland ha.e their o)n lan,ua,es! <anguages belonging to the Celtic family are still spoken in Britain and today there are still about DH.HHH people speaking Scottish "aelic. The greatest concentration of speakers of ;aelic is in the =ighlands $north of Scotland% and in the islands of the =ebrides $west of the Scottish mainland%. *n both 9orthern *reland and the -epublic of *reland there are speakers of ;aelic $about 3HH.HHH%. Welsh, another language of Celtic origin is spoken in /ales. Scots, a dialect derived from the 9orthumbrian branch of @ld ,nglish, completely separate from ;aelic, has been spoken for
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centuries in the south of Scotland, in the <owlands, its literary tradition being based especially on -obert Burns( poetry. 1.1.11 British identity *et)een unity and di.ersity 7uring the last millennium ,ngland, *reland, Scotland and /ales have not lived in isolation. Since the ?iking invasion $F th century%, if not earlier, the cultures of the British *sles have interacted with each other. The conflict between Celtic and ;ermanic cultures, the 9orman Con!uest, the impact of the -eformation and Counter--eformation, the effect of migration within the British *sles, the conse!uences of imperial e#pansion 2 all have left a lasting mark upon the cultural relationships within these islands. 0lthough one would e#pect to encounter many differences in landscape, architecture, place names and local customs, the visitor can communicate with people from /ales to Bent. The lin,uistic unity is very much in favour of the idea of oneness and sameness+ one nation AA one lan,ua,e. 0lthough people are struck by various accents and unfamiliar words or ways of constructing sentences, Britishness presupposes the e#istence of a more or less Standard ,nglish, a lingua franca, rendering the transmission of a cultural inheritance possible throughout the kingdom. This basis for oneness is however not absolute, and the transmission of this British culture does not preclude* the e#istence of a literature which is more limited in appeal to a particular region or nation, either by virtue of language or of cultural conte#t. 0 visitor to both Caernarfon* and Canterbury* might e#perience a true culture shock when confronted with such different cultural milieus*. 0nother point of convergence would be the $olitical culture e#pressed in a party system, which has e#tended throughout Britain with the same labels+ /hig>Tory, <iberal>Conservative, and <iberal 8nionist> <abour. *n the .G th century the <iberal &arty in /ales and in Scotland sought to present itself as the national party, and Scottish and /elsh <iberals pressed hard at times for =ome -ule*. =ome -ule $or to use the political )argon of postmodernity 'devolution(*% has been met with considerable reserve by many, not least by the Scots and /elsh themselves, who found this surge of nationalism and this celebration of cultural individuality a ma)or hindrance* to social and political stability. A common reli,ious culture does e#ist despite the intricacies of tensions between religious cultures in the constituent units of the British *sles. @ne can mention three ma)or ecclesiastical communities+ -oman Catholic, 0nglican>,piscopalian, and &resbyterian> ree Church. 7espite the homogeneity of this pattern, religious allegiance* has been far from uniform. &resbyterianism is a minor phenomenon in ,ngland, being essentially Scottish in numerical strength and stature. 0nglicanism is essentially ,nglish and Scottish. ,ven /elsh ,piscopalians had to defend themselves against the charge that they belonged to an alien church. *t is difficult to territoriali"e 4ethodism in its various forms, as it was everywhere but was nowhere dominant, which also holds true for other 7issenting* or ree Churches.
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lan,ua,e@ $olitical culture and reli,ion
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But at the same time, the British churches have e#pressed, created and transmitted a certain sense of identity. 0t the beginning of the .Gth century one could have spoken une!uivocally of a British #rotestant self$image. Today non-church going has become a defining trait of the British religious life, and the nature of British identity might be transformed by a marginalisation of all Christian traditions. Think First! Before you read the ne#t paragraph, try to anticipate the ne#t factor, besides those mentioned above, that would make the British take pride in their identity as 'British(. /rite your answer in the space below.
The British identity is predominantly conceived as im$erial. The ,mpire was fre!uently stated to be the logical e#pression of British greatness. *t was the goal to which all previous British history had pointed+ I,ngland without an ,mpireQ ,ngland in that case would not be the ,ngland we loveQJ $Eoseph Chamberlain*%L I*f we lose *ndia, we will become a third-rate powerJ $/. Churchill*%. The ,mpire, being the common achievement of all the peoples of the islands, added one more vital )ustification for their political unity. The maintenance of unity in Britain during /orld /ar * seemed to testify both to the vitality of the British ,mpire and the cohesion of Britain. But at the same time, one cannot ignore the fact that the very unity of the 8B of ;reat Britain and *reland was in a process of dissolution. The constitutional settlement of the *rish ree State in .G33 gave the appearance of strengthening a sense of Britishness. Colonial nationalism became more and more demanding and Britain was made to acknowledge the e!ual status of the selfgoverning 7ominions at the .G3C *mperial Conference, codified in the .G5. Statute of /estminster. 8nrest in *ndia finally led to the .G55 ;overnment of *ndia 0ct. *t was a measure bitterly opposed by Churchill* who feared the disappearance of the Ibrightest )ewel in the CrownJ. Churchill declared in .G6H that he had not become the
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Bing(s &rime 4inister to preside over the li!uidation of the British ,mpire, but by the year of his death, .GCA, that ,mpire had virtually passed away. @f course the British ,mpire had in a way only been transmuted* into the British Commonwealth. 0lthough decolonisation, despite its difficult moments, did not cause a domestic crisis, the psychological ad)ustments which governments and people had to make to the changed conditions cannot be overlooked. The imperial myth that had underpinned British national e#istence for so long, crumbled, and the general feeling of loss that accompanied it cast ever more doubt on a world role for Britain. 4any attempts have been made to define Britains essential character. Britain appears to some as a multi-national state or as a national one to others. *ts distinctive cultural attributes have all received considerable emphasis and central funding. or many it remains undesirable to seek an integral nationalism, though some might feel attracted to this view. Sometimes people talk very vividly about a federation of Britain as a structure capable of embracing the totality of relations within the island. 0s someone once said, Britain is a house )ith many mansions, which can and should contain 8lster $9orthern *reland% and Clydeside $Scotland% within the 8nited Bingdom for so long as this remains the wish of most inhabitants. /e, ,uropeans, live in a world that is e!ually marked by a !uest for unity -- not uniformity -and at the same time, parado#ically, for individuality. 1.1.12 BThe )ay )e ne.er )ereC. Cultural icons and their .alue *t is very risky to reduce something as comple# and diverse as identity to some images, ob)ects, rituals, behaviour patterns and current practices that we often call 'cultural icons(. Cultural icons, nevertheless, like all cultural clichKs and stereotypes have some value as they are short-cuts to ac!uiring authentic knowledge about cultural identities. Some years ago the Brits were invited by a prestigious paper to respond to a !uestionnaire regarding the cultural icons of Britishness. *n the %aily &elegra h of @ctober F, .GGA, the results of the opinion poll appeared. /hen reading the readers( reactions, what becomes apparent is the difficulty of essentiali"ing a very comple# and heterogeneous phenomenon like British society today. /hat shone through the respondents( answers was also the fact that when the ,nglish are debating Britishness, they are really debating 'nglishness. 4any are inclined to attribute to Britain icons and traditions, which are deeply ,nglish. (n some cases using Britain for 'ngland re resents an attem t to find a term that sounds more luralistic than 'ngland)
Think first!
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Before moving on, try and predict what the British have chosen as cultural icons of Britishness, i.e. images, social practices, customs, food, meals, everyday routines that in some way or another even we, foreigners, have come to identify as typically ,nglish. /rite down your answer in the space provided and then check your answer against the ne#t paragraphs
Some of the cultural icons that surfaced were+ vicars on bicycles, thatched cottages* , net curtains, changing trains at +re,e $an important railway )unction in Cheshire, 9-/ ,ngland%, Brief 'ncounter $a famous British film directed by 7avid <ean in the AH(s%, ,alking the dog , ducks on the village ond , orderly queues, S itfires $aircraft flown by the British in /orld /ar **%, "od Save the -ueen./ing* , 0agna +arta*, &roo ing the +olour*, the Salvation Army laying carols outside Fortnums*, the ,hite cliffs of %over*, Beefeaters*, Francis %rake*, Stonehenge*, a robin in the sno,*, half$timbering*, 0arks and S encer*, )1 =owever, nearly all the interviewees agreed u on five items of 2'nglishness + cricket on the green, ubs, church bells, &he Last 3ight of the #roms* and))) fish and chi s . /e should add however that over GH per cent of the fish and chips shops are run by members of ethnic minorities. @ther important icons are the motto of the -oyal =ouse, the phrase that belongs to the -oyal amily(s coat of arms $ %ieu et mon droi 4 2"od and my right% but also to the sacred institution of monarchy itself. The present-day :ueen can claim a royal lineage stretching back virtually unbroken to the /est Sa#on Bing Cerdic* in the A th century. But if we look in detail at the -oyal amily tree, it turns out to have been anything but British. *n the .HHH years since the death of the last ,nglish monarch =arold ;odwinson* in the .Hth century, there have been neo- rench 9ormans in the .. th, rench 0ngevins and &lantagenets* in the .3th, .5th and .6th, /elsh Tudors*, Scottish Stuarts*, a 7utch &rince of @range at the end of the .D th century and the ;ermans =anoverians* throughout the .F th, .Gth and 3Hth centuries. These foreign kings and !ueens have made it their habit to marry a succession of rench, 7anish, 9orwegian, Spanish, *talian, &ortuguese, &russian, ;erman and ;reek consorts.
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Think First! Before reading on, reflect on the fact that people can hardly think of a more typically British festive occasion than Christmas. 8se the space provided and write what you think is typically British about Christmas in Britain and then read the ne#t paragraph to check your answers.
/hen the British have a traditional Christmas 7inner, they eat an 0"tec bird $turkey% by an 0lsatian tree $fir-tree%, followed by a pudding spiced with sub-tropical preserves, while in ,ngland itself the most popular of Christmas carols still tells us of a Bohemian king /enceslas to music taken from a Swedish Spring song. Similarly, Santa Claus is 7utchL pantomime is *talian and crackers are rench. The Mule log* is ?iking $and the 5ule &ide is another name for The Twelve 7ays of Christmas% Shakes$eare, an institution in himself, a supreme celebrator of ,nglishness, ransacked the cultures of 0ncient ;reece and -ome and of medieval and -enaissance ,urope in search of plots, characters and inspiration for his plays. The sources of 6amlet are a <atin history of 7enmark and a story from a rench collection of 6istoires &ragiques 7&ragical Stories8 . @nly .H of his 5D plays are set in ,ngland, two in mythical 0ncient Britain, a further .H in *taly, five in rance, four in -ome and four in ;reece. 0 last argument comes from the ,nglish language, whose vocabulary is another e#ample of a heavy ransacking of the le#icons of the many cultures it came into contact with. The legacy of multiple linguistic invasions is present in 4odern ,nglish. The vocabulary of ,nglish is a heterogeneous multilingual hotchpotch. 4aybe no other language is so diverse in its provenance*. 9ot only 7utch, 7anish and ;erman, @ld 9orse, @ld rench or <atin, &ortuguese, Spanish, *talian, but also 0rabic $soda, alcohol% ;u)arati $bungalo,%, =indi $chint9%, 4e#ican $tomato%, Chinese $tea%, =aitian $ otato%, &ersian $caravan, sofa%, 0ustralian $budgerigar%, &olynesian $tattoo%. Scones
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and crum ets traditionally served with tea are both 7utch words. &oast and marmalade are rench and &ortuguese respectively. Britain is a multilingual country par e#cellence. Today <ondoners alone speak nearly 3HH languages other than ,nglish, with a !uarter of <ondon(s school pupils speaking another language at home. /idely spoken languages include &un)abi 2 A3 per cent of British 0sians speak itL 8rdu, =indi, ;u)arati, Bengali, Cantonese, 4andarin, ?ietnamese and Caribbean Creole>&atois. &luralism in Britain re!uires e#pansion of the vision of what it is to be British. There is a double consciousness about being both /elsh and Scottish and at the same time British or British and ,uropean. *t is often said that nationalities are not like hatsL human beings can and do put on several at a time. /e live in a world where it is possible to hold, value and reconcile separate identities.
1'D C%NC'#TS
stereotype clichK census devolution =ome -ule hybrid identity ethnical purism multicultural Commonwealth decolonisation bank holidays common law holidays ,stablished Church cultural icons coat of arms
GE%SSA(D
alle,iance R loyalty, faith and dutiful support to leader, country, idea etc. An,e.ins and #lanta,enets R royal family of ,ngland from ..A6 to .5GG which included =enry **, -ichard ** and -ichard ***. ;eoffrey ?, Count of 0n)ou, father to =enry **, often used '&lantagenet( to name his ,nglish royal descendants. *ank holiday R an official holiday $on a day other than Saturday and Sunday% when banks, post offices and factories as well as many shops are closed.
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Beefeater R soldier who wears a special old-fashioned uniform $which dates back to the .Ath century% and acts as a ceremonial guard in the Tower of <ondon. *o**in, <a$$leA= R trying to pick up apples floating on water using only one(s mouth and not one(s hands $typical of =alloween parties%. Caernarfon R a small holiday town on the coast of 9/ /ales which is well-known for its castle that has hosted since the late .5 th century the investiture of the monarch(s first born son as &rince of /ales. Canter*ury R a small city in S, ,ngland, famous for its cathedral, which is the chief church of ,ngland. The 0rchbishop of Canterbury is the head of the Church of ,ngland. Cerdic R $in 0nglo-Sa#on tradition% the first ;ermanic king of /esse#. There are some accounts of military campaigns that he fought in during the fifth and si#th centuries which are recorded mainly in the Anglo$Sa:on +hronicle. The most interesting fact about Cerdic is that his name is Celtic and not ;ermanic, this could either be because his parents in naming him were influenced by the surrounding Celtic culture or that he was in fact part Celtic himself, rather than pure ;ermanic. census R an official counting of a country(s total population, complete with other important information about the economic, professional, religious, cultural structure of the population. *n Britain there is usually a census every ten years, and the latest from 3HH. marked a century since the first modern census was organi"ed. clichF R an idea or e#pression used so often that it has lost much of its e#pressive force, it has turned into a platitude. Cham*erlain@ 6ose$h R member of the <iberal &arty, a leader of the -adicals, whose successful social reforms made him a national political figure. =e was a minister in ;ladstone(s first government but resigned over the issue of *rish =ome -ule. This action helped to bring down the <iberal government. Chamberlain became leader of the <iberal 8nionists and in .FFC he formed an alliance with the Conservative &arty. =e wanted to transform the British ,mpire into a united trading block. =is son, Ne.ille Cham*erlain, also became a leading figure in politics. Churchill@ Sir inston $.FD6-.GCA% R ,nglish politician who was the &rime 4inister of Britain during most of the Second /orld /ar. =e is unanimously admired and remembered for his great leadership of the nation, for his famous speeches and brilliant sense of humour. coat of arms R set of patterns or pictures usually pained on a shield or shield-like shape, used by a noble family, town council, university as their special sign, symbol.
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The Common)ealth R a loose association of states with no formal constitution or rules, among which only a few, such as ;ibraltar and the alkland *slands, remain dependencies of Britain. There are AH odd states within the Commonwealth, - nearly one-third of the world(s independent states with a combined population of over ..A billion, around one !uarter of the total population of the world. The :ueen is recognised as =ead of the Commonwealth. *n .C countries, including Canada and 0ustralia, she is also =ead of State. Thirty countries, like Oimbabwe, *ndia, ;uyana, ;hana, Bangladesh, &akistan, Cyprus, etc., are republics and si# of them, like Brunei, 4alaysia, <esotho and Tonga have their own royal families common la) holiday R traditional holidays whose origins go back to the common law, the unwritten law of ,ngland based on )udges( decisions and custom rather than on written law passed by &arliament cultural icon R a person, ob)ect, work of art, place, practice invested with special symbolic value for a nation, with a particular representational force for an entire culture decolonisation R withdrawal of a state from its former colonies, leaving them independent. This process was accelerated a great deal after /orld /ar **. de.olution R the transfer $or devolving% of governmental or personal power to a person or group at a lower or more local level. The second referendum for devolution organi"ed in /ales and Scotland in September .GGD was successful and on C 4ay .GGG elections were held in the two countries and their parliaments were reopened after AHH and 5HH years, respectively. 9issentin, <churches= R separation from the Church of ,ngland of various religious faiths because of their refusal to accept doctrines of the ,stablished Church. 9rake@ Sir Francis $.A6H-.AGC% R ,nglish navigator and important courtier of :ueen ,li"abeth **. =e was the first ,nglishman to circumnavigate the world. =e led the ,nglish navy to victory against the Spanish 0rmada in .AFF. 9o.er <)hite cliffs of= R a town in S, ,ngland known as a port from which ships travel to and from rance carrying passengers and goods. The port is below some high cliffs which can be seen from a distance. ,nglish people say that the first sight of the white cliffs of 7over is a sign that one is near home again after travelling. e$istemolo,ical R relating to the method and grounds of knowledge. 'sta*lished Church R official, state church established by law $in ,ngland and in Scotland where the &resbyterian Church is the ,stablished Church%.
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ethnical $urism R a meaningless attempt to search for an untainted, pure essence of a nation, unspoilt by 'foreign( influences. etno,enesis R the long process of the creation, shaping of a group of people, of a nation. Fortnum4s <Fortnum and +ason= R a famous food store in &iccadilly, <ondon which sells !uality goods and is thought of as being a place where rich people buy their supplies and go for their afternoon tea. ,houlish <,houl= R spirit preying on corpses in 4uslim superstitionL sinister, morbid. God Sa.e the QueenG1in, R the British national anthem which originated in a patriotic song first performed in .D6A. @n official occasions it is usual to sing the first stan"a only, the words of which are as follows+ I;od save our gracious :ueenQ > <ong live our noble :ueenQ > ;od save the :ueenQ > Send her victorious, > =appy and glorious, > <ong to reign over us, > ;od save the :ueenQJ. God)inson <&arold= R the earl of ;odwin and his son =arold ** dominated the last years of 0nglo-Sa#on history bringing to an end the =ouse of /esse# $FH3-.HCC%. halfAtim*erin, R an old, traditional style of house building with the wood of the frame showing in the walls, especially in the outer walls. &ano.erian R a line of kings and !ueens who originally came from =anover $9/ ;ermany% and who reigned between .D.6 and .GH.. hindrance R act of stopping, obstructing or delaying the development of a person, activity, etc. hy*rid identity R mi#ed, plural, heterogeneous identity as opposed to pure, homogeneous identity &ome (ule R self-government by an area that was once politically dependent. *t is also used with reference to the nationalist movement in *reland between .FDH and .G3. when the ree *rish State was established. 6edi R good, noble characters that were featured in the popular science fiction film Star Wars $directed by Steven Spielberg%. Eeek R vegetable related to onion, but with lower leaves and bulb in cylindrical white formL /elsh national emblem.
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Fi,. 7 leek A
elsh national sym*ol
Eent <Eenten= R period from 0sh /ednesday to ,aster ,ve of 6H weekdays devoted to fasting and penitence. lin,ua franca R a language serving as medium between different nations whose own languages are not the sameL system providing mutual understanding. +a,na Carta R a famous document in British history agreed by Bing Eohn at -unnymede, near <ondon, in .3.A, Britain(s best known constitutional document. *t is considered to be the earliest monument to ,nglish freedom and the basis for all further legislation defining civil rights. +arks and S$encer R one of a group of very well-known department stores found in mainly large towns in Britain selling clothes, food, and other goods for the home under the name St +ichael. milieu R environment, social surrounding, state of life. offal R inner organs of animals $liver, kidneys, lungs% used as food. $reclude R e#clude, prevent, make impracticable. #roms R concerts in which parts of the audience stand. These performances of classical music are held over a period of several weeks every summer in the -oyal 0lbert =all in <ondon. They were established by =enry /ood in .FGA and have become a great national event. &he Last 3ight is a very special occasion when the second part of the programme always consists of some well-loved tunes which the standing crowds sing along with. The programme ends with Sir ,dward ,lgar(s Land of 6o e and "lory and people sing it while waving 8nion Eacks. $ro.enance R $place of% origin. reductionist R an un)ustifiably simplistic, narrow and limiting perspective ro*in <in the sno)) ; a common small ,uropean bird with a brown back and wings and a red breast. 0 robin in the snow is one of the most fre!uent motifs represented on British Christmas cards. royal coat of arms <also shortened to H(oyal arms4= R heraldic symbol of the British -oyal =ouse consisting of a shield topped by a helmet and a lion bearing the -oyal crown and flanked by two rampant $standing% animals+ a lion and a unicorn, surrounded by a
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garter. *n the design, the shield shows the various royal emblems of different parts of the 8nited Bingdom+ the three lions of ,ngland in the first and fourth !uarters, the lion of Scotland in the second and the harp of *reland in the third. *t is surrounded by a garter bearing the motto 6oni soit qui mal y ense $S,vil to him who evil thinksS%, which symbolises the @rder of the ;arter, an ancient order of knighthood of which the :ueen is Sovereign. The shield is supported by the ,nglish lion and Scottish unicorn and is surmounted by the -oyal crown. Below the motto of the Sovereign, %ieu et mon droit $S;od and my rightS% appears. The plant badges of the 8nited Bingdom -- rose, thistle and shamrock -- are often displayed beneath the shield.
Fi,. 8 The (oyal Coat of Arms
The function of the -oyal Coat of 0rms is to identify the person who is =ead of State. The royal arms are borne only by the Sovereign. They are also used in many ways in connection with the administration and government of the country, on coins, in churches and on public buildings. shamrock R clover, trefoil, used as symbol of *reland
Fi,. : shamrock AA sym*ol of Ireland
Sikh R a member of a religion $ Sikhism% that developed from =induism in the .Cth century to become a completely separate religion which is important in modern *ndia. 4ale Sikhs usually have beards and wear turbans. stereoty$e R fi#ed mental impressions, a fi#ed set of ideas about what a particular type of person or thing is like, which is wrongly believed to be true in all cases.
British Studies
Stonehen,e R a group of very large and tall stones arranged in circles which stand on the Salisbury &lain in S ,ngland. They date back to 4egalithic times $5AHH-5HHH BC% and their functions - either astronomical or religious or both - are still the sub)ect of heated debate. Stuart R royal family of ,ngland and Scotland from Eames * $.CH5% to 0nne $.D.6%. thatched cotta,es R a house in the country with a roof covering of straw, reeds, etc. They are considered to be lovely and oldfashioned, and there are only a few hundreds left in Britain as the maintenance of the roof is e#tremely costly. thistle R prickly plant with globular heads of purple flowersL Scottish national emblem
Fi,. ; thistle " Scottish national em*lem
transmute R change from one form, nature, substance into another. Troo$in, the Colour R a ceremony held on the British :ueen(s official birthday in Eune when many horses and foot soldiers march across =orse ;uards &arade in <ondon carrying their flags, and the :ueen herself takes the salute. Tudor<s= R a famous dynasty of British monarchs inaugurated by =enry ?** in .6FA and which came to an end with the death of ,li"abeth * in .CH5. Dule Eo, R a sacred log. Before Christian times it was customary for the pagans to make huge fires on winter solstice day to honour the ;reat Sun at a most critical moment of the year. 0 log wasvthen taken from the big communal fire and used to light the fire in individual homes. $The most probable etymology for the -omanian +r<ciun originates in the ancient name of the same sacred log. Both the 8krainians and 0lbanians call the log that is traditionally burned on the shortest night of the year to 'help( the waning god k=rcum or keregum %. 7erived from the 7anish 'yule(.
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ANS '(S to SAQs

SAQ 1 -oughly, the verses mean+ Should old friends be forgotten, And never remembered 7brought to mind8? Should old friends be forgotten, And days of long ago) For 7the sake of8 long ago, my dear, For 7the sake8 of long ago, Well drink a toast For the sake of long ago!
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1.2. The +akin, of a Nation- &istorical In.asions and their Contri*ution to the 'thno,enesis of the British. The +a/or a.es of Immi,ration
1.2.1 hat is a nation! Think First! '9ation( is a concept that we often take for granted rarely !uestioning its meaning or its appropriacy in usage. Before reading on, take a minute to reflect on your understanding of the term. /hat does the term refer to1 /hat does it include and what does it e#clude1 8se the space provided below to write down your answer.
*n the conte#t of the contemporary globali"ed world concepts such as nation-states, sovereignty, independence or autonomy tend to lose their absolute value. They increasingly demand that one gains a broader perspective on issues such as national identities. <eopold ?on -anke 2 a great ;erman historian of the .G th century developed a concept of the nation that continues to carry weight even today. 7efining the nation as a universalist concept, -anke stresses the role of nations in history and the belief that the nation was a divinely created unit at work in universal history, with each nation having its own appointed moment of destiny. =owever, the nation is not only a unifying concept but also e#clusive and divisive, stressing a difference between a particular society and its neighbours. *t provides a narrow working frame, because what we now perceive as national boundaries had in the past little or no reality. &eople should be more interested in discovering here the e isodes of interchange, of the continuous intermingling of cultural elements which individuals could define as cultural osmosis*)
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0n e#ample is the border between /ales and ,ngland. =erefordshire and Shropshire are part of ,ngland, and their inhabitants are ,nglish with all the appropriate mental e!uipment that goes with it $in the map below you can find them under the coding S0< and =, %. But in fact these border counties have been the scene of continuous intermingling between the /elsh and ,nglish cultures over a long period of time. The same point may also be made about the border between ,ngland and Scotland, which was drawn at one time to include the <othians* $4idlothian, ,ast and /est <othian are clustered together as <, , and / on the map below% as within ,ngland and at another to include Celtic Cumbria* $you can find Cumberland marked as C8< in the map below% within the kingdom of Strathclyde*. The modern distinction between 8lster and south-west Scotland did not e#ist in the late middle ages, since the channel dividing the two areas served as a unifying element for the post-?iking society which occupied the isles.
Fi,. > A +a$ of the British Counties
/ith this pattern in mind let us see how the history of the various nations of the British *sles transcends the internal boundaries of later date. Thus the -oman Con!uest, the barbarian invasions, the ?iking raids, the 9orman Con!uest, the -eformation*, Counter-eformation* and the *ndustrial -evolution* were events that
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affected the British *sles as a whole and brought about crucial changes in the models of interaction and e#change within these isles and between the British *sles and ,urope. 1.2.2 The Celtic #ast and its #osterity <et us begin with the Celts. This episode is generally seen as an arena for the confrontation of two distinct races, the Celts and 0nglo-Sa#ons. *n fact we are dealing here with linguistic and cultural differences. Both linguistic branches stem from a common *ndo,uropean* stock, there are many similarities in their tribal organisation, religious beliefs, social classes characteristic of the configuration of *ndo-,uropean societies. Scholars are divided on the issue of migration, especially on its definition as 'con!uest, e#termination and displacement(. 4any are supporters of an anti-migrationist point of view or of the rocessual a roach*, which favours a pattern of interaction between local communities with the subse!uent fashioning of a nuclear area, of a style "one. They re)ect the theories about the advent of the war-mad *ndo-,uropean tribes emerging from a proto-*ndo-,uropean fatherland. Such catastrophe theories postulate the utter e#termination of the peaceful 9eolithic* farmer cultures and the conse!uent displacement of ideology, pantheon $all their deities, gods% and social organi"ation. The processual approach highlights, on the contrary, interaction, e#change networks of complementary crafts and episodes of convergence and divergence, of continuous development. SAQ 1 *n the case of Celtic, the lower status language survived especially in place names+ Wear, %on, >use, %ore, ?ye, Avon, &hames, LondonL we also have several river names from the Celtic substratum of ,nglish, all derived from (sca $'water(%+ A:e) ':e, 's@k, Ask, Wiske, and also a few words such as tor, crag, combe, bin, brock, avon) The number of words is much more limited than in the case of the Thraco-7acian substratum of .C. words. /hat words belonging to the Thraco-7acian substratum of -omanian can you remember1
The Celts were among the four great Barbarian peoples known alongside the Scythians, &ersians and <ibyans. These indigenous elements, the communities with which the -omans came into contact in the .st century BC were Celtic-speaking, iron-using societies organi"ed on a tribal pattern. 0ll over Britain there are also clear indications of a unity of artistic e: ression, of ritual and religious beliefs. The British Celts were neither among the earliest Celts nor among those of widest distribution. But on the other hand, these Celts have left us the most complete picture of their civili"ation,
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since they en)oyed freedom from foreign, especially -oman, con!uest longer than their continental neighbours. *n parts they escaped such influences altogether and thus preserved their culture in a purer form. Their culture, language and art also indicate that they shared a common culture with the Celts of continental ,urope, groups of whom crossed the 0lps and sacked -ome in 5GH BC. *n her classic work, #agan +eltic Britain, 0nne -oss assembles evidence in favour of a common pattern reflected in attitudes and beliefs+ a reverence for rivers and wells, the cult of the severed head, totemic animals and plants. SAQ 2 *n her book Arme celtice Bn s iritualitatea Ci cultura romDneasc< $8nivers, Bucuresti, .GD3% ?irginia Cartianu offers a comparative analysis of similar practices, rituals, artefacts and iconographic motifs in -omanian traditional society and art, underlining the lasting effects of Celticity on -omanian territory. Three of the items listed below are not Celtic. Can you guess which they are1 contracts reinforced by oaths with no written support, written contracts signed by both parties, oaths taken on a hot iron, reinforcing contracts by curses, blood brotherhood, marriage fairs $such as the famous 4ount ;aina air%, the head considered the seat of the soulL sacredness of the severed head $endowed with prophetic gifts%L the wheelL a cult of rosesL circumscribed crossL a cult of sacred stonesL a cult of sacred treesL scroll and spiral motifsL boars, stags, the horseL pigs and sowsL the raven, the crowL the swan torcsL templesL
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communication with the underworld through various ob)ects and practicesL sacrifices for the duration of a new building.
Fig. 10 A Celtic Torc
1.2.3. The (oman Con0uest AA a Blessin, in 9is,uise! The -oman Con!uest led to a social and cultural revolution. South of a line between <incoln and <yme Bay, various Celtic kingdoms lost their independence and were incorporated into the empire. The southern <owlands formed a military province with the most -omanised section of Britain. 9orth and west, a "one e#isted over which there was military rather than administrative control.
Fi,. 11 A +a$ of (oman Britain
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/hen we speak about the 'blessing in disguise(, and the moderni"ing effects of the -oman Con!uest, it is sometimes forgotten that a process of moderni"ation had already been under way in the south, where social change, the development of larger political units, urbanisation and a wider market economy, accompanied by a certain level of literacy and numeracy, determined some people to term this development prior to the actual Con!uest as '*ndirect -omani"ation(. Think first! Before you read the ne#t paragraph try to anticipate what the great benefits of the -oman con!uest of Celtic Britain might have been. Think of a similar process undergone by the -oman province of 7acia. /rite your answers in the space provided below.
4odernisation was greatly accelerated after the Claudian invasion of 65 0.7.+ the setting up of a literate bureaucracy, rationali"ation of the infrastructure of settlements, development of a centralised road system, refinement of manners, of domestic comfort $villas, mosaics, central heating, sewage%, etc. SAQ 3 The -oman Baths in the city of Bath constitute the best preserved -oman religious baths from the ancient world. /hy were the Baths so important for the -omans so as to name a city after them1
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Fi,.12 The Great Bath
Fi,.13 The Gor,on4s head
Fi,.15 Goddess +iner.a
@f all -omanising influences, the most important was undoubtedly +hristianity. The coming of St. &atrick to 9orthern *reland and of other missionaries to the southern half of the country is normally seen in e#clusively religious terms as part of the history of the Christian Church. *n cultural terms, however, it marked the opening up of *reland to the values of -omeL it made *reland part of the -oman-led 'globalisation( process that was going on at the time. The success of the new faith in *reland should not be e#aggerated, since many traditional aspects of *rish life survived for many centuries. But the 'splendid isolation( of *reland was broken down during this period. The Christian Church was no longer a network of sects+ its organi"ation was monarchical in the sense that both the ,mperor and the &ope e#ercised a great deal of power. <atin was the sacred language of the Church, and its centre was -ome. The Christian missionaries to *reland in the course of the A th century were also agents of -omanisation. There were other marked differences between the religions formerly professed and Christianity. The 7ruids* and filids* of the Celts committed to memory tens of thousands of verses, a process stretching over a period of 3H years or so. Christianity, on the other hand, was a religion of the book, so it also brought literacy in its wake, no matter that it functioned on a restricted scale. Thus, around the year 6HH 0.7., we can easily perceive a contrast between cultural areas. ,ngland south of a line from the
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Thames estuary was heavily -omanised, whilst a second cultural area including Scotland, *reland and /ales was made up of societies still rather heavily local in their outlook. =ere local kinships prevailed as well as the patronage of local aristocratic elites and, although the impact of the Christian teaching was very powerful, these societies still clung to their own rites of passage, to old institutions like 'fosterage(* and 'wake(*, and in general, to immemorial customs. @ver much of the British *sles, the Celtic-speaking world survived the arrival and departure of the -oman legions. The vitality of local cultures led to the invention or re-editing of origin legends and genealogies of founding heroes, narrative histories which were eventually committed to writing in the early middle ages $amongst the most famous e#amples+ The 0rthurian cycle and the Cornish legend of Tristan and *seult%. 1.2.5. The An,loASaIon In.asion or the ne#t important chapter of British history, the Anglo$ Sa:on invasion, we have as an e#traordinary source of information, the work of the monk, great scholar and historian Bede $mostly known as the ?enerable Bede%, who completed his 'cclesiastical 6istory of the 'nglish #eo le in D5.. *t is an account related from the angle of the invaders, who were pagan while their victims were Christian. Bede solved the problem by attributing the ,nglish victory to the working of 7ivine &rovidence. The character of this invasion has to be )udged critically. /e know from archaeological evidence that the continuous history of 0nglo-Sa#on settlements actually began under -oman rule, round the year 6HH. /e should also avoid an understanding of this invasion as catastrophe-ridden, complete with massacres and the total destruction of villas, -oman castra, etc. The -oman towns were not totally abandoned, they became the tuns or settlements $manors% of the powerful 0nglo-Sa#on chieftains. There is ample evidence that the ,nglish knew what a ceaster was -- a word used with remarkable consistency in place names+ 0ameceaster $4anchester% or Eentanceaster $/inchester%. There are hints at the clashes of different cultures in the C th and th D centuries. The impact of Christiani"ation was important, but for many bret,aldas or Bryten,aldas $these were sub-kings, a concept that indicates the instability of political power and dominance in a heptarchy* marred* by internal battles for power% who depended on warfare for amassing wealth, the conversion to Christianity was skindeep. *t was a society riddled with feuds, and the succession to kingdoms was fluid and uncertain. The criterion of eligibility for kings was gift-giving or otlatch*. The splendour of the great royal shipburial at Sutton =oo $discovered in .G5G%, shows that kingdoms were won and lost for such treasures, a trait that the ;ermanic tribes shared with many heroic warrior societies on the continent. The pagan ship-burial of Sutton =oo and the pagan aristocratic ideas e#pressed in Beo,ulf 7Fth century epic about the adventures and fortunes of Beowulf% or in the heroic lines of the Battle of 0aldon 7a poem celebrating a great battle against the ?ikings in
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im$act of Christianisation
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GG.8, may serve as a reminder that there was no instant Christiani"ation. *t was a world in which if a king lost support he !uickly perished and his kingdom with him. Beowulf fights with monsters and dragons, inhabitants of a pre-Christian mental world. /hen he is killed, his followers lay him with rich treasures in a mound overlooking the sea, )ust as the ,ast 0ngles had done for their king at Sutton =oo+ &hen the ,arriors rode around the barro, &hey raised his manhood and the ro,ess of his hands, &hey raised his nameF it is right a man Should be lavish in honouring his lord and friend) &hey said that he ,as of all the ,orlds kings &he gentlest of men, and the most gracious, &he kindest to his eo le, the keenest for fame) SAQ 4 Mou have read above about the instability, violence and some other features of the 0nglo-Sa#on world. Can you think of some suitable ad)ectives to characterise the 0nglo-Sa#ons1
Bede also celebrates the harmonious relations of *reland with 9orthumbria, and of Scotland with 9 ,ngland. The art of the period indicates the e#istence of close links between the 0nglo-Sa#on kingdom of 9orthumbria and the *rish kingdoms. Cooperation and e#change were not, however, the sole models of interaction. There was also continuous tension and hostility between these cultures, as proved by+ >ffas %yke $an earthwork nearly .AH miles long% built in the Fth century and forming a continuous barrier between /ales and ,ngland from sea to sea. 4ilitary victory was accompanied by the persistent advance of agrarian settlements and by the development of the manorial system - the creation of nuclear settlements, of villages and open fields, and the administrative division into counties, shires and hundreds $subdivisions of shires, each hundred having its own court for settling local business%. The 0nglo-Sa#ons were themselves ethnically mi#ed, originating in several ;ermanic cultures $0ngles, Eutes, Sa#ons, risians etc%L they cannot be )udged as a monolithic entity, there were great differences between their kingdoms. The sharpest difference was between, on the one hand the older kingdoms of the east and south coasts - ,ast 0nglia, ,sse#, Bent and Susse# - and, on the other, the newer, more powerful, e#panding kingdoms of the north, the 4idlands and south-west 9orthumbria, 4ercia and
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/esse# in particular. Their settlement and the diffusion of their cultural model led ,nglish society towards a more mobile structure, which valued loyalty to lord rather than loyalty to kin, the latter being typical of more static, more traditional societies. 4onarchical institutions stood a much better chance of developing in this type of society. *t was a more fluid social structure that encouraged trade as an honourable, socially acceptable activity. There was a certain amount of localism in Scotland, *reland and /ales, but this trait should not be overemphasi"ed. &re-Christian *reland had indeed been tribal, rural, hierarchical and based on a kin ethos, but from the Ath century on, it underwent considerable change, despite the survival for many centuries to come of old institutions and beliefs. There was still polygamy, and up to the .3 th century, even the ancient tarbfeis* survived and an overall obsession with rituals. 7espite the important changes that the British *sles saw from the Ath to Fth centuries, the late -oman ,mpire e#ercised a continuing influence upon all the cultures of the British *sles, which is why there are sufficient grounds for calling these centuries the '&ost-oman centuries.( The conversion of this traditional society of kings, warriors and farmers to Christianity was initiated by &ope ;regory the ;reat in AGD and according to tradition he had seen ,nglish youths in -ome and pronounced them Inot 0ngles but angelsJ. 7espite the relative success of the conversion in its first stages, in the ne#t centuries 0nglo-Sa#on monks were going to become some of the most devout missionaries in the whole of ,urope, many of them returning to their lands of origin, Sa#ony or risia, preaching and setting up sees* $like St. Boniface% SAQ 5 -ead the following passage from Bede(s 6istory+ &his is ho, the resent life of man on earth, /ing, a ears to me in com arison ,ith that time ,hich is unkno,n to us) 5ou are sitting feasting ,ith your aldermen* and thegns* in ,inter timeF the fire is burning on the hearth in the middle of the hall and all inside is ,arm, ,hile outside the ,intry storms of rain and sno, are ragingF and a s arro, flies s,iftly through the hall) (t enters in at one door and quickly flies out through the other) For the fe, minutes it is inside, the storm and ,intry tem est cannot touch it, but after the briefest moment of calm, it flits from your sight, out of the ,intry storm and into it again) So this life of man a ears but for a momentF ,hat follo,s or indeed ,hat ,ent before ,e kno, not at all)G $!uoted in the >:ford 6istory of Britain, ed. Benneth @. 4organ, D5%. /hat is the message of this famous te#t1 /hat is the Bing urged upon to do1
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1.2.7. The Jikin, In.asion 0n important conse!uence of the Eiking invasion is the weakening of the power of the -oman image. The @ld @rder fallsL the e!uilibrium of the old cultures is disturbed by the onset of a new sea-borne power. *n DFG the first ships of the 7anes land on the ,nglish coast. The raids in the north are far more serious and the old centres of learning in the monasteries of <indisfarne, Earrow, *ona were plundered. 4obility seems to be a crucial factor in con!uest. Thanks to their longshi s, $see picture below% a crucial invention, the ?ikings managed to dominate for a long period much of the *rish and 9orth Seas. /hen it came to settlement patterns, the new social order was broadly based upon farmers.
Fi,. 17 A Jikin, lon,shi$
0long the ,ast Coast of Britain, 0nglo-Sa#on ,ngland ceased to e#ist in any meaningful sense. The literate Christian culture linked to -ome and to the Carolingian ,mpire*, was replaced by a pagan, oral culture, which looked to 7enmark and 9orway. *n the second half of the eleventh century the society that emerged was !uite different from that of previous ages, and there were profound changes. The changes in urban development, trade and shipwrighting were of such scope that '0nglo-Scandinavia( might be an appropriate term for the resulting mi#. Besides the market orientation $it is said of the ?ikings that with them piracy and trade were so ine#tricably woven, that trade was piracy and piracy their trade%, they added substantially to the proportion of freemen* in the areas that they controlled <incolnshire, <eicestershire, 9orfolk. The typical ?iking was a farmer in arms, not a warrior seeking to control unfree labour. Their society was far more fle#ible and less authoritarian than the one it replaced. The ?iking invasion, by mobili"ing the resistance of the 0nglo-Sa#ons, paved the way or served as ferment for the renewal of the whole society. The old-style lordship of the 0nglo&roiectul pentru *nvatamint -ural 36
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Sa#ons gave way to feudal kingship with its distinctive features that were to reach maturity with the 9orman Con!uest. But if feudalism is understood literally, meaning the holding of land in return for military service, then a new monarchy was brought into e#istence by the 7anish threat. This new-style monarchy could e#ert its power from /esse# over 4ercia, *reland as well as over the 7anelaw*. The establishment of the new political order consisted in the functioning of the royal house as a bureaucratic base for professional armies, the promulgation of laws on the basis of royal authority rather than the e#pression of local customs, the reinforcement of centralisation of power. =owever, the ?iking influence was not evenly distributed and there were varying degrees of dominance in the different regions of Britain. The kingdom of 9orway remained strong in Scotland until the middle of the .5 th century, especially in the /estern *sles, in @rkney and Shetland as well as in some *rish towns such as /aterford or /e#ford. *n the 7anelaw, the 9orse influence was deeply felt long after the 9orman Con!uest. 1.2.8. The Norman Con0uest and its Conse0uences @ne could of course speculate on the conse!uences of a different course of history for the British *sles had the battle of =astings $.HCC% turned out differently. The ?iking as well as the 9orman Con!uests focus our attention on those common or specific cultural traits that evolve from such 'accidents( of history. The nature of the society that emerges and develops gradually after the 3orman +onquest is, in traditional terms, of a colonial type. The 9orman successes created a French$s eaking ascendancy throughout the British *sles and, as in other instances of elite dominance, the rench language left its mark on the language of the con!uered. *t resulted in the doubling of the ,nglish vocabulary, in itself indicative of the profound changes that marked British society and which surfaced at the level of e#pression. This partly accounts for the huge menu of words we can choose from today. SAQ 8 *dentify the words of rench origin in the list below. 4any of them will look and sound familiar to you, because rench and -omanian belong to the same group of languages 2 -omance+ cro,n eace sovereign house regal kingly ig farmer army abbey lesson
navy ,ardrobe cu board sheriff castle yard co, deer hunting horse stone
convent earl thane goal scullery tea tomato ,indo, gate ortal mercy
lady ardon lord rison chain collar feast breakfast su er bacon mutton
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ham chamber rayer ity rince servant brother ,ife riest 0fter you have headings+
beef book arliament reign city to,n hamlet clerk arson identified each,
veal royal court duke curtain borough battle cushion ,ar ,oman mother man rince child sir ork church group them under the following
administration and law+ manners and courtly life+ home, household+ the military+ religion+ ranks+
0s to the colonial nature of society during the 9orman Con!uest, settlers continued to arrive well into the .3 th century, displacing more and more ,nglish who had survived the first generation of con!uest. The term '9orman( must be used with caution because it was not a pure entity but rather a generic term e#tending over &icard*, Breton* and lemish* elements. 9ormanisation used various instruments to reform ,nglish society and impose a colonial ideology. *f the ?iking invasion brought about the fall of many aspects of the @ld @rder, the 9orman Con!uest completed the process. 7uring the ?iking centuries, the British *sles remained divided into distinct political and cultural communities, all of them affected to a greater or lesser e#tent by 9orse influences. /ith the coming of the 9orman Con!uest, the communities of the British *sles were brought together at the aristocratic level, in Church and state, within a single cultural and political ascendancy looking towards rance. 0t the end of the .5th century the political future of the British *sles seemed to be directed towards a unified 9orman ascendancy. The 9orman Scots were in favour of a kingdom of Scotland, in *reland. They settled for real autonomy, and all this was made possible by the decision of ,ngland to seek an imperial future in rance in the =undred Mears /ar*. /hilst these different 9orman societies stuck to traditional structures of feudal lordship, <ondon was established as a great trading metropolis. &rogress, manufacturing, an increased degree of social mobility and market relations created a new reality that was already attracting important segments of the population to the Scottish
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<owlands, the south-west of *reland and south /ales. The future of 9orman rule was to be influenced both by military enterprise and by factors !uite out of human control, such as the Black 7eath*. 1.2.: A &istory of Four Nations! The +a/or a.es of Immi,ration
9utch and Flemish immi,rants
Gy$sy and Black immi,rants
French and 9utch #rotestant immi,rants
The !uestion of race had permeated the whole history of imperialism and the contacts established over five centuries between Britain and the peoples of the entire world. *n the centuries following the 9orman Con!uest, immigration was mainly characteri"ed by agricultural, financial, trading and industrial skills. He,ish money lenders had entered Britain with the 9orman Con!uest, and their financial talents were passed on later to the <ombard bankers from northern *taly $a connection still celebrated today in <ombard Street in the City of <ondon%. The e#panding trade was influenced by the merchants of the 6anseatic League*, who set up trading posts in <ondon and on the ,ast Coast of ,ngland. %utch and Flemish ,eavers arrived and contributed substantially to transforming ,ngland from a provider of wool into a ,uropean cloth manufacturer, contributing to the national wealth. 4any of these became assimilated into the larger British society, but sometimes they preserved their own cultural traditions. 0lthough Britain was most encouraging towards immigration, from which it benefited immensely. *t granted no rights to immigrants, who could be summarily e#pelled from the country. This happened with the ;erman =ansa merchants, and especially with the Eews sacrificed in the interests of Christian piety by ,dward * in .3GH. "y sies and blacks followed in the .Cth century. The latter were largely associated with the slave trade $the first blacks arrived in Britain with the -oman army, when the 0frican division of the -oman army was stationed on =adrian(s /all in the 5 rd century%. Eohn =awkins, one of those pictures!ue courtiers cum pirates in ,li"abeth(s retinue, carried his first slave cargo in .AC3. By .CAH slavery had become an important trade, bringing wealth, particularly to the ports on the south-west coast. ,ven before the formal abolition of slavery in .F55, there was tolerance, which enabled freed and escaped slaves, servants and other black people to live in Britain. There was a black community, mainly in <ondon, which numbered some .A,HHH by the mid-.F th century $a community which mostly disappeared in the .G th century through intermarriage%. *n .CAA the Eews created their first permanent Eewish community as they flocked in after Cromwell* had removed the legal bars regarding their residence. &he French 6uguenots, escaping from <ouis T*?(s persecutions in the .CFHs, were the only significant wave of immigration in the .Dth century. %utch #rotestants likewise found a safe haven from religious persecution at home. or the ne#t two centuries there was no more large-scale immigration into the country. *n fact Britain was e#porting more and more people herself, mainly to 9orth 0merica and e#panding colonies worldwide. The growing attraction of 9orth 0merica towards the end of the .G th century caused some DG,HHH ,uropean immigrants to leave Britain for 0merica in addition to 3.H,HHH Britons $Eohn @akland, British
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+ivili9ation, -outledge, .GGA+AH-AA%. 0lthough immigrants had formerly been allowed easy access to Britain, an increasing number of restrictions on newcomers imposed a gradual curb on immigration. 0t the .FD. census the number of people born outside the British ,mpire was !uite low - .AD,HHH out of 5..A million.
SAQ 7 /hat are the ma)or causes of immigration in your opinion1
But in spite of these low figures, immigration became increasingly a matter of concern in the .G5Hs, when a lot of Eews fled persecution in other parts of ,urope to settle in Britain in the ,ast ,nd, traditionally a centre of immigrant concentration. 0 general #enophobic* feeling spread, while nationalism and the spymania $hysterical fear of spies% generated by the irst /orld /ar increased. 4ore and more people asked for immigration control. 0n 0lien -estriction 0ct in .G.G was supposed to curb immigration substantially. =owever more refugees and immigrants arrived in the inter-war period during the world economic recession. 0 large number of &oles, <atvians and 8krainians streamed into the country after /orld /ar **. &olitical and economic refugees -- =ungarian, C"echs, Chileans, <ibyans, ,ast 0frican 0sians, *ranians and ?ietnamese -- continued to arrive in the .GAHs. Before /orld /ar **, most of the immigrants to Britain came from largely /hite @ld Commonwealth countries such as Canada, 0ustralia, 9ew Oealand and South 0frica. *n the late 6H(s this pattern was to reverse in favour of the largely coloured Commonwealth nations of *ndia, &akistan and the /est *ndies. *n the face of this coloured Commonwealth immigration, racist attitudes and severe forms of discrimination greeted the arrivals. These people from the 9ew Commonwealth in the 6Hs were specifically invited by government agencies to fill the vacant manual and lower paid )obs of an economy that had been shattered by the war. The Caribbean blacks were welcomed to work in public transport, manufacturing and the 9ational =ealth Service. The first group of 6G3 Eamaicans arrived at Tilbury 7ocks in .G6F.
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Fi,. 18 'm$ire
indrush
SAQ The SS 'm ire Windrush carrying hundreds of young men and women from the Caribbean, docked in Tilbury. The ship(s arrival signalled the beginning of a mass migration from the disintegrating empire which was to have profound effects on Britain for the years to come. =ere are some e#cerpts from a Speech by The &rince of /ales at the S)S) 'm ire Windrush ?ece tion, 3A Eune, .GGF+ I(t is an immense leasure to meet the Windrush veterans here today) &hank you for coming and for your contributions to this country during the ,ar, ,hen many of you fought for it, and since) Stoicism, atience and dignity is called for during difficult times) 6o,ever, it ,ould be ,rong to d,ell on theseJ ,e are here to celebrate) 'qually, it ,ould be insulting to suggest that all the o timistic e: ectations you had ,hen you ste ed off the Windrush ,ere met) &here are many obstacles to overcomeJ ignorance and re@udice, the challenge of finding decent housing and ,ork, the general cultural shock and the sheer cold1G /hat does the &rince of /ales think about interracial relations in contemporary Britain1
Tens of thousands followed in the AHs, reaching a peak in the early CHs. By the .GDHs coloured people had become a familiar sight
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in such towns as ;lasgow, Sheffield, Bristol, <eeds, <iverpool, 4anchester. *n the DHs a wave of 0sians e#pelled from ,ast 0frica arrived, many of whom were business or professional workers. The ,ast 0frican colonies were granted independence from Britain in the CHs and during the colonial period *ndians had settled there in large numbers with the encouragement of Britain. *n .GCG, the new *rish immigration was estimated at DAH,HHH from the *rish -epublic and many thousands from 9orthern *reland. *n the DHs and FHs came =ong Bong Chinese and refugees from ?ietnam, many of whom went into the catering business.
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Summary
*n this unit you have revised and enriched some of the previously ac!uired knowledge of Britain, its national symbols, its main institutions, social and cultural practices and traditions. *t offered you the opportunity to engage with cultural stereotypes, with what we call 'cultural icons(, to )udge their essentialism as well as to challenge their relative, limited value. /hilst presenting the historical invasions and their contribution to the shaping of the British national identity, the second chapter of this unit aims at fighting commonly held views about the catastrophic and downright destructive character of historical invasions. 0dopting a processual approach we can successfully illustrate such phenomena as cultural osmosis, e#change or acculturation. Comparisons are invited between the -omani"ation of Celtic Britain and that of the province of 7acia, as well as reflections on a common Celtic cultural stock. The main waves of immigration are then surveyed, highlighting the shaping of the post-war multicultural Britain, a situation that renders problematic the definition of Britain as an entity made up of four nations.
1ey Conce$ts
nation-state cultural osmosis migration processual approach elite dominance ascendancy waves of immigration colonial ideology slave trade #enophobia $-ic%
Glossary
alderman R member of ,nglish county or borough council, ne#t in dignity to 4ayor. ascendancy R a position of power, influence and control. Black 9eath R the plague epidemic of the .6 th century which reduced the population of ,ngland by one third and greatly influenced important social shifts such as the generali"ation of paid labour. Breton R native of Brittany in 9/ rance.
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Carolin,ian 'm$ire R second rankish dynasty, founded by Charlemagne, a great leader, promoter of Christianity who was crowned emperor of the =oly -oman ,mpire in the year FHH. colonial ideolo,y R policy of maintaining colonies, mentality supporting the e#ploitation of allegedly backward and weak peoples under the prete#t of 'civili"ing( them and helping them out of savagery CounterA(eformation R a Catholic reformation of the church in the .C and .Dth centuries in response to the claims of the -eformation. Crom)ell@ %li.er R an ,nglish general, politician and &uritan. =e was leader of the parliamentarian army against Bing Charles * in the Civil /ar and became <ord &rotector of ,ngland after the Bing(s e#ecution in .C6G. Cum*ria R a county of 9/ ,ngland made up mostly of the old counties of Cumberland and /estmorland, which contains the beautiful <ake 7istrict national park. 9anela) R part of 9 and , ,ngland occupied by 7anes in the G th..th centuries. 9ruid R priest, magician, soothsayer, teacher of the Celts, one of the highest and most prestigious positions in Celtic societies. 4ost probably the etymology of the word can be traced to 'oak(, the most sacred tree for Celts. So a druid was one who had the knowledge of the oak, hence a deep, great knowledge. elite dominance R in con!uests and invasions episodes of dominance due to the accepted superiority of a certain economic, military, social or cultural system. filid R a bard, a poet of the Celts. Flemish R native of landers, a region of the <ow Countries in what is now part of Belgium and =olland. fostera,e R tradition of severing children(s bond with their natural parents by sending them at an early age to live and work for a different family. freeman R one who is not a slave or a serf. &anseatic lea,ue R trade organi"ation of ;erman towns which e#isted from the .5th to the .Dth centuries to protect each other against competition from abroad. Bremen, =amburg and <Ubeck are still known as =anseatic cities. he$tarchy R government by seven rulersL the seven kingdoms of the 0nglo-Sa#ons in the D th and Fth centuries+ ,ast 0nglia, ,sse#, Bent, Susse#, 9orthumbria, 4ercia and /esse#.
British Studies
&undred Dears ar $.55D-.6A5% R war between ,ngland and rance resulting from royal !uarrels, particularly over land, and ended with the defeat of the ,nglish as they were pushed back out of rance. immi,ration <)a.es of= R the process of entering another country to make one(s life and home there. IndoA'uro$ean R a large group of people who are said to have emerged from their homeland - according to most historians in the steppe land between the Caucasus 4ountains and the Black Sea, in the early second millennium BC to dominate most of the rest of ,urope and regions even farther afield in the 9ear and central ,ast, due mostly to their mobility $they had domesticated the horse by 5HHH BC%. *t also refers to a group of languages that includes most of those spoken in ,urope, *ran and *ndia. *t was a British lawyer of the .Fth century, /illiam Eones, who first used the term to refer to languages such as ;reek, <atin, ;erman, ,nglish, -ussian, rench, Sanskrit or &ersian as he found striking similarities in the words used in all these languages to name family relations, numerals, plants, etc. Industrial (e.olution R rapid development of British industry by use of machines in the .F th and early .Gth centuryL it triggered a whole range of radical changes in the economic, social and cultural spheres. Eothian R region in S, Scotland which contains the city of ,dinburgh. mar R to spoil, disfigure, ruin. mi,ration R movement from one place $country, town etc%, to another, displacement of large numbers of people. nationAstate R a large number of people of mainly common descent, language, history, usually inhabiting a territory bounded by defined limits and forming a society under one government. Neolithic a,e R the later stone age when ground or polished stone weapons and implements prevailed, an age characteri"ed by revolutionary breakthroughs in the material and spiritual realms+ farming, pottery, writing, urban planning, religion etc. Stone-using agricultural communities were established in ,astern ,urope by the Cth millennium BC. osmosis <cultural= R intense process of cultural diffusion, dissemination and interaction. #icard R a native of &icardie, an e#tended region in 9 rance. $otlatch R a word of &olynesian origin designating a specific giftgiving practice still in e#istence in traditional societies. The aspirants to high social standing first amassed great wealth, and this was
British Studies
followed by huge tribal feasts. $rocessual a$$roach R a comple# and unbiased perspective on invasions and con!uests, that goes beyond a catastrophe-ridden view of them and lays emphasis on peer polity interaction, cooperation, acculturation etc. (eformation R the religious movement in ,urope in the .C th century leading to the establishment of the &rotestant Church $4artin <uther, Eean Calvin and 8lrich Owingli are the greatest representatives of this movement%. see R episcopal unit+ e.g. the see of +anterburyL the papacy or papal court+ e.g. 6oly See, See of ?ome. sla.e trade R procuring, transporting and selling as slaves, of human beings, especially of 0frican blacks. Strathclyde R region in central Scotland whose centre is the city of ;lasgow. tar*feis R a rite also known as 'bull(s dream(, a shamanic divination practice for electing the king+ the 7ruid gorged on the flesh of the sacred bull and in the trance that followed he found out the name of the future king of legendary Tara, the seat of kings. thane <the,n= R one holding land from a king by military service, ranking between ordinary freemen and hereditary noblesL in Scotland it could mean chief of clan. totem R animal, plant or ob)ect adopted as emblem of clan or individual on grounds of kinship. )ake R vigil, watch beside corpse before burial, lamentations and merry making in connection with it. Ieno$ho*ia <Aic= R unreasonable fear and dislike of strange or foreign people, customs etc.
Ans)ers to SAQs
SAQ 1 Some of the .C. words of 7acian origin are+ runc, moC, brad, co ac, bu9<, gruma9, gard, strugure, ma9<re, balaur, vie9ure, a r<bda, a s eria, tare, mare, bucuros . The suffi#es 2esc and 2eCte are of the same origin as well as dava, the 7acian word for fortified settlement. Several names of rivers are of 7acian origin as well+ %onaris $7unVre%, Argessos $0rgeW%, Samus $SomeW%, 0aris $4ureW%, %ierna $Cerna%, Alutus $@lt%. @vid, the -oman poet, is believed to have written a number of poems in 7acian during his e#ile, but they had never been found.
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SAQ 2 The Celtic presence in the &re--oman 7acia is amply illustrated+ Contracts sealed by typical gestures such as shaking hands, followed by toasts, or swearing on various ob)ects, such as hot iron, or con)uring gods, or, on the contrary uttering curses are all typical of the Celtic world $-oman legislation is typically based on written agreements%L 4arriage fairs typical of Brittany, for e#ample, in 9orthern rance are also a Celtic practiceL Birds and various animals had a sacred status in the Celtic pantheon and they were often sub)ect to miraculous transformations or they helped the heroes and heroines in difficult situations+ ravens, geese, swans or boars, pigs, sows, stags and horses. Boars and stags were often adopted as totems* in Celtic societies. -omanian fairy tales can attest to the magic status of pigs and boarsL or the Celts the head was the seat of the soul and a severed head $like that of the famous Celtic hero Bran% continued to prophesy and inspire Celtic warriors even after beheading. *n one of the over GHH variants of our national ballad 0iorita, the shepherd asks to be killed by having his head severedL Torcs $close-fitting neck-rings% were sacred )ewels believed to ward off evil forces, often worn in battlesL The magic cauldron $or vat% is a favoured medium of miraculous transformation and regenerationL The iconographic motifs still found on the monumental gates of 4aramures, on the houses, tombstones or domestic ob)ects such as dowry chests found in Banat, @ltenia or 7obrogea attest to the Celtic influence+ scrolls, spirals, horsemen, solar symbols $such as the wheel%, etcL or the Celts there was uninhibited circulation between the world of the living and that of the dead, so they used to send messages to the dead and on their most important festivals there were special festivities honouring the dead. /e can amply document such practices in -omania. Thus the three items which are not Celtic are+ )ritten contracts@ a cult of roses and tem$les. SAQ 3 0 bath was a comple# concept for the -omans addressing the human mind as well as the body+ men sana in cor ore sano $it was usually made up of a gym, a library, a meeting place where people could have a drink and sociali"e%. The ;reat Bath in the city of Bath was accidentally discovered in the .G th century when a leak from the Bing(s Bath $built in the .3 th century over the original -oman reservoir% had to be investigated and mended. *n the ;reat Bath we
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can see the changing room $ a odyterium% where the bathers stripped, then they moved into the hottest room $ caldarium% for scraping, oiling, cleaning and hair and hard skin removal, then moved to the te idarium to cool gently before an invigorating cold plunge in the frigidarium. SAQ 5 The 0nglo-Sa#on ethos can be described as one of loyalty, courage, heroism, devotion to one(s lord $lordship based on kinship is far more important at this stage than kingship which is characteristic of a later date. 0 good e#ample would be the poem &he Battle of 0aldon, in which a nobleman asks to be killed since his life has no meaning after the death of his lord on the battlefield%. Their poetry and their songs also reveal a reflective, melancholy mood. The fleeting passage of time is a primary source of such melancholy reflections. SAQ 7 These famous words are ascribed by Bede to a 9orthumbrian nobleman who is urging Bing ,dwin to accept Christianity, since life without faith can be compared to the miserable life of the bird which can only for a brief moment en)oy 'the good( and righteous life. SAQ 8 administration and la)- clerk, sovereign, crown, parliament, goal, prison, reign, royal, regal, cityL reli,ion- abbey, convent, prayer, priest, lesson, parson, mercy, pity, pardonL manners and courtly life+ chain, collar, feast, beef, bacon, veal, mutton, porkL homeGhouseholdL castle, chamber, scullery, portal, curtain, supper, wardrobe, cushionK ranks+ prince, duke, baron, sir, servant, farmerL military+ army, navy, battle, peace.
SAQ : The ma)or causes of immigration are+ political and religious persecution, poverty, illiberal, totalitarian regimes, the need to )oin members of one(s family. SAQ ; The &rince of /ales(s attitude is twofold+ on the one hand he acknowledges the black Brits( contribution to a culturally diverse country, to British life in general but at the same time thinks that pre)udice and discrimination remain everyday facts of life for many of them.
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SAA No. 1 /hy is the enlarged definition of Britain as 'four nations in one( still too narrow for defining Britishness1 Send the answer to this !uestion to your tutor .
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UNIT 2 Britain A A +ulticultural Society!

Unit %utline
3.. 3.... 3...3 3...5 3...6 3...A 3...C 3...D 3.3 3.3.. 3.3.3 3.3.5 3.3.6 3.3.A 3.3.C C&A#T'( I BritishnessG'n,lishnessG'uro$eanness " &y*rid@ #lural Identities .s. National Identities The -esilience* of a Term+ Britain .British The =istory of an *dea+ 7evolution The <egacy of the ,nglish -evolution The ;lorious -evolution 7issent and the *ndustrial -evolution =ome -ule 7evolution Glossary Ans)ers to SAQs C&A#T'( II InterA(acial (elations in Contem$orary Britain rom *mmigration to 4ulticulturalism 0 Short =istorical Survey of *mmigration in Britain -acism -acial -elations in Contemporary Britain and the ight against -acial 7iscrimination actfile+ The <awrence Case ,thnic> -acial> 9ational> Cultural *dentities in a ;lobalised /orld Summary Glossary Ans)ers to SAQs SAA No. 2 A. A. A5 A6 AD AG C5 CC CF D5 DC DC DD F. F5 FA FF FG GH G3 G5
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This unit traces in its first part the development of an idea, that of devolution that has already led to a debate of unprecedented breadth about the future of Britishness. The first chapter e#amines the troubled past of the provinces, the episodes of cultural e#change, of cooperation and amalgamation but also the more tense and critical moments of the union(s history. *t raises a !uestion that no one can answer yet+ are we faced with a steady process of dissolution of Britishness or with a new concept of Britishness1 The second chapter of this unit discusses inter-racial relations from a multicultural perspective furthering respect and understanding for cultural diversity and inter-cultural communication. Beyond mind-sets, ideas and attitudes a multicultural framework assumes the establishment of institutional structures, legislation and public policies meant to translate ideas into social practice. British society is viewed in this unit through the lenses of racial discrimination and multiculturalism, highlighting great achievements but also setbacks in its pursuit of inter-racial )ustice and fairness. 0fter you have completed the study of this unit, you should be able to+ challenge an anglocentric* view of BritishnessL identify the stages in the development of the idea of devolutionL re-conte#tuali"e and gain a new perspective on previous events in the history of BritainL develop a critical reading of nationalist attitudes and cultural productionsL identify and challenge most manifest forms of discriminationL identify and empathi"e with attempts at saving tradition and culture from the levelling effect of globalisationL recogni"e and use new specific concepts and cultural studies terminology.
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2.1
Britishness@ 'n,lishness@ 'uro$eanness " &y*rid@ #lural Identities .s. National Identities
2.1.1 The (esilience of a Term- HBritish4
Think First! Before you start reading, try to consider the following problems+ 0re the terms ',nglish( and 'British( interchangeable1 Can you perceive any differences of meaning between 'British( on the one hand and Scottish, *rish and /elsh on the other1
* would like to consider first the cultural clashes, convergences and divergences that led to a definite type of relationship shaping certain identity formulas in the units that make up Britain. 'Britishness( is not an isolated discrete phenomenon to be sharply differentiated from '*rishness( or 'Scottishness(L neither is it so inclusive of those identities as the present-day situation suggests. There is much more talk about ,uropeanness in Scotland today than there is of Britishness. That is why !uite a few historians hold the view that Britishness is undergoing a slo, but definite rocess of dissolution. The term Britishness has had as troubled a history as the countries that make up the British *sles. The Britons were one of the migratory waves of Celtic tribes that settled mostly in /ales and ,ngland. 0 tentative etymology ascribes to both varieties briton or ryton the meaning of a 'tattooed person(. The first reference to the British *sles, i.e. to the toponym, we owe to =erodotus who, adding to them the determinant kassiteride 72rich in tin(8 refers to the resources of tin in the isles of 0lbion and *erne $ca 66A BC%. The ethnonym rydain 72painted, tattooed body(8 in /elsh was transcribed by the -omans as britani. The term might have outlived the withdrawal of the -omans and the defeat of the Britons at the hands of the pagan 0nglo-Sa#ons, because the regal style re: Britanniae $'king of Britain(% had an appeal to certain Sa#on kings. /illiam the Con!ueror also liked to be regarded as monarch totius Britanniae $'of the whole of Britain(%.
British Studies
Sometimes Britannia was taken to be synonymous with ,ngland, the first entity to be united. But some Scottish writers took e#ception to the fact that many ,nglish and foreigners used Britain as both the name of the -oman province and of the whole island. 0t the beginning of the .Cth century, the Scottish writer Eohn 4a)or declared+ I0t the present there are, and for a long time have been, to speak accurately, two kingdoms in the island+ the Scottish kingdom, namely, and the ,nglishPMet all the inhabitants are BritonsP 0ll men born in Britain are Britons, seeing that on any other reasoning Britons could not be distinguished from other racesJ. *t was Eames ?* of Scotland and * of ,ngland who in .CH6 proclaimed himself 'Bing of ;reat Britain, rance and *reland(. The new title gained wide acceptance after the 0nglo-Scottish 8nion of .DHD. SAQ 1 *n the image below you can see the cover of a very important book debating the future of Britishness+ 0ndrew 4arr(s &he %ay Britain %ied published in 3HHH. Can you guess what the ob)ect wrapped up in the 8nion Eack is1 /hat does the title of the book suggest1 *f Britain was born in .DHD could a date be ascribed to its death1
Fi,.1 The front co.er of A. +arr4s *ook
So the term 2British is marked by inconsistency and has a lengthy but at the same time rather awkward pedigree. @n both sides of the border people had been accustomed to think of themselves as ,nglish or Scots. They continued to do so even when referred to as 'Britons(. The term 3orth Britain gained status in Scotland but it was no longer deemed acceptable by the end of the .Gth century, when 'Scotland( returned with a vengeance. @n the other hand there is no record of any ,nglish tendency to adopt 'South Britain( or to describe themselves as 'South Britons(.
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*n fact, the ,nglish hardly considered themselves Britons. There was, however, a period of high enthusiasm in the whole nation in the mid-.Fth century -- a time when the British ,mpire was becoming solidly established, a time when everybody was proud to be British and when people felt obliged to ask every morning what victory there was for fear of missing one. British pride was e#pressed in a nationalist song written by the Scotsman Eames Thomson in .D63+ I?ule, Britannia, rule the ,avesF . Britons never ,ill be slaves)G *t was probably the only occasion on which the ,nglish prided themselves on being British. By the end of the .Gth century, /elsh identity no longer permitted talk of only two kingdoms. 0nd what about ,ngland1 British institutions developed and continue to e#ist in 'ngland. There are national museums, libraries, and galleries in Scotland and /ales, but there is nothing that is 'nglish national there. ,ngland has absorbed hundreds of thousands of *rish, Scottish and /elsh families. /hen history along national lines was the order of the day, ,nglish historians shifted !uite freely between 'British( and ',nglish(.
SAQ 2 The following paragraph is taken from an article by &rofessor 0lan &ulverness, from 9orwich *nstitute for <anguage ,ducation. /hat does the author mean1 I<ook at video footage of the ,ngland vs. ;ermany final in the .GCC /orld Cup, and you(ll see ,ngland supporters waving the 8nion EackL fast forward 5H years to ,ngland vs. Scotland in the ,uro GC championship, and ,ngland supporters have reclaimed the cross of St ;eorge as a visible assertion of their group identityJ.
2.1.2 The &istory of an idea- 9e.olution Britain is today in the midst of radical changes+ constitutional, legislative, cultural, on a scale that does not enable us yet to foresee the future configuration of the 8nited Bingdom. The issue of Britishness is far more problematic now, with the multiple waves of immigration that started in the late 6Hs. The range of cultural mutations challenges Britishness in ways that would have been inconceivable at the beginning of the 3H th century. =as Britishness become a structure able to accommodate and encourage the conversation of various cultures and multiple
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traditions1 Can it permit, encourage, tolerate beliefs, values and practices which may have their own logic1 0fter the 9orman Con!uest and for much of the .A th and .Cth centuries, the history of the British *sles was predominantly the history of individual communities. 0 proto-industrial revolution in ,ast 0nglia, the Cotswolds and the /est -iding of Morkshire was another important development that secured Britain(s transition from a colonial-style economy, e#porting mostly raw materials for manufacture. 0t the beginning of the .Cth century the military society, dominated by the castle with its strategic, defensive, public and domestic aspects, gave way to the s!uire(s manor house, to market towns and individual farmers. *t became gradually a society stratified by a different factor - ,ealth. 7ifferences between ,ngland and /ales became minimal and, although the /elsh language survived and the differences of mentality between north and south /ales were preserved, a ne, amalgam of 3orman, Welsh and 'nglish elements facilitated the incor oration of Wales into the 'nglish olitical, legal and administrative system $0cts of 8nion .A5C-.A65%. *n Scotland, a stark contrast is created between the <owlands and =ighlands. ,nglish was dominant even among the nobility in the <owlands. The development of a cash economy* and the strengthening of the boroughs* were concentrated in the <owlands, whilst in the west, feudal relations and services in kind* lingered on. 2.1.3 The Ee,acy of the 'n,lish (e.olution The .Cth century is characteri"ed by the emergence of the 'nglish 'm ire, an empire based mainly on the predominance of the wealth, resources and population of southern ,ngland over the rest of the British *sles and later on over 9orth 0merica and the /est *ndies. *t is a period marked by such developments as large scale emigration, which can be seen as a form of steady internal coloni9ation, with *reland the prime attraction for many from Scotland, /ales and ,ngland. *mperial dominance manifested itself vigorously+ Scotland was con!uered by Cromwell(s armies and parliamentary union was achieved in .DHD through the 0ct of 8nion. 0n important factor leading to the 8nion was Eohn Bno#(s* /irk 2 the reformed church of Scotland, in the latter half of the .C th century, a process very much encouraged by the Tudors and by the succession of Eames ?* of Scotland, son of 4ary Stuart, to the ,nglish Crown in .CH5. The e#tension of the new imperial power and the modernisation of society were symbolised by the royal supremacy, the translation of the Bible into ,nglish $the Bible in ,nglish proved to be a formidable instrument of 0nglici"ation%, clerical marriage and the dissolution of the monasteries. =owever, w e cannot s eak about a single, national 'nglish culture at this oint)
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SAQ 3 *n .5GC the first translation of the Bible 2 was the work of Eohn /ycliffe a scholar from @#ford. =enry *? condemned his work and /ycliffe was e#iled. /hat could have been so subversive about the translation of the Bible into ,nglish1
Fig.2 John Wycliffe
The unprecedented rise in importance of <ondon was based on the development of the cloth trade from the .Ath century. The cultural dominance by the south over the rest of ,ngland and /ales, Scotland and *reland was the impact of the -eformation. The ideas of <uther*, Owingli* and Calvin* could not have had such an impact on the British *sles without the support of the government+ =enry ?***(s chief minister Thomas Cromwell with his <utheran sympathies and the reign of ,dward ?*, when the &rivy Council* became strongly &rotestant. &he ?eformation olarised the communities of the British (sles between those conforming to the idea of an ,stablished Church and those who demanded more than conformity in ritual and e#ternal assent. /hilst this polarisation was held at bay during ,li"abeth(s** reign through her diplomacy and spirit of moderation and tolerance, the early years of the .Dth century brought about the re-emergence of the Counter--eformation in ;ermany and a revival of ritualism in ,ngland. The split was in other words between the 0nglicans and the &uritans, although a decisive split did not occur until the crisis of .C6H-.C63. The Civil /ar was to leave an imprint on ,nglish life, which lasted until the beginning of the 3H th century. 0 penal code passed after the -estoration of the monarchy in .CCH -- and not seriously modified until .F3F -- made dissenters second-class citi"ens.
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SAQ 4 The Civil /ar, The &uritan -evolution or The ,nglish -evolution was the first of the so-called great revolutions. *t began as a protest against an oppressive and uncompromising government, and it generated new political and religious ideas, e#tending the ,nglish tradition that the government(s power should be limited. 0rrange the following scrambled events of the ,nglish -evolution in chronological order+ 0 &arliament reduced to one third, made up mostly of &uritans tries the king for high treason and in Eanuary .C6G Charles * is e#ecutedL 4onarchy and the =ouse of <ords abolished by CromwellL a &rotectorate is constituted with Cromwell <ord &rotector and a one-house parliamentL Bing feels compelled to summon &arliament and ask for their financial and military supportL Charles * dissolves parliament desiring to become an absolute monarchL .C63 Charles gathered his army. Bing(s followers called Cavaliers, those of &arliament -oundheads $because of their specific haircut%. when he tries to impose 0nglicanism in &resbyterian Scotland, the &resbyterian Scots rioted, raised an army, occupied 9 ,nglandL between .C63 and .C6F several battles fought $9aseby, 4arston 4oor, &reston% and several attempts made at negotiations with the king failL *n .CCH Charles ** is restored to the throne. &arliament imposes its conditions in return for its support $mostly limiting the king(s prerogatives%.
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By the end of the .D th century, an ,nglish empire had come into e#istence affecting most of the British communities, although rural *reland, the Scottish =ighlands and north /ales remained more or less unaffected. *n these regions, local institutions like the 'wise men of the village(, the fair, the wake and kinship ties retained their hold in the face of attempts at 0nglici"ation by the ,nglish-oriented gentry and clergy. The shift of Scotland from pro- rench 0uld 0lliance* to -eformation is very important. Eohn Bno#, who had taken a crucial part in the ,dwardian reformation, was backed financially by the ,nglish. <ikewise in *reland, the mid-.D th century marked the peak of reformation and the myth of the *rish massacre of .C6H led to a string of punitive actions, which followed in the ne#t decade under Cromwell. The &rotestant interest was placed on the defensive after the -estoration and even forced into full retreat during the crisis of .CFF-.CFG. 0fter the victory of /illiam *** at the Boyne in .CGH, the future of *reland was decided for the ne#t two centuries on the basis of &rotestant landowning ascendancy. 4ost historians agree that for many in those two centuries, the sense of belonging to a church replaced an earlier culturally-based identity formula. The divisiveness of the feudal period gave way to a ne, form of divisiveness based on religion. 2.1.5 The Glorious (e.olution The year .CFF, the year of the ;lorious -evolution, is undoubtedly a landmark in the history of ,nglish liberties. The victory of &rotestantism and the underlying principles of modernity were consolidated and assured by the flight of Eames *** and the subse!uent accession of /illiam and 4ary*. 0bsolutist monarchies based on the divine right that placed the person of the king beyond human )udgement had come to an end and had given way to parliamentary sovereignty. The Bill of -ights* overrode the hereditary rights of the monarchy, which had formed the basis of the restored constitution of .CCH, and replaced it with the will of the nation e#pressed through parliament. The Toleration 0ct of .CFG was seen as a revolutionary step towards democracy and freedom. *t granted freedom of worship to &rotestant nonconformists provided they shared the basic doctrines laid down in the Thirty-9ine 0rticles of the 0nglican Church*, and it allowed dissenters to build their own places of worship. *n the conte#t of the British *sles, the -evolution gained many more meanings. *n Scotland it was only after the battle of Culloden of .D6C that the regime set up in .CFG became relatively secure. The same can be said about *reland. Eames ** was decisively defeated and 8lster &rotestantism triumphant only after the fate of the Stuart cause was decided by the Battle of the Boyne in .CGH $the 'blood bath( that took place still holds a prominent place in the *rish collective memory%.
British Studies
A clash of cultures in ales
A cultural ma$$in, of Scotland
The result of /illiam ***(s* victories can hardly be regarded as a 'victory of liberal principles(, as sometimes suggested. *t meant the establishment of ,piscopalian ascendancy in *reland and of &resbyterianism in Scotland. The legacy of the civil wars led to the perpetuation of distrust and hostility between the cultures of the Church and of 7issent. 0n 0nglican ascendancy, as Eonathan Clark remarks in his book 'nglish Society KLMM$KMNO prevails as a unifying factor controlling the institutions of power long after .CFF. ,piscopalian culture was dominant in the universities, public schools, army, navy and the Church itself. 7issenting culture had to create its own structures in response to such challenges. The ,nglish ,mpire thrived after .CFF, with the growth of the 0merican coloniesL trade with the colonies became an important feature of the ,nglish economy. The prosperity of <ondon in the .F th century, but also the rise of such ports as <iverpool and Bristol, was bound up with colonial trade including slave trade. The triumphal mood of the first half of the century gave way to a deep crisis from .DC5 $when the government attempted to raise money from the colonies by means of the Stamp 0ct of .DCA% up to the recognition of 0merican independence in .DF5. 0 series of British defeats followed, which ended with the decisive defeat of rance in 0merica and *ndia, a high point of imperial achievement. (m erialism ,as traditionally under inned by efforts at Anglici9ation. *t is interesting to follow the course that such anglicising influences took in /ales, Scotland and *reland and how these were fed into the subcultures there. South /ales was anglicised, i.e. cosmopolitanised and commercialised, whilst the north, heavily /elsh-speaking and rural, embraced 4ethodism*. or Scotland the dominant culture was <owland &resbyterianism reinforced by the 0ct of 8nion, reflected in the power of the Birk, universities and schools. *n *reland we see three cultures clashing+ ,piscopalian in the east, &resbyterian in 8lster $9orthern *reland% and the Catholic ma)ority to be found in all provinces. ,piscopalians held power, though a minority numerically, as they were mostly landowners who belonged to the ,stablished Church. The development of the market economy brought with it the rise of an urban middle class that was mostly Catholic. Continuous pressure against the penal laws that discriminated the Catholics was mounting and with it the threat of sectarian violence. The rebellion convinced the leaders of the time of the necessity of union between *reland and Britain+ cultural coloni"ation was no longer enough. The 0ct of 8nion of .FHH provided for *rish representation in the =ouse of Commons $.HH members% as well as for the election of 3A peers to the =ouse of <ords. *t is said that the shadow of .DGF lay heavily over .Gth century *rish history. 9evertheless, ;eorge **** invoked constitutional grounds for not granting Catholics the right of entry to parliament, so the Act of Anion only gave the Anglo$(rish ' isco alian segment the re resentation at Westminster . *n Scotland there were three cultures as well+ the &resbyterian in the <owlands, ,piscopalianism on the ,ast Coast and Catholicism. The real struggle was between the ,piscopalians, on the one hand and, on the other, the &resbyterians. The ;lorious
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-evolution replaced an ,piscopalian tendency with a &resbyterian one. The Birk Session made up of ministers and elders became the chosen instrument for the enforcement of &resbyterian views on private and public morality. SAQ 5 0mong the sentences below there are four sentences which are false. They can prevent you from understanding the reasons underlying the union of Scotland with ,ngland. Can you find them1 *n .CH5, Eames ?* of Scotland - legitimate heir to the ,nglish throne after the death of ,li"abeth $who left no heir herself%L becomes Eames * of ,ngland. 4any Scots were favourable to the 0ct of 8nion. The ,nglish &arliament threatened to ban Scottish e#ports entering ,ngland -- thus potentially bankrupting the Scots as ,ngland was their largest and most lucrative market. The large Scottish landowners, who dominated the Scottish &arliament, relied heavily on e#porting cattle to ,ngland and they faced economic ruin if the ,nglish carried out their threat. 0mid riots and unrest in many Scottish towns, the 0ct of 8nion was passed. The 0ct of 8nion was saluted with enthusiasm by the Scottish &arliament. The Scots were forced to convert to 0nglicanism. The terms of the 0ct of 8nion allowed Scotland to keep its own educational and legal systems and its own church. Scotland had a Secretary of State in .FFA and up to .GGD the Secretary of State had been a member of the Cabinet. Scotland was allowed to keep its own parliament. 2.1.7 9issent and the Industrial (e.olution *n the early modern period $.AHH 2 .DHH% there was a heavy e#odus into *reland and the 0merican colonies from Britain. The modern period was characteri"ed by a large$scale movement of o ulation into the industrial areas of Britain from (reland and else,here. From this oint of vie,, the multi$ethnic character of modern Britain is a continuation of KPth century trends . The structure of ,nglish society changed a lot with industrialism and urbanisation. By the early 3Hth century, over four-fifths of a vastly increasing population lived in towns, compared with one-third in the mid-.Fth century. 7issent, became a noteworthy factor rising numerically from a minority to a position of near e!uality with the ,stablished Church. The ,stablished Church was essential for the preservation of social order+ membership of the ,stablished Church was obligatory for full participation in politics, the army and the learned professions. The 0nglican Church e#erted control over the universities and important public schools. 0t @#ford, acceptance of the Thirty-9ine 0rticles of the 0nglican Church was necessary for matriculation and
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at Cambridge for admission to a degree. =owever, in the turmoil of changes created by the *ndustrial -evolution, it was the dissenting sects that took more advantage of the developments than the ,stablished Church. *n cities such as Birmingham, <iverpool, <eicester and Sheffield, the city councils were dominated by dissenters after the electoral reforms of the .F5H(s. 7issent was not a homogeneous phenomenon. /ithin 7issent, there were marked divisions between *ndependents, Baptists, 8nitarians and &resbyterians. The situation was further complicated by the ,vangelical 4ovement of 4ethodism within the Church of ,ngland, a missionary movement but very much inspired by 7issent.
SAQ ! By choosing the true sentences from the ones given below you will be able to account for the huge success of 4ethodism in Britain in the .Gth century. many new industrial towns had no churches and priest or any kind of religious organi"ationL Eohn /esley never left his home town but his spreading fame made his church very popularL *t advanced a highly theoretical and rational approach to the BibleL Eohn /esley*, a most charismatic 0nglican priest who travelled around the country preaching $336.HHH miles on horseback, sometimes preaching in three different villages in one day%L a personal and emotional form of religion, appealing to the spiritual needs of simple people, giving them a sense of purpose and dignityL preaching in the open air, visiting prisonsL The ,vangelical -evival, whose aim was to return to a simple faith based on the Bible. They combined preaching with lively singing and dancingL &uritans, :uakers and other 9onconformist sects became wellknown for their social concern, greatly influencing trade unionism and labour movement in Britain. The -eform 0ct of .F53* and the establishment of 8niversity College <ondon testify to the ne, strength of %issenters . They e#pressed a growing demand against the paying of ta#es for the upkeep of the parish church, against the legal re!uirement that dissenters be married within a Church of the ,stablishment, and the continued e#clusion of dissenters from @#ford and Cambridge. *n .F56 a dissenting conference demanded the %isestablishment of the +hurch*.
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SAQ 7 The main doctrinal and attitudinal differences between the two cultures, the ,stablishment and 7issent boil down to the sets below. /hat set of traits is characteristic of each of the two cultures1 one was immoral, easy-going, bent on debauchery and frivolity, idleness, cockfighting, hunting, drinking, gamblingL the other was a culture underscored by restraint, sobriety, respectability, hard work, perseverance and a commitment to temperance*. The ,stablishment+
The 7issent+
*n mid-.Gth century the balance of these cultures shifted radically once more. The great ferment of all cultural, social, demographic and economic changes was the (ndustrial ?evolution. This led to the creation of a new urban culture in the 9orth - a term that should be made more fle#ible to include the industrial areas of Birmingham, <iverpool, 4anchester, Sheffield, <eeds and 9ewcastle, the factory towns of <ancashire and Morkshire and the mining villages of the counties north of 9ottinghamshire. The fame of <ondon subsided in the new age, since shipbuilding and silk weaving were unable to compete with the industries of the powerful 9orth. *n .FDH historian Charles Trevelyan described the metropolis as a Igigantic engine for depraving and degrading our populationP a common sink of everything that was worst in the 8nited BingdomJ. The .Gth century is one of those ages that can best e#emplify the shifts of power and authority within the British *sles and also the e:tent to ,hich the centre could control but could at the same time be undermined by the eri hery . Socio-economic changes were accompanied by ma)or cultural changes. The ideology of 9orthern 7issent put forward the self$made man as a praiseworthy social ideal. The human prototypes of the age were the engineer and inventor. Eohn Bright* began his political career with a speech advocating temperance and fought the imposition of Church rates upon dissenters. =e was a devout follower of .Dth century &uritanism and an opponent of the southern aristocracy, a radical thinker $a trait not typical of dissent%, but his views found a home in the Liberal #arty $ very much the arty of the 3orth against the South.
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SAQ /hat is the name of the famous engineer who completed the ;reat /estern -ailway from <ondon to Bristol, who designed the first propeller-driven ship to cross the 0tlantic and the Clifton suspension bridge to span the 0von ;orge+ /ilkinson, /edgwood, Brindley, Stephenson, Brunel or Telford1
Fi,.7 An en,ineer of ,enius
0 new factor that was added now to the general scene is internal migration. The new subcultures add tension to the clashing cultures within the various regions of the British *sles. Because of the influ# of Catholic and &rotestant immigrants from 8lster in search of employment in /ales, +ardiff became a melting ot* attracting, on top of /elsh internal migrants from rural areas, ,nglish and *rish immigrants. *n *reland the counterpart of the northern economic boom was the industrial e#pansion of Belfast and the <agan ?alley. 0s Belfast prospered, 7ublin became a backwater like <ondon, its infant industries, declined. 0 ma)or cause of the continued division between Catholic and &rotestant cultures in *reland must be sought in their contrasting e#periences during the atrocious years of famine $.F6A-.F6G%. The &rotestant north, where oats rather than potatoes constituted the normal diet, was spared from famine when successive potato crops failed. The small farming and labouring classes in the south and west bore the full brunt of the famine. By .MQR the labouring class, over,helmingly +atholic, ,as decimated by disease and starvation. Those who managed to survive were forced to emigrate in large numbers $well over a million and a half% so that by .FA. *reland had lost a !uarter of its population through emigration or death $nearly one million%. 4emory of the famine is to this day part and parcel of the mentality of Catholic culture, differentiating it from that of &rotestant *reland. The memory of this social tragedy was taken with them by many *rish emigrants.
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SAQ " The *rish emigrated in huge numbers to a part of the world where they still form the largest *rish community outside *reland. /here is that1
2.1.8 &ome (ule The ample economic changes of industrialisation and modernisation as well as urbanisation were a ma)or effect of ,nglish investment and a response to the demands of the ,nglish market. So, whilst it may seem that the individual histories of the four national constituents can only be understood in such a larger conte#t with ,ngland at the hub of all changes, the periphery $restricted to a mostly passive role in the first half of the century% embarked upon a much changed status towards the middle of the .Gth century. The intermingling of cultures and the mobility of populations, were accompanied by inter-ethnic hostility, particularly towards *rish Catholics and Eews. *t was at that time that *rish Catholicism, /elsh 9on-Conformism and the ree Churches of Scotland formed an alliance with ,nglish dissent to bring pressure to bear upon the ,nglish establishment. This was the backdrop against which the <iberal &arty was formed, the centre being now e#posed to political pressures from the periphery. The rise of the =ome -ule movement in *reland in the .FHHs led to a further intensification of ethnic rivalries throughout the British *sles. &arado#ically, one of the defenders of the establishment was someone who should have been destined by his birth and temperament for dissent+ Ben)amin 7israeli**. =e was a man of Bohemian temperament, middle class origin and Eewish e#traction. =e was a defender of the aristocracy, in his opinion the only security for self-government, stability and of the preservation of past greatness. =e portrayed the liberals as unpatriotic, a danger to property, a threat to the institutions of the nation, betrayers of Britain(s world and imperial interests. @n the other hand, ;ladstone** pressed for 6ome ?ule, for free trade and for the introduction of competitive e#aminations into the Civil Service.
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Fi,.8 Ben/amin 9israeli
Fi,.:
. '. Gladstone
0t the end of /orld /ar * (reland ,as not divided by class but by culture. The cultural differences between north and south were accentuated by religion. The distinguishing features of *rish identity in the south were Catholicism and nationalism, nourished by a revival of an interest in ;aelic culture and the *rish language. *n .G.C Sinn ein* came into being to oppose the &rotestant north-east. *f in .G.6 a civil war had been prevented as the &rotestants of 8lster wanted at all costs to preserve the union, the -ule Bill was put into effect after the war, and after three years of military struggle, *reland split into the si# counties of 9orthern *reland $8lster%, which were given a measure of =ome -ule, and the 3C counties of the ree *rish State. SAQ 10 By arranging chronologically the following events you will end up with the story of the 'Troubles( in 9orthern *reland+ .. 5H Eanuary .GD3 Blood Sunday when the customary water cannons were replaced by real guns and .5 demonstrators were shot dead by soldiersL 3. Stormont, the parliament of 9 *reland unable to accept British interference, resignedL 5. 0ttacked by &rotestant e#tremists. Clashes with the police - serious tensions between the communitiesL 6. 0ugust .GCG severe rioting broke out in <ondonderry and BelfastL A. British troops sent in to restore orderL C. .GCG *-0* moved in to protect Catholics from the gangs of protestant e#tremistsL D. British government decided to take over responsibility for law and orderL F. *n the late CH(s many Catholics $who made up more than a third of *reland(s population% first organised peaceful demonstrations for civil rightsL G. The role of the army changed from protecting the Catholics to fighting the *-0 who previously did not have much support in 9 *relandL .H. The ;ood riday 0greement, signed in .GGF, and its provisions successfully passed. 0 referendum* organi"ed in *reland and 9 *relandL ... The &rovince under direct rule from <ondonL
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.3. The agreement led to the reopening of Stormont and replacement of British rule by a power-sharing government where all political parties were representedL .5. They used all the methods of terrorism to try to achieve their aim to get the British army out and secure a united *relandL .6. *n 3HH3, Stormont was once again suspended over mounting disagreements, especially the refusal of the *-0 to decommission $give up weapons%L .A. ,arly DHs *-0(s control of some urban areas was so great that they were called 'no-go areas( $e.g. <ondonderry%. =ome -ule was not specific to *reland onlyL a movement for /elsh =ome -ule made its appearance in the .FFHs. There are many parallels that can be established between *reland and /ales in the .Fth and .Gth centuries, with one ma)or difference. *t was mainly the rural areas of west /ales that supported =ome -ule. *ndustry being much stronger there than in *reland, south /ales became an important melting pot where the *rish, /elsh and ,nglish intermingled. Met the great ma)ority were /elsh and no massive emigration occurred from /ales. There were at least three Scotlands during this period. There were the =ighlands which during the century saw their population drop substantially, with the balance shifting in favour of the urbanised and industrialised <owlands. ,migration to Canada $9ova Scotia, Cape Breton or &rince ,dward% became a pattern. =ighland clearances* took place on a massive scale, as estates were turned over to the more profitable sheep farming. /hile the west <owlands with ;lasgow as the centre, was heavily industrialised, to the east, the <owlands were mainly a rural area, with a long tradition of political, legal and cultural dominance. Three of the famous Scottish universities were there -- St 0ndrews, 0berdeen and ,dinburgh. ,dinburgh was the centre of the Scottish ,nlightenment. There was a disruption within the Scottish church in .F65, when four-fifths of the ministers, left the ,stablished Church. This was an e#traordinary event, an e#pression of Scottish nationalism against the control of /estminster. *t was also a success for the middle-class(s ability to draw upon local resources of wealth and e#pertise. The =ighlands underwent great changes because of the influence of the missionary activities of the 4ethodists. ;aelic oral culture flourished and gave rise to a biblically oriented literacy. :uite parado#ically, a romanticised version of =ighland culture was making headway in the <owlands too. 7ue to the @ssian forgeries of Eames 4acpherson* and of the novels of /alter Scott*, the cult of the =ighlander achieved e#traordinary success. 0 product of the @ssian poems and Scott(s novels, Scotland is stereotyped as a timeless pre-industrial =ighland world. 7espite the fact that four-fifths of the Scots are urban dwellers and hold )obs characteristic of modern times, their imaginative lives continue to be shaped by this ruralist, pastoral and anti-national discourse im osed u on them, but against ,hich they measure their o,n identity .
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&ome (ule in ales
&ome (ule in Scotland
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SAQ 11 /hat movie of the GHs is based on this cult of the =ighlander as a great hero fighting for Scotland(s independence from under the ,nglish rule1 7id you see the film1 /hat was it that you liked1
2.1.: 9e.olution 0fter /old /ar ** the victory of <abour* restored the influence of the eri hery in the persons of such cabinet ministers as ,mmanuel Shinwell*, 0neurin Bevan* and =arold /ilson**. *n the meanwhile, *reland had toughened its anti-British attitude with the decision of neutrality during /orld /ar **. This was, however, a decision in favour of economic stagnation and cultural isolation. =ere Church and State fought to keep *reland 'uncontaminated( by the pressures of modernityL divorce and contraception were prohibited and a system of literary censorship was enforced. By .GD3 this attitude seemed to have changed decisively when the *rish voted overwhelmingly in favour of )oining the ,,C*. or AH years the politics of 9orthern *reland has remained fro"en in an ethno$religious mould with two-thirds of its &rotestant ma)ority maintaining its unity against the supposed threat of the Catholic minority. *n ,ngland, where the rich south-east provided a secure basis for Conservative political power, politics became based more and more on class divisions. 0lthough in such delicate areas as ;lasgow and <iverpool, ethnic hostilities were high, a workingclass authoritarian Toryism* could still thrive. The politics of class proved again to be stronger than the factors of ethnicity and religion. *n Scotland, despite the fact that especially in the west, ethnic issues remained important, class came to the forefront. 9ationalism was on the rise again when the discovery of important fields of oil off the east coast of Scotland provided an issue on which the Scottish 9ational &arty could capitalise. They demanded that Scottish oil should be used for the benefit of the Scottish people. %evolution became an issue that the <abour government could no longer ignore, and in .GDG it was put to referendum. /elsh nationalism received one of its cruellest blows when only a slim ...F per cent came out in favour of it and 6C.A per cent against, to the consternation of &laid Cymru*. *n Scotland it attracted A3 per cent of the votes cast but this amounted to only 55 per cent of the total electorate. SAQ 12 /hat you have found out about /ales and Scotland should
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enable you to answer the following !uestion+ /hy was the referendum of .GDG unsuccessful in both /ales and Scotland1
0lthough long-standing historical patterns continue to manifest themselves culturally, politically and economically, the affairs of Scotland and /ales remain intertwined with ,ngland(s. 0lthough many of the leading figures in ,nglish literature -- Meats, Eoyce, Synge, @(Casey and Seamus =eaney -- were *rishmen, in sports $such as golf and rugby% the differences are virtually ignored. 7uring the .GAHs there was an immense wave of *rish immigration to the 8B -- 5AA,HHH people. =owever, the biggest political shake-up of British politics since the creation of the *rish ree State in .G33 has been devolution that followed the .GGD referenda, bringing about a complete overhaul of the British conte#t, building a modern constitution for the whole of the 8nited Bingdom. The .GGD referenda were no doubt a historic step that the /elsh and the Scots took, leading the way to opening the &arliament of Scotland and the 0ssembly $ Senned% in /ales after 5HH years and almost AHH years respectively. 0lthough the &rime 4inister Tony Blair thinks that this devolving of power will strengthen the union, making it more fle#ible and more open, some others, more nationalist in their views like 0le#ander Salmond $leader of the S9&*%, take it as the way to true independence. &he 'lections of 0ay KPPP 7 arliamentary elections in the devolved Wales and Scotland8 ,ill also be remembered as a big reshuffle of olitical o,er in British society. *ndeed the elections saw the coronation of <abour by a narrow margin in all three nations of ;reat Britain, but facing a different opposition in each+ <abour versus nationalism in its Scottish, /elsh and ,nglish forms. *n ,ngland the main force opposing <abour is now reduced to the status of a fringe group west and north of the border. The Conservatives have become a vanishing force in 8B politics. This new landscape is seen by Tony Blair as a big victory of <abour over nationalism $'old-style nationalism(% and a victory for their $9ew <abour% brand of looser, devolved unionism. The rise of nationalism has led to an escalation of sectarianism in the devolved countries. Scotland was denounced as being a very sectarian, 0nti-Catholic and anti-*rish society. Scotland is unlike 9orthern *reland, a highly secularised society, where few people observe any religion at all. What devolution has unleashed is a ne, dynamic in British life, one that puts first the distinct political cultures of the constituents, whilst at the same time strengthening the union. 7espite all speculation one thing remains clear+ the nationalist parties did not win. Met somehow the Scots, the *rish and the /elsh remain citi"ens of the same country and their future within the union
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will depend on the skill and intelligence and the capacity of <abour to accommodate diversity while sustaining in the most enlightened of fashions the feeling of belonging to a common core.
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1ey Conce$ts
The ,nglish $&uritan% -evolution 7issent 7isestablishment of the 0nglican Church internal migration melting-pot effect *ndustrial -evolution =ighland Clearances Bill of -ights Temperance 4ovement &laid Cymru Scottish 9ational &arty *-0>Sinn ein enian *rish 4ovement referendum =ome -ule devolution
Glossary
an,locentric R centred on ,ngland Auld Alliance R alliance that came into being after the attempt of ,dward ** to con!uer Scotland in .3GA. The Scots turned to the king of rance for support. 0ccording to the 0uld 0lliance whenever ,ngland attacked any of the two countries, the other would immediately make trouble behind ,ngland(s back. *t lasted well into the .Cth century. Battle of Britain R name given to the fighting between British and ;erman aircraft during the summer and autumn of .G6H, when the ;erman aircraft repeatedly bombed British cities, and British aircraft tried to fight them off. The bombing stopped late in .G6H and this was seen by British people as a great victory for them. /inston Churchill said about the British pilots who fought in the Battle of Britain+ I9ever in the field of human conflict was so much owned by so many to so few.J Be.an@ Aneurin R British <abour politician from /ales, known for his e#cellent speeches. 0s 4inister of =ealth $.G6A-.GA.% he helped establish the 9=S 9ational =ealth Service. Bill of (i,hts R written statement of the most important rights of the citi"ens, which in .CFG consecrated a more democratic and progressive arrangement that overrode the power of the king to favour popular will represented in parliament.
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*orou,h R town with corporation and privileges conferred by royal charterL town sending member$s% to parliament. Bri,ht@ 6ohn R British liberal politician of the .Gth century, a radical thinker, who advocated free trade, was against the imposition of church ta#es on dissenters and was a supporter of the Temperance 4ovement Cal.in@ 6ean R rench &rotestant theologian involved in the -eformation in rance and Swit"erland and known for the severity of his system $the theory of predestination%. Several dissenting churches, such as &uritanism, were born out of Calvinist &resbyterianism. cash economy R modern type of economy where the producer no longer produces for a limited use $family, feudal lord% but for the market, for sale. clearances <&i,hland clearances= R system of forcing people to leave their homes and land in Scotland in the .F th and .Gth centuries to make the land clear for sheep farming. 4any people left Scotland and emigrated to Canada and the 8S. de.olution R the transfer $or devolving% of governmental or personal power to a person or group at a lower or more local level. The second referendum for devolution organi"ed in /ales and Scotland in September .GGD was successful and on C 4ay .GGG elections were held in the two countries and their parliaments were reopened after AHH and 5HH years, respectively. 9isesta*lishment R depriving church of State connection, so that it ceases to be the official religion for a nation. 9israeli@ Ben/amin R Conservative ,nglish politician and writer of Eewish origin. =e was &rime 4inister in .FCF and from .FD6 to .FFH. 9issent R movement in the .Gth century Britain that led to the rise of 9onconformists, who organi"ed for the 7isestablishment of the Church and for recognition of their rights. ''C ; ,uropean ,conomic Community, organi"ation established $.GAF% by treaty between Belgium, rance, *taly, <u#embourg, the 9etherlands, and ;ermany which was known informally as the Common 4arket. The ,,C was the most significant of the three treaty organi"ations that were consolidated in .GCD to form the ,uropean Community $,C% known since the ratification in .GG5 of the 4aastricht treaty as the ,uropean 8nion. The ,,C had as its aim the eventual economic union of its member nations, ultimately leading to political union. *t worked for the free movement of labour and capital and the development of )oint and reciprocal policies on labour, social welfare, agriculture, transport, and foreign trade.
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'n,lish <#uritan= (e.olution R the Civil /ar that brought about important constitutional changes, about e#perimenting with new ideas and institutions. *t eroded the claims to monarchic absolutism in ,ngland and attested to the rising importance of &uritan ideas in ,nglish society. 6ames II R Bing of ,ngland from .CFA and Scotland $as Eames ?**%. =e became a Catholic and was forced to run away to rance and was later defeated at the battle of the Boyne in .CGH. 'liLa*eth I R one of the most glorious of all British monarchs $.A55.CH5% - ';loriana(, 'The &hoeni# of the /orld( - daughter of =enry ?*** and 0nne Boleyn $the second of his si# wives%. *n her time under her moderate but authoritative rule ,ngland became a great power $they defended the S anish Armada in .AFF% and the foundation of the ,mpire was laid. She is known for saying+ I* know * have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but * have the heart and stomach of a BingJ. Fenian Irish +o.ement $name derived from the *rish hero inn of the enian cycle of legends% R independence movement that started in the .FCH(s and which attempted risings in the 8S0, Canada as well as *reland. *n .FCD it astonished ,ngland by a series of bomb e#plosions. Gladstone@ illiam ')art R British liberal politician who was prime minister from .FCF to .FD6, .FFH to .FFA and .FG3-.FG6. =e established national education, introduced the secret ballot, supported free trade and =ome -ule for *reland. &ome (ule R self-government by an area that was once politically dependent. *t is also used with reference to the nationalist movement in *reland between .FDH and .G3. when the ree *rish State was established. Industrial (e.olution R period of time $.DAH-.FAH% when new ground-breaking technologies and machines were invented and factories were set up and when traditional institutions, practices, relations in the public and private spheres underwent radical changes internal mi,ration R important movements of people from one region to another $within the same country% leading to melting pot effects. I(A R the *rish -epublican 0rmy+ an illegal organi"ation whose aim is to unite 9orthern *reland and the -epublic of *reland as one republic. &art of the *-0, The &rovisional *-0 is known for its use of terrorist methods. kind <in% R using goods or natural products rather than money as a method of payment $opposed to 'in cash(%.
British Studies
1noI@ 6ohn R Scottish religious reformer of the .C century who established the Church of Scotland - the Birk - and &resbyterianism $a religious system inspired by Eean Calvin, in which the government of the church is shared by a mi#ed body of priests and lay people%. Ea*our R one of the two main political parties in Britain. *t first assumed the name in .GHC. or many years it represented the interest of the working class against the interests of the employers, although it was also supported by many middle class people, especially intellectuals. Starting with =arold /ilson there have been attempts at moderni"ing the party but none of such scope as those initiated under Tony Blair(s 9ew <abour. Eollardy <Eollards= R $probable etymology lollaer 'a mumbler of prayers(%, the only significant heretical movement in mediaeval ,ngland, hostile to ecclesiastical authority, corruption and wealth of clergyL their belief in a Bible in ,nglish prefigured -eformation and was to be one of the central convictions of &rotestantism. Euther@ +artin R religious leader of -eformation in ;ermany which led to the creation of the &rotestant church and its break-away from the Catholic Church. *n .A.D he wrote hiss famous GA points that he nailed to the door of his church in /ittenberg. =e attacked the powers of the &ope and he translated the Bible into ;erman +ac$herson@ 6ames $.D5C -.DGC% R remembered for one of the most spectacular literary hoa#es $forgeries% of all time+ the epic of @ssian. *n .DCH he published X ragments of 0ncient &oetry Collected in the =ighlands of Scotland and Translated from the ;allic or ,rse <anguageX $.DCH%, in which it was suggested that epic poetry relating to the legendary ingal and his son @ssian might still remain to be discovered intact in the =ighland oral tradition. The book was a great success and aroused interest in the possibility that Scotland might possess a body of classical literature analogous to the =omeric poetry of ;reece. meltin, $ot <effect= R place where there is a mi#ing of people of different races and nations. +ethodism R Christian &rotestant religion that places importance on social and personal morality #laid Cymru R literally meaning I&arty of /alesJ, left-of-centre /elsh nationalist party, founded in .G3A. 0fter the devolution of .GGD it became the second most important political force after labour in the newly opened Senned. #ri.y Council R body of appro#imately AHH people of high rank in politics and public life who can be asked to advise the monarch on certain state affairs. referendum R the best known instrument of direct democracy where all people, rather than their representatives in parliament or the government, are asked to vote on a certain issue.
th
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(eform Bill of 1;32 R initiated by the /hig $liberal% government that followed in .F5H the death of ;eorge *? opened the road to modern democracy in Britain, to the gradual enfranchisement $the right to vote% of all sectors of the population and to many other political and civil freedoms in Britain. resilience R endurance, tenacity, ability to return !uickly to a state of normalcy after going through difficulty, change, shock etc. Scott@ alter R Scottish writer and poet $.DD.-.F53% especially famous for his stories of Scottish life, including several based on historical characters such as (vanhoe or &he 6eart of the 0idlothian) Shin)ell@ 'manuel R prominent <abour politician of Eewish origin, who served as Secretary of State for 7efence after //**. Sinn Fein R *rish &olitical organi"ation, the political wing of the *-0 that embraces the same political ideas as *-0 and also supports the use of force against British rule in 9orthern *reland. SN# R The Scottish 3ational #arty was formed in .G56 from the union of the 9ational &arty of Scotland and the Scottish &arty. /ith the establishment of devolution for Scotland in .GGG the S9& has styled itself as the main opposition party to the Scottish ,#ecutive. Tem$erance +o.ement R .Gth century movement in the in Britain, 8S0 and 9 ,urope due to the increase in alcoholism which had devastating individual and social conse!uences. *t organi"ed huge rallies to persuade people not to drink alcohol. Thirty nine Articles R a set of basic teachings and beliefs in the Church of ,ngland, written in .AD., which the Church still asks its priests to agree to in principle before appointment. Toryism R typical of Tory, a right-wing party established in the .D th century and which in the .F5Hs became the Conservative party. /e still use Tory as an alternative name for Conservative. esley@ 6ohn R 0nglican priest of the .F th century who established 4ethodism and whose writings and teachings became the principles of the 4ethodist Church. illiam <III= and +ary R /illiam *** $of @range%, king of ,ngland Scotland and *reland from .CFG to .DH3. =is wife, 4ary **, the daughter of Bing Eames **, had e!ual power and that is why people usually talk about the reign of /illiam and 4ary. ilson@ &arold R ,nglish <abour politician $born in Morkshire% who was prime minister from .GC6 to .GDH and from .GD6 to .GDC. M)in,li@ Ulrich R Swiss humanist and reformer of the Church . =is radicalism was apparent in his concept of church and state overlapping.
British Studies
Ans)ers to SAQs
SAQ 1 @n the front cover of 0. 4arr(s book you can see a coffin wrapped up in the 8nion Eack being lowered into the grave 2 a powerful symbolic image for the death of a nation, for the dissolution of Britishness as national identity. *n the book -- and the film screened after the book -- the date ascribed to the death of Britain $born in .DHD% is .GGD $devolution in Scotland and /ales%. SAQ 2 Britishness was still considered to be a common good for all provinces in the CH(s. The battle of Britain* fuelled like never before British pride. This type of heroism associated with Britishness and heroism in /orld /ar ** gave way gradually to new patterns of e#pressing national identities in the DH(s when Britishness started to feel oppressive. *n the DH(s Scottish and /elsh nationalism were on the rise and the troubles in 9orthern *reland take a dramatic turn. *n the GH(s ,nglish nationalism became very prominent and more and more voices are heard today calling for an ,nglish &arliament, )ust like the national parliaments reopened in Scotland and /ales in .GGG. SAQ 3 The whole movement of the -eformation, which sparked off such important cultural developments all over ,urope hinged on the translation of the Bible into ,nglish, thus allowing people to have a direct knowledge of the Bible, thus also encouraging interpretation and different readings of the Bible and more critical attitudes to clerical corruption and abuse. =ad =enry *? supported /ycliffe and the <ollards* to go on with their pro)ect the ,nglish Church might have become independent in the early .A th century. @n the contrary, =enry *? was a devout Catholic. SAQ 5 Charles * dissolves parliament desiring to become an absolute monarchL when he tries to impose 0nglicanism in &resbyterian Scotland, the &resbyterian Scots rioted, raised an army, occupied 9orthern ,ngland. Bing feels compelled to summon &arliament and ask for their financial and military support. &arliament imposes its conditions in return for its support $mostly limiting the king(s prerogatives%. *n .C63 Charles gathered his army. Bing(s followers called Cavaliers, those of &arliament -oundheads $because of their specific haircut%. Between .C63 and .C6F several battles were fought $9aseby, 4arston 4oor, &reston% and several attempts made at negotiations with the king fail. 0 &arliament reduced to one third, made up mostly of &uritans tries the king for high treason and in Eanuary .C6G Charles * is e#ecuted. 4onarchy and the =ouse of <ords abolished by CromwellL a &rotectorate is constituted with Cromwell <ord &rotector and a one-house parliament. *n .CCH
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Charles ** is restored to the throne. SAQ 7 The false sentences are+ 4any Scots were favourable to the 0ct of 8nion. The 0ct of 8nion was saluted with enthusiasm by the Scottish &arliament. The Scots were forced to convert to 0nglicanism. Scotland was allowed to keep its own parliament. SAQ 8 The following sentences are false+ Eohn /esley* never left his home but his spreading fame made his church very popular. *t advanced a highly theoretical and rational approach to the Bible. They combined preaching with lively singing and dancing. SAQ : 'stablishment $land-owning aristocracy%+ immoral, easy-going, bent on debauchery and frivolity, idleness, cockfighting, hunting, drinking, gambling. &he +ulture of %issent, on the other hand, was a culture underscored by restraint, sobriety, respectability, hard work, perseverance and a commitment to temperance and social reform. SAQ ; =is name is *samabard Bingdom Brunel $.FHC-.FAG%. SAQ > *n the .Gth century *rish emigrated in huge numbers to 0merica that has tried !uite often recently to support the peace plans for 9orthern *reland $e.g. Bill Clinton%. SAQ 1? The right order of the sentences+ D, 5, 6, F, A, .3, .6, ., C, 3, .H, G, .., .5. SAQ 11 Braveheart $a film directed by 4el ;ibson% won most @scar awards in .GGC, amongst them the Best &icture 0ward. Concern was e#pressed repeatedly with the film(s anglo hobia. Teenage Scottish audiences cheered every time /allace killed an ,nglishman. This ;ibson-styled /allace $a Scottish hero in the .5 th century who fought against the ,nglish led by ,dward *% was compared with the notorious Bosnian Serb military commander ;eneral -adko 4ladic $one of the most wanted war criminals in ,urope%. SAQ 12 /ales, 9orthern *reland and Scotland have become ethnically, religiously, racially mi#ed over history. The nationalist movement in
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all three provinces capitali"ed on Celtic tradition $something they claimed made the big difference between them and the ,nglish%. Thus they managed to antagoni"e important sections of the population who were ,nglish and who did not identify as closely with this Celtic heritage. The latter feared that devolution would make them second-class citi"ens in these provinces.
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2.2
2.2.1
InterA(acial (elations in Contem$orary Britain

From Immi,ration to +ulticulturalism @ur main purpose so far was to re)ect a view of Britain as one nation, a monolithic entity standing in 'splendid isolation( from the continent. 0 nationalist, ethno-essentialist point of view would distort the picture completely. The history of the British people has been a never-ending series of e#changes, of acculturations* and of crosscultural conversations. 0n anglocentrist view of ,nglish history would impoverish immensely the interplay of shaping forces that contributed to the emergence of a plurivocal identity, to the emergence of the plurality of identities that we call 'the British(. /e have considered mainly the phenomenon of internal hybridi"ation and the process of internal migration and amalgamation, while also briefly discussing the waves of immigration. * am going to proceed to a discussion of the conse!uences of the main waves of immigration and of the configuration of a multicultural society - a cultural, social and political model that is meant to create what =omi Bhabha* calls 'a third space of understanding( that transcends the dualism of 'us( and 'them(. *n his Location of +ulture, Bhabha insists on the necessity of getting away from a view of culture as an evaluative activity concerned primarily with the attribution of identity and authenticity $custom, tradition, ritual%. This perspective necessarily would take us to a confrontational view of culture+ on the one hand a 'core( culture, a dominant culture and on the other hand 'the others( 2 colonial, folklorised and 'orientalised(. *t would lead us to a conception of ma)oritarian versus minoritarian perspective. The hybrid cosmo olitanism of contemporary metropolitan life cannot be denied in the conte#t of globalisation and the unprecedented development of communication technologies. *n ?e$ inventing Britain) A 0anifesto, Bhabha redefines culture as Ithe activity of negotiating, regulating and authorising competing often conflicting demands for collective self-representationJ $.GGD+ G-.H%. The coe#istence of different cultures replaces the dominance of a mainstream nationalist culture. 4uch of today(s multiculturalist thinking is seeking to revise the homogeneous notion of 'national culture( by emphasi"ing multiple identities of race, class and gender or by demonstrating the historical and artificial, constructed nature of ',nglishness(, 'Scottishness(, etc. SAQ 1 Before reading the ne#t paragraph try to think of the meaning of multiculturalism. /hat does it mean, in your opinion1
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2.2.2.
A Short &istorical Sur.ey of Immi,ration in Britain 4any people have come to Britain over the centuries 2 through invasion, as a result of Britain(s e#pansion into the world, or to seek refuge from political or religious persecution. @ther groups were also attracted to Britain by the chance of economic security, often bringing new trades or coming to work in new industries. *mmigration e#panded in the post-war period when immigrants were encouraged to come from the Caribbean to work in public transport, manufacturing and the 9ational =ealth Service. The e#pansion of the British ,mpire across the globe by the .G th century also meant a two-way flow of people, with many coming to Ithe mother countryJ to work, study or help defend the nation. Black and 0sian troops from the ,mpire fought for Britain in both the irst and Second /orld /arsL memorial gates honouring their contribution were opened in Constitution =ill, <ondon in 3HH.. SAQ 2 4atch the following groups of people who settled in Britain with the right date of their settlement and also rank them chronologically+ .9orman Con!uest 3Beginnings of slave trade 5;ypsies 6Celts A=uguenots and other persecuted protestants CBlack community of <ondon of about .A.HHH D-omans FEewish community e#pelled G irst Eewish community .HCaribbeans .. irst black people $the 0frican 7ivision of the -oman army% .30nglo-Sa#ons .5*rish workers fled starvation .6-esettlement of Eews .A0sians e#pelled from ,ast 0frica .CEews fled pogroms in -ussia and &oland and later a. .Dth century b. 5rd century c. Fth century d. Ath century e. .HCC f. .CAC g. .st millennium BC h. 65 07 i. .Cth century ). after .HCC k. .Gth and 3Hth century l. .3GH m. .GCH(s and .GFHs n. mid .Fth century o. .Gth century p. the .GDHs and .GFHs
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the rise of 9a"ism in ;ermany. .DSeafarers from *ndia and China settling in such ports as <ondon, <iverpool and Cardiff. .F*mmigrants from *ndia, &akistan and Bangladesh .G=ong Bong Chinese and refugees from ?ietnam 3H?ikings 3.The first group of 6G3 Eamaicans arrived on the 4? 'm ire Windrush !. 33 Eune .G6F
r. throughout the .GAHs and early CHs s. .Cth century t. the .GDHs u. 4id .Gth century
This history of immigration to Britain has produced today(s uni!uely diverse nation. ,thnic diversity has shaped Britain(s cultural life. The !uality and breadth of the arts and popular culture have been enriched through the contribution of individuals from many backgrounds and traditions. British-born black, 0sian and other ethnic minority individuals and communities are making their mark on the new face of Britain as a centre of style, fashion and pioneering ideas in popular culture and the arts. British cinema, television, fashion, youth subcultures, Britpop* and literature all owe a debt to the creative and talented people who have come here to settle over the years. Their diversity creates a uni!ue identity as different traditions and approaches fuse to create a distinct hybrid, which is contemporary to British life and culture. The overall number of non-white Britons, according to the latest census of 3HH. stands at well over four million -- more than the population of the -epublic of *reland.
SAQ 3 /hat percentage of the overall population of ,ngland and /ales identified themselves as being from an ethnic minority population at the last census in 3HH.1 C.DN G.GN .5..N .C.5N 3H.AN
The @ffice for 9ational Statistics anticipates that the minority ethnic population will almost double by 3H3H, because of its higher birth rate. 0n estimated two million Britons are of *rish descent. The numbers in other groups, such as those of Eewish, Cypriot, Turkish or other descents, are not known but add further to the ethnic diversity of the British population.
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*t is difficult to talk about a single Sethnic minority e#perienceS of life in Britain today as there are as many differences within and between different ethnic groups as can be found by comparing the Sethnic minoritiesS to the general population. /hat can be said of the ethnic minority groups as a whole is that they tend to be considerably younger than the population at large -- the median age of whites is 5D, that of 0fro-Caribbeans 55, *ndians 5. and Bangladeshis .F. 0lmost half of all ethnic minority Britons live in <ondon. 4uch debate focuses on the over 3HH languages spoken in the capitalSs schools, and the uni!ue mi#ture of cultural assets and social problems this creates for the Sglobal cityS. *nner <ondon is the only part of the country where black Britons outnumber British 0sians, by almost two to one, while British *ndians predominate in outer <ondon suburbs such as =arrow. Think First! The following fragment comes from an essay by a well-known British novelist and playwright of &akistani origin $his mother was ,nglish, his father &akistani%, =anif Bureishi. =ow would you describe an inner city using the props below+ I1he found three 'nglands) &here ,as guide$book 'ngland, of alaces and forestsF KPth century industrial 'ngland of factories and suburbsF and contem orary 'ngland of by$ asses and suburbs) 3o, half a century later, there is another 'ngland as ,ellJ the inner city)G &he inner city in question is in Bradford. derelict houses. overty. unem loyment. most of the area an Asian district. ubs stayed o en late. heavily oliced. Idiverse, dis arate o ulation, ethnically mi:edG. Ino shared outlook, beliefs and an established form of life)J $London /ills 0e, aber Y aber, .GG.+ .3F-.5H%
4oreover, there are parts of <ondon where the non-whites form the ma)ority of residents $9ewham and Brent%, whilst SouthallSs Sikhs, <eicesterSs =indus and Bri#tonSs black populations live in areas with white ma)orities. The relatively even dispersal of the .6G,HHH Chinese Britons may further add to their near invisibility in discussion about race in Britain. -acial tensions have been greatest over the last years not in the areas with the largest ethnic populations, but in north-west towns - @ldham, Burnley, -ochdale and Blackburn - which contain very high levels of internal ethnic segregation. *n -ochdale, GC per cent of the &akistani community and FG per cent of Bangladeshis live in the five inner wards, among the most deprived areas in the 9orth/est. &akistanis form the largest ethnic group in the 9orth-/est,
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Morkshire and Scotland, while British *ndians are the largest ethnic group in both the /est and ,ast 4idlands, as well as in most of the predominantly white regions of ,ngland. The 0fro-Caribbean community is the most SintegratedS, with the highest levels of inter-racial marriages $eight times higher than those for blacks in the 8nited States%, while 0fro-Caribbean women are doing relatively well in terms of employment and income. But with greater levels of unemployment and one in three 0fro-Caribbean children in a single-parent family, there is a high level of child poverty. British *ndians are, on average, slightly better off than white Britons, but there is a relatively high ine!uality within the group, particularly among women. /orst-off are people of &akistani and Bangladeshi origin who are the most likely to be unemployed, living in poverty or overcrowded housing, and with lower levels of fluency in ,nglish than other ethnic groups, especially among women. SAQ 4 =ow many &akistani and Bangladeshi are living in poverty1 The correct answer is one of the five below+ DN 33N 5DN A3N CDN
Met over the last decade another tendency has gained ground+ *ndians and &akistanis are gradually becoming 'the new Eews of Britain(, -ichard ord says in an article published in the "uardian* of .3 Eune .GGC. They en)oy rising prosperity through hard work while retaining a strong belief in the family. They start their own business, move into their own homes, and )oin the ranks of professionally !ualified white collar workers. @n the other hand, the Bangladeshis and the 0fro-Caribbeans face an '*rish( future, being working class wage-earners, living mostly in council houses*. *f education is the key to opportunity and mobility, then many positive developments might be e#pected. 4ost ethnic groups are over-represented among BritainSs undergraduates, even though these are largely concentrated at the new universities. The problem is that similar, or better, levels of education and skills for almost all ethnic groups have not translated into e!uality in the world of work. =igher graduate unemployment and lower wages than for similarly !ualified whites suggests continued racial disadvantage. &he olitical, legal and business establishment remains largely ,hite) Think First! -ead the following fragments from =anif Bureishi(s essay 'ngland I*n the mid-.GCHs &akistanis were a risible sub)ect in ,ngland,
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derided on television and e#ploited by politicians. They had the worst )obs, they were uncomfortable in ,ngland, some of them had difficulties with the language. They were despised and out of place. rom the start * tried to deny my &akistani self. *t was a curse and * wanted to be rid of it. * wanted to be like everyone else. * read with understanding a story in a newspaper about a black boy, who, when he noticed that burnt skin turned white, )umped into a bath of boiling water. 0t school one teacher always spoke to me in a '&eter Sellers( *ndian accent. 0nother refused to call me by name, calling me &akistani &ete insteadPJ $London /ills 0e, aber Y aber, .GG., D5-DA, .HH% 9ow try to answer the following !uestions and write your answers in the space below+ =ave you ever e#perienced the feeling of being ridiculed for being different in a certain environment, at school, in the street, or on a visit abroad1 =ave you ever witnessed manifestations of racial attitudes1 *f yes, how did you react1
2.2.3 (acism 0s to the integration of ethnic minorities, many think that a kind of deep-rooted institutionalised racism inherent in the British continues to manifest itself. * think credit should be given to the British for a whole range of attitudes, institutions and structures that have developed in Britain with a view to accommodating, integrating and providing e!ual opportunities in all fields for people belonging to ethnic minorities. =owever, moments of intensification of racial hatred are !uite fre!uent. *n 0pril .GCF, perhaps in an attempt to challenge ,dward =eath*(s* leadership of the Conservative &arty, ,noch &owell, a right-wing nationalist, forecast with inflammatory rhetoric 'rivers of blood( in British cities on the lines of race riots in the 8S. 0 former &rofessor of Classics, &owell declared that, IThose whom the gods wish to destroy they first make mad. /e must be mad, literally mad as a nation, to be permitting the annual flow of some AH,HHH dependentsP *t is like watching a nation busily engaging in heaping
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up its own funeral pyres.JZ =e spoke very emotionally of a formerly !uiet street, which had become a place of noise and confusion due to coloured neighbours.
SAQ 5 -ead the following fragments of different racist discourses. /hat ideas do they share1 *n what ways do they differ from one another1 I&he breeding of millions of half$caste children ,ould merely roduce a generation of misfits and create national tensionsG $7uncan Sandys, .GCD% I&his country ,ill not be ,orth living in for our children1As ( look ahead ( am filled ,ith foreboding) Like the ?omans ( seem to see the ?iver &iber foaming ,ith much blood1G $,noch &owell, .GCF%. S'uro e becomes more and more a rovince of (slam, a colony of (slam)S $@riana allaci, &he Force of ?eason, 3HH6% I+hristianitys ancient stronghold of 'uro e is ra idly giving ,ay to (slam))) +urrent trends suggest (slami9ation ,ill ha en, for 'uro eans seem to find it too strenuous to have children, sto illegal immigration, or even diversify their sources of immigrants) (nstead, they refer to settle unha ily into civili9ational senility1G) $7aniel &ipes director of &he 0iddle 'ast Forum and author of 0iniatures%. IWe are a British nation ,ith British characteristics) 'very nation can take some minorities and in many ,ays they add to the richness and variety of this country) But the moment a minority threatens to become a big one, eo le get frightened) Some eo le have felt s,am ed by immigrants) &heyve seen the ,hole character of their neighbourhood change1 >f course eo le can feel that they are s,am ed) Small minorities can be absorbed but once a minority in a neighbourhood gets very large eo le do feel s#$%&e')G $4argaret Thatcher(s* speeches in Solomos, E. ?ace and ?acism in Britain. <ondon+ 4acmillan. .GG5%
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2.2.5 (acial (elations in Contem$orary Britain and the Fi,ht a,ainst (acial 9iscrimination *mmigration legislation introduced in .GC3, .GCF and .GD., and the .GF. 9ationality 0ct, brought in new restrictions to discourage immigration. 7uring the .GGHs the scale of immigration declined, consisting mainly of spouses and dependents of those already in Britain. 4ore recently, there has been a growing number of refugees and asylum seekers. *mmigration legislation in .GC3 and .GCF aimed to enforce a two-strand policy+ on the one hand to restrict the number of immigrants entering the country and on the other hand to pass laws to protect the rights of those immigrants who were already settled in Britain. *n .GD. the =eath government introduced an *mmigration 0ct which had the effect of treating Commonwealth citi"ens as aliens, e#cept those born in Britain or who had a parent or grandparent born in Britain $patriality%. 9ew conditions for naturalisation and a redefinition of British citi"enship are contained in the 9ationality 0ct of .GF.. *n order to protect immigrant rights the <abour government passed the first -ace -elations 0ct in .GCA, which was followed by further acts in .GCF and .GDC. These acts make it unlawful to discriminate against another person on grounds of racial, ethnic or national origin. &he ?ace ?elations Act of KPRL marked an important step forward in combating racial discrimination and promoting e!uality of opportunity in employment, education, provision of goods and facilities. The 0ct also distinguishes between two main types of racial discrimination+ direct discrimination, i.e. treating a person, on racial grounds, less favourably than others and indirect discrimination - applying a re!uirement or condition which puts people from a particular racial group at a disadvantage compared to others. The -ace -elations $0mendment% 0ct of 3HHH e#tends coverage of the .GDC 0ct to all public authority functions, with only a few limited e#ceptions. *t also imposes a statutory duty on listed public authorities in carrying out their functions to have due regard to the need to eliminate unlawful racial discrimination and to promote e!uality of opportunity and good relations between persons of different racial groups. *t seeks to ensure that public sector services are provided fairly to everyone and that the public sector better reflects the society that it serves. @ther -acial 0cts include the &ublic @rder 0ct of .GFC, which makes incitement to racial hatred an offence. This covers the production and circulation of printed material. The act outlaws threatening abusive or insulting behaviour, causing harassment, alarm or distress. 9ew offences of racially aggravated violence, criminal damage and racial harassment were introduced under the Crime and 7isorder 0ct of .GGF. The ootball $@ffences% 0ct of .GG. makes racist chanting at football matches an offence.
Immi,rant ri,hts
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SAQ ! /ho was the first British 0sian who played for ,ngland1 She was picked to keep goal for the ,ngland women(s under .Cs side in a 7ublin tournament against 8S0, Scotland, *reland and /ales. She has played for Southampton Saints C and 0rsenal <adies C and her name is among the following+ 4ichael Chopra &ermi Eahooti 0nwar 8ddin 0man 7osan) =arpal Singh
0 very important structure created for combating racial discrimination was the Commission for -acial ,!uality 2 C-,, set up under the .GDC 0ct. *ts main duties are+ to work towards the elimination of racial discriminationL to promote e!uality of opportunity and good race relations between persons of different racial groups and to keep the working of the 0ct under review. The C-, is empowered to issue codes of practice, to carry out formal investigations and to issue non-discriminatory notices after findings of unlawful racial discrimination. They have conducted over .HH such investigations that resulted in significant changes in employment practices and housing allocation policy. The codes of practice covering employment, education, housing and the health service provide guidance on the operation of the law. -acial e!uality Councils assist in cases of discrimination and promote race e!uality. There are FD such councils funded )ointly by the C-, and local authorities. -ecent initiatives include &he Leadershi +hallenge, launched in .GGD, inviting British leaders to declare their commitment to the principles of diversity and racial e!uality and to take practical measures to promote racial e!uality in their organisations. *n 4ay .GGF, &rime 4inister Tony Blair accepted this challenge in the name of the government. There are ?ace in 0edia awards for the promotion of e#cellence in the handling of race issues in the media and Eisible Women awards seeking to raise the profile of ethnic minority women. 0 ?ace ?elations Forum was set up by the =ome Secretary Eack Straw in Eune .GGF. *t advises on issues affecting ethnic minority communities and acts as a voice for ethnic minority interests in the heart of the government. The 8B agreed to the Treaty of 0msterdam $.GGD%, which provides a legal base for community action to combat discrimination based on race. *t enables member states to take action to combat criminal acts of racism and #enophobia and to promote the security of citi"ens. This is an important follow-on from the ,8 Hoint Action on ?acism and Teno hobia, to which the 8B is also a signatory.
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SAQ 7 7iscrimination manifests itself in many ways. =ere are some of the targets of multicultural policies that need the establishment of a )ust, fair and diversity-respecting society. Can you match them with the concise definitions in the right column1 .
3
0geism =eterose#ism -acism Se#ism
5 6 A
*nstitutional racism C Transphobia
a a false assumption of intrinsic superiority and value in able bodies and minds b a false assumption of intrinsic superiority and value in the white race c a false assumption of intrinsic superiority and value in men d a false assumption of intrinsic superiority and value in heterose#uality e a false assumption of intrinsic superiority and value in youth f a variety of practices and systems operating within an organi"ation subordinating groups or individuals because of their culture g pre)udice against transse#uals
0bleism
Met despite the very vibrant and significant presence of the ethnic minorities in British life and culture and despite the fruitful attempts at shaping harmonious race relations in Britain today, with all the underlying institutions, legal framework and structures created, they are still confronted with a wide range of racial incidents. 0lthough people from minority ethnic groups are now beginning to play a more active part in representative democracy they are still very much under-represented in national and local decision-making bodies, such as the two houses of &arliament or local councils $)ust 3.CN of all council employees are from ethnic minorities%. There is a growing understanding and practice of difference and multiculturalism in the British society of today, but there is still a long way to go to reach racial e!uality and racial harmony. 0s someone said in a recently published report on racism in British institutions+ IThey are en route but there is still another two miles to goP This is a marathon, not a sprintJ. 2.2.7. Factfile- The Ea)rence Case I( ,ould like Ste hen to be remembered as a young man ,ho had a future) 6e ,as ,ell$loved and had he been given the chance to survive maybe he ,ould have been the one to bridge the ga
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bet,een black and ,hite)G $7oreen <awrence, the late Stephen <awrence(s mother% The first )udicial in!uiry into a racist murder was announced by the =ome Secretary in Euly .GGD following public concern about the investigations of the murder of teenager Stephen <awrence. The terms of reference of the in!uiry were Ito in!uire into the matters arising from the death of Stephen <awrence on 33 0pril .GG5 in ,ltham, south-east <ondon, to date in order particularly to identify the lessons to be learned from the investigation and prosecution of racially motivated crimesJ. The in!uiry resulted in the William 0ac herson ?e ort, published in .GGG, which made DH recommendations to be followed by the main institutions and decision-making authorities in Britain. Who ,as Ste hen La,rence1 9ot a famous man, )ust a boy, a very promising student who was stabbed to death one night in 0pril .GG5 while waiting for a bus in ,ltham by a white gang shouting racist abuse. The 4acpherson -eport into his death marked a rare moment in Britain(s national life. *t forced everyone to take a long, uncomfortable look into the mirror to e#amine Inot )ust the people we pay to protect us but ourselvesJ. 0s the =ome Secretary said in an admirable statement to the =ouse of Commons+ ISir /illiam 4acpherson(s report opens our eyes to what it is like to be black or 0sian in Britain today.J The 4acpherson report points a finger at a police culture full of pre)udice and ignorance and at a chance to make amends in the relations between Britain(s races. SAQ ;uess how many times more are Blacks and 0sians stopped and searched by police than white people1 Si#> three our> two ,ight> three ive both
Several initiatives were announced which reformers were invited to embrace. The police, along with several other institutions, were to be made answerable under the .GDC -ace -elations 0ct. Eack Straw* $the =ome Secretary at the time% signalled his intention of setting much higher targets for the recruitment, retention and promotion of minority officers for all police services. *n 3HHH )ust 3 per cent of the police officers in ,ngland and /ales were from ethnic minoritiesL 5.5 per cent of the 4etropolitan police $the 4et% were drawn from ethnic minorities while 3H per cent of the wider <ondon community came from a minority background. The =ome Secretary insisted on a rise to D per cent nationally, and even higher in areas of high concentration of ethnic minorities. The setting up of the -acial and ?iolent Crimes task force was a ma)or step forward. *n the meantime it became possible for <awrence(s parents to sue
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63 officers involved in the failed investigation of their son(s murder, including Sir &aul Condon, the former 4et commissioner. The recommendations made in the 4acpherson -eport suggest changes of an unprecedented breadth and depth. There are proposals that the Court of 0ppeal should be given power to permit prosecution after ac!uittal where fresh and viable evidence is presented. 0nother fundamental flaw in the system of criminal )ustice highlighted by the Stephen <awrence case was the fact that in Britain, the victim has no right to )ustice. 8nder rench criminal procedure, victims or their families have a right to be )oined as civil parties to criminal proceedings. 0cting through a lawyer, the victim or family has the right to be kept informed of ma)or steps in the criminal investigation. *n Britain police, prosecution and courts had no formal, duty in law to take on board the right of the <awrences to )ustice for their dead son. *n the ,nglish system there was no one formally entitled, to protect the interests of the victims and their families.
Fi,.; Ste$hen Ea)rence
Fi,.> #oster created *y C('
Sir /illiam 4acpherson(s -eport asserted that racist language should be a crime and that the C-, should be given statutory rights and powers to investigate the police. *t defined institutional racism as Ithe collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin. *t can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes and behaviour which amounts to discrimination through unwitting pre)udice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotypingJ $"uardian Weekly, 4arch D, .GGG%. *t also suggested amendments to the 9ational Curriculum to promote cultural diversity and tolerance in schools. *n 0pril .GGG two nail-bomb attacks were targeted at the centre of the capital(s Bangladeshi community in Brick <ane, ,ast <ondon. 0nother nail bomb went off in Bri#ton, centre of the black community. The &rime 4inister said at the time+ I &he true outcasts today, the true minorities, those truly e:cluded, are not the different races and religions of Britain but the racists, the bombers, the violent criminals ,ho hate that vision of Britain and try to destroy it)G $"uardian Weekly, G 4ay .GGG%.
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2.2.8
'thnic G National G Cultural Identity in a Glo*aliLed
orld
0nalysing racism today in its comple# structure and dynamics, one issue emerges -- it is the fear of living with difference. This fear arises in conse!uence of the coupling of difference and power, and it can make societies profoundly and deeply antihumane in their capacity to live with difference. *dentity implies a distinct, homogeneous common culture marked by common values, shared understandings and loyalties. The reality in a society with class, gender and regional differences is totally different. 0 nation does not have one identity but many+ an individual is a bearer of multiple, evolving and dialectically related identities. To attribute identity to a community of millions spread over vast e#panses of space and time makes even less sense. 0part from a clearly manifested multicultural attitude and behaviour, there has also been clear resistance to updating Britain(s self-image to accommodate the multicultural reality of British society and its history. The notable absence during the ?-7ay* celebrations in .GGA of the recognition of the ma)or contribution made by *ndian and Caribbean soldiers in Britain(s armed forces during /orld /ar ** was one e#ample among many. There is also clear evidence of a counter-reaction in the field. /riters on globalisation have often pointed to a parado#+ the increasing transnational flows of culture seem to be producing not global homogenisation but growing assertions of heterogeneity and local distinctiveness. 0lthough we might have abandoned assumptions of ob)ectively bounded societies and cultures, many authors argue that communities may often mobili"e themselves by representing themselves as having clear boundaries which are endangered, as having essential !ualities or distinctive ways of life that are under threat from the outside.
Think first! There has been a lot of talk in -omanian society about the detrimental influence of 0mericani"ation $4acdonaldi"ation% on -omanian culture. /hat is your opinion of such a phenomenon1 7o you perceive it as a real threat1
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0n interesting case in point in this direction would be the /est *ndian Culture in Britain. 9otting =ill in west <ondon, has the largest street festival in ,urope. 0 site of bloody interracial conflicts in the AH(s, it has become internationally renowned for its carnival, a ma)or tourist attraction held on 0ugust Bank =oliday. The streets of west <ondon turn into a riot of noise and colour, where whistles blare, steel bands play and revellers clad in se!uins and feathers dance the bank holiday weekend away. or the first five years of its e#istence $.GCC-.GDH% the carnival was a relatively small working class event attended by a few thousand people. 0lthough several ethnic communities were involved $*rish, Turkish-Cypriot and C"echoslovak bands% the overall symbolism of the carnival was predominantly British or ,nglish, the themes of the mas!uerade including ,nglish monarchs, the novels of 7ickens and scenes from ?ictorian ,ngland. &olitically the carnival e#pressed opposition to landlords and local authorities over issues such as housing shortages and e#tortionate rents. 7uring the first half of the .GDH(s a collective /est *ndian ethnic identity developed in <ondon, arising out of shared e#periences of unemployment, police harassment and poor housing conditions. This emergent community adopted the carnival as its focal symbol. /ithin a few years the carnival became e#clusively /est *ndian in its leadership and in musical and cultural form, a process accomplished through the deliberate removal of all artistic and cultural content not deemed to be /est *ndian. The implications of all these is not that cultural ghettoisation is recommendable in any way, but that a group must safeguard its cultural identity by controlling the flow of cultural forms into and out of its repertoire of symbolic practices, because in any society, in any particular period, Ithere is a central system of practices, meanings and values which we can properly call dominant and effectiveP not merely abstract butP organi"ed and livedP a set of meanings and values which as they are e#perienced, as practices appear, are reciprocally confirming. *t constitutes a sense of reality for most people in society, a sense of absolute because of e#perienced reality beyond which it is very difficult for most of the members of society to move, in most areas of their livesJ $-aymond /illiams*, +ulture and Society KRMU$KPVU, &enguin, .GC.%
Summary
*n the first chapter of this unit you could follow a red thread in the development of a sense of common origins, common history and tradition 2 a sense of Britishness in the British *sles. Beyond the troubled history of the provinces, the episodes of cultural dialogue and e#change, you could follow the main stages in the maturation of a national consciousness in Scotland, /ales and 9orthern *reland that led to claims for =ome -ule and in recent years led to /ales and Scotland becoming devolved from the central authority in <ondon. These recent developments stirred an unprecedented debate over the future of Britishness and of Britain, !uite a few
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voices claiming that Britishness is undergoing a slow but irreversible process of dissolution and that devolution can only lead - in the more or less distant future - to independence. The second chapter of this unit aims at highlighting the great achievements of Britain in its laudable attempt at establishing a multicultural society, furthering respect, acceptance and understanding for cultural diversity and inter-cultural communication. ,mphasis is laid on institutional structures, legislation and public policies meant to translate generous social and cultural ideals into everyday realities, into the provision of e!ual opportunities in all sectors of public and private life. Mou are challenged to )udge for yourselves the achievements and also the setbacks in this pursuit for inter-racial )ustice and fairness by reading about Stephen <awrence and the strong impact his murder had on contemporary British society.
1ey Conce$ts
acculturation multiculturalism Britpop racism institutional racism globalisation macdonaldi"ation
Glossary
acculturation R process through which one adapts to or adopts a different culture. Bha*ha@ &omi R famous cultural studies scholar, a leading name in postcolonial studies born to a small &arsi community in Bombay, author of 3ation and 3arration $.GGH% and &he Location of +ulture $.GG6%. Brit$o$ R British musical movement from the middle GHs, characterised by the appearance of bands who borrowed many influences from CHs and DHs while creating big and catchy hooks, as well as the glamour of earlier pop stardom and the sense that they were creating the soundtrack to the lives of a new generation of British youth. council house R house or flat owned by the local town or county council for which the family living in it pays rent.
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institutional racism R racial discrimination entrenched in the policies, internal regulations, practices of the main institutions in a state, such as the police, employment offices, schools, etc. ,lo*aliLation R set of processes triggered by the development of information technology and mass communication that entail a Sreconfiguration( of geography, so that social space is no longer mapped in terms of territorial places, distances and borders. 0lso, the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa, generating transcontinental or inter-regional flows and networks of activity. The ()$r'i$n R serious, !uality $as opposed to tabloids%, national daily newspaper in Britain, targeting mainly well educated people with liberal or left-wing political opinions. &eath@ Sir 'd)ard R British Conservative politician who was &rime 4inister of Britain from .GDH to .GD6 and led Britain into the ,uropean Community. macdonaldiLation R uncritical and unconditional surrender to the 0merican way of life, fashions, traditions, popular culture, to the detriment of local values and practices. @ften seen as a negative side of the process of globali"ation. multiculturalism R e!ual respect for the dignity of every human being, irrespective of race, gender, ethnicity, religion, culture, se#ual orientation. racism R belief that racial differences between people are the main influence on their characters and abilities and especially that one(s race is the best, the superior oneL dislike and unfair treatment of people based on such a belief. Stra)@ 6ack R outstanding <abour politician, who was appointed Secretary of State for oreign and Commonwealth 0ffairs in 3HH. and again in 3HHA. =e was =ome Secretary from .GGD-3HH.. Thatcher@ +ar,aret <Baroness of 1este.en= R the 8nited Bingdom(s first woman prime minister $.GDG2.GGH%+ the longest continually serving prime minister in .AH years%. JA9ay R 4ay G, .G6A the day on which victory in ,urope in the Second /orld /ar was celebrated. illiams@ (aymond R one of BritainSs greatest post-war cultural historians, theorists and polemicists. =is preoccupations for the interrelations between culture and ideology produced works like &he Long ?evolution or #roblems in 0aterialism and +ulture.
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ANS '(S to SAQs

SAQ 1 There are many definitions for multiculturalism, but a basic definition might be+ respect for the e!ual dignity of any human being. *t is based on respect for cultural diversity, e!ual opportunities, social )ustice, e!ual distribution of power among all members of society, irrespective of their ethnicity, race, gender, se#ual orientation etcL respect for alternative life choices of people. SAQ 2 6>gL D>hL ..>bL .3>dL 3H>cL .>eL G>)L F>lL 5>iL 3>sL A>aL .6>fL C>nL .D>oL .5>uL .C>kL 3.>!L .H>rL .F>mL .A>t .G>p SAQ 3 *n the 3HH. census, G.GN of the population of ,ngland and /ales identified themselves as being from an ethnic minority. /ales. This figure includes those who identified as *rish $..3N%. The *rish category was included for the first time in the 3HH. census following research published in .GGD, which showed that Britain(s *rish population e#perience racial discrimination and disadvantage. [source+ www.cre.gov.uk>media>nr\arch>3HH5>nrH5H3.5.html] SAQ 5 Two-thirds $CDN% of &akistanis and Bangladeshis are living in poverty according to latest statistics. #overty among 'thnic 0inority "rou s in Britain, a report published by Child &overty 0ction ;roup $C&0;% defines poverty as living in families with incomes below CHN of the averageL it also found that a third of *ndians and Caribbeans and half of Black 0fricans are living in poverty. This compares with less than a !uarter of the British population overall. [source+ www.cpag.org.uk] SAQ 7 The common denominator of these fragments is their attempt to demonstrate how dangerous and destabili"ing the ethnics are to the dominant culture, societal model, deeply-ingrained practices, traditions, institutions etc. The means of achieving their aims differ somewhat+ by underscoring the threat posed to the future of ,uropean societies, even, more recently, the danger of having ,urope islami"ed, by highlighting such sensitive issues as the future of the country(s young white population 2 in the first discourse there is a barely dissimulated suggestion that the genetic wellbeing of Britain will be )eopardi"ed. /hilst some of the fragments are more radical $the Sandys discourse or the alacci and &ipes fragments and, above all, the prophetic notes in &owell(s speech% 4argaret Thatcher(s interventions are somewhat tempered by political correctness+ immigration is beneficial, of course, but limits should be imposed and the phenomenon should be curbed $mark the repetition of s,am ed%.
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SAQ 8 *n 0pril .GGG, 0man 7osan) became the first British 0sian to play for ,ngland as goal-keeper in a 7ublin tournament against 8S0, Scotland, *reland and /ales. SAQ : .>eL 3>dL 5>bL 6>cL A>fL C>gL D>a SAQ ; Black people were eight times, and 0sians were three times more likely, to be stopped and searched than white people in 3HH.>3. D.6,HHH stops and searches were recorded in ,ngland and /ales in 3HH.>3, of which .3 per cent were of black people, si# per cent were of 0sian people and one per cent were of other minority ethnic groups. [source+ 3.5..3..3.6.36A>n\story.asp1item\idR3A3]
SAA No. 2 /hat was the contribution of the culture of 7issent to the configuration of contemporary Britain1 *s Britain a multicultural society1 Support your opinions with data and facts. Send the answers to these !uestions to your tutor.
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UNIT 3
British +onarchy in the Third +illennium
Unit %utline
3.1 5.... 5...3 5...5 3.2 5.3.. C&A#T'( I British +onarchy A &o) Jalid an Institution in the Third +illennium! 4onarchy 2 I0n @asis of 0ristocracy in a 4odern /orldJ *s the monarch a figurehead1 unctions of 4onarchy. -oyal &rerogatives C&A#T'( II For or A,ainst the +onarchy! The Tragic 7eath of a &rincess and Calls for the -eform of the 4onarchy Glossary Ans)ers to SAQs SAA No. 3 GA GA GA GF .H6 .HD .HF ... ..6
This unit tries to analyse the comple# aspects of the British monarchy and of its viability in the contemporary world. 4onarchy stands for a cluster of values that can certainly not be called democratic. *ts fundamental strength and prestige lie in its identification with British history, tradition and greatness, wellestablished values in the e#istence of the British nation. 0fter you have completed the study of this unit, you should be able to+ compare the monarchy to other forms of governmentL critically appraise both the strengths and the drawbacks of the institution of the monarchyL re-interpret tradition as reflected in the institution of the monarchy and the attempts at moderni"ing itL construct argumentation in a rational, well-informed manner regarding the merits and demerits of the monarchyL recogni"e and use new specific concepts and cultural studies terminology.
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3.1. British +onarchy A &o) Jalid an Institution in the Third +illennium!

3.1.1 +onarchy " BAn %asis of Aristocracy in a +odern orldC
0 -omanian philosopher and political scientist sees British political institutions at the turn of the millennium in a far from flattering light+ I0gainst the backdrop of innovations such as the spleen, the game of golf and the ,nglish park, the ,nglish beheaded a king only to feverishly set about the restoration of the monarchy after a short respiteL they fought for centuries with their traditional enemies across the Channel whilst voraciously absorbing at least three !uarters of the polished rench vocabularyL they preserved an oasis of aristocracy in a democratic sea that they themselves had sown the seeds of, colonised half the world )ust to find themselves the sub)ects of the most ample cross-fertilisation in modern history. Their traffic keeps to the left, they still go fo#-hunting, cook abominably and, of course. they have a monarchy.J $0ndrei Cornea, I8ltima familie. 7espre monarhie la britaniciJ in OO, 35-3G 4arch .GGG+ .C%. SAQ 1 /hat are the historical facts alluded to in Cornea(s article1
Britain is a myth-saver in a world that keeps debunking all myths. The monarchy provides a last link with a past of austere and clear-cut values but fails to inspire contemporaries. *n this sense the British -oyal amily is 'the last family(. The -omanian scholar chooses to make the British monarchy in a way 'anti-representative( because its strong ties with the past set it apart from the touch of real life. The 'last family( like the last Chinese ,mperor is a bi"arre fossil in a world of sophisticated technology+ cloning, artificial insemination, transse#uality, alternative families /hat follows attempts several answers to 0ndrei Cornea(s !uestions concerning the monarchy and the constitutional order of Britain. 3.1.2 The +onarch as Fi,ureheadN <et us see whether the monarch in Britain is that ceremonial hollow space that Cornea referred to in his article. The British have always been ruled by a monarch e#cept for a very brief period,
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e#tremely unpopular+ Cromwell(s &rotectorate. The present-day sovereign can claim unbroken descent dating back to the 0nglo Sa#on king $rather bret,aldas8 Cerdic in the Ath century. @ther ancestors include Charlemagne*, 4alcolm *** of Scotland and even the emperor Barbarossa*. Think First! The lines below are from /illiam Shakespeare(s 6amlet $0ct *, scene ***%+ I=is will is not his own, or he himself is sub)ect to his birth =e may not, as unvalu(d persons do, Carve for himself. or on his choice depend The safety and the health of this whole state.J $Shakespeare, ***% 7oes the playwright consider the responsibilities of the monarch in a favourable light or not1 /rite your answer in the space below.
Since the Bill of -ights in .CFG, after the ;lorious -evolution that secured the succession of /illiam of @range as /illiam *** of ,ngland, every monarch reigns with the consent of &arliament in addition to their hereditary right. 0lthough said to be a figurehead, a detainer of symbolic and not real power, the monarch is omnipresent. Coins, stamps, most visual images of Britain bear a picture of the :ueen(s head 2 a primordial national emblem. 0lso all ma)or institutions bear the !ueen(s imprint+ the post is carried by the -oyal 4ail, the ships in the -oyal 9avy are =er 4a)esty(s Ships, =er 4a)esty(s ;overnment is made up of =er 4a)esty(s 4inisters, official letters are sent @n =er 4a)esty(s Service $@=4S%. @n the other hand, all these institutions that append the prefi# '-oyal( or '=er 4a)esty(s( cannot possibly benefit from the supervision of the monarch, and the prefi#es actually stand for 'State( or 'British(. So we encounter here a problem that recalls the famous !uarrel of medieval philosophers+ name or substance1 0re names real in themselves or are they conventions, symbols, fictions1 * suggest that the answer to this problem could also come from the inter retation of the conce t of o,er.
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or =annah 0rendt*, a famous philosopher of politics, power is associated with community and its ethos. &ower is the 'glue( that holds the community together. &ower is significantly, in fact primordially, connected to public life+ I&ower springs up whenever people get together and act in concert, but it derives its legitimacy from the initial getting together rather than from any action that then may followJ $>n Eiolence, .GCG+ A3%. This type of power, distinguishable from authority, strength, domination, etc., is what keeps the public realm in e#istence. 0n understanding of power as sheer force, conflict, thirst for domination is also undermined by 7orothy ,mmet*, who argues that power should be distinguished from domination since, she thinks, the production of intended effects need not be the achievement of intended effects through coercing other people $IThe Concept of &owerJ, .GA6+6%. She distinguishes between 2 o,er over and 2 o,er ,ith, or 2coercive vs. 'coactive( power. <ike 0rendt, ,mmet believes that power is not a thing but a capacity or relation between people. *n this definition she is concerned to discuss the way in which the e#ercise of ritual power can make for the cohesion of a community. She cites the e#ample of the coronation of :ueen ,li"abeth ** as a ritual that gathered up a number of aspects of the non-coercive kinds of power. Think First! Before you go on reading, stop a minute and reflect on this 'gelling( of the community. /e often speak about the lack of cohesion in contemporary society, about the fact that communities are fragmented and no longer united in the name of commonly shared values, ideals etc. *s this power of holding people together and imparting a feeling of community and belonging to them real or symbolic1 8se the space below to write your answer.
The coronation of ,li"abeth in .GA5 was an occasion when the whole nation came together filled with a sense of common values
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and a desire to affirm their commitment to the nation. The ceremony of the Coronation fulfils the same social functions as more strictly religious rituals, affirming and celebrating the values of community. 0nthropologists have long been aware of the functional importance of monarchies. *n this respect the king(s person in several cultures and in different historical periods, has been regarded as the guarantor and mirror of the social and environmental prosperity of the nation. SAQ 2 *n what ways could the monarch be seen as a guarantor of the social and environmental prosperity of the nation in the past1
Fi,.1 &+ Queen 'liLa*eth II4s coronation day 2 6une 1>73.
3.1.3
Functions of +onarchy. The (oyal #rero,ati.esN W&he -ueen a oints the #rime 0inister . ;eorge *** chose and dismissed &rime 4inisters almost at will, but he was the last monarch able to do that. ,li"abeth ** does not actually choose, rather she confirms as &rime 4inister the elected leader of the largest single party in the Commons. The monarch e#ercised more freedom in the choice of &rime 4inister in the first half of the 3H th century. This is a residual prerogative, with the e#ception of some special cases when she can have more real power. That happens in the case of a 'hung parliament(* when no single party has an overall ma)ority in the Commons and it is up to the monarch to designate a leading political figure with a better chance of forming a government which could command the support of a ma)ority in the lower =ouse. This has occurred more fre!uently than it is thought. @f the twentyfive general elections in the 3H th century Britain between .GHH and .GGD, five have failed to yield a clear result $Eanuary and 7ecember .G.H, .G35, .G3G and .GD6%. *n .G6H ;eorge ?* had some influence on the choice of /inston Churchill to succeed 9eville Chamberlain** as &rime 4inister.
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*n Eanuary .GAD 0nthony ,den* fell ill, so the :ueen took advice from /inston Churchill and invited =arold 4acmillan** to form a new government. Then in @ctober .GC5, 4acmillan was taken ill, and the :ueen took advice from 4acmillan in hospital and invited <ord =ome* to form a new government. The :ueen was confronted once with a 'hung parliament( produced by the ;eneral ,lection of .GD6. W&he dissolution of #arliament is again formal since the :ueen can only do that at the re!uest of her &rime 4inister within the fiveyear ma#imum life-span of a &arliament. The last monarch that e#ercised this prerogative in an independent way was :ueen 0nne $.DH.-.D.6%. WThe :ueen rorogues* and then in a short while o ens the new parliamentary session $this will be discussed in more detail in 8nit our% during a splendid ceremony called the State @pening of &arliament which has taken place on a /ednesday in 9ovember ever since .A5C. She takes no part in the &arliament deliberations and in fact is forbidden to enter the chamber of the =ouse of Commons, as all monarchs have been since .C6.. *n that year Charles *, in breach of parliamentary autonomy from the kings( power, ordered the arrest of five members of whom he disapproved in an attempt to stamp out opposition to his discretionary rule.
SAQ 3 The State @pening of &arliament is a rare occasion in the year to admire the glamour and decorum of the monarch(s glittering ceremonial dress, her crown and, in general, the -egalia*. Try to match the symbolic ob)ects with their definitions at the bottom of the bo#. A= B= C= 9= the Im$erial State Cro)nL the So.erei,nOs Sce$treK the Am$ullaK the %r*.
.. @b)ect made of gold which contains the oil with which the Sovereign is anointed*. There is a small hole in the beak through which the oil is pouredL 2. /orn by the sovereign on great state occasions. *t has among numerous other precious stones the Stuart Sapphire, the Black &rinceSs -uby, and St ,dwardSs Sapphire, and, above all the e#traordinary and ancient Bohinoor diamondL 5. 4ade from marked gold and set with over CHH precious stones and pearls, C.A inches in diameter made for Charles **Ss coronation in .CC., it represents Christian SovereigntyL 6. &rovided with a Cross> signifies the SovereignSs temporal power. *t is decorated with 5G5 precious stones, including the Star of 0frica $Cullinan *% diamond - the largest top !uality cut diamond in the worldL
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The British -egalia
W&he ?oyal Assent to legislation is another royal prerogative. Through applying the royal rubber stamp to Bills, they become 0cts of &arliament. Charles ** managed to postpone or replace bills, which he disapproved of by pretending that he had mislaid themQ The same happened in the .G th century with controversial laws related to Catholic emancipation. Both ;eorge *** and ;eorge *? managed to delay it. :ueen 0nne again was the last monarch to veto legislation. W+reation of eers* is mainly on the advice of the &rime 4inister. There was a time when this -oyal prerogative was very important. *n .F5. the threat of /illiam *? to create new peers helped to ensure the passage of the first -eform Bill and in .G.. the willingness of ;eorge ? to create as many as 6HH new <iberal peers caused the hereditary ma)ority of Conservatives in the 8pper =ouse $The =ouse of <ords% to give way to the <iberal ma)ority in the <ower =ouse $The =ouse of Commons%. 0ppointments are usually made twice a year, when the names of the newly created peers appear in the =onours <ists*. Since .GC6 life peerages have been the order of the day, but this was reversed under 4argaret Thatcher(s rule after .GF5, when /illiam /hitelaw, a loyal supporter of Thatcher(s, and ;eorge Thomas, a distinguished Speaker of the Commons, were given hereditary peerages. WThe monarch is also involved in granting a range of honours , civilian and military. This, as in the case of the creation of peerages, happens twice a year when the =onours <ists are published. 9evertheless, certain occasions might arise when special investitures can be made, as in .GF3 when honours were awarded to those who took part in the alklands campaign. 0lthough most nominations are made on the advice of the &rime 4inister, some of these honours remain in the ersonal gift of the 0onarchJ the @rder of the ;arter, the @rder of the Thistle, the @rder of 4erit and the -oyal ?ictorian @rder. The @rder of the ;arter is the highest degree of British knighthood together with the @rder of the Thistle.
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SAQ 4 /hat ,nglish monarch founded the @rder of the ;arter1 *ts motto is 6oni soit qui mal y ense . /hat is its meaning1 Can you remember where this motto appears1
4ore often than not these honours have no political significance, )ust recognising and rewarding some outstanding personalities. 4other Theresa was awarded the @rder of 4erit by the :ueen on her visit to *ndia, when she opened the .GF5 Commonwealth Conference. =owever, occasionally they do have political significance as in the case of Sir =umphrey ;ibbs, who was awarded the -oyal ?ictorian @rder for his personal loyalty to the Crown in continuing to act as =er 4a)esty(s ;overnor of -hodesia after that country had declared its unilateral independence from the Commonwealth in .GCA under the apartheid regime of *an Smith. W#ublic a ointments refer again to a formal function. 0ll important positions in the civil service, the police, the )udiciary, the BBC and the Church of ,ngland are filled in the name of the monarch, as well as all ministerial appointments. =owever, these are done again on the recommendation of the &rime 4inister or of various Secretaries WThe prerogative of mercy and ardon is again devoid of meaning. Since the =ouse of Commons voted in .GCA to abolish the death penalty on a provisional basis, and since that decision has subse!uently been confirmed in successive free votes, it now seems that this particular aspect of the royal prerogatives has also fallen into disuse. &ardons are granted only in very rare situations when there is some special reason why a sentence should not be carried out, e.g. the discovery that the evidence on which this was based was false. W@ther formal functions, of which most are redundant or meaningless, include the conclusion of international treaties , declaration of ,ar, the introduction or amendment of colonial constitutions $meaning actually the states that have won their independence after /orld /ar ** and are now part of the Commonwealth% and the establishment of ublic cor orations . 0lthough the sovereign is the head of the e#ecutive, the vast bulk of the prerogative powers of the Crown 2 over GA per cent of them 2 are e#ercised not by the sovereign personally but either on the advice of ministers or by ministers themselves. *n the conduct of foreign policy the -oyal prerogative was used in the past in less formal situations, in fact in such a very momentous and controversial matter as entry to the ,C. The .GD3 Treaty of 0ccession which took Britain into the ,C was signed by
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,dward =eath as &rime 4inister in Brussels without having to secure prior approval of that move by &arliament. The members of the -oyal amily are actively engaged in many charitable organisations. They promote e#cellence and e!ual opportunities in the many trusts and funds that they have initiated and support. The :ueen is &atron or &resident of many charity organi"ations like most members of the -oyal amily. <ate &rincess 7iana(s most laudable initiatives in the campaigns against anti personnel land-mines and against poverty and disease should also be mentioned. SAQ 5 4atch the members of the -oyal family in the left column with the charity organi"ations they preside in the right column+ :ueen ,li"abeth ** 7uke @f ,dinburgh(s 0ward Scheme $awards made to young people between the ages of .6 and 3. for enterprise, initiative and achievement% &rince(s Trust $recreation and leisure facilities for deprived young people% president and patron of DHH organi"ations Save the Children und
&hilip, 7uke of ,dinburgh &rincess 0nne Charles, &rince of /ales
&he monarch is the ersonification of the British state and this is an e:tension of her symbolic function . She is immensely popular and her many state visits serve the purpose of promoting British values worldwide. The :ueen has great representational functions that derive from her ritual power. She is a su erb ambassadorL she is very popular and able to attract a lot of interest wherever her visits take her. *n her !uality of =ead of the Commonwealth, again a predominantly ceremonial role strictly matching the ceremonial power of the Commonwealth itself, the -ueen acts as a focus and a binding influence for this loose association of states+ I:ueen ,li"abeth is the bit of glue that somehow manages to hold the whole thing togetherP and * suppose it is to some e#tent a matter of worry that clearly her personality is a ma)or factor to all of us in the Commonwealth. She does the unifying.J said 7avid <ange, former &rime 4inister of 9ew Oealand $!uoted in Bogdanor, .GGD+ 3DA%. She is undoubtedly, Bogdanor* thinks, the world(s only international monarch. *n .GGG, the 0ustralians organised a referendum on whether to retain the :ueen as the =ead of State or form a republic headed by a president. or many 0ustralians who voted against the republic and for maintaining
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the :ueen as =ead of State the most commonsensical comment was+ I*f it ain(t broke why fi# it1J SAQ ! /hat is the Commonwealth1 /hen was it set up and what was it meant to replace1
The :ueen(s annual Christmas broadcast to the people of her country and of the whole Commonwealth is a ma)or highlight of Christmas festivities in the British *sles. These messages are uni!ue since they are not made in her capacity as :ueen of the 8B, nor as !ueen of her other realms. They are delivered on the :ueenSs own responsibility and not on advice. =er 4a)esty also gives regular receptions and lunches for people who have made a contribution in different areas of national and international life. She also appears on many public occasions such as the services of the @rders of the ;arter and the Thistle and Trooping the Colour. The :ueen leads her people on important occasions, imparting a sense of unity and common purpose to them and raising their morale on such important national occasions as the -emembrance 7ay ceremony and national services at St &aulSs Cathedral and /estminster 0bbey. SAQ 7 /hat does -emembrance day commemorate, and when is it held1
The :ueen has regular and confidential contacts with the &rime 4inister, en)oying what /alter Bagehot* called Ithe right to be consulted, the right to encourage and the right to warnJ $ &he 'nglish +onstitution, .GDF+..%. They usually meet every week on Tuesday evening and then for several days in the late summer when she is on holiday at Balmoral* in Scotland. She sees all Cabinet papers and the records of Cabinet and Cabinet Committee meetings. She receives important oreign @ffice telegrams and a daily summary of events in &arliament. =er e#perience of the affairs of state is unrivalled in modern times, since in almost AH years on the throne she has had .H &rime 4inisters and .A different governments. 0s a permanent fi#ture in the British political system, unlike temporary politicians, she has a greater knowledge than they do regarding domestic and international politics.
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3.2.
For or A,ainst the +onarchy! &ublic attitudes to the monarchy have swayed from considerable support in the DHs and FHs to the very critical attitudes of recent years. 0 .GCG opinion poll demonstrated that only .5 per cent of the Brits thought it was a dated institution, 5H per cent thought it should continue unchanged, and about AH per cent thought it was good value as long as it was willing to adapt to changing times. *n an opinion poll of .GF., as many as FH per cent of respondents thought that the -oyal amily was a marvellous e#ample to everyone of good family life. 0lso GH per cent of those !uestioned preferred the British monarchy to a republic of the rench or of the 0merican type. @nly 5H per cent of them thought that the monarchy cost the country more than it was worth. *n Eanuary .GGD I7o you want a monarchy1J was the !uestion put to the nation in an interactive media show which was without precedent in history, broadcast across the nation with 5,HHH live guests, .6,HHH telephone lines, G million viewers and 3.C million phone calls. Si#ty per cent of the voters agreed on the preservation of the monarchy. The programme showed that the monarchy and its crisis are issues larger than national proportions. Broadcast by satellite all around the world, the referendum was a showcase of British culture, debating the British understanding of democracy in what could be called a virtual networking interactive global studio. &ro-monarchists think that one argument definitely in favour of the monarchy is its unifying influence that goes beyond the ideological claims of any political party. The :ueen is a permanent, non-partisan symbol of national unity $Eones and Bavanagh, British #olitics &oday .GGF+.3H%. The :ueen is to be distinguished from other =eads of State, because, not being engaged in chief e#ecutive functions, like the 8S president, she can perform hundreds of engagements and overseas visits each year. She is a full$time 6ead of State and very e#perienced and skilled at her )ob. The :ueen is scru ulously neutral but occasionally she hints at personal views. :ueen ?ictoria* detested the liberal leader and four times &rime 4inister /.,. ;ladstone, and she also distrusted his party. 9evertheless she was compelled to accept him as &rime 4inister. *t was rumoured that the :ueen ,lisabeth ** was not at all inclined towards the policies and personal disposition of Baroness Thatcher. *n .GFC rumours had it that the :ueen disapproved of 4argaret Thatcher(s oppositions to economic sanctions against the apartheid regime in South 0frica. 0s Cornea well remarks in his article, it is almost impossible to mark off a portion of the sovereign(s life which is truly private. ,ven when on holiday, official papers will arrive on a regular basis for scrutiny. *n modern times there can never be a holiday from the work of government, and the sovereign can never be completely 'off duty( or 'on holiday( in the traditional sense, as ;eorge ?*(s private secretary Sir 0lan <ascelles puts it very memorably+ I/e serve, may
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* remind you, one of the very few men in this world who never gets a holiday at all and who, unlike the rest of us, can look forward to no period of retirement at the end of his service, for his service never ends.J ;eorge ? called his work 'a life sentence( $!uoted in ?ernon Bogdanor, &he 0onarchy and the +onstitution,.GGD+ .G5-.G6%. SAQ 7oes ?ernon Bogdanor(s statement sound a bit e#aggerated1 =ow many engagements do you think the :ueen undertakes, as =ead of State and of the Commonwealth1 Choose the correct answer from the variants below+ over 3HH about .HH over 6AH about .HHH
=ow many people does the :ueen entertain annually on various more or less formal occasions1 The right answer is among the following+ .6.HHH 5D.HHH .H.HHH 6F.HHH
&he 0onarchy generates lots of money . &eople think that the monarchy is good value. *t may cost more than the royal houses of =olland or the 9ordic countries, but it is good value for money SAQ " Mou have so far read about several arguments in favour of the monarchy, of the institutional validity of the monarchy in the modern world. =ow could you account for the fact that most prime ministers of the <eft, <iberal or <abour, have proved to be royalists1
The opponents of the monarchy put forth several arguments against it. The most important claims are that in a democratic, meritocratic* age, hereditary rights should be invalidated and heads of state should be o ularly elected) They think that the monarchs neutrality is only a arent, since the values that the monarch stands for cannot be depoliticised, and reinforce the conservative values of ,ealth, class, deference to social status, tradition, the 'stablishment*. They also think it is very costly. The :ueen used to receive an annual grant of nearly C million ;B& to meet the e#penses of the nearly 6HH-strong royal household. The first Civil <ist 0ct was passed in .CGD.
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*t is sometimes believed that the Civil <ist* is remuneration for the sovereign, when it is actually used to meet official e#penditure necessarily incurred through the sovereign(s duty as head of state or head of the Commonwealth. 0round DH N of it is spent on the salaries of those working directly for the monarch and it is audited annually by the Treasury. *n Euly .GGH a new arrangement was introduced whereby the :ueen receives an agreed sum over a tenyear period with more money being made available in the early years $D.G million ;B& in .GG.-G3%. The :ueen is granted the Civil <ist in return for handing over the Crown estates to the ,#che!uer*, as has happened since ;eorge ***. 0lthough those estates officially belong to the Crown, no monarch could keep them if they considered, for e#ample, that the Civil <ist was not to their liking. 9evertheless, the :ueen has a considerable personal fortune in addition to )ewellery and paintings. =er stamp collection alone is said to be worth over one million ;B&. Critics argue that the ta#-payers should not have to cover the :ueen(s personal e#penses, those of the royal dependants, when she is actually one of the richest women in the world. 0 4@-* poll $a special survey of opinion in a country done by the company 4arket and @pinion -esearch *nternational% in .GGH showed three-!uarters of the population favoured ta#ing the :ueen(s income. &rime 4inister Eohn 4a)or announced that the :ueen would pay income ta# from 0pril that year, though with a huge allowance and e#emption from inheritance ta# for the &rince of /ales. The Sunday &imes in .GGH, calculated her personal fortune at D billion ;B&, though this was dismissed by the palace. =er critics also think that the functions that the -ueen holds are mostly meaningless and absurd) The :ueen, they say, by dispensing honours such as peerages, knighthoods and medals, in fact, creates for the &rime 4inister, on whose advice she elevates people to such titles, a rich system of patronage, thus strengthening the &rime 4inister(s manipulative powers. Some of her other functions, they argue 2 declaration of war, signing of treaties, granting pardons, her annual opening of &arliament, appointment of the &rime 4inister, Cabinet, bishops, <ords of 0ppeal and heads of corporations - are meaningless. The :ueen described the year .GG3 as annus horribilis. *t was the year the media burrowed into the private lives of the younger members of the royal family, into the intimacy of their love affairs and marriage problemsL there were marital scandals surrounding her son 0ndrew and the heir to the throne, Charles. *n the following years, the prestige of the monarchy was dealt further blows that came to a head in .GGD with the death of 7iana, &rincess of /ales. Then there was vivid discussion of the future role of the royal family. There was a general feeling of dismay and profound dissatisfaction with a monarchy that had become more and more aloof from the problems of the common people, ossified in rituals and artificial conventionalism.
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3.2.1 The Tra,ic 9eath of a #rincess and Calls for the (eform of the +onarchy &he death of %iana in 0ugust .GGD damaged, some say beyond re air, the su ort for the monarchy in Britain . *n a poll published by >bserver in .GGD, it is evident how the -ueen and #rince +harles lummeted in o ular su ort . The ratings plunged from D. in .GF. to .H for the :ueen and from AF to A per cent for Charles. Still D6 per cent of the interviewees thought that the institution should be maintained, but they added that an overhaul of the institution was mandatory and only .3 per cent thought that the status !uo should be maintained. F. per cent thought that the -oyal family should become more informal and less concerned with preserving their traditional waysL DG per cent thought that the monarchy was out of touch with ordinary people in Britain. To a last !uestion concerning the succession to the Crown, only 5F per cent thought that Charles should be the ne#t in line, whilst A5 per cent thought that the Crown should go to Charles(s son /illiam. /hen 7iana died in a car crash in &aris in the early hours of Saturday 5H, 0ugust .GGD, the princess precipitated an unprecedented crisis in the -oyal amily. I<et me repeat, 7iana didn(t cause this. She was a force of nature, but hardly ,l 9i^o. She was only a symbol of social changes happening already, a political symbol because of her royal fate and her choice of charities, friends, words and gestures. /ith her emotional fragility and self-revelation, her baseball caps, natural look of deference, hedonistic en)oyment of material things and her complicated se# life, she was representative of the new, emerging Britain )ust as surely as Charles and his mother represent an old nationJ said 0ndrew 4arr $I@ne year on, has Britain changed1J in "uardian Weekly, 5H 0ugust .GGF+.5%. The author of the article thinks that this was the ma)or effect of 7iana(s death. *t provided a much needed shock, a disruption to everyday rituals which allowed for communal self-recognition+ IThe moment when we stared at the crowds and bou!uets, we stared at ourselves and thought, bloody hell, so that(s what we(re like. *t offered, in the proper sense, a moment of national reflection. 0nd because to know oneself is to change, then a year on, yes, it is safe to say that 7iana(s death changed the countryJ $ibid.+.5%. The monarchy as an institution has to dovetail* with modern times whilst preserving the nearly sacred status that many of its supporters hold dear+ tradition, high moral standards, stability and continuity as Stuart =all* asserts in IThe ;reat 4oving -ight ShowJ+ 'The ma)or significance of the monarchy is its capacity to continue to forge links among constitutional, political and social features of a society which has been struck by far-reaching economic and social problems and which is still marked by the powerful impact of the politics of Tory leader 4argaret Thatcher( $.GF5+.G-5G%.
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Summary
*n this unit you were given fairly ample opportunities to engage with the structure, functions and overall significance of a defining British institution 2 monarchy 2 whose fate is viewed with increasingly sceptical eyes in the modern world. 4any believe that the very principles that underpin monarchy - such as hereditary rights or class privilege, look absurd and out of synch with modern times, with the very spirit of democracy. 0t the same time you are invited to weigh the strengths of the institution against its weaknesses, to develop awareness of the monarch(s relatively symbolic power and to account for the support that monarchy has managed to secure over time from the, apparently, least likely political force to offer such support 2 the <abour &arty. The unprecedented crisis monarchy faced in the wake of princess 7iana(s death in .GGD is also highlighted as well as calls ever since for the moderni"ation of the institution.
1'D C%NC'#TS figurehead non-coercive power -oyal prerogative 0ct of Settlement Civil <ist =onours <ist -egalia State @pening of &arliament hung parliament
GE%SSA(D
anoint R to apply ointment or oil within a religious ceremony during which a king>!ueen is consecrated. Arendt@ &anah ; ;erman-0merican philosopher and political theorist, author of &he >rigins of &otalitarianism, &he 6uman +ondition, >n ?evolution, and Bet,een #ast and Future. She spent much of her life attempting to understand the political and moral causes of the 9a"i rise in ;ermany and of other totalitarian regimes of the 3Hth century. Ba,ehot@ alter R ,nglish )ournalist and economist, closely associated with the ,nglish institutionalist-historicist tradition. @ne of the early editors of the famous and influential X4anchester SchoolX newspaper &he 'conomist. =is ma)or work &he 'nglish +onstitution, of .FCD is still a landmark in the field.
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Balmoral R a castle in 9, Scotland that has been a private home of the royal family since .FA3, when it was bought by &rince 0lbert, :ueen ?ictoria(s husband. Bar*arossa@ <'m$eror= R riedrich *. Barbarossa@ ;erman Bing, who became ,mperor of the =oly -oman ,mpire in ..AA. =e led many e#peditions to con!uer *taly and lay siege to 4ilan. =e died on a crusade to the =oly <and, on the way back in Turkey with a fever. But as his corpse was not brought back to ;ermany, there was no evidence, that he really was dead and this was the source of many legends linked to his name. *t was rumoured, that he was still alive and would return in the right momentQ Bo,danor@ Jernon R &rofessor of government at @#ford 8niversity. =is most important publications are+ %evolution in the Anited /ingdom $.GGG%, #olitics and the +onstitutionJ 'ssays on British "overnment $.GGC%, &he 0onarchy and the +onstitution $.GGA%. Cham*erlain@ Ne.ille R conservative politician who as prime minister continued the policy of non-intervention. =e also thought that by agreeing to some of the demands being made by =itler and 4ussolini he could avoid a ,uropean war. The policy of appeasement was not met with approval by his foreign secretary 0nthony ,den, who resigned in ebruary, .G5F. @n 3Gth September, .G5F, Chamberlain, =itler, 7aladier and 4ussolini signed the 4unich 0greement which spoke of Ipeace in our timeJ. Some politicians, including /inston Churchill and 0nthony ,den, attacked the agreement. *n 4arch, .G5G, after the occupation of C"echoslovakia, Chamberlain reali"ed that =itler could not be trusted, and his appeasement policy now came to an end. 0fter the invasion of &oland, Chamberlain was forced to declare war on ;ermany. Charlema,ne R the first ,uropean ,mperor $D63-F.6% since -oman times, whose court was in what we now know as rance. Ci.il Eist R the sum of money voted yearly by &arliament to the Bing or :ueen as head of state and to certain other related people. do.etail R to fit together compactly or neatly. 'C R The ,uropean Community, a /est ,uropean political and economic organi"ation established in .GCD to encourage trade and friendly relations between its member countries. 'den@ Anthony R Conservative prime-minister .GAA-.GAD, as foreign secretary from .G5A until .G5F when he resigned in protest over 9eville ChamberlainSs decision to Xopen conversationsX with *talySs dictator, Benito 4ussolini, a fascist. =e was once again foreign secretary $.G6H-6A% as part of a wartime coalition government under Churchill and again in the Conservative government that won election in .GA., holding the post until he became prime minister in 0pril, .GAA.
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'mmet@ 9orothy R British philosopher, a challenger of intellectual fashion and e#plorer of uncharted territories, with vivid interests in the fields of social and political affairs, author of Function, #ur ose and #o,ers $.GAF% ?ules, ?oles and ?elations $.GCC% and &he 0oral #rism $.GDG% 'sta*lishment R the powerful organi"ations and people who control public life and support the established order of society. 'Iche0uer R the government department that is responsible for the collection of ta#es and the paying out of public money. *t is part of the Treasury whose chief minister is called Chancellor of the 'Iche0uer. fi,urehead R representation in wood, usually of the top half of a woman, that in former times was placed at the front of a ship. *t refers also to someone who is the head or chief in name only.
&all@ Stuart R British cultural theorist, born Eamaica in .G53, pioneer in the field of cultural studies in the .GDHs. 0uthor of &he 6ard ?oad to ?ene,al $.GFF%, ?esistance through ?ituals $.GFG%, &he Formation of 0odernity $.GG3%, -uestions of +ultural (dentity $.GGC% and +ultural ?e resentations and Signifying #ractices $.GGD%. =e currently sits on the -unnymede TrustSs commission on the future of multi-ethnic Britain. &onours Eist R a list of important people to whom titles are to be given as a sign of respect. *t is produced each year by the &rime 4inister but the titles are actually given by the :ueen in a special ceremony. hun, $arliament R parliament in which no political party has more elected representatives than the others. Thus it is possible to win most seats in the Commons but not an overall ma)ority. &olyrood &ouse R a large mansion $properly The &alace of =olyrood =ouse% in ,dinburgh, Scotland used as residence by members of the -oyal family when visiting Scotland. *ts name is derived from the abbey whose ruins still stand in the park, built in the early .Cth century and dedicated to the =oly -ood, or cross of Christ%. +acmillan@ &arold R 4inister of defence $.GA6% under /inston Churchill and foreign secretary $0pril-7ecember .GAA% and
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Chancellor of the ,#che!uer $.GAA-.GAD% under 0nthony ,den, whom he succeeded on the former(s resignation in .GAD. or 4acmillan, the economy was his prime concern and to seek high employment which provoked a lot of resistance from the Treasury. 4acmillan also saw the value of strengthening ties with ,urope and sought belated entry to the ,uropean ,conomic Community $,,C%, vetoed by Charles de ;aulle. 4acmillan continued the divestment of the colonies, his Xwind of changeX speech $ ebruary .GCH% indicating this policy. +alcolm II of Scotland R Bing of Scotland from .HHA to .H56, who battled to e#pand his kingdom, gaining land down to the -iver Tweed and in Strathclyde. meritocracy <Aatic= R a social system which gives the highest positions to those with the most ability. (e,alia R ceremonial clothes and decorations, especially those used on ceremonial occasions. (oyal $rero,ati.e R any of the special rights of a king or !ueen. State %$enin, of #arliament R the occasion each year when the :ueen officially opens the British &arliament after its summer break and makes a speech saying what the government plans to do. ,very four $ma#imum five% years in the wake of general elections the &arliament has a short-lived span, since it is dissolved before elections and re-opened shortly after $e.g. 3HHA%.
ANS '(S to SAQs

SAQ 1 The events alluded to are+ the e#ecution of Charles * in .C6G, the restoration of monarchy under Charles ** in .CCH, the century-long rivalry with rance+ The Battle of =astings, =undred Mears /ar, The Seven Mears /ar $.DAC-.DC5%, the 9orman con!uest and the huge impact of rench on the vocabulary of ,nglish, the consolidation of the British ,mpire, the waves of immigration in the 3H th century. SAQ 2 0ncient kings en)oyed a godly status, they were endowed with supernatural capacities such as giving sun or rain in due season. *n the 4iddle 0ges their status was that of intercessors between humans and ;od and the fact that they were anointed with holy oil conferred upon them nearly priestly status and also set the king above human )udgement $,dgar was the first ,nglish king to be anointed in GD5%. or a long time monarchs were also believed to have magic healing powers. &eople afflicted with such terrible diseases such as scrofula longed to be touched by the king in the hopes of miraculous recovery. /e have ample evidence about the royal gifts of healing from ,dward the Confessor in the .. th century to Charles ** in the .Dth century.
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SAQ 3 0. the *mperial State Crown B. the SovereignSs Sceptre C. the 0mpulla 7. the @rb
3 5 . 6
SAQ 5 The @rder of the ;arter was founded by ,dward **** during the =undred Mears /ar with rance. The motto 6oni soit qui mal y ense may well have been directed at critics of the Bing(s claims to the rench throne, however, according to a tradition first recorded by Tudor chroniclers, it originated at a feast celebrating the capture of Calais in .56D. The Bing(s mistress, the Countess of Salisbury was mocked by courtiers for losing her garter during a dance, but ,dward at once stepped forward and tied the blue ribbon around his own knee, uttering the motto as a rebuke and stating that the ;rate would soon be held in the highest esteem. SAQ 7 :ueen ,li"abeth &hilip, 7uke of ,dinburgh &rincess 0nne Charles, &rince of /ales president and patron of DHH organi"ations 7uke @f ,dinburgh(s 0ward Scheme Save the Children und &rince(s Trust
SAQ 8 The Commonwealth is a loose association of states with no formal constitution or rules, among which only a few, such as ;ibraltar and the alkland *slands, remain dependencies of Britain. The term as such was for the first time used by <ord -oseberry, a <iberal minister, who in .FF6 considered 0ustralia(s position in a commonwealth of nations to be the right thing. The organi"ation founded in the post-war period was meant to replace the British ,mpire, although the belief that the British Commonwealth could still pro)ect Britain in the world had to be abandoned, in private, if not in public. 0s Blair stated in .GGC+ I/e no longer have an empire and although the Commonwealth gives us valuable links around the world it is not an alternative to ,urope.J $Blair, .GGC+3.H%. There are A5 states within the Commonwealth, nearly one-third of the world(s independent states with a combined population of over ..F billion. 0bout 5H percent of the worldSs population are drawn from the broadest range of faiths, races, cultures and traditions. 4embers range from vast countries like Canada to small island states like 4alta. The :ueen is recognised as =ead of the Commonwealth. *n .C countries, including Canada and 0ustralia, she is also head of State. Thirty countries, like Oimbabwe, *ndia, ;uyana, ;hana, Bangladesh, &akistan, Cyprus, etc., are republics and si# of them, like Brunei, 4alaysia, <esotho and Tonga have their own royal families.
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SAQ : The Sunday nearest to the .. 9ovember is when the 0rmistice was signed $concluding /orld /ar *%. @n -emembrance Sunday, the dead of both /orld /ars are remembered in special church services and civic ceremonies, the chief of which is the laying of wreaths at the Cenotaph in /hitehall, <ondon by members of the -oyal amily $the whole procession is led by the :ueen% in the presence of the leading statesmen and politicians. 0 two-minute silence is observed at .. o(clock in the whole country as a tribute to the nation(s heroes. SAQ ; 0onarchy offers fi:ed constitutional landmarks and a degree of institutional continuity in a changing ,orld) &ro-monarchists think that especially nowadays, with a 9ew <abour government so committed to sweeping changes, to social and constitutional reforms, the monarchy is needed even more with its offer of legitimacy to a reforming administration. That is why the overwhelming ma)ority of the prime ministers of the <eft 2 from ;ladstone, 0s!uith and 0ttlee to =arold /ilson and today Tony Blair have proved to be such staunch royalists. SAQ > ,ach year, =4 :ueen ,li"abeth ** undertakes a large number of engagements+ some 6DF in the 8B and overseas $in 3HH5%. ,very year, =er 4a)esty entertains some 6F,HHH people from all sections of the community $including visitors from overseas% at -oyal ;arden &arties and other occasions. 0t least three garden parties take place at Buckingham &alace and a fourth at the &alace of =olyrood =ouse*, in ,dinburgh. 0dditional SspecialS parties are occasionally arranged, for e#ample to mark a significant anniversary for a charity. SAQ 1? right C3NL wrong 3FNL neither right nor wrong 5NL don(t know FN. *ncreased public standing 5HNL done damage P A5NL neither>no impact .HNL don(t know FN ?ery fav 3DNL somewhat fav 6HNL somewhat unfav.3NL very unfav DNL neither fav nor unfav .ANL did not hear it ..NL don(t know 5N
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SAA No. 3 Can you give any e#amples of non-coercive power that is nevertheless real power1 4any people believe that we might see elections for a president of the 8B by 3HAH. 7o you agree or do you disagree1 Bring arguments in favour of your views.
Send the answers to these !uestions to your tutor.
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UNIT 5
British 9emocracy in Action
Unit %utline
5.1 6.... 6...3 6...5 6...6 6...A 6...C A Brief &istorical %utline of the British ..D #arliament. The &ouse of Eords and its (adical (eform under Ne) Ea*our 0 Brief =istorical @utline of the British ..D &arliament <ife of &arliament ..G The =ouse of <ords in =istory unctions of the =ouse of <ords Calls for the -eform of the =ouse of <ords 9ew <abour and the -eform of the <ords+ FHH Mears of =istory ends in D minutes Glossary Ans)ers to SAQs British 9emocracy in Action- the &ouse of Commons@ the Thrust to)ards 9ecentraliLation ,lections &olitical parties The =ouse of Commons unctions of the =ouse of Commons The 7ecline of Commons &ower and the 4ovement for -eform Summary Glossary Ans)ers to SAQs SAA No. 5 Gallery of Famous Brits .33 .35 .3A .3C .5. .55 .5A .5A .5F .6H .63 .6C .6G .6G .A3 .A6 .AA
5.2 6.3.. 6.3.3 6.3.5 6.3.6 6.3.A
This unit attempts to trace the institution of parliament back to its origins and to highlight the important stages in the configuration of the constitutional monarchy. *t also aims at tracing the shift of powers from the <ords to the Commons, starting with the late .G th century. The =ouse of <ords $the 8pper =ouse% is critically approached as the traditional institution which makes great efforts to dovetail with modern times. /hilst acknowledging the need for an 8pper =ouse, 9ew <abour has constantly attacked the anachronistic aspects of the 8pper =ouse, particularly the hereditary component of the =ouse. The second chapter of this unit is meant to analyse the definitions, content and mechanisms of democracy, its evolution over time and particularly how democratic bodies function in contemporary Britain. *t also assesses critically the shortcomings of such bodies and mechanisms+ how powerful are people after they
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put a government in power1 The =ouse of Commons is presented as one of the central stages upon which popular representation and democracy unfold and where legislation is made.
0fter you have completed the study of this unit, you should be able to+ critically appraise the merits and demerits of the =ouse of <ordsL identify the specific structure of the 8pper =ouseL account for the necessity of restructuring the =ouse of <ordsL re-interpret tradition as embodied in the institution of the =ouse of <ords and the attempts at moderni"ing itL construct argumentation concerning the strengths and weaknesses of the institution and its functions in a rational, well-informed mannerL define democracy and identify its content and mechanismsL critically assess the great merits of democracy but also its shortcomingsL challenge and demystify* contemporary democracy and its institutionsL draw parallels between various manifestations of democracy in ,uropeL recogni"e and use new specific concepts and cultural studies terminology.
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5.1. A Brief &istorical %utline of the British #arliament. The &ouse of Eords and its (adical (eform under Ne) Ea*our
5.1.1 A Brief &istorical %utline of the British #arliament *t is often said that Britain has the Imother of parliamentsJ, with a history dating back to the elder(s councils* of traditional societies and to the Witan* of the 0nglo-Sa#on kings or their successor in early 9orman times - the +ommune +oncilium. The very first parliament in Britain was held in .36.. 8ntil then, the medieval kings, who were e#pected to meet all royal e#penses private and public from their own revenue, could ask the barons in the ;reat Council - the true source of the two chambers, a gathering of leading men who met several times a year to grant aid in an emergency, such as war. *n the .5th century however, not only private revenues but also baronial grants of support were no longer sufficient to meet the e#penses of government. *n Simon de 4ontfort(s '&arlement(* of .3CA, two knights represented each county for the first time and there were also two representatives of each borough* $burgesses%*. ,dward ** was the first to create a representative institution which could provide the money he needed. *n .3DA he commanded each shire and each borough to send two representatives to his &arliament mainly to get their assent to e#traordinary ta#ation. This was the germ of the =ouse of Commons, and it contained a mi#ture of gentry $knights and other wealthy freemen from the shires and merchants from the towns%. The commoners would have gladly avoided this 'honour(, but they were afraid to anger the king. This rather than the 4agna Carta was the beginning of the idea that there should be Ino ta#ation without representationJ, as later claimed by the 0merican colonists of the .Fth century in the Boston Tea &arty*, an episode of the *ndependence /ar. SAQ 1 0agna +arta or the "reat +harter signed by Bing Eohn in .3.A is unanimously considered to be the earliest monument of ,nglish freedom, the basis of ,nglish liberty. *t marks the transition from the age of traditional rights to the age of written legislation. Single out among the sentences below three which e#press the main thrust of this precious document+ I9o freeman shall be sei"ed or imprisoned, or dispossessed or outlawed or in any way brought to ruinJL I9one of the royals can ever get married without the monarch(s consentJL
1in, 'd)ard I
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ITo no man will sell, or deny, or delay, right or )usticeJL IThe accused shall en)oy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial )uryJL I0nyone critici"ing the monarch in any way is to be prosecuted under the Treason elony 0ctJ.
0 S eaker was for the first time elected in .5DC and voiced the ob)ections of the commoners or their agreement, as they held very little prestige at the time. 7espite the etymology of 'parliament( $'to meet for parley or discussion(% the commoners had no right to speak in parliamentary sessions. &hey ,ere only su osed to listen to the great feudal magnates. 0nyway, as the debates leading to the Speaker(s address were e#tremely noisy and boisterous, ,dward *** decided to allot a special chamber to commoners - the Chapter =ouse of /estminster 0bbeyL later on, from .A6D to .F56, the Commons were hosted in St Stephen(s Chapel, also founded by ,dward ***. /hile in most other ,uropean countries there were three important social categories, 'estates( or classes, represented in the councils, the 'nglish arliament has almost from its very beginning been bicameral. The e#planation lies in the fact that the former strife between the secular and ecclesiastical authorities led to their inclusion in one chamber. But the increasing might and authority of the Commons can also be accountable to its homogeneous social structure underlying the socio-political stability and the economic prosperity of ,ngland. The 8pper =ouse too proved stable+ even in the most critical moments of its history, during Cromwell(s &rotectorate and the civil wars preceding it, the !uestion of eradicating the nobility never arose. 0lthough the main function of the Commons was )uridical, over the course of time they began to reali"e the strength of their position. By the middle of the .6 th century the formula had appeared which in substance was the same as that used nowadays in voting resources to the Crown, namely Iby the Commons with the advice of the <ords Spiritual and TemporalJ. *n .6HD =enry *? pledged that henceforth all money grants should be approved by the =ouse of Commons before being considered by the <ords. 0 similar advance was made in the legislative field. @riginally the king(s legislation needed only the assent of his councillors, but starting with the right of individual commoners to present petitions, the Commons as a body gained the right to participate in giving their re!uests $i.e. their bills% the form of law. The subse!uent development of the power of the =ouse of Commons was built upon these foundations. The constitutional developments of the .D th century led to &arliament securing its osition as su reme legislative authority . *n .F53 the relative harmony between the two houses was shattered. The ;reat -eform 0ct ended the <ords( control over the Commons by e#tending the franchise* to the lower middle classes and removing the <ords( ability to nominate members. The
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Commons now ensured a very solid base in societyL they came to represent wider interests, and the growth of the <iberal &arty reflected this change. By the mid-.G th century Ithe =ouse could sack Cabinets, remove individual ministers, it could force the government to disclose secret informationL it set up select committees to carry out investigations and it rewrote government bills on the floor of the houseJ $4ackintosh, &he British +abinet, .GDD+C.5%. Conflicting interests were manifested in a series of clashes between the liberal$controlled 6ouse of +ommons and the +onservative$dominated Lords. There were further proofs in the first part of this century of the contempt in which the <ords held the Commons. /hen in .GHG the <iberal Chancellor declared war on poverty and s!ualor via a package of ta# increases, the <ords threw it out, by 5AH votes to DA $Eones and Bavanagh, British #olitics &oday, .GGF+ .36-.3A%. 0lthough there was a <iberal ma)ority in the Commons, in two elections in .G.H, ;eorge ? had to threaten the <ords with the creation of sufficient non-Conservative peers to make them give in.
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The #alace of
estminster " home of the British #arliament
5.1.2 Eife of #arliament The time between two general elections $not e#ceeding A years% also called a #arliament is divided into sessions, each lasting about one year from @ctober or 9ovember to the ne#t @ctober>9ovember. The beginning of a new session is called the State > ening of #arliament beginning with the royal opening procession from Buckingham &alace $the residence of the :ueen% to the &alace of /estminster $=ouses of &arliament%. The opening ceremony is a mi#ture of pageantry* and serious political business. @nce the :ueen has taken her seat on the throne in the =ouse of <ords she reads a speech outlining the new laws the government is planning to make in the forthcoming parliamentary year. The title ':ueen(s Speech( is misleading as it is not really the :ueen(s Speech at all, but her government(s. *t is prepared by the &rime 4inister and his or her colleagues and it is only read by the !ueen. The :ueen(s Speech always takes place on a /ednesday in 9ovember, at .. am. The whole glamorous ceremony has been kept unchanged since .A5C. 0s the ceremony is held in the =ouse of <ords, the Commons are summoned to hear SThe :ueenSs Speech from the ThroneS, formally opening the ne#t session of the &arliament and setting out the policies of the ;overnment. There is room for only very few spectators inside the &alace of /estminster, but through television, the ceremony has been made available to everyone. *t is a long-standing tradition that the monarch never enters the =ouse of Commons. *nstead she uses a messenger, The "entleman Asher or the Black ?od, to summon 4&(s $4embers of &arliament% to the <ords. 0s the Black -od approaches the Commons chamber across the Central <obby of the =ouses of &arliament, the door of the Commons is traditionally slammed in his face. Then Black -od raps three times on the door with his ebony stick, and the door is opened. This tradition dates back to .C63. By 9ovember .C6. Charles * had been ruling without any &arliament for .. years. Threatened by the Scottish army, he asked &arliament for their support but they
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refused to accept without the Bing(s promise to grant more rights for &arliament. The Bing entered the =ouse of Commons in Eanuary .C63, with troops, intending to arrest the five members most closely involved in what he regarded as treason. They had however escaped, and he was forced to withdraw empty-handed.
The (oyal $rocession
SAQ 2 By putting the following events in order you will be able to obtain the script of The State @pening of &arliament ceremony+ .. 0s the :ueen arrives at the SovereignSs ,ntrance to the =ouse of <ords, the -oyal Standard* is unfurled on the ?ictoria Tower, replacing the 8nion lag, and it remains there while The :ueen is within the palace. The Sovereign is received by the ,arl 4arshal and also by the <ord ;reat Chamberlain. 3. Several events occur before the actual State @pening and The :ueen is the last person to drive down the -oyal -oute. The -egalia+ the *mperial State Crown, the Cap of 4aintenance, the Sword of State are driven by coach from the Tower of <ondon to /estminster &alace for the ceremony. The street liners pay compliments to the -egalia as they pass by, showing the symbolic respect due to them. 5. The <ord Chancellor now advances and, removing the :ueenSs Speech from a special silk bag, hands it to the Sovereign but before it is read, the Sfaithful CommonsS must be summoned to attend and hear the speech. 6. ?arious members of the -oyal amily arrive by car and, before the -oyal &rocession sets out, the Meomen of the ;uard search the cellars of the =ouses of &arliament. This custom dates back to Ath 9ovember .CHA, when ;uy awkes tried to blow up the =ouses of &arliament. A. This is the moment when a traditional ritual is carried out to remind all concerned of the rights of the =ouse of Commons and of the abuse of these rights by Bing Charles *.
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C. The Sovereign sits on the throne, with the 7uke of ,dinburgh on her left. @ther members of the -oyal amily sit on the front benches nearest the throne. 7. The :ueen travels from Buckingham &alace to /estminster along the -oyal -oute using the *rish State Coach drawn by four horses. She has her usual ,scort of the =ousehold Cavalry and street liners, who present arms as the -oyal &rocession passes, guard the whole route.
F. 0s The :ueen moves up the -oyal Staircase to the -obing Chamber she passes between two lines of dismounted troopers of the =ousehold Cavalry in full dress with drawn swords e#ercising the privilege of being the only troops allowed to bear arms within the -oyal &alaces.
Queen4s S$eech
,ach &arliament session is interrupted by three recesses+ Christmas and ,aster, each lasting one month, and the summer recess lasting about .. weeks from early 0ugust to mid- or end@ctober. 0 session of &arliament is ended by means of rorogation $suspension% as opposed to ad@ourning which means a short interruption, e.g. until the ne#t day and dissolution indicating that new elections will be called. &arliament then stands prorogued $suspended% for a week or so until the new session opens. &rorogation brings to an end nearly all parliamentary business+ in particular, public $government% Bills which have not passed by the end of the session are lost. The average number of sitting days $debates% in a session is about .CF days in the =ouse of Commons and about .AH days in the =ouse of <ords.
The (oyal Standard &roiectul pentru *nvatamint -ural 124
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5.1.3 The &ouse of Eords in &istory The =ouse of <ords is officially known under the name Ithe <ords of &arliamentJL in the .F th and .Gth centuries it was still called the irst =ouse or 8pper =ouse. *t is the continuation into modern times of the original 9orman Bing(s Court $ +uria ?egis% to which the king summoned the great men of the land. ,ach was summoned individually by name, and the right to be summoned was passed to the eldest son. <ater, the right was associated with the grant of a special hereditary title $Lord8. Some soon became e#tinct through the lack of an heir. @thers survived through many generations. The 8pper =ouse consists of the Lords S iritual and the Lords &em oral) The <ords Spiritual are the 0rchbishops of Canterbury and Mork, the Bishops of <ondon, 7urham and /inchester and the following 3. ne#t most senior diocesan bishops of the Church of ,ngland $3C in all%. The <ords Temporal consist of all hereditary eers and peeresses of ,ngland, Scotland, ;reat Britain and the 8nited Bingdom, of life eers created to assist the =ouse in its )udicial duties and the Lords of A eal or 2la, lords - 33 of them, including the <ord Chancellor*. The =ouse of <ords is also the final court of a eal for civil cases in Britain and for criminal cases in ,ngland, /ales and 9orthern *reland. 0lthough until very recently the =ouse has still been dis ro ortionately hereditary, the life peers tended to play a fuller and more regular part in the proceedings. 4oreover, since .GC5 it has been possible to disclaim hereditary peerages within .3 months of succession, and disclaimants lose their right to sit in the =ouse but gain the right to vote and stand as candidates at parliamentary elections. The number of <ords used to e#ceed .,3HH, although not all the peers with a right to sit in the =ouse of <ords attend the sittings. Before .GGG there used to be DAH hereditary peers $C.N of the total number of peers%. 0 significant number of hereditary peerages were created during this century, and an important number of them under the premiership of <loyd ;eorge $.G.C-.G33%. Some of them however date back to the 4iddle 0ges+ the Barony of 4owbray, $.3F5%, the 7ukedom of 9orfolk and the ,arldom of Shrewsbury $.6F5 and .663 respectively%. =ereditary peers however do not always keep a low profile and they are not always 'backwoodsmen(*. <ord =ome was oreign Secretary under 4acmillan and =eath, <ord Shackleton was a senior member of =arold /ilson(s government, <ord Carrington was 7efence Secretary in the =eath ;overnment and oreign Secretary in Thatcher(s government. Life eers have been created since .GAF, the vast ma)ority of them being distinguished men and women from a wide variety of walks of life who have been so honoured in recognition of their political or public services. They may be former civil servants or diplomats who retired at the top of their profession, soldiers who rose to the highest military rank, successful industrialists or prominent trade union leaders, distinguished scientists or academics. =owever, the largest category of life peers is formed of former politicians from the =ouse of Commons or local government. They are either retired senior ministers or very senior backbenchers* whom the &rime 4inister wishes to reward with a seat in the <ords.
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Since the introduction of life peerages, the dynamics of the <ords sittings have changed substantially for the better. Think first! The prestige of the =ouse of <ords has eroded steadily over time. Thus it was abolished in .C6G being declared 'useless and dangerous( by @liver Cromwell, and in successive stages during the 3Hth century $.GHG, .G.., .G6G% its prerogatives have been reduced. /hat could be the reasons for this decline in importance of the 8pper =ouse, in your opinion1 8se the space below to write your answers.
5.2.5 The Functions of the &ouse of Eords The <ords have the power to e#amine and revise all government bills*, but they cannot amend or re)ect 4oney Bills. ,very bill must pass both houses, but the <ords( power has been restricted by the &arliamentary 0cts of .G.. and .G6G. *f the <ords re)ect a bill which the Commons have passed, the bill can go for the -oyal 0ssent if passed by the Commons again in the ne#t session of &arliament $read about law-making in 8nit D%. The functions of the =ouse of <ords are mainly+ legislative delay - they can delay for about one year the passage of Bills approved by the CommonsL the o,er of legislative revision - the ability to amend and improve Bills inade!uately considered by the CommonsL and the power of ,ell$informed deliberation - the ability to debate issues of the day in a more knowledgeable and less partisan way than this is done in the Commons. &here is only one s ecial o,er of absolute veto, if the =ouse of Commons should pass a bill to e#tend its own life, without a new general election beyond five years from the previous general election. They could have used this power in .G.A and .G6H but they did not do so because all parties agreed that a general election in wartime could be most inconvenient. The supporters of the 8pper =ouse often claim that the <ords provide a useful second o inion on legislationL amendments can be suggested and ne, o inions e: ressed. They have more time than the Commons, so they can discuss a bill in far greater detail. The
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discussion can be freer than in the Commons because the <ords do not have to worry about their constituencies or about offending their electors. They also represent a rare mi: of e: erience and ,isdom so their thoughts and ideas can often be illuminating and even provocative. The <ords do not interfere with bills concerned primarily with finance $about one-!uarter of all legislation% but have a key role in other respects. Thus by introducing non$controversial legislation , particularly in connection with local government, the <ords relieve the burden on the overworked Commons. The <ords revise and improve bills on their way to the -oyal 0ssent, and the government often uses this stage to introduce its own amendments and improvements. *ts @udicial function is important as it is the highest court in the land, a function which is performed by the law lords including the <ord Chancellor, e#-<ord Chancellors and <ords of 0ppeal in @rdinary $including those retired%. They do not pass )udgementL rather they clarify the law and give opinions on appeals. This is indeed a vital function and their )udgements tend to have great authority and have influenced the development of ,nglish law over the years. The =ouse of <ords Select +ommittee on the 'uro ean +ommunity matches that of the =ouse of Commons. Both of these committees are constantly involved in the scrutiny of the ,uropean Commission proposals received by &arliament. Si:ty to seventy eers are involved in its subcommittees and its re orts are ,idely read and are very influential. They also set up a number of ad-hoc committees on specific topics and are very scrupulous in consulting e#pert opinion. =owever, over the years, there has been a lot of disagreement over keeping the 8pper Chamber unchanged. SAQ 3 /hat should be changed in the composition of the =ouse of <ords and why1
5.2.7 Calls for the (eform of the &ouse of Eords The =ouse of <ords has had a long history marked by considerable institutional resilience. The .G.. &arliament 0ct provided the statutory basis for the present limitation of the <ords( power. The main provisions of this act were that 4oney Bills were meant to become law within one month of being sent to the <ordsL that the legislation delaying prerogative was reduced to two yearsL and the ma#imum span of a &arliament should be reduced from
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seven to five years. Subse!uently, the .G6G &arliament 0ct further reduced the delaying power of the <ords to one year, but failed to deal with other important matters such as its composition and functions. @ther attempts at reforming the 8pper =ouse were made in .GAD and in .GAF. The <ife &eerage 0ct made possible the creation of life peers, including ,omen life eers in their o,n right . *n .GC5 the &eerage 0ct allowed hereditary peers to disclaim their titles and make themselves eligible for election or re-election to the <ower =ouse. The one further attempt at ma)or reform was the ill-fated #arliament 3umber O Bill , which was introduced by the <abour government in .GCF. *t involved both a reduction in the total number of peers and an attack upon the hereditary principle. The proposal was for the =ouse to be made up of 3AH peers with voting rights who would be appointed by the government of the day, together with a large number of peers who would be entitled to speak but would be barred from voting. *t was meant to become a kind of 'echo chamber for the government(. The proposal was that the composition of the appointed chamber be checked from time to time and altered in conse!uence so as to ensure that the government had a voting ma)ority over the principal opposition party. 0lso the delaying prerogative was to be halved to si# months. The proposals were abandoned by the government in .GCG because of a sustained and effective filibuster $filibustering is a means of delaying and preventing action by making very slow and long speeches typical of the <ords% by backbenchers on both sides of the Commons led by ,noch &owell for the Conservatives and 4ichael oot for <abour. *n .GDD, <ord Carrington, the Conservative leader in the =ouse of <ords, proposed the creation of a reformed Chamber whose members would be elected by proportional representation from large regional constituencies*. =is main argument was that such a chamber would reflect public opinion differently from the Commons, since the type of constituencies, dates, method of election would be different from those in elections for the Commons. *n .GDF a different set of proposals was put forward by <ord =ome according to which the membership of the <ords was to be reduced to 6HH, of whom one-third had to be nominated by the political parties and twothirds elected through proportional representation from about 3AH large territorial constituencies. 4argaret Thatcher never gave much thought to <ords reform, so neither of these proposals was ever implemented. 5.2.8 Ne) Ea*our and the (eform of the Eords- ;?? years of history ends in : minutes <abour set up a committee in .GGF to e#amine the 9ew <abour manifesto commitment to reform the <ords. 0 bill to abolish the powers of hereditary peers makes provisions for a two-stage reform, Stage 3 being concerned with the shape of the chamber. *t will be however very hard for the 9ew <abour to create the necessary legislative time. Tony Blair(s ideas for a reformed 8pper Chamber are strangely similar to Cromwell(s @ther =ouse, which was to e#clude almost all hereditary peers and be composed largely of his nominees and dependents. Ander Stage >ne, LVP of the RVK
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hereditary eers have lost their MUU$year$old rights to sit and vote . The G3 hereditary peers who have kept their seats will be removed in the final stage of the reform. SAQ 4 ;uess which of the four items listed below was the criterion of selection for the G3 =ereditary <ords to be allowed to sit until stage two of the -eform1 0t least ten successive generations in the =ouse of <ordsL 8niversity degrees and doctoratesL 9umber of books publishedL 0 DA-word election address in which they had to convincingly put their names forwardL
Eord Ir.ine
0s the reform bill passed in .GGG when the :ueen opened a new parliamentary session she spoke to a severely reduced second chamber made up of life peers, the 3C 0nglican bishops and the G3 hereditary peers after their uni!ue election was completed. This was not accepted without anger however. 0n indignant alliance of peers accused the government of undemocratic plans to abolish hereditary voting rights. 0fter its victory in the 3HH. elections, the <abour &arty continued with the process of reform to the <ords. *n 3HH., the proposed reforms for a new =ouse of <ords were released. These were seen as a way of making the <ords more democratic.
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Think First! *n your opinion which of the following recommendations made in the 3HH. bill will enable the =ouse of <ords to become more democratic1

a second chamber of CHH membersL an end to G3 hereditary peers still in the <ords L .3H members elected by the publicL .3H appointed by an independent commission L the rest would be appointed by political parties in proportion to votes received by a party at the most recent general electionL the second chamber would have no veto over government legislation - merely the right to delay its introductionL bishops to be reduced from 3A to .CL a minimum of those in the second chamber will be femaleL minority groups will be representedL the final number of CHH will be met over a .H year period.
The government white paper* came under fierce attack in Eanuary 3HH3, in a two-day debate in the =ouse of <ords and in a poll the British public overwhelmingly said an inde endent commission rather than the rime minister should make a ointments to the u er chamber . 0nother survey showed that <abour backbenchers were in favour of an upper chamber with more than half of the members elected. *n response to the deadlock created over the percentage of elected peers, in 4ay 3HH3, the government announced a ma)or retreat from its original white paper, and a )oint committee of the two chambers was called upon to decide on the entire powers and structure of the second chamber, with members of both houses allowed a free vote on its proposals $see the ne#t chapter on free votes%. Two weeks before voting on the future of the =ouse of <ords, 4&s and peers began to discuss the seven options for reform. The ma)ority of 4&s who spoke showed support for a mi#ed house, ,ith more eers elected than a ointed. *n the <ords, the ma)ority still opposed the election of members. 0fter a two-day debate on <ords( reform, the <ord Chancellor, <ord *rvine, backed a wholly appointed upper chamber. =e said+ X0n appointed =ouse of <ords, chosen in accordance with criteria that will make it more representative of the nation as a whole, can add real value to the high value of the =ouse of Commons.X The 4&s failed to agree a final stage of <ords( reform and despite a <abour manifesto commitment to introduce a more democratic second chamber, the rime minister backed a ,holly a ointed 6ouse of Lords. 0rguing that a hybrid chamber would fail, 4r Blair told 4&s they would have to choose between a wholly elected or wholly appointed second chamber+ XThe key !uestion on
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election is do ,e ,ant a revising chamber or a rival chamber 1 4y view is that we want a revising chamber,X he said. -esponding to the report by the )oint committee on <ords( reform, the government said that there was no consensus in parliament for introducing any elected element into the second chamber. *nstead it said it was only interested in removing the remaining G3 hereditary peers and establishing a new independent appointments commission. 0s soon as it became clear that Tony Blair would call general elections in 4ay 3HHA, <abour stated that if they were returned to office, reform would take place Xonce and for all, early in a third termX. /ith the government(s published plan for the <ords to be 3H per cent directly elected, but with most <abour 4&s wanting it to be largely elected, and ministers like Tony Blair and Eohn &rescott worried that a democratic <ords would challenge the authority of the Commons, the reform was abandoned because the party could not agree. 0s well as promising early legislation on <ords( reform, statements were made about changing the procedures of the =ouse so that it worked more XfairlyX. The <ords should have the power to delay, Xbut not finally to frustrate the programme of a legitimatelyelected governmentX. 7uring the debate there were calls for the ;overnment to consider direct election to the second chamber. 0s one delegate said+ X/e are ruled by a group of people in the =ouse of <ords who have influence over our laws, but over whom we have no say. ThatSs wrong.X
Think First! Before you go on reading, stop a minute and imagine yourself taking part in this heated debate on how to proceed to the ne#t stage of the reform of the <ords. Choose one of the main positions in the debate and state your own opinion bringing arguments in support+ ully and directly elected so as to make it at least as democratic as the =ouse of Commons. $But then, why double the =ouse of Commons1 Shouldn(t the =ouse of <ords have a status and prerogatives of its own1 =ow effective would it be1% ully appointed by parties and several independent commissions $but then, wouldn(t most of these be the cabinet(s and the &rime 4inister(s yes-men /ouldn(t this create a system of patronage of the lords by the e#ecutive1% 0 mi#ed house with certain agreed upon percentage of elected peers and peers appointed both by the political parties but also by independent commissions and democratic bodies
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$but then, what percentage would be fair enough+ more peers elected or more appointed and who will decide what commissions would be chosen1% *ndirectly elected ma)ority - FHN of the =ouse 2 to be selected from party lists, in proportion to votes cast for 4&s at the general election $but then, what would the criteria of selection be1%.
*n the .GAHs &eter Bromhead* was still confident of the importance of the =ouse of <ords for British society+ ISo long as the =ouse of <ords continues by the e#ercise of voluntary restraint to perform a restricted function in the e#ercise of political power, there is little reason for altering either its powers or its compositionJ $ &he 6ouse of Lords and +ontem orary #olitics, .GAF+.C%. ,noch &owell more than .H years later, thought that it was at worst a useful device. But then even one of its members, <ord oot says+ I*t really can do very little. *t performs a minor useful function of looking at matters in detail which the Commons has not got the time to do, but that is no satisfactory bicameral systemJ $ 6ansard, .F 9ovember .GFH%. *t is important to remember, however, that the Lords ,ere rather more 2effective at times than 2dignified) From KPRP to KPPU they voted down Thatcher(s legislation over .AH times. ;overnments were defeated in the <ords+ =eath suffered 3C defeats between .GDH and .GD6, and <abour 5AA between .GDA and .GDG. *t is almost parado#ical that some of the most severe blows were dealt by a preponderantly Conservative house at Conservatives. This suggests that as they do not work under the pressure of sei"ing and keeping power, free as they are of constituency and re-election pressures, they take their role seriously as guardians of the
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constitution $Eones and Bavanagh, British #olitics &oday, .GGF+ .5.%.
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1'D C%NC'#TS ,lder(s council &rorogation @ueen(s Speech <ords temporal>lords spiritual =ereditary>life peers <aw lords franchise ;overnment bills filibustering <egislative delay backbencher
GE%SSA(D
*ack*encher R an 4& who does not hold any special office and who, therefore, in the =ouse of Commons sits on the back benches $as distinct from the front benches, on which ministers and members of the Shadow cabinet sit%. *ack)oodsman R a member of the =ouse of <ords who lives in the country and hardly ever attends its meetings. *ill R a written plan for or a draft of a new law $0ct of &arliament% which is brought to parliament for it to consider. *orou,h R town with corporation and privileges conferred by royal charterL town sending member$s% to parliament. Boston Tea #arty R protest in Boston in .DD5 against the British ta# on tea, when tea was thrown from British ships into the water. The slogan of the 0merican colonists+ I9o ta#ation without representationJ meant that the colonies should either have fair representation in the British parliament or should be independent. Three years later, the %eclaration of (nde endence was signed. Bromhead@ #eter R well-known writer, politician, cartoonist and designer. *ur,ess R inhabitant of borough with full municipal rightsL citi"enL member of parliament for borough. 'd)ard I R ,nglish king who completed the con!uest of /ales and temporarily subdued Scotland. *n contrast to his father $=enry ***%, ,dward showed masterfulness in the disputes with the ,nglish barons. *n .3D.-D3 he went on a crusade at 0cre. 7uring the years
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from .3D3, when ,dward succeeded his father, to .3GH, striking achievements occurred+ ,dward con!uered /ales in devastating campaigns and built massive castles to keep it secure. *n ,ngland he held regular parliaments. 0 program of legislation strengthened royal control over the court system and reformed the tangled feudal land law. 0fter .3G6, wars in Scotland and rance dominated ,dwardSs reign. By a treaty $.5H5% with &hilip *? of rance, ,dward retained ;ascony. =e failed, however, to !uell the risings of /illiam /allace $'Braveheart(% and -obert the Bruce $later -obert *%, and Scotland remained only half-con!uered at his death. 'lder4s council R in traditional societies senior members formed a body that held important responsibilities and privileges. fili*uster<in,= R to try to delay or prevent action in a lawmaking body by making very slow and long speeches. franchise R the right of voting at public elections hereditary $eer R a titled member of the aristocracy who has $rather used to have % the right to speak and vote in the =ouse of <ords provided he is 3. or older. Currently only G3 hereditary peers still preserve this right. la) lords R peers in the =ouse of <ords who sit as the highest court of appeal in ,ngland. They include the <ord Chancellor and any peers who have held high )udicial office or have themselves been <ord Chancellor. le,islati.e delay R the <ords( prerogative of delaying legislation that they find too divisive or controversial for one year only $since .G6G%. life $eer R a person who is given a title during his or her lifetime, usually as a reward for public service. <ife peers have the right to speak and vote in the =ouse of <ords. Eord Chancellor R a political official who is the head of the legal system in ,ngland and /ales, the Speaker of the =ouse of <ords and also a member of the Cabinet. Eords S$iritual R a collective term for those bishops in the Church of ,ngland who are members of the =ouse of <ords. Eords Tem$oral R a collective name for all those peers in the =ouse of <ords who are not <ords Spirituals. +ontfort <Simon de= R a statesman, soldier and controversial politician who married =enry ***Ss sister, although later he became the king(s fiercest enemy and after capturing him $and the king(s heir -- the future ,dward *% in battle became the de facto ruler of the country. By summoning both knights and burgesses to a &arliament in Eanuary .3CA, he founded the =ouse of Commons.
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Queen4s S$eech R the speech made by the :ueen at the opening of the British parliament each year. *t is prepared by the government and gives details of the government(s programme for the ne#t year and of their political ideas. $roro,ation R a period of time during which a set of meetings of a parliament is brought to an end, suspended, until a stated day. (oyal Standard R a flag bearing the arms of the sovereign and flown to show that she or he is present in a particular place. )hite $a$er R an official report from the British government, e#plaining the government(s ideas and plans concerning a particular sub)ect before it suggests a new law in parliament. itan R Council of the 0nglo-Sa#on kings, the forerunner of parliament, but including only royal household officials, great land owners, and top churchmen.
ANS '(S to SAQs

SAQ 1 The three sentences from magna Carta are+ I9o freeman shall be sei"ed or imprisoned, or dispossessed or outlawed or in any way brought to ruinJL ITo no man will sell, or deny, or delay, right or )usticeJL IThe accused shall en)oy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial )uryJ. SAQ 2 The right order of the paragraphs+ 3, 6, D, ., F, C, 5, A. SAQ 3 The hereditary rinci le, it was thought, is totally out of tune ,ith democracyL the <ords have a oor attendance record and re resent an outdated cluster of values no longer defensible in the contemporary world+ ine!uality, the right to rule, wealth, e#clusive private education, class privileges. &he hereditary, non$elected eers should not be allo,ed to frustrate the ,ill of the elected chamber. 0s Conservatives tend to have a ma)ority over <abour in the <ords and as they can increase their number in time of need by summoning the less regular attenders $the backwoodsmen%, they are able to delay and amend radical policies for party political reasons. 4any think that several functions could much more effectively be performed by the Commons or, in the case of the )udicial function, by a separate institution completely unconnected with a second legislative chamber $like the Supreme Court in the 8S0%. Critics often air the view that a reformed chamber ,ith younger and more dynamic members might erform these tasks more effectively)
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SAQ 5 They had to endure the humiliating process of putting their names forward for election in DA words only. ?ery hard for people who are accustomed to making very long speeches. <ord Strathclyde, the Tory leader in the <ords gave one of the shortest addresses+ a twoline election address outlining his parliamentary career.
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5.2
British democracy in action
5.2.1 'lections in Britain
Think First! *n the late eighties, the demands for democracy in ,astern and Central ,urope led to the overthrow of communism. 4any people in the /est cheered on these dramatic events as they viewed them on their television sets. Before you start reading the first paragraph, try to define 'democracy( and 'democratic( in your own words. /hat are the features that differentiate it from tyranny, dictatorship etc.1
7emocracy is the process which gives people a voice in society. *t allows each of us to influence how our societies are governed and have our say about the kind of society we want. That is why it is important for everyone to understand how it works so that we can all play a full and positive role. *t is very often used as a standard for )udging a countrySs level of political as well as social and economic development. Eoseph Schumpeter, for e#ample, a well-known writer on politics, once described the way in which democracy had become a ShoorahS word, an idea worth cheering for. Met there is sometimes an incomplete understanding of the full rights and responsibilities that democracy may involve, of what this ideal may actually mean in reality or how it is best fulfilled in political practices and processes. Three essential freedoms sustain the British democratic way of life 2 free elections, freedom of speech and open and e!ual treatment before the law. These rights are balanced by responsibilities since a democratic society can only function properly when its citi"ens play an active part in the institutions. ;eneral elections to choose 4&s must be held at least every five years. =owever, the &rime 4inister can Scall an electionS before the end of his five year term of office, at a time when he>she believes his>her party is most popular. 7uring a general election in Britain, the electorate vote for one candidate of a particular political party in their designated electoral region, known as a constituency) @nly those who put themselves up for election can win, and it is the one who gains the largest number of votes who is the winner+ this is what is called Sfirst-past-the-postS $ &T&%. The winner needs only one more vote than his or her closest rival to be first-past-the-post although in reality there is usually a larger gap between the ones
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who come first and second. *n cases where the result is very close, within the margin of a few hundred votes, there is a recount of all the ballot papers. The &T& system seems both to work and to be fair, especially if you are the winner. *t is the system the British have always had, and British people often appear !uite traditional and unwilling to change something they are familiar with. But there are problems with the &T& system that have led increasingly over the past decade to calls for reforms to make the system fairer and more Sdemocratic.S SAQ 1 /hich of the reasons stated below e#press most decisively the shortcomings of &T& in your opinion1 ?otes that did not go to the SwinnerS, that is, the total number of votes for all of the other candidates who lost often resulted in a figure far greater than that that the winner gained. *f the losers gain nothing, then what about all those who didnSt vote for the successful person1 7on(t these people feel 'disenfranchised(, i.e. not gaining through their vote any representation in the =ouse of Commons1 Together, such voters may constitute a ma)ority but with votes spread amongst different candidates, they represent a divided ma)ority. &ercentages of votes are not transformed into percentages of seats in &arliament. /ithin one constituency, a candidate may take a high percentage of votes but if he or she is not the winner, their votes mean very little at all and become statistics to be analysed, not a source of political power. *t worked well in the past because of the traditional two-party system in the country. 0 new party like the <iberal-7emocrat &arty is disadvantaged by the system.
4any think that ro ortional re resentation $&-% would be the fair solution to the problem. They wish to see more proportional representation where votes are more easily translated into parliamentary seats and not lost because of the &T& system. 7uring the .GFHs and GHs, many members of the <abour &arty were also attracted to &- because they were losing out in a system which seemed to make them unelectable. Before the .GFHs, they could e#pect to be in government almost as often as the Conservatives. Some of the smaller political parties could also see the disadvantages of the e#isting system, with it being almost impossible for them to gain any seats in &arliament at all. Those more sceptical of &- claim that it would lead to a series of weak, coalition governments which offer limited stability in an
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ever-changing international political climate. Some &- critics claim that fre!uent general elections would, result in voter apathy and could actually lead to domination of a few powerful groups. The arguments for and against &- have not only persisted but have grown stronger since the <abour victory in .GGD. Tony BlairSs party had e#pressed interest in looking at ways to bring in elements of &into the system but very little has been achieved so far, although it is on the political agenda. This !uestion was fre!uently asked in previous years, especially by voters favouring the <iberal 7emocrats, when the Conservatives dominated the political scene. @ne possible solution suggested by some politicians to voters was to vote tactically $?T%, as another aspect of British electoral system. Tactical voting is where a voter assesses the situation in their constituency at the time of a general election and votes for the party which is most likely to defeat the party they like the least. That means they may not actually vote for the party of their choice $especially if it is one with very little support in their area% and their vote will then be SwastedS. *n many constituencies during the .GFHs and GHs, for e#ample, the main opposition to the Conservatives was the <abour &arty, and if <iberal 7emocrat voters switched to vote for <abour they could help to oust the Conservative 4&. The same could be the case with those wishing to vote for the ;reen &arty or an independent candidate but realising that a vote for a more mainstream party might be more likely to bring about some change. 7uring the general election in 4ay 3HHA, Conservative voters in many areas considered tactical voting for another party merely to help oust the <abour party. 0ccording to 0ndrew 4arr, a well known political commentator, X/e drop our ballot papers like feathers into the void and somewhere, sometimes, they accumulate to tip a giant scale and e)ect or elect an =onourable 4ember. But for our feathers to make a difference is rareJ. SAQ 2 *s tactical voting democratic enough in your opinion1 7o you remember any instance in your voting e#perience when you voted tactically or when you cast a 'negative( vote $as we often call the practice in -omania%1
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5.2.2 #olitical $arties There are three main political parties in the 8nited Bingdom, Between them, the three main British political parties have, in one form or another, held power since .CDF. Britain(s political parties originated in .CC3 in the aftermath of the ,nglish Civil /ar as the Tories $now the Conservative &arty, still commonly referred to as Sthe ToriesS% and the /higs $now the <iberal 7emocrats, though the term S/higS has become obsolete%. The two remained the main political parties until the 3.st century. Both names were originally insults+ a XwhiggamorX was a cattle driver, and a XtoryX was an *rish term for an outlaw. ;enerally, the Tories were associated with larger land holders $or Xland magnatesX% and the Church of ,ngland, while /higs were more associated with trade, money, e#pansion and tolerance. Both were still committed to the political system in place at that time. 9either group could be considered a true political party in the modern sense. The Tories underwent a fundamental transformation under the influence of -obert &eel, himself an industrialist rather than a landowner, who in his .F5A XTamworth 4anifestoX outlined a new XConservativeX philosophy of reforming bills while conserving the good. &eelSs supporters split from their colleagues over the issue of free trade in .F6C, ultimately )oining the /higs and the -adicals to form the <iberal &arty. &eelSs version of the partySs underlying outlook was retained by the remaining Tories, who adopted his label of +onservative as the official name of their party. The term S<iberal &artyS was first used officially in .FCF, though it had been in use collo!uially for decades beforehand. The <iberal &arty formed a government in .FDH and then alternated with the Conservative &arty as the party of government throughout th the late .G and early 3Hth century. *n .GHH, the <abour -epresentation Committee was established, and it changed its name to &he Labour #arty in .GHC. 0fter the irst /orld /ar, this led to the demise of the <iberal &arty as the main liberal force in British politics. The e#istence of the <abour &arty on the left of British politics led to a slow waning of energy from the <iberal &arty, ending with it taking third place in national politics. 0fter performing poorly in the elections of .G33, .G35 and .G36, the <iberal &arty was superseded by the <abour &arty as the party of the left. The <abour &arty had its first true victory after /orld /ar ** in the .G6A election. Throughout the rest of the twentieth century, <abour governments alternated with Conservative governments. /ith the Conservatives in power for most of the time, *n response to <abourSs leftward shift, some moderate members formed a breakaway group in .GF., called the Social 7emocratic &arty $S7&%. The S7& formed an alliance with the <iberal &arty which contested the .GF5 and .GFD general elections as a centrist alternative to <abour and the Conservatives. 0fter some initial success, the S7& did not prosper, and was accused by some of splitting the anti-Conservative vote. The S7&
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eventually merged with the <iberal &arty to form the <iberal 7emocrats in .GFF. Support for the new party has increased since then, and the <iberal 7emocrats $often referred to as <ib 7ems% in .GGD and 3HH. gained an increased number of seats in the =ouse of Commons.
The lo,os of the three $arties- Ea*our@ Conser.ati.e and Ei* 9ems
SAQ 3 4argaret Thatcher who became leader of the Conservative &arty in .GDA and the first woman prime minister of Britain, having been re-elected twice in successive general elections $a brilliant performance only e!ualled by Tony Blair in 4ay 3HHA%, left an indelible mark on British politics. Tony Blair became leader of the <abour &arty in .GG6 and continued to move the party towards the centre $according to his critics to centre-right, a situation which earned him the title of 'Thatcher(s son(%. 4atch the achievements listed below with one of the two &rime 4inisters mentioned above. 9ew <abour 9ew Britain -adical policies of privatisation 0nti-trade union legislation 4onetary reform The democrati"ation of democracy 7evolution The 9eo-Conservative -evolution The Third /ay 0llegiance to free market and a Single ,uropean 4arket 0 ,uropean future for Britain+ strengthening Britain(s ties with the ,uropean 8nion 9o rights without responsibilities
The <abour &arty consolidated its position in 3HH., winning a full second term - a first-time achievement for the <abour &arty at the time. This led to a crisis of confidence in the Conservative &arty, which had become complacent with its position as the Snatural party of governmentS after its .F years in power. The partySs drift to the right lost it nearly all its working-class voters, and its ageing membership $average age CA% and vote $third party among the under 6As% mean that avoiding e#tinction became a higher priority than winning an election. =owever, with <abourSs drop in popularity in 3HH5-3HH6 coinciding with 4ichael =owardSs becoming leader, the Conservatives appeared to have begun to recover their position as serious challengers to the <abour government. The 4ay 3HHA
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elections returned <abour to power, yet with a much slimmer ma)ority in the =ouse of Commons $from .CD in 3HH. to CD in 3HHA%. 5.2.3 The &ouse of Commons 8nlike the 'dignified( elements of the constitution, the =ouse of Commons has real power in the British political system, although this power is by no means absolute. The modern =ouse of Commons is neither the government of the country nor even the principal place where most of the legislation is conceived. 0t the same time, it is essentially the stage u on ,hich the arty olitical battle is foughtL it is the sounding$board for o ular re resentation and redress, the roving ground for ministers and shado, ministers and the principal forum within which legislation and other actions of government are criticised and asserted bet,een general elections $ orman, 0astering British #olitics+.A5%. The =ouse of Commons is elected during the general election held at least every five years. Britain is divided into over CAH constituencies, each of which returns one member to the =ouse of Commons. ,ach 4& normally represents between DC.HHH and .H3,HHH voters $who make up a constituency%. *f an 4& dies or retires during the time between elections, a by$election is held to elect their successor. SAQ 4 By filling in the gaps with the right words or phrases you will find out about the main actors and the part that they play in the =ouse of Commons+ The ----- $.% is the chief officer of the =ouse of Commons, elected by 4&s to preside over the =ouse. =is>=er three ----- $3% are the ne#t most important officers of the =ouse. They take no partisan part in debates or votes unless a vote is $$$$$ $5% which is a rare occasion and in that case they have the decisive vote, or----- $6%. *n front of the Speaker on the right sit the 4&s of the biggest party, which forms the government and facing them sit the 4&s of the parties who oppose them, the ----- $A%. The leader of the government, the ----- $C% sits on the government ----- $D%, of course, ne#t to his>her ----- $F% the most important of these form the ----- $G% The minister responsible for relations with other countries is called ----- $.H% The one responsible for law and security is called ----- $..% The one who deals with financial matters and prepares the annual ----- $.3% is called ----- $.5% @pposite this group sits the ----- $.6% - the main person in the largest party opposing the government - and the ----- $.A%, each member of which speciali"es in a particular area of government. &aid office-holders in the government who are entitled to sit on the first bench, hence ----- $.C% make up about .HH of the total number of 4&s. The figure includes the government ----- $.D% $the name is derived from the ,hi er$in in fo#-hunting whose )ob is to
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ensure that the hounds are kept under control% They are 4inisters of the ----- $.F% and constitute important channels between backbenchers and frontbenchers. 4&s without special positions in their party sit behind their leaders at the back and are called ----- $.G%. @pposition &rime 4inister front bench oreign Secretary ministers casting ballot 7eputies tied front benchers Crown Speaker Cabinet =ome Secretary Chancellor of the ,#che!uer backbenchers <eader of the @pposition budget Shadow Cabinet /hips
Jotin, in the &ouse of Commons
/hips are chosen within the party and their duties include keeping members informed on forthcoming parliamentary business, maintaining the party(s voting strength, ensuring members( attendance during important debates and also passing on to the party leadership the opinions of backbench members. The /hips also indicate the importance their party attaches to a vote on a particular issue by underlining items of business $once, twice, three times% on the notice sent to 4&s. ailure to comply with a three$line ,hi $the most important% is usually seen as rebellion against the party $as has happened !uite often lately with bills proposed by the 9ew <abour government%.
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SAQ 5 The 'whip( also refers to a document sent out weekly to 4&s detailing the forthcoming business of the =ouse. *tems are underlined once, twice or three times to indicate their importance to the party leadership. 0 three line whip means that party leadership e#pects 4&S to turn up and vote on the matter under discussion. -ank the following messages so as to indicate 'one-, two- or a three-line whip(+ D%U( ATT'N9ANC' IS 'SS'NTIAE D%U( ATT'N9ANC' IS ('QU'ST'9 D%U( ATT'N9ANC' IS N'C'SSA(D @n the @pposition side the so-called Shado, +abinet is made up of twenty senior members of the Conservative party. The remainder formed of over 6AH members are all backbenchers. They have no direct involvement with the government or the tasks of front bench @pposition. Some of them have been in the =ouse a long time and they e#ert a good deal of influence within their own parties. =owever, most of them are relatively )unior and have been in the =ouse less than .H years, trying to make their way as well as they can. They seek, for e#ample, to attract the attention and approval of the party /hips by playing an active part in the proceedings both in the Chamber and 'upstairs( in Committee. This is the Standing Committee formed of parliament members that considers possible changes to a Bill after its Second -eading $see below% in the =ouse of Commons. /hen their party is in government the main function of backbenchers is to support it with their votes and to a lesser e#tent with their voices in :uestion Time and debate. @ver the years the backbenches have been a nursery for important ministers. 0fter serving for some years in the =ouse and making their mark in debates, select committees, etc. they are usually rewarded with )unior ministerial office. 5.2.5 Functions of the &ouse of Commons The main functions of the <ower =ouse are+ W(t sustains government. The =ouse(s power is significant, since elections to the =ouse decide the political comple#ion of the government and the ma)ority party in the =ouse provides the support needed. W#arliamentary control and scrutiny of the e:ecutive is a vital function of 4&s, who are called upon to control the activities of the
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e#ecutive and set limits to government actions. *t is the most difficult of functions as, with the steady e#tension of government activity over the last AH years, it became clear that the traditional approach to ensuring ministerial accountability to the Commons at -uestion &ime* was not sufficient and it had to be supplemented by other institutional devices $select committees, pressure groups, etc%. The government has to e#plain and defend its policies convincingly in the CommonsL should it lose its argument on a regular basis, its credibility would be under threat and it would lower the morale of its supporters. 0n important means of scrutinising the &rime 4inister is -uestion &ime which, prior to Blair(s victory in the elections of .GGD, used to take place for two fifteen-minute sessions every Tuesday and Thursday and attracted disproportionate attention. *t was mainly a heated engagement between the <eader of the @pposition and the &rime 4inister. Blair decided to have a one half-hour session :uestion Time on /ednesday afternoons. Think First! 7o you think the &rime 4inister(s :uestion Time is an e#ample of democracy1 7o you think that half an hour is enough for such pressing and divisive issues as banning fo#-hunting, the troubles in 9orthern *reland or the &rince of /ales(s marriage to Camilla &arker Bowles1 8se the space below to write your answers.
W&he +ommons as Isounding board of the nationG . The representative character of the =ouse with the 4&s standing for their constituencies secures a fair geographical representation of the country(s interests, concerns and needs. 0n important role of the 4&s is to ublicise their constituents vie,s and to seek the redress of their grievances. They can represent these views in a wide variety of ways+ in ma)or debates, on Ten-4inute -ule Bills* and emergency debates, through written and oral !uestions, etc. W&he legislative rocess. The scrutiny and approval of legislation is another fundamental and well recognised function of the Commons. The legislative process begins with a "reen #a er, which makes suggestions for legislation which may be debated in &arliament before a Bill is introduced. Comments are invited from
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anyone who wants to write in, whether an individual or an organisation and all comments are looked at. The ne#t stage is a White #a er, which contains firm proposals for a Bill, and again comments are invited. 0fter these consultation stages, a new Bill is announced in &arliament by the minister in charge of it. 0lthough this process is called the First ?eading, no debate on the Bill takes place. &rinted copies of the Bill are laid on the table of the =ouse and made available for all 4&s and other interested parties to read and comment upon. 0bout two weeks later, after 4&s have read the Bill, a thorough debate on general principles is held $about si# hours%, known as the Second ?eading. *t is then given detailed consideration, clause by clause, by a Commons committee. 0t the end a vote is taken to show whether or not the =ouse approves the Bill. &he voting may or may not be ,hi ed*, which means that 4&s are e#pected to vote as their party has decided they should $which is not always what really happens%. *f the bill is approved at the Second -eading, it is then referred to a Standing +ommittee where it is debated by a committee of between .C and AH 4&s chosen to reflect the party balance in the =ouse as a whole. *t is debated clause by clause and line by line, and lots of amendments may be introduced during this stage. Some more controversial bills might take as long as .HH hours or more during the Committee Stage. Then the Bill is returned to the floor of the =ouse, where the ?e ort Stage and the &hird ?eading follow. These may last for si# hours or more, taken together. 7uring these stages the =ouse as a whole debates the amendments passed by the Committee, and they may add their own amendments or new clauses. The Third -eading is usually no more than a brief and fairly repetitive debate on the general strengths and merits or demerits of the bill. 0nother whipped vote is taken. The scrutiny is complete, unless the =ouse of <ords insists upon any substantial amendments, as the bill has to go through the same stages in the =ouse of <ords as well. *f this happens, the Commons has to consider them later. *f the amendments are approved by the Commons, the latter simply sends a message notifying its agreement. Since the vast ma)ority of amendments by the <ords are inspired by the need for technical improvements, such amendments usually cause no problems in the Commons. They merely underline the usefulness of a bicameral legislative procedure. @nce it is through the <ords, a Bill is virtually in its final form awaiting the royal rubber stamp - the ?oyal Assent - to become an 0ct of &arliament. The whole process can take up to a year, but in special cases, pressure is put on the Commons and <ords to pass a bill very !uickly $e.g. bills that deal with civil disorder, terrorism, etc%L sometimes the process has to be completed within 36 hours. SAQ ! 4atch items in column one with items in column two to have a clear summary of the legislative process in British politics+
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..
ive stages for the bill to go through in the <ords 3. irst -eading
a.
Close scrutiny, detailed analysis and e#amination of the bill =ouse considers the amendments made in the committee, deciding whether to accept or re)ect them. 9ew amendments and clauses may be introduced. 7ebate is restrictedL the only amendments allowed are verbal or drafting amendments. /hipped vote taken. Becomes 0ct of &arliament. :ueen signs it. ;reen paper, /hite &aper, bill ordered to be printed and circulated, no debate 4inister in charge of the bill e#plains its policy and ma)or featuresL debate. The Bill scrutinised, amendments madeL then discussed in the Commons and accepted, re)ected or themselves changed. The act of parliament is entered into the Statute Book.
b.
5. Committee Stage
c.
6. Third -eading A. Twelfth Stage C. -eport Stage D. -oyal 0ssent
d. e. f. g.
F. Second -eading
h.
Besides "overnment bills there are also #rivate 0embers Bills, which are introduced by individual 4&s. They tend to deal with moral issues such as fo# hunting, corporal punishment and euthanasia. &he name of each 0# ,ho ,ishes to introduce a bill is ut in a hat, and the names of a fe, lucky members are dra,n at the beginning of each session) 4ost legislation passes through the Commons as the government wishes, but on a significant number of occasions the Commons have emphatically thrown it out. Since .GGD under Tony Blair, the <ords as well as backbenchers have rebelled on several occasions.
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SAQ 7 *n the case of important matters, the voting procedure usually applied is called %ivision. &ut the following sentences in chronological order so that you might find out what 7ivision means. 0fter you have done it, try and answer the !uestion+ *s this procedure cheat-proof1 Can you understand now why the vote is called 'whipped(1 The e#it doors, the one to the right hand of the Speaker and one to her>his left are opened. Two attendants count aloud while the Chief /hips see to it that all 4&s leave by the 'right( door. The Speaker calls+ IClear the lobbyJ. 0ll 4&s give their names and leave. Those in favour go out through the right-hand door and those against by the left-hand door. 0fter two minutes, the Speaker puts the matter to the vote. Throughout the houses of &arliament bells start to ring signalling 4&s to go to the division lobbies.
W#olitical education. The house plays an important role in the democratic education of the nation. The various stages in the )ourney of a bill are as many occasions for citi"ens at large to tune in to national debates on vital issues that are going to influence the lives of common people. 4inisters have to )ustify their actions on the floor of the =ouse or in the Standing Committee rooms. The 6ansard reports, printed verbatim reports of everything said and done during the proceedings of both parliamentary =ouses, are published daily. $The records of the <ords date back to .6GD and those of the Commons to .A6D%. 4any people watch the proceedings on T?. The twice-weekly clash between Thatcher and Binnock at &rime 4inister(s :uestion Time used to be the Ibiggest hitJ of the televised proceedings, although Thatcher fiercely opposed throughout her successive premierships the idea of televising the proceedings in the =ouse. Summarised highlights of =ouse proceedings are shown at F..A am on BBC, but there is also e#tensive coverage in the ma)or news bulletins. 5.2.7 The 9ecline of Commons #o)er and the +o.ement for (eform By the mid DHs it was believed that the Commons had reached its 'nadir of impotence( and had been relegated to a subsidiary role, almost matching the ritual status of the <ords. *t was alleged that most of its functions were of diminished importance and that the amendments introduced to bills proposed by the government were not substantial. *t was reported that during three sessions in the early .GDHs, GG.G per cent of government amendments to bills were passed, while only .H per cent of government backbench and A per
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cent of opposition amendments were approved $!uoted in Eones and Bavanagh, British #olitics &oday+ .5C%. *t is generally felt that the persistent fight for independent powers from an e#ecutive dominated by the monarch and the nobility, has sapped the energy of the =ouseF so no, the +ommons bo,s to an e:ecutive controlled by its o,n re resentatives) 0s <ord =ailsham memorably described the situation, governments have become 'elective dictatorships(. Some of the factors that have contributed to this decline of influence and power are given in the following paragraphs+ irstly, there is the gro,ing im ortance of arties in the olitical life of the country. They started to by-pass &arliament in reaching out to their electors, realising that support to their parties was instrumental in their chances for re-election. Secondly, as Tony /right, an important <abour 4& and political scientist, argues, #arliament as a forum for national olicy debate does not really e:ist + I/hat e#ists is government and opposition locked in an unending election campaign on the floor and in the committee rooms of the =ouse of Commons.J =e surveys the main functions of &arliament and concludes that none are performed really well. =e concludes+ IThere is no institution more in need of reformP the reform agenda has been sitting there for yearsP &arliament does not e#ist - but the task is to make it e#istJ. Thirdly, the o,er of the #rime 0inister has tended to become greater and greater, as he or she has e#erted sometimes a very tight control $as in the case of Thatcher and Blair% over the hundred members of the Cabinet. 4&s are reluctant to challenge the prime ministerial endorsement by acting independently. urthermore, the Commons( prerogatives have been superseded by many other governmental agencies, like the civil service* $about half a million are employed in the civil service now compared to about AH,HHH at the beginning of the 3H th century%. The growth of bureaucracy has also led to the delegation of a growing volume of legislation, with &arliament agreeing only the framework while often the important details are entrusted to civil servants. /hat is more, ressure grou s have been on the rise over the last decade or so. These interest groups are an important source of advice, information and lobbying. 4oreover, new legislation is often formulated by ministers and civil servants in con)unction with pressure group representatives. 0s with many ,uropean &arliaments, British membership of the ,8 leads to important decisions concerning the 8B economy being taken by Community institutions rather than the =ouse of Commons. &he means of direct democracy such as referenda have also had an important effect on eroding the power of the Commons. The movement for reform has gained ground since the CHs and some of the recent reforms stemmed from a report of .GDF to the effect that the Irelationship between the =ouse and the government is now weighed in favour of the government to a degree which arouses widespread an#iety and is inimical to the proper working of our parliamentary democracyJ. 0 =ouse of Commons Commission was set up in .GDF which gave the =ouse a greater measure of political and financial control over its own administration and personnel appointments. Special standing committees and ad hoc groupings that scrutinise bills in
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detail during the committee stage, were soon followed by others in an attempt to balance out the pressure groups. @ne of the most important reforms initiated was the setting up of select committees after the publication of the .GDF report. *n .GDG, most of the old committees that counted very little were abolished, and .6 new ones were established for 0griculture, 7efence, ,ducation, ,mployment, /ales, etc. They are made up of .AC 4&s in all, and they have so far produced over 6HH reports on a whole range of topics. 7evolution and proportional representation might also have important effects on the activities of the =ouse of Commons in the future. @nce in power, <abour established the Select Committee on the 4odernisation of the =ouse of Commons. The leader of the =ouse set out the government(s four priorities in .GGD+ more effective legislation through the publication of more draft bills and more e#tensive consultationL holding ministers to account through the hourly afternoon sessions for questioning the #rime 0inister and other ministersL improving the monitoring of delegated legislation, much of which currently passes relatively unscrutinisedL and the reducing of the ceremonial procedures often criticised as timeconsuming and unnecessary. *n conclusion, while the =ouse of Commons is in theory at least supreme in the constitutional arrangements of Britain, in practice it is usually controlled by the government in most normal &arliamentary circumstances. The position is however open to new challenges to the balance of power coming from radical reforms that are under way. SAQ *n what ways could devolution and reforms of election procedures, especially &roportional representation, influence Commons power1 Can you think of further factors that might contribute to its strengthened role in British democracy1
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Summary
*n this unit you were invited to sample the British democracy in action, to gradually become aware of the great merits of a political arrangement that laid the foundation of modern democracies, e#pressing the basic tenets of citi"ens( rights, duties and freedoms in the 4agna Carta of .3.A and developing and enhancing them ever since. Mou were permanently referred to as actors in the political game $you are mature -omanian citi"ens and you have voted at least once% and asked to analyse and compare the main democratic institutions and practices of British society to those in your own country. The history of the two =ouses of &arliament further supports the idea of democratic development in British society and a particular emphasis is laid on the radical changes that the =ouse of <ords underwent under the last eight years of 9ew <abour rule.
1'D C%NC'#TS constituency enfranchise>disenfranchise first-past-the-post $T&T&% proportional representation $&-% tactical voting casting ballot whipped>free vote Tory>/hig <ib-7ems /hip by-election Cabinet>Shadow Cabinet :uestion Time 7ivision =ansard Civil Service
GE%SSA(D
*yAelection R an election held in a single constituency between one general election and the ne#t. *t may be held because an 4& has retired or died, or because s>he has been transferred to the =ouse of <ords.
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Ca*inet R the governmentL the e#ecutive group of ministers, usually about 3H in number, who are chosen by the &rime 4inister to determine government policies. The team of ministers in the @pposition $the ma)or political party not currently in power% who would probably form the cabinet if their party won the ne#t general election is called Shado) Ca*inet. castin, *allot R a deciding vote used when both sides have an e!ual number of votes Ci.il Ser.ice R the state organi"ation, composed of several ministries or departments, that is responsible for carrying out the work of the government at all levels. Civil servants have no right to be actively involved in politics or to become an 4&. Their position thus is not affected by a change of government. consituency R a political administrative district whose voters elect a single 4& to represent them in the =ouse of Commons 9i.ision R a formal vote in the =ouse of Commons when 4&s divide into two groups, for the motion $IayeJ% or against it $InoJ% and go to one of two special corridors $division lobbies% to cast their vote. enfranchise R to grant adult citi"ens the right to vote. 0n adult in Britain legally refers to a person .F and over. *n the past, franchise was limited to male citi"ens only, but has been gradually e#tended over the past hundred and fifty years, becoming 'universal( in .G3F. $revoking this right is called disenfrachisement% firstA$astAtheA$ost R a collo!uial phrase $from horse-racing% that describes how the British electoral system works. The candidate given the largest number of individual votes, or the party gaining the largest number of seats subse!uently, wins an election. &ansard R the short title of the daily publication that gives a wordfor-word report of proceedings in the =ouses of &arliament $named after <uke =ansard, who first printed the )ournals of the =ouse of Commons in .DD6% &o)ard@ +ichael R outstanding British politician who in .GGH entered the Cabinet as Secretary of State for ,mployment, ollowing the .GG3 election, 4ichael =oward was appointed Secretary of State for the ,nvironment and *n 4ay .GG5, he became =ome Secretary, a position he held for four years. *n 9ovember 3HH5, he was elected <eader of the Conservative &arty and of =er 4a)estySs @pposition. Ei*A9ems R a short, collo!uial name for the <iberal 7emocrats, the third ma)or political party in Britain and the youngest of them. *t has its origins in the S7& $Social 7emocratic &arty% founded in .GF. by four right-wing members of the labour &arty. The S7& immediately formed an alliance with the <iberal &arty, merged with it in .GFF and in .GFG adopted its present name.
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$a,eantry R splendid show of ceremonial grandness with people in beautiful, ceremonial dress. #eel@ (o*ert R a famous politician and prime 4inister who entered &arliament as a Tory in .FHG, at the age of 3.. *n .F33 &eel became =ome Secretary, and it was during this time that he is credited with far-ranging criminal reform and the creation of the 4etropolitan &olice $the terms XbobbiesX and X eelersX come from his name%. &eel was appointed &rime 4inister in .F56 and in his Tamworth 4anifesto he outlined his support for the -eform 0ct, a shift which highlighted his adoption of a more enlightened Conservatism. *n .F6. during his second term as &rime 4inister he began his battle to open up free trade. $ro$ortional re$resentation R the system whereby a political party secures seats in an election in proportion to the actual numbers of people that voted for it. &roportional representation despite electoral promises of commitment both from Conservative and <abour politicians is not used in British political elections Question Time R the period of time in a &arliament when ministers answer members( !uestions. :uestion Time is shown on television and can be interesting to watch because of the loud, sometimes angry discussions which take place. TenA+inute (ule Bills R the start of public business on most Tuesdays and /ednesdays. Time is given for a backbench 4& to introduce a bill of their own. They may give a speech lasting ten minutes in support of their proposal. 4&s must give fifteen daysS notice to the &ublic Bill @ffice of their intention to present such a bill, and only one Ten 4inute -ule Bill may be introduced on any one day. To secure this much sought after slot, 4&s must be first in the !ueue at the &ublic Bill @ffice on the Tuesday or /ednesday morning three weeks prior to the date on which they wish to present their bill. 4&s desperate for this opportunity have been known to sleep overnight in the ante-chamber ne#t to the &ublic Bill @ffice in order to be first through the door when it opens the ne#t morning. *f the bill is approved by the =ouse at this first reading stage, it )oins the !ueue of &rivate 4embersS Bills waiting to receive a second reading. The government will only rarely allow a Ten 4inute -ule Bill to progress far enough to become law, so 4&s tend to use this procedure simply as a way of gaining publicity for a particular issue. Tory R an alternative name for the Conservative &arty, the name being inherited from the former ,nglish right-wing political party in e#istence from the .Dth century to the .F5H(s when the Conservative &arty was formed. hi, R a British political party of the .Dth century which supported the power of &arliament and wanted to limit royal power and which in the .Gth century became the <iberal &arty and arose as a left-wing party representing the interests of commerce and industry.
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)hi$$ed .ote R a practice whereby an 4& is determined to vote as his>her party decides, whilst in the case of a free .ote this does not apply.
ANS '(S to SAQs

SAQ 1 The most undemocratic reason is the non-representation of a substantial number of people in Britain in the =ouse of Commons where policy and legislation are made. These people do feel frustrated, and this can contribute to the feeling of disenfranchisement and to the electorate(s apathy and absenteeism. SAQ 2 Tactical voting has relative, circumstantial value as a democratic practice. Sometimes when none of the political contestants represent what you stand for, then you go for the lesser evil or you give your vote to those who can contribute to the defeat of those whom you consider dangerous for society $e#tremists, nationalists etc%. *t is not entirely democratic because it is not representative of one(s real choice and one(s political convictions. @f course, one simple way to solve the problem for an individual voter in Britain, if they are unhappy that their party never succeeds in their constituency because it is in a minority, is to move somewhere where they are in the ma)ority. *f it is too frustrating to cast your vote every five years and yet never help to elect an 4&, changing residence is a simple but perhaps drastic measure. SAQ 3 4argaret Thatcher+ -adical policies of privatisationL 0nti-trade union legislationL monetary reformL The 9eo-Conservative -evolutionL 0llegiance to free market and a Single ,uropean 4arket. Tony Blair+ 9ew <abour 9ew BritainL The democrati"ation of 7emocracyL 7evolutionL The Third /ayL 0 ,uropean future for Britain+ strengthening Britain(s ties with the ,uropean 8nion, 9o rights without responsibilities. SAQ 5 $.% SpeakerL $3% 7eputiesL $5% tiedL $6% casting ballotL $A% @ppositionL $C% &rime 4inisterL $D% front benchL $F% ministersL $G% CabinetL $.H% oreign SecretaryL $..% =ome SecretaryL $.3% budgetL
British Studies
$.5% $.6% $.A% $.C% $.D% $.F% $.G%
Chancellor of the ,#che!uerL <eader of the @ppositionL Shadow CabinetL front benchersL /hipsL CrownL backbenchers. one line whip two-line whip three-line whip
SAQ 7 Mour attendance is re!uested Mour attendance is necessary Mour attendance is essential SAQ 8
;reen paper, /hite &aper, bill ordered to be printed and circulated, no debate. Second -eading 4inister in charge of the bill e#plains its policy and ma)or featuresL debate. Committee Stage Close scrutiny, detailed analysis and e#amination of the bill. -eport Stage The =ouse considers the amendments made in the committee, deciding whether to accept or re)ect them. 9ew amendments and clauses may be introduced. Third -eading 7ebate is restrictedL the only amendments allowed are verbal or drafting amendments. /hipped vote taken. ive stages for the The Bill scrutinised, amendments madeL bill to go through then discussed in the Commons and the <ords accepted, re)ected or themselves changed. -oyal 0ssent Becomes 0ct of &arliament. :ueen signs it. Twelfth Stage The act of parliament is entered into the Statute Book. SAQ : The Speaker calls+ IClear the lobbyJ. Throughout the houses of &arliament bells start to ring signalling 4&s to go to the division lobbies. 0fter two minutes, the Speaker puts the matter to the vote. The e#it door, one to the right hand of the Speaker and one to her>his left are opened. Those in favour go out through the righthand door and those against by the left-hand door. 0ll 4&s give their names and leave. Two attendants count aloud while the Chief /hip sees to it that all 4&s leave by the 'right( door. SAQ ; 9othing can be anticipated with any certainty, but the conse!uences of devolution $reduction in si"e%, proportional representation $new parties being represented in the =ouse%, increased demands for
irst -eading
British Studies
final accountability of the e#ecutive to &arliament, and the strengthened role of select committees and of the 9olan committee, also better contacts between /estminster and the ,uropean &arliament, might add important dimensions to this issue in the not so distant future.
SAA No. 5 *n your opinion, is <abour(s proposal fair in resolving the point that legislative o,er should not be conferred by birth? /hat do you think about the law-making process in Britain1 *s there any British procedure, practice or institution that you would like to see in -omanian society1 /hy1 Send the answers to these !uestions to your tutor.
157
British Studies
GAEE'(D %F FA+%US B(ITS
'd)ard I <12:2A13?:=
'd)ard III <132:A13::=
'liLa*eth I <177;A18?3=
6ames I <18?3A11827=
Charles I <1827A185>=
Geor,e III <1:8?A1;2?=

Queen Jictoria <1;3:A1>?1=
'liLa*eth II $Coronation 1>73=

158
British Studies
6ohn ycliffe <132>A13;5=
%li.er Crom)ell <17>>A187;=
6ohn esley <1:?3A1:>1=
(o*ert
al$ole <18:8A1:57=
<,enerally re,arded as Britain4s first #rime +inister=
(o*ert #eel <1:;;A1;7?=
Ben/amin 9israeli <1;?5A1;;1=
illiam '. Gladstone <1;?>A1;>;=

Ne.ille Cham*erlain <1;8>A1>5?=
inston Churchill <1;:5A1>87=

159
British Studies
&arold +acmillan <1;>5A1>;8=
'd)ard &eath <1>18A =
&arold ilson <1>18 A1>>7=
Betty Boothroyd <u$ to 2??1 S$eaker of the &ouse of Commons=
+ar,aret Thatcher <*orn in 1>27@ #rime +inister 1>:>A1>>?=
Tony Blair <*orn 1>73@ #rime +inister since 1>>:=


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British Studies

Introduction to the British Studies Course

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UNIT 1 ho Are the British! British Identity " a #rocessual A$$roach

..... ....3 ....5 ....6 ....A ....C ....D ....F ....G

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Ten 0uestions and ans)ers a*out the British Isles

Fi,. 1 A +a$ of the United 1in,dom

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.H.HHH recordings of it would render the religion of the EediP official.

Fi,. 2 The Union 6ack

Well take a cu o kindness yet For auld lang syne!

Fi,. 3 Guy Fa)kes meets his intended .ictim <1in, 6ames I=

Fi,. 5 Guy Fa)kes

lan,ua,e@ $olitical culture and reli,ion

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elsh national sym*ol

Fi,. 8 The (oyal Coat of Arms

Fi,. : shamrock AA sym*ol of Ireland

Fi,. ; thistle " Scottish national em*lem

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ANS '(S to SAQs

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Fi,. > A +a$ of the British Counties

Fig. 10 A Celtic Torc

Fi,. 11 A +a$ of (oman Britain

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Fi,.12 The Great Bath

Fi,.13 The Gor,on4s head

Fi,.15 Goddess +iner.a

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Fi,. 17 A Jikin, lon,shi$

9utch and Flemish immi,rants

Gy$sy and Black immi,rants

French and 9utch #rotestant immi,rants

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SAQ 7 /hat are the ma)or causes of immigration in your opinion1

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UNIT 2 Britain A A +ulticultural Society!

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2.1.1 The (esilience of a Term- HBritish4

Fi,.1 The front co.er of A. +arr4s *ook

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Fig.2 John Wycliffe

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British Studies Fi,.3 1in, Charles I Fi,.5 %li.er Crom)ell

A clash of cultures in ales

A cultural ma$$in, of Scotland