Coral Reef Monitoring Manual For The Caribbean and Western Atlantic
Coral Reef Monitoring Manual For The Caribbean and Western Atlantic
Coral Reef Monitoring Manual For The Caribbean and Western Atlantic
= 0.05), the estimated sample mean would then have a 95% chance of being within
10% of the true mean.
The confidence interval indicates the range within which the true population mean (or other
parameter) will fall, given the specified degree of confidence. For example, with a confidence
level of 0.95, a confidence interval of {17.5 < x < 20.5} would indicate that the true popula-
tion mean lies somewhere between 17.5 and 20.5, 95% of the time. The more variable the
population, the wider the confidence interval.
It's also possible to calculate the number of samples required to determine a significant differ-
ence in the means of two independent samples (two-sample test). You'll need to know the
expected variability of your data, the significance level, and the power of the test (1- ).
A software program run within a Lotus 1-2-3 worksheet is available to calculate the minimum
number of samples you should take, and to graph high, mean, and low standard error versus
number of samples. See Bros and Cowell, 1987.
Analysis of Variance
Many statistical tests involve analysis of variance (ANOVA). In general, ANOVA provides a
way of determining if means from three or more samples differ significantly from each other.
"Repeated measures ANOVA" is appropriate if you are interested in determining if there is a
significant difference among mean values for three or more samples obtained from permanent
quadrats or transects on several different occasions.
If ANOVA indicates a significant difference in means among groups, multiple comparison
tests are performed to identify which means differ significantly from each other. Note that the
changes you detect are representative only of your fixed study sites and may or may not reflect
general changes for the entire reef.
If you wish to compare two sets of samples where there is a relationship between one data
point in the first sample and a corresponding one in the second sample, use a paired t-test. For
example, you could use a paired t-test to look at differences in percent cover of the dominant
species in permanent transects before and after a hurricane or other stress.
B - 3 Appendix B
Example of K-Dominance Curve
Parametric vs. Non-Parametric Tests
ANOVA and paired t-tests are examples of parametric tests. Non-parametric tests are used
when your hypothesis does not involve a population parameter (e.g., the mean or variance)
and when the assumptions required for use of parametric procedures are not met. For exam-
ple, ANOVA assumes that samples have been drawn from populations that have normal distri-
butions and equal variances. Many types of ecological data do not conform to these assump-
tions. An inherent assumption of non-parametric statistics is that different groups have similar
distribution. Visual census data on reef fishes collected with the Bohnsack method can be
analyzed using non-parametric tests such as the Mann-Whitney U test.
K-Dominance Curves
Univariate measures (e.g., percent cover, Shannon diversity H') have been shown to be less
sensitive than multi-dimensional scaling and certain graphical descriptors (k-dominance curves)
in detecting changes in coral community structure over time. K-dominance curves, which
may be used to show differences in species diversity of two or more samples, are independent
of any bias towards species richness or evenness, a problem which affects combined indices
such as H'.
To create a K-dominance curve, you calculate the percentile abundance or cover by rank in
descending order, with the most abundant species first. Comparing the curves over time or
among samples taken at different sites may indicate changes in ranking or the status of species
richness. Graphs in which the curve is lower than the baseline imply increased diversity; if the
curve is higher than the baseline, the diversity in the sample has decreased. Non-intersecting
k-dominance curves indicate a difference in species diversity of two samples, with the upper
curve representing a less diverse sample. (See Lambshead et al. 1983, Warwick et al. 1990,
Warwick and Clarke, 1991).
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NUMBER OF SPECIES
Appendix B B - 4
Multivariate Analyses
Multivariate analyses are another way to evaluate time series of data sets. Examples of
multivariate techniques include classification analysis, multi-dimensional scaling, principal
component analysis, and ordination. In the classification technique, data from all samples are
compared; a matrix is generated of similarity or dissimilarity among the data sets. Another
procedure in classification produces a dendrogram which geographically classifies the stations
in a descending hierarchical order. These techniques are useful in detecting patterns of change
or stability. Many of the rigid assumptions of parametric statistics are difficult to achieve in
fixed station monitoring programs, thus the non-parametric and multivariate analyses are
strong tools to tease apart the dynamics in the systems.
The Community Analysis System is a PC-based software program that can create simple
hierarchial species abundance tables, species area curves, K-dominance curves, or
sophisticated dendrogram graphics. It is available from: Ecological Data Consultants, Inc.
P.O. Box 760, Archer, Florida 32618.
References
Bros, W.E., Cowell, B.C. (1987) "A technique for optimizing sample size," J ournal of Experimental
Marine Biology and Ecology, 114:63-71.
Daniel, W.W. (1978) Applied Nonparametric Statistics, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 510
pages.
Green, R.H. (1979) Sampling Design and Statistical Methods for Environmental Biologists, J ohn
Wiley & Sons, New York, 257 pages.
Lambshead, P.J .D., Platt H.M., Shaw, K.M. (1983) "The detection of differences among assemblages
of marine benthic species based on an assessment of dominance and diversity," J ournal of Natural
History 17:859-874.
Ludwig, J .A., Reynolds, J .F. (1988) Statistical Ecology: A Primer on Methods and Computing, J ohn
Wiley & Sons, New York, 337 pages.
Peterman, R.M. (1990) "Statistical power analysis can improve fisheries research and management,"
Canadian J ournal of Fish and Aquatic Science 47:2-15.
Sokal, R.R., Rohlf, F.J . [1981]) Biometry, 2nd edition, W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, 859
pages.
Warwick, R.M., Clarke, K.R., and Suharsono (1990) "A statistical analysis of coral community
responses to the 1982-1983 El Nio in the Thousand Islands, Indonesia," Coral Reefs 8(4):171-179.
Warwick, R.M., Clarke, K.R. (1991) "A comparison of some methods for analyzing changes in
benthic community structure," J ournal of the Biological Association, United Kingdom 71:225-244.
Zar, J .H. (1984) Biostatistical Analysis, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, New J ersey, 718 pages.
C - 1 Appendix C
Appendix C: MATERIALS AND SUPPLIERS
Suppliers and Catalog Companies Supplies
Forestry Suppliers, Inc.
205 West Rankin Street
P.O. Box 8397
J ackson, MS 39284-8397
Phone: 1-800-647-5368 (U.S.)
(601) 354-3565
Steel survey stakes, fiberglass tape
measures, vinyl flagging,
clipboards, compasses, Secchi
disks, labware, sample bags
Hamm's Spectrum Art Supply
1756 Central Avenue
St. Petersburg, FL 33712
Faber-Castell graphite pure 2900
HB pencils
Ryan Recorder
8801 148th Avenue NE
P.O. Box 599
Redmond, WA 98073-0599
Phone: 1-800-999-7926
Fax: 206-883-3726
Hugron
Skipholti 50c
Rezkjavik
Iceland
Fax:354-1-689061
Thermistors
Martek Instruments, Inc.
P.O. Box 97067
3216-0 Wellington Court
Raleigh, NC 27624-7067
Phone: (919) 790-2371
Fax: (919) 790-2375
Transmissometers, multi-
parameter water quality meters
Hydrolab Corporation
P.O. Box 50116
Austin, TX 78763
(512) 255-8841
1-800-949-3766
Multi-parameter water quality
meters
Ben Meadows Company
3589 Broad Street
P.O. Box 80549
Atlanta, GA 30366
1-800-241-6401
Nalgene waterproof paper, vinyl
flagging, fiberglass tape measures,
sledge hammers, field books
47th Street Photo
455 Smith Street
Brooklyn, NY 11231
1-800-221-7774
Film in bulk quantities, cameras,
electronics, computers
Appendix C C - 2
Suppliers and Catalog Companies Supplies
Fisher Scientific
711 Forbes Avenue
Pittsburgh, PA 15219
(412) 562-8300
Labware, balances, microscopes,
centrifuges, conductance/salinity
meters, Whatman filters
Hach Chemical Company
P.O. Box 389
Loveland, CO 80539
1-800-227-4224
Hach kits for bacterial cultures
Turner Designs
845 W. Maude Avenue
Sunnyvale, CA 94086
Phone: (408) 749-0994
Fax: (408) 749-0998
Nephelometers, fluorometers
Global Computer Supplies
1050 Northbrook Parkway,
Dept. 44
Suwannee, GA 30174
Computer supplies
Goldberg's Marine
201 Meadow Road
Edison, NJ 08818
1-800-BOATING
West Marine
P.O. Box 50050
Watsonville, CA 95077
1-800-538-0775
Boating and marine supplies
Millepore Corporation
80 Ashby Road
Bedford, MA 01730
1-800-221-1975
Filters, filtering equipment
Thomas Scientific
P.O. Box 99
Swedesboro, NJ 08085-0099
(609) 467-2000
Lab instruments and supplies,
microscopes, vacuum pumps,
thermometers, glassware,
balances, refractometers,
fluorometers, oxygen meters
McMaster-Carr Supply Company
P.O. Box 4355
Chicago, IL 60680-4355
Nylon tags to mark coral colonies
For other suppliers of items for underwater use, see: The Underwater Catalog: A Guide to
Methods in Underwater Research (1990), by J . Coyer and J . Witman, Shoals Marine
Laboratory and New York Sea Grant Program, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
C - 3 Appendix C
APPROXIMATE EQUIPMENT COSTS (1994)
Installing Markers
Hydraulic systems for drilling $5,000
Stainless steel tubing $5 a foot
Survey stakes (30" long) $124 for 10 stakes
Physical and Chemical Monitoring
Instruments to measure temperature, salinity,
dissolved oxygen, pH and conductivity $1,600 - $7,200
Hugrun Seamon thermistor $1,300
Ryan Thermistor and underwater case $752
Ryan "Windows" $200
Microsoft "Windows" software $86
Pneumatic tools $100
GPS (Global Positioning System) $1,000 and up
Turbidimeter/Nephelometer $600
Light Transmissometer $8,000
Li-Cor quantum meter $1,400 - $2,000
Spectroradiometer $16,000
Dissolved oxygen meter $500 and up
Refractometer $400
pH meter $60 - $1,600
Centrifuge $400 and up
Fluorometer $3,500 and up
Appendix C C - 4
Hach kit $30 and up
Secchi disc $115
Spectrophotometer $4,400 and up
Biological Monitoring
Clipboard $2
All-weather field book $13
Underwater slate $10
Graphite pencil $2
Mylar sheets $0.50
Fiberglass tape measure (50 m) $45
" " " (100 m) $100
Number coded nylon tags $1 each
Vinyl flagging (150' roll) $1.35
Sledgehammer (2-lb.) $14
" (4-lb.) $20
Nikonos V camera with strobe and 28-mm lens $1,500
15-mm lens for Nikonos camera $1,000
Nikonos SLR with strobe and zoom lens $7,000
Construction of basic monopod or quadropod < $100
Sony Handicam Super High 8mm video camera $1,300
D - 1 Appendix D
Appendix D: LIST OF REVIEWERS
Bill Alevizon
Caribbean Conservation Corporation
Donald K. Atwood
Ocean Chemistry Division
Atlantic Oceanographic and
Meteorological Laboratory, NOAA
Paul Bartels
Department of Biology
Warren Wilson College, North Carolina
J im Beets
Department of Biology
University of Richmond, Virginia
Gigi Beretta
Australian Institute of Marine Science
J im Bohnsack
National Marine Fisheries Service
Miami, Florida
David Booth
Australian Institute Marine Science
J ohn Bythell
University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Center for Tropical Coastal
Management Studies
Kalli De Mayer
Bonaire Marine Park
Mary Falconer
The Nature Conservancy
Alan Friedlander
Department of Zoology
University of Hawaii, Honolulu
Ellen Gorman
National Biological Survey
Virgin Islands National Park
Robert B. Halley
U.S. Geological Survey
St. Petersburg, Florida
Doug Harper
National Marine Fisheries Service
Miami, Florida
J ulie Hawkins
Eastern Caribbean Center
University of the Virgin Islands
Walter C. J aap
Florida Marine Research Institute
St. Petersburg, Florida
J oe Kimmel
National Marine Fisheries Service
St. Petersburg, Florida
Richard Laydoo
Environmental Research Programme
Institute of Marine Affairs, Trinidad
Malden Miller
Montego Bay Marine Park, J amaica
J ohn Ogden
Florida Institute of Oceanography
St. Petersburg, Florida
J ulie Overing
Conservation and Fisheries Department
Ministry of Natural Resources and Labour
Tortola, British Virgin Islands
J im Petterson
National Park Service
Virgin Islands National Park
Callum Roberts
Eastern Caribbean Center
University of Virgin Islands
Appendix D D - 2
Allan "Kaf" Smith
Caribbean Natural Resources Institute
Kathleen Sullivan
The Nature Conservancy
Miami, Florida
Craig Tobias
Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences
Ed Towle
Island Resources Foundation
St. Thomas, USVI
Tom Van't Hof
Saba, Netherlands Antilles
Vance P. Vicente
National Marine Fisheries Service
Hato Rey, Puerto Rico
Bert Williams
Department of Marine Science
University of Puerto Rico-Mayaguez
Nicholas Wolff
University of Rhode Island
Appendix D D - 4