Algae in Water Supplies

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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE

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Public Health Service

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LIBRARY OF MICHIGAN
ALGAE IN
WATER SUPPLIES
An Illustrated Manual on the Identification, Significance, and

Control of Algae in Water Supplies
C. MERVIN PALMER
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY CLARENCE M. TARZWELL

ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOR BY HAROLD J. WALTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH , EDUCATION , AND WELFARE
PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
Bureau of State Services · Division of Water Pollution Control

.
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center
CINCINNATI , OHIO
Public Health Service Publication No. 657
1959
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C. .
Price $ 1
FOREWORD
This manual has been prepared for water analysts and others who deal with the many
problems and effects associated with the presence of algae in water supplies. The need of
an up -to - date concise account of the algae important in water supplies has been felt for some
time, and the large demand for copies of a preliminary article 1 on the subject, published
in June 1955, confirms this interest.
In the present state of our knowledge and with increasing activities in this field , any
manual on algae can be only a broad forerunner of more specific handbooks on various phases
of the subject. Workers will now have at least a concise general account, the absence of which
has doubtless prevented many from making adequate analyses of the aquatic organisms belong
ing to this important group of plants.
nostreno
MARK D. HOLLIS ,
Assistant Surgeon General
Chief Engineer, PHS.
1 Public Works, vol. 86 no. 6 pp. 107–120 ( June 1955 ) .
III
PREFACE
The available literature on algae has tended to be of two extreme types. Several recent
treatises contain extensive scientific descriptions of algae of particular areas or are monographs
of a single genus or group. These are excellent for academic studies and for encyclopedic and
background references in applied phycology. At the other extreme are a considerable number
of brief papers concerned with certain phases of problems, enumeration , or treatment of algae
in water supplies. None of these are sufficient for use as guides in dealing with the recogni
tion of the more important kinds of algae together with the interpretation and use of such
information in the control or utilization of algae present in water supplies.
This manual has been prepared to help fill the need for more complete information on
those algae important in water supplies and particularly to include a key, illustrations, and
other aids needed for their identification . References to related literature are listed at the
ends of the chapters in which they are cited.
There has also been an expanding interest in developing new industrial procedures where
algae are utilized. This is in addition to various problems which they are responsible for in
water treatment and water use. Together these interests have brought about an increasing
demand for information on the algae which are involved .
The manual omits the many rare or uncommon algae as well as those growing in habitats
other than water supplies. Only a limited amount of information is included on marine and
estuarine algae ; the bulk of the manual deals with the fresh-water forms.
RTMENNT
It is not possible at present to refer to any single or standard procedure for the recording
and counting of algae and for their control. We can merely point and work in that direction.
ATIO
OF IGAN
With the desire growing for exchange of algological data by water treatment plants, and by
ulgae, the need for standardized procedures is becoming more
DEPA
EDUC
MICH
the aid of many co -workers has been requested and has been
2 work of correcting and critical reading of the manuscript has
bers of the staff of the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering
nent for this service is given particularly to B. B. Berger, Chief
er Pollution Program , C. M. Tarzwell, Chief Aquatic Biologist,
Officer. Credit for producing the colored illustrations of algae
Avenugan
e
| for the cover design to Judith A. Walters. All photographs

Michi
East
shed by the writer except Figure 38 which was obtained from

735
ARY
er Purification, Bureau of Water, Chicago, Illinois. The writer

, ichiggan
; and many others for their painstaking cooperation in prepara

STATE
LIBR
MLansin
48913
C. MERVIN PALMER, In Charge

Interference Organisms Studies
Water Supply and Water Pollution Program
LIBRARY
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center

Cincinnati, Ohio
RATE
FROM
V
CONTENTS
Page
1. Introduction . 3
2. Significance of Algae in Water Supplies 5

3. Identification of Algae . 8
4. Taste and Odor Algae 18
5. Filter Clogging Algae . 22
6. Polluted Water Algae . 38
7. Clean Water Algae . 41

8. Plankton and Other Surface Water Algae 43
9. Algae Attached to Reservoir Walls 47
10. Additional Problems Caused by Algae in Water Supplies 50
11. Additional Uses for Algae Found in Water Supplies . . 55

12. Procedures for Enumeration of Algae in Water 60
13. Control of Algae 63
Appendix:
Key to Algae of Importance in Water Supplies 68
Glossary 76
Bibliography 81
Genus and Species Index 85
TABLES
Table Page
1. Comparison of the four major groups of algae in

water supplies 8
2. Algae in water supplies -- a list of the more im

portant species 12
3. Recent changes in names of algae 14
4. Taste and odor algae, representative species 19
5. Odors, tastes, and touch sensations associated

with algae in water . 20
6. Filter clogging algae . . 23
7. Pollution algae . 38
8. Clean water algae . 42
9. Plankton and other surface water algae 46
10. Algae attached to reservoir walls 48
11. Additional problems caused by algae in water
supplies . 51
12. Other uses for algae in water supplies 58

13. Relative toxicity of copper sulfate to algae 64
VII
ILLUSTRATIONS
Color Plate Page
1. Taste and odor algae . •
26
2. Filter clogging algae . 28
3. Pollution algae . 30
4. Clean water algae . 32
5. Plankton and other surface water algae 34
6. Algae growing on reservoir walls . 36
Figure Page Page

Figure
1. Mats of algae floating on the surface of water . 6
27. Thick walled zygospores formed during sexual
2. Water net, Hydrodictyon reticulatum . 9 reproduction in Zygnema normani . 16
3. Spirogyra ellipsospora .
9
28. True branching in the blue-green alga, Nosto
4. Spirogyra varians . 9 chopsis lobatus 16
5. A blue-green alga, Desmonema wrangelii . 9 29. Ulothrix zonata , vegetative filament and stages
6. A green alga, Pediastrum boryanum . 9 in spore production . Its two strains react
7. A desmid , Cylindrocystis brebissonii . 9 differently to pollution . . 39
8. Anacystis cyanea ( formerly Microcystis aeru 30. Oscillatoria limosa . 39
ginosa ). . 9 31. Oscillatoria tenuis 39
9. Agmenellum quadriduplicatum ( formerly Merismo 32. Oscillatoria princeps . 39
pedia glauca ) . .
9 33. Phormidium uncinatum 39
10. Phytoconis botryoides (formerly Protococcus viri 34. Calothrix parietina is attached to logs and stones in
dis ) . .
9 41
running water
11. Haematococcus lacustris ( formerly Sphaerella la 35. Ankistrodesmus falcatus 44
custris) 9 36. A surface blanket of filamentous algae . . 44
12. Colonies of indefinite form in Oocystis novae 37. Gloeotrichia natans 45
semliae 9
38. Plankton diatoms showing distinctive shapes of
13. A simple filament, Anabaena constricta . 9 cells and colonies 45
14. Threads are grouped into erect cones in Symploca 39. Vaucheria geminata 47
muralis 9 40. Vaucheria sessilis 47
15. Filament with alternate branching in Microtham 41. Pithophora oedogonia 48
nion strictissimum . 11 42. Schizomeris leibleinii 48
16. A branching, tubular, nonseptate alga, Botrydium 43. Stigonema hormoides . . 48
granulatum . 11 44. Tetraspora. Portion of colony showing cells
17. Cells embedded in a gelatinous tube in Hydrurus grouped in fours. Pseudocilia are barely vis
foetidus 11 ible on a few of the cells . 48
18. Mature and young portions of Compso pogon 45. Closterium lunula , a desmid 51
coeruleus . 11
19. Microcoleus paludosus, showing a single thread 46. Lyngbya majuscula , showing empty sheath ex
tending between threads of cells . 53
and a group of threads surrounded by a
sheath , under high and low magnification 16
47. Nodularia spumigena, the first blue -green alga
reported as toxic 54
20. Scenedesmus quadricauda , showing spine -like ex
tensions on the terminal cells . 48. Coccochloris peniocystis . 56
16
21. Lateral flagella in Merotrichia capitata 16
49. Trachelomonas hispida . 56
22. Anterior flagella on cells of Pleodorina illinoi 50. Scenedesmus obliquus . 57

sensis 16 51. Pediastrum duplex . 57
23. Posterior and lateral views of anterior flagella 52. Chlorogonium euchlorum . 57
on Gonium sociale . 16 53. Nannoplankton counting slide 60
24. Two spore- producing cells on filaments of Tren 54. Algal plankton record 61
tepohlia aurea . 16 55. Experimental testing of a potential algicide:
25. Enlarged terminal reproductive cells on filaments (a) Applying the algicide to a blanket of
of Audouinella violacea . 16 algae 65
26. Terminal cells specialized for sexual reproduction (b) Results of the test: Blanket of algae has
16
in Vaucheria arechavaletae disappeared . 65
VIII
Algae in Water Supplies
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
THE GREAT INCREASE in population and the rapid sance organism problems will become more widespread and
development of agriculture and industry have caused a phe severe as our growing urban populations and industry con
nomenal increase in our use of water in recent years and have tinue to discharge their wastes into streams.
brought about many difficult problems in the procurement of In muddy streams such as the Missouri, turbidity limits
suitable water supplies. As the country continues to grow light penetration sufficiently so that few problems occur from
and develop, these problems will become more widespread algal growth. When impoundments are built in such a
and complex. In the past, most people of the United States stream they create settling basins in which the water clears
have taken their water supply for granted, assuming that it and algal growths develop, producing tastes and odors or
is something which is always available. This may be due in other nuisance conditions. The extensive impoundment pro
part to our efficient water distribution systems. The present gram which has been underway for over 20 years can create
generation has become so accustomed to an abundant, safe many water supply problems which did not exist previously
and potable water supply at the mere turning of a tap, that in these waters.
its value and importance are not realized. It is certain, how Pool size, shape, depth, amount of shore line, extent of
ever, that the people of this country will increasingly recog shoal areas, character of the bottom , physiography and soils
nize that suitable water supplies are exhaustible and that of the watershed, amount and rate of precipitation, sunlight,
water costs whatever you have to pay to get it. and the quality of the water are all factors influencing the
In the clearing and development of the country, especially growth of algae in a reservoir. A narrow deep reservoir
the eastern portion , changes in the ground cover and the having no shoal areas, a minimum of shore line, little wind
surface soil have greatly altered surface runoff and ground mixing, and unproductive watershed, and soft water low in
seepage . Deforestation, fires, overgrazing, agricultural use, dissolved solids will have less algae than a wide, shallow,
and drainage have increased surface runoff and erosion and irregular reservoir located in an area of rich soil where the
reduced soil seepage in many areas. It has been estimated by incoming water is rich in dissolved materials and there is
some authorities that, during the past 50 years, the water complete wind mixing. In many areas the best reservoir
table in the eastern half of the country has been lowered sites have already been utilized. New reservoirs will have
about 60 feet. The lowering of the water table, coupled with to be built in less favorable sites where productivity of algae
increased use of ground water, has created severe shortages will be greater. In the great plains area and in several other
of ground water in many areas. parts of the country, reservoir sites for water storage are
As population and industrial demands increase and ground usually wide and shallow and favorable for the development
water supplies become inadequate, more and more cities and of plankton growths.
villages are turning to lakes, streams, or reservoirs for their In view of these conditions problems due to nuisance
water supplies. This change from ground to surface source organisms will become more widespread and of greater im
of supply has created many new problems for those engaged portance. In several areas they are now the number one
in the procurement and treatment of water for domestic and problem of water works operators.
other uses. Ground waters are essentially free of organisms The importance of the nuisance organism problem was
which may cause nuisance problems, whereas all surface recognized when aquatic biological investigations were acti
waters contain many organisms which may complicate the vated in the Public Health Service water research labora
provision of a potable water. Some problems are odor and tories at Cincinnati. A unit was set up in 1950 to study
taste, the clogging of filters, growths in pipes, cooling towers organisms that create problems in the provision of a potable
and on reservoir walls, surface water mats or blooms, infesta water supply and to develop methods for their control or
tions in finished waters, and toxicity. elimination . Because tastes and odors seemed to be of out
Present methods of waste disposal are intensifying the standing importance, work on this phase of the problem has
nuisance organism problems in water supplies. The number been stressed . Work has been done, however, on algicides
and kinds of algae and other organisms which grow in sur and several other phases of the problem . Although it has
face waters depend on environmental conditions. Fertiliz been possible to secure unialgal cultures of a large number of
ing materials such as sewage and organic wastes from milk species, the growing of algae in pure culture has been diffi
plants, canneries, slaughter houses, paper mills, starch fac cult. Methods have yet to be developed for the growth in
tories, and fish processing plants greatly increase the pro pure culture of most of the algal species believed to produce
ductivity of the waters and their crops of algae and other odors or tastes in water supplies. Some species do not grow
plankton organisms, many of which produce problems when readily in the absence of bacteria, indicating that bacteria
they become abundant. It is apparent, therefore, that nui may produce some material needed by the algae. The addi
3
4 ALGAE IN WATER SUPPLIES
tion of vitamins and certain organic materials has provided tion of effort, and only occasional systematic recording of
needed nutrients in some instances. essential data. The great majority of water works are not
Until recently our knowledge of taste and odor algae was staffed for making studies to determine the cause of their
circumstantial and rather loose. When odors or tastes de trouble, to identify the organisms responsible, or to detect
velop in water supplies, they are commonly blamed on the their development before the undesirable materials actually
most abundant forms, which may or may not be the cause. Of get into the water system in quantity. The value of con
course, when the same alga is found in a series of taste and tinued surveillance of algal populations has been proven by
odor outbreaks, the circumstantial evidence becomes quite studies in several of the larger water plants. There has been
strong. However, since most forms alleged to cause odor or a need for some time for a planned and uniform approach to
taste are usually reported as the genus, the information is this problem , usable by more plants and placing information
rather loose, in that some of the genera may contain 100 or in an understandable and useful form into the hands of those
more species. who need it . This manual is an attempt to meet this need
When the nuisance organism work was first undertaken at by water plant operators in appraisal of nuisance organism
the Sanitary Engineering Center, it was considered essential problems and furnishing information for remedying some
to work only with species and to grow them in pure culture difficulties.
free from bacteria , molds, yeasts, actinomycetes, and other It is realized that very few operators or members of their
organisms, in order to determine definitely whether a par staff have had training in aquatic biology or in the identifica
ticular alga caused a taste or odor. The development of tion of algae. However, if growths of algae are to be de
methods for the culturing of algae required considerable tected and controlled before they cause trouble, continued
time and effort. Therefore, it was decided to go beyond the surveillance of plankton populations and identification of
determination of odor or taste production, and studies have the organisms are essential. This manual presents a simpli
been made to improve methods of using existing algicides fied key limited to species of importance in water supplies.
and to find better or more specific materials. Specific algi All terms and structures used in this key are defined and
cides would be of considerable economic benefit, as smaller illustrated. The most important species of algae are illus
amounts of material could be used to control only undesirable trated in three -dimensional drawings in color which show
forms without affecting the others. This is very important both external and internal structures. The drawings are
from the standpoint of fisheries management, as algae consti based on actual specimens and on descriptions from a large
tute much of the base of the food pyramid on which all the number of texts. It is believed that with these drawings
higher forms of aquatic life depend. Further, such a pro and the key any operator who applies himself diligently will
cedure gives a form of biological control. The application be able to identify at least the most important forms. As
of very toxic materials in large dosages which kill practically experience is gained he should become able to detect the
all the algae is undesirable. When much of the population is development of troublesome algae so that control measures
destroyed , the weed species come back first, and, since there can be initiated before real trouble develops. In addition to
is little competition, in great abundance. If selective algi the key and plates, the manual deals with the ecology and
cides can be discovered, their use will control the problem life history of algae and presents concise and pertinent in
species, while the desirable forms can increase so that the formation on filter clogging and mat- forming algae, attached
undesirable species are less likely to come back in large forms, algicides, and algal control.
numbers. Eventually this manual may become useful in at least
Algicidal and/or biological controls are feasible in lakes, two other ways in meeting important problems. If algicides
small streams, or reservoirs where most of the water is used . specific for certain species or groups of species can be found,
They are economically unsuited to large lakes or rivers where operators can identify the organisms causing the trouble and,
only a portion of the water is used by the water plant. In from a listing of specific algicides, determine the particular
such situations some other method of treatment must be pro material which should be used for control. Further, if the
vided in the water plant. It is believed that materials caus source and substance of materials produced by algae which
ing odor or taste are present in very small amounts. If the cause odors or tastes can be identified, the operator will be
taste and odor materials produced by so -called nuisance or helped to determine what materials and methods should be
ganisms are known, it may be possible to treat or change used in the water plant to render innocuous the algal
them by additives to render them innocuous. This could metabolites causing the trouble.
probably be done in the coagulation process. Investigations
are underway to recover, isolate, and identify odoriferous CLARENCE M. TARZWELL ,
materials produced by algae and other organisms in water Chief of Aquatic Biology
supplies. Robert A. Taft Sanitary
Studies of attempts to control algal problems in water Engineering Center
works have revealed hit - or-miss procedures, little coordina Cincinnati, Ohio
CHAPTER II
SIGNIFICANCE OF ALGAE IN WATER SUPPLIES
ALGAE are common and normal inhabitants of surface that are dispersed and not in blooms or mats normally would
waters and are encountered in every water supply that is have just the opposite effect.
exposed to sunlight. While a few of the algae are found in The algae that collect and grow on the surface of a slow
soil and on surfaces exposed to air, the great majority of sand filter as a gelatinous slimy film may be responsible for
them are truly aquatic and grow submerged in the waters of graudally reducing the flow through the bed, but they also
ponds, lakes, reservoirs, streams, and oceans. By operators perform a useful service by adding oxygen to the water,
of water treatment plants the algae are best known for their which permits the bacterial decomposition of organic matter
ability to produce odors and tastes and to clog sand filters. within the filter to remain aerobic. Anaerobic activities in
In addition, they have come to be recognized as important the sand bed would tend to render the filtrate less palatable.
in the water supply in many other ways, including their ca The slimy mass of algae and other aquatic plants and ani
pacity for modifying the pH, alkalinity, color, turbidity, mals at the surface of a slow sand filter is called the “ filter
and lately the radioactivity of the water. Some are un skin " and has also been referred to under the German name
doubtedly the most troublesome of the various types of nui of " Schmutzdecke."
sance organisms, but others can actually be put to good use The unattached organisms that are dispersed individually
in improving a water supply. or in colonies in the water are designated collectively as the
One of the principal reasons for the importance of algae " plankton .” Included are the plankton algae, which consti
is their alibity to give rise to very large quantities of or tute most of the “phytoplankton” ( meaning plant plankton ),
ganic matter in the water. It has been estimated, for ex and the planktonic animals or " zooplankton . ” When the
ample, that more than 130 tons of algae per day flow into water supply comes from a large, deep reservoir or lake, the
Fox River, Wis., from Lakė Winnebago ( 1 ) . The volume planktonic algae are likely to be of much more significance
of plankton algae in the Scioto River, Ohio, has reached a than the attached or " benthic” algae. Many water treat
maximum of more than 8,000 p.p.m. (2) . Algal counts for ment plants, therefore, keep records of the plankton but not
Lake Michigan at Chicago have at times been over 4,000 of the benthos. In some treatment plants it is a general
organisms per ml. (3 ) , and the White River in Indiana has practice to apply an algicide to the raw water whenever the
records of counts exceeding 100,000 algae per ml. (4) . Such concentration of planktonic algae approaches a count of 500
large quantities of algal material can always be counted on areal standard units per ml. ( 5 ) .
to cause serious difficulties in water treatment plants. All surface waters contain dissolved and suspended ma
Small numbers of certain particular kinds of algae may terials which serve as nutrients and support the growth not
also be troublesome. The diatoms Tabellaria, Synedra , and only of algae but of many other kinds of aquatic life, num
Melosira will almost invariably reduce the length of filter bers of which are governed to a great extent by the amounts
runs. The brown flagellate, Synura, even in small numbers, and kinds of nutrients available. Some of the aquatic plants
is a notorious taste and odor producer. Comparatively low and animals are large, such as the fish, turtles, cattails, and
concentrations of most of the algae, however, are often an water lilies, but there are immense populations of small
asset rather than a liability in raw waters. forms, many of them microscopic in size. The microscopic
Unattached , visible, and sometimes extensive accumula organisms in addition to algae include bacteria, actinomy
tions of algae at or near the surface of the water are desig cetes, molds or fungi, yeasts, protozoa, rotifers, micro -crus
nated as " blooms” or “ mats ” ( fig. 1 ) or " blankets, ” the last tacea, minute worms, and mites. Many of these may play
two terms generally being applied when the algae are in the a major part in affecting the quality of the water and have
form of threads or filaments. Many of the algae attached to be dealt with in the process of preparing water for do
to submerged rock, wood, soil, or the surface of trickling mestic and industrial use . The present account deals pri
filters may form continuous carpets of growth. When the marily with the algae but it is obvious that the activities of
water becomes turbulent, fragments of the algal carpet may one group of organisms are closely associated with activities
become detached and be carried away. These massive of the other organisms present in the same environment.
growths of algae can be troublesome in clogging screens, in
the production of slime, and as a source of tastes and odors PHOTOSYNTHESIS
particularly if anaerobic decomposition occurs. The blooms
and surface mats can be the cause for complaints by persons Algae differ from the other groups of small or microscopic
using the body of water for recreational purposes. They also organisms in possessing an internal green pigment called
may be one cause of fish kills by acting as a barrier to the chlorophyll, sometimes hidden or partially masked by other
penetration of oxygen into water under the algae. Algae pigments, which enables them in the presence of sunlight to
5
Figure 1.—Mats of algae floating on the surface of water.
combine water and carbon dioxide to form starch or related The algae make possible important chemical changes and
substances, and to release oxygen into the water. This metabolic activities in the water through their release of
process known as photosynthesis ( 6 ) is absent in all typical oxygen during daylight hours. The oxygen is made avail
bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, yeasts, protozoa , and crus able for respiration that is carried on by all types of animals
tacea . In general it is not characteristic of animals but is from fish on down to the smallest forms. It helps to prevent
common to all types of green plants. On the other hand, foul or septic conditions by stimulating the activities of
respiration is a process carried on by all plants and animals aerobic rather than anaerobic bacteria . The algae constitute
and the gaseous exchange is the opposite of that in photo the primary source for continuous daytime renewal of this
synthesis; i.e., oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is re essential element in most bodies of quiet water. Oxygen re
leased. However, in algae and other green plants the rate of lease by algae and oxygen uptake by reaeration are the two
their photosynthesis is normally faster than their respiration . primary sources for renewal of oxygen in flowing streams
These organisms, therefore, release more oxygen than they and turbulent water.
use and absorb more carbon dioxide than they release while Another important chemical effect of algae is the continu
animals and other nonphotosynthetic organisms release ous removal of carbon dioxide from the water during the
carbon dioxide and absorb oxygen from their environment . daylight hours as a result of photosynthesis. This process
For this reason , the amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide brings about an alteration in the relative amounts of soluble
in an environment such as water often depend to a large ( unbound) carbonic acid, intermediately soluble ( half
degree upon the relative rates of photosynthesis and respira bound ) bicarbonates, and the nearly insoluble ( bound ) mono
tion being carried on collectively by the algae, bacteria, and carbonates, often causing some of the latter to precipitate.
other organisms in that area . All of this produces a change in the total hardness of the
Some aquatic, pigmented forms containing chlorophyll water. Vigorous algal growths have been known to reduce
are able to swim or crawl, although most of the typical algae the water hardness by as much as one -third.
are not capable of self locomotion. Many of these pigmented These changes in carbon dioxide and hardness also tend to
swimming forms have whip-like structures called flagella change the pH of the water. The pH will increase as the
and have been classified by some workers as protozoan ani algae increase their photosynthetic activity during daylight
mals rather than as algae. However, it seems best, in sani hours. The pH then decreases at night when the algae are
tary science, to list them as algae ( 7 ) . not carrying on photosynthesis but are releasing carbon di
Significance of Algae in Water Supplies 7
oxide in respiration. These changes in hardness and in pH REFERENCES

must be taken into account at the water treatment plant since
1. Current water pollution investigations and problems in Wisconsin .
they may require changes in the dosages of chlorine, alum , K. M. Mackenthun . In Biological Problems in Water Pollu
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Corrosive activity of the water is also often increased as a Public Health Service, Robt. A. Taft San . Eng. Center, p . 179–
result of algal growth. This can have far -reaching effects 183. 1957.
on the pipes in the distribution system and on many indus 2. A study of pollution and natural purification of the Scioto River.
R. W. Kehr, W. C. Purdy, J. B. Lackey, O. R. Placak, and W. E.
trial processes where water is in contact with the machinery. Burns. U.S. Public Health Service, Public Health Bull. 276 ,
In California, algae attached to the metal walls of sedimen 153 p . 1941.
|
tation tanks caused deep pits to be formed in the metal as a 3. Quantitative study of the phytoplankton of Lake Michigan at
result of the depolarizing action of the oxygen produced by Evanston , Illinois. K. E. Damann. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud.
the algae. Algae in contact with submerged concrete blocks 5 : 27-44 . 1941.
have caused complete disintegration of the concrete ( 8 ) . 4. Plankton populations in Indiana's White River. J. B. Lackey
Increasing attention is now being paid to algae that pro and E. R. Hupp. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn . 48 : 1024-1036 .
1956 .
duce toxic organic substances causing the death of many 5. Comprehensive survey of taste and odor problems. H. N. Lendall.
kinds of wild and domestic animals. However, there appear Water Wks. Eng. 99 : 1237-1238. 1946.
to be few records of algae that are toxic to humans, although 6. Photosynthesis in the algae. R. W. Krauss. Indust. and Eng.
some have several times been looked upon with suspicion as Chem . 48 : 1419–1455. 1956.
the possible cause of certain outbreaks of gastro -intestinal 7. Suggested classification of algae and protozoa in sanitary science.
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27 : 1183–1188. 1955 .
Problems introduced by algae in the providing of suitable 8. Biological corrosion of concrete. E. T. Oborn and E. C. Higgin
water supplies, together with the utilization of some of these Joint Rept. Field Crops Res. Branch , Agric. Res. Service,
same organisms in improving the water supplies and in treat U.S. Dept. Agric., and Bur. Reclamation, U.S. Dept. Interior.
ment of sewage, clearly indicate aa need for more knowledge 8 p. Jan. 1954 .
of their environmental requirements, life histories, growth, 9. Algae and other interference organisms in New England water
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72 : 27-46 . 1958 .
search scientists at a number of laboratories, including the
Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center of the Public 10. Algae and other organisms in waters of the Chesapeake area .
C. M. Palmer. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn . 50 : 938-950.
Health Service in Cincinnati, are studying the various algae 1958 .
of importance in water and sewage. 11. Algae and other interference organisms in Indiana water supplies.
Reports have been published for various parts of the con C. M. Palmer and H. W. Poston . Jour. Amer. Water Wks.
tinent which summarize the importance of algae and other Assn . 48 : 1335–1346 . 1956.
interference organisms in water supplies. The regions that 12. Survey of water purification practice in Canada . D. H. Matheson
have been covered include New England ( 9 ) , the Chesapeake and A. V. Forde . Jour. Amer . Water Wks. Assn . 49 : 1522-1530 .
area ( 10 ), Indiana ( 11 ) , and Canada ( 12 ) . 1957 .
CHAPTER III
IDENTIFICATION OF ALGAE
SEVERAL of the larger groups of algae are recognized by In the pigmented flagellates are placed all of the swimming
their common names, such as the diatoms, desmids, armored algae which have flagella. Euglena ( pls. 3 and 5 ) and Sy
flagellates, euglenoids, greens, blue - greens, yellow -greens, nura ( pl. 1 ) are representatives of this group. A compari
browns, golden -browns, and reds. Included in these groups son of the more significant characteristics of the four groups
are numerous individual kinds which total probably more of algae is summarized in table 1 .
than twenty thousand. A few of the less specific kinds of A total of 262 species of the most important algae are in
algae have common names as well as scientific names, as for cluded in the next six chapters of this manual, being con
example, the names “water net” for Hydrodictyon ( fig. 2 ) , sidered according to their significance under the general
" green felt" for Vaucheria, "sea lettuce” for Ulva, " water titles of Taste and Odor Algae, Filter Clogging Algae, Pol
silk ” for Spirogyra, and " stone wort ” for Chara. Each one luted Water Algae, Clean Water Algae, Surface Water Algae
of these is known as a genus ( plural, “ genera ” ) and is com ( plankton and surface-mat algae ), and Algae Attached to
posed of specific kinds known as species (plural also is " spe Reservoir Walls. In table 2, these algae are listed alpha
cies " ). For example, two species of the genus Spirogyra betically, together with their group, the title under which
would be Spirogyra ellipsospora ( fig. 3 ) and Spirogyra va they are discussed , and the plate or figure where they are
rians ( fig. 4 ) . For the great majority of algae there are illustrated . A “ key ” for their identification is included in
only scientific names available , no common names having the appendix. A large number of additional algae are re
as yet been applied to them. ferred to briefly in chapters X and XI but are not included
Experience in water and sewage treatment plants has in the key. More extensive manuals on both marine and
demonstrated that there is considerable difficulty in recog freshwater algae would be required for their identification
nizing the various algae that are encountered and in deter ( 1 , 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 , 12 ) .
mining which of the many present are really important . In Authorities have recently changed the names of several of
this manual the algae are considered and displayed accord the better known algae. The list of these changes which in
ing to their significance to sanitary scientists and technicians, volve any algae referred to in the manual is given in table 3.
rather than with regard to their evolutionary relationship Most of the changes involve genera and species of blue-green
as botanists would normally classify them. Obviously only algae and were reported by Drouet and Daily in 1956 ( 3) .
a fraction of the total number of algae can be included, but
many of those omitted are comparatively rare types or rela
tively unimportant in water supplies. Table 1. — Comparison of the Four Major Groups of Algae
For convenience, most of the algae of importance in water in Water Supplies.
supplies may be characterized in four general groups, the
blue- green algae, the green algae, the diatoms, and the pig Algal groups
mented flagellates. This is a simplification of the grouping Characteristics

Blue- green Green algae Diatoms Pigmented
which is used in more extensive treatises on the classification algae flagellates
of algae. As might be expected, there are a few miscella
Color Blue -green Green to Brown to Green or
neous forms which do not fit into these four groups. The to brown yellow light brown
blue-green algae include such forms as Oscillatoria ( pls. 2 green green
and 3 ) , Anacystis (Microcystis) (pls. 1 and 2 ) , and Desmo Location of Through In plastids In plastids In plastids
nema ( fig. 5 ) . As the name implies, many of the specimens pigment out cell
have a blue- green color. They are surrounded by a slimy Starch Absent Present Absent Present or
absent
coating. Their form and internal structure is comparatively
simple. The green algae are exemplified by Chlorella ( pls. Slimy coat Present Absent in Absent in Absent in
ing most most most
2 and 3 ) , Pediastrum ( fig. 6 ) , and Spirogyra ( pls. 2 and 3 ) .
Their most common color is grass green to yellow - green and Cell wall Inseparable Semirigid , Very rigid, Thin , thick
from smooth with or absent
is localized in plastids. Reserve food is generally starch. slimy or with regular
coating spines marking
The desmids (fig. 7 ) are a subgroup of the green algae. The
diatoms are represented by the genera Cyclotella ( pls. 2 and Nucleus Absent Present Present Present
4 ) and Navicula ( pls. 2 and 4 ) . They have a rigid wall con Flagellum Absent Absent Absent Present
taining silica which is sculptured with regularly arranged Absent Present
Eye spot Absent Absent
markings. Their plastids are brown to greenish in color.
8
Identification of Algae 9
Figure 8. — Anacystis cyanea (formerly

Microcystis aeruginosa ).
Figure 2.-Water
net, Hydrodictyon
reticulatum .
OD0D Figure 9. – Agmenellum quadriduplicatum

( formerly Merismopedia glauca ).
DO
a O
B
Figure 10. — Phytoconis botryoides
( formerly Protococcus viridis ).
WWW . 2
Figure 3. — Spirogyra ellipsospora .
Figure 11. — Haematococcus
wote Figure 4.Spirogyra varians. lacustris ( formerly Sphaerella

lacustris ) .
HDK
Figure 5. — A blue-green alga , Desmonema wrangelii.
Figure 12. — Colonies of indefinite form in Oocystis novae-semliae.
Babcocon conococo.moococino
001
SED
Figure 13.—A simple filament, Anabaena

constricta.
SBA
DWG
Figure 6. — A OO
T
green alga , Pe .
mus
diastrum bory .
anum . 14
Figure 14. - Threads are
grouped into erect cones in
Figure 7.-A desmid, Cylindrocystis brebissonii. Symploca muralis.
496792 0-59—2
For example, Microcystis ( fig. 8 ) is changed to Anacystis, various kinds of algae, an identification “key” is essential
Coelosphaerium is included under Gomphosphaeria , and for distinguishing the many genera and species encountered .
Merismopedia ( fig. 9 ) becomes Agmenellum . The name of An original key, limited to the 262 algae selected as most
the green alga Protococcus ( fig. 10 ) is changed to Phytoconis important in water supplies, has therefore been prepared for
( 9 ) . The pigmented flagellate Sphaerella ( fig. 11 ) is now this manual. Since many other algae may be associated with
recognized as Haematococcus ( 1 ) . these forms in the water, the supplementary use of additional
Six plates of illustrations in color together with photo treatises on algae would help to assure greater accuracy in
graphs, line drawings, the key, and descriptions are included identifying the specimens.
for use as aids in the identification of the significant forms. When acquainted with the nature of an identification
The six color-plates of important algae are the work of "key", an observer can make direct use of the device in de
artist -biologist Harold J. Walter, and were done under the termining the name of a particular form whose essential
supervision of the author ( 13, 14 ) . The original paintings characteristics have been determined through study under
are on display at the Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering a microscope. It is necessary, therefore, to know what are
Center, in Cincinnati, Ohio. The line drawings which are these “ essential characteristics ” that must be observed in any
included as figures throughout the manual were made by the specimen before the key is used for its identification . The
writer and published previously in two taxonomic papers essential characteristics are considered under the following
( 15 , 16 ) . headings: 1 , gross structure of the alga, including shape, size,
The six plates of algae in color represent three general and cell grouping; 2, cell structure; 3, specialized parts of
areas of concern for plant operators, namely, water treat cells ; 4, specialized parts of multicellular algae ; and 5,
ment, sewage treatment, and water reservoirs. Taste, odor, measurements.
and filter clogging are the most troublesome problems faced
by many operators in water treatment plants. Representa GROSS STRUCTURE
tive algae associated with these conditions are illustrated on
plates 1 and 2. In connection with water pollution , natural The cells of algae may be isolated units so that each “ uni
stream purification, and sewage treatment, the significant cell” behaves as an independent organism . Hundreds of
algae are those whose growth or survival is closely related to genera of algae are unicellular. Examples illustrated in
the amount and composition of sewage and other organic clude Tetraedron , Euglena, and Gomphonema on plate 3.
wastes in the water. Plates 3 and 4 illustrate the contrasting In many other algae the cells are grouped together into vari
groups of polluted water and clean water algae. Finally, in ous shapes of colonies such as are illustrated by Asterionella,
the reservoirs and settling basins of water supply systems are Hydrodictyon , Anacystis (Microcystis ), Dinobryon, Volvox ,
encountered the drifting, swimming, and attached growths Pandorina, and Synura on plate 1 and Oocystis in figure 12.
of algae which can become troublesome in the raw water and The colony of cells may have a definite, distinct shape, as in
can cause nuisance conditions in the treatment plant. Plates Volvox, or it may be indefinite and irregular, as in Anacys
5 and 6 illustrate respectively the planktonic and mat- form tis. Colonies in the form of threads ( filaments ) where the
ing algae of surface waters and the algae attached to the cells are arranged in a simple linear series or chain are dis
sides of reservoirs and settling basins. tinctive and very common ( fig. 13 ) . The threads may be
The algae as illustrated on the plates are not shown in isolated , or obviously grouped together as in Symploca ( fig.
actual or relative size. Some of the forms illustrated are so 14) ; they may be unbranched (simple ) or branched . The
minute as to be visible only under very high magnification branches may be attached to the primary thread singly ( al
of a compound microscope. Other forms are large enough ternate ), in pairs ( opposite ), or more than two together
to be seen under lower magnification or even with the un ( whorled ). Anabaena , Spirogyra, Oscillatoria , and Arthro
aided eye. Chlorella on plates 2 and 3, and Chrysococcus spira, on plate 3 are simple filaments. Microthamnion ( fig.
on plate 4 are good examples of minute, microscopic algae 15 ) and Audouinella ( pl. 6 ) have alternate branching ;
while Lemanea on plate 4, and Chara on plate 6 are large Stigeoclonium (pl. 6) has, in part, opposite branching; and
forms often growing to a length of several inches. Thus, Chara ( pl. 6 ) has whorled branching. Chaetophora and
rather than having the drawing scale the same for all of the Phormidium on plate 6 have filaments grouped together into
algae, each is enlarged sufficiently to make clear its own par larger growths.
ticular characteristics. The magnification for each drawing In a few cases the alga may be in the form of a continu
is given with the species name in the list accompanying each ous, sometimes branching “ tube ” with no cell walls to divide
plate. the material into distinct units or cells. The tube is de
The six color plates contain illustrations of 129 of the algae scribed as being “ nonseptate ” (having no transverse walls).
referred to in this manual. Drawings and photomicro Botrydium ( fig. 16) and Vaucheria on plate 6 have this type
graphs of some other forms are also included in the manual of structure. In others, such as Hydrurus ( fig. 17 ) and Tet
as noted earlier. The paintings and the drawings were raspora on plate 6 the whole gelatinous mass, in which nu
prepared in such a way as to emphasize the characteristics merous cells are embeded , is tubular in form .
most helpful in the identification of unstained material in A few fresh -water algae have cells forming dense massive
water samples. “ strands,” the strand being from a few to many cells thick
While illustrations may be a real aid in recognizing the and with central and marginal (peripheral) cells different
from one another. Lemanea on plate 4 and Compsopogon on

plate 6 and in figure 18 are examples of specialized strands.
Finally, a limited number of algae have cells arranged to
form a flat or bent “membrane,” as indicated by Hilden
brandia on plate 4.
In summary, the gross structural forms encountered
among the algae include the unicell, colony, filament, tube,
strand, and membrane.
CELL STRUCTURE
Figure 15.—Filament with alternate branching in
Microthamnion strictissimum. The three main parts of many algal cells are the proto
plast , the cell wall, and the outer matrix. Within the proto
plast may be the one or more separate bodies colored green ,
yellow-green, brown, or some other color, and known as
“ plastids" or " chromatophores.” In the blue -green algae
( Myxophyceae ) the pigments are not localized in plastids
but are distributed throughout the whole protoplast. Some
of the protoplasts may contain bodies other than plastids,
Figure 16. — A branching, tubular, such as nuclei, crystals, starch grains, oil droplets, cell sap
nonseptate alga, Botrydium granu
latum . “ vacuoles," and spherical “ pyrenoids” around which minute
grains of starch collect . Pyrenoids are generally inside of
the plastids, as shown in Chlorella on plate 2 and Oocystis
and Scenedesmus on plate 5. The nucleus of the cell is pres
ent in all but the blue- green algae, but is seldom referred to
in this manual because it is colorless and difficult to observe
without staining or other special treatment of the material.
The cell wall of algal cells is commonly a thin , rigid mem
brane which is in contact with the outer edge of the proto
plast and completely surrounds it . Some of the swimming
algae, such as Euglena on plate 5, do not have a rigid wall
and their protoplasts are therefore somewhat flexible, mak
ing them changeable in form . In the green algae the cell
wall is semirigid and composed of cellulose. In diatoms the
Figure 17.Cells embedded in a gelatinous tube in
wall is very rigid and composed principally of silica that is
sculptured with a regular, even pattern of lines and dots as
AHL.TIM.LT
Hydrurus foetidus.
illustrated by Diatoma and Navicula on plate 2.
The outer matrix, when present, tends in most cases to be
a flexible, colorless, gelatinous material which has been
secreted through the cell wall . It often changes with age to
become pigmented , to show stratification, and to develop a
semirigid surface membrane. In most cases it assumes a
form and structure characteristic for the particular alga of
which it is a part. In Botryococcus ( pl. 5 ) , its brown color
D
TI
partially hides the green plastids within the protoplasts. In

Gonium ( pl. 5 ) it holds the cells in a flat plate, while in
Sphaerocystis (pl. 5 ) it forms a sphere. Dinobryon and
Trachelomonas on plate 2 have a specialized outer matrix
called a " lorica ” which is rigid and of definite form . Lyng
bya and Tolypothrix on plate 6 and Microcoleus ( fig. 19 )
have an outer matrix in the form of a semirigid tube-like
" sheath ."
SPECIALIZED PARTS OF CELLS
Certain additional cell parts may be characteristics useful

a in identification. Some cells have a gelatinous " stalk ," one
end of which is attached to the cell and the other to some
Figure 18. - Mature and young portions of Compsopogon coeruleus. other object. Gomphonema and Achnanthes on plate 6 are
Table 2. - Algae in Water Supplies 1 2 3 4

A List of the More Important Species
Key to Columns : Chrysosphaerella: longispina FI T
1. Alga name. Cladophora:
2. Group : D, diatom ; G , green ; BG, blue -green ; R, red ; Fi, flagel aegagropila G F
late ; De, desmid ; YG, yellow -green . crispata G A 6
3. Significance : A, attached ; S, surface; F, filter ; C, clean ; P, pol fracta .. G S
luted ; T, taste and odor. glomerata A ,C 4
4. Plate number or figure number ( bold face ) , if illustrated . insignis. G T
Closterium :
aciculare De S
3
moniliferum De F 2
1 2 4
Coccochloris: stagnina BG С 4
Cocconeis:
A 6 pediculus D A
Achnanthes : microcephala D
placentula D С 4
Actinastrum :
S
G S 5 Coelastrum : microporum G 5
gracillimum 6
hantzschii . G S Compsopogon : coeruleus . R A
17
Agmenellum : Cosmarium :
quadriduplicatum : botrytis De S
glauca type BG С 4
BG P 3 portianum De T
tenuissima type. Crucigenia: quadrata G s
Amphora : ovalis D С
Anabaena : Cryptoglena : pigra FI P
circinalis BG T Cryptomonas : erosa FI T 38
3 Cyclotella:
OF
constricta BG P
{ 12 bodanica
compta -
D
D
С
T
4
flos -aquae BG F 2
BG T 1
glomerata D S
planctonica meneghiniana D F 2
Anacystis : Cylindrospermum :
1
BG T muscicola . BG T
cyanea . {
OCEDE
7
1
stagnale BG S 5
dimidiata BG F 2
-
Cymatopleura: solea . D S
3
WOFA
montana BG P
thermalis BG S Cybella :
FEU
cesati .. D
Ankistrodesmus : 6
G 34
prostrata D
falcatus. ventricosa D 2
var. acicularis G 4
Aphanizomenon : flos-aquae . BG 1 Desmidium : grevillii . De 5
P
3 Diatoma: vulgare. D FT 2
Arthrospira : jenneri ..
-
BG
-
{
-
-
-
38 Dichotomosiphon: tuberosus. G
Asterionella : Dictyosphaerium :
formosa . D F 2 ehrenbergianum G
-
pulchellum . G
gracillima D T 1
{
6 Dimorphococcus : lunatus. G
Audouinella : violacea R A
24 Dinobryon :
1
1
divergens FI T 1
Batrachospermum :
APORAFO
moniliforme R A 6 sertularia FI F 2
CO
vagum . R С sociale FI s
Botryococcus: braunji. G 5 stipitatum .. FI С
Bulbochaete : Draparnaldia :
oode<
insignis G A 6 glomerata G 6
mirabilis G С plumosa . G
Calothrix : Entophysalis : lemaniae.- BG 4
braunii . BG A Epithemia : turgida D
Euastrum : oblongum . De CS 5
t-he
parietina BG с
{ 33 Eudorina : elegans . F1 5
Carteria : multifilis . F1 P Euglena :
agilis FI
Ceratium : hirundinella --- FI T
LIII
Chaetopeltis : megalocystis .. G С deses . FI

Chaetophora : ehrenbergii. F1
attenuata .. G gracilis FI 5
A
elegans G A 6 oxyuris . FI
Chara : polymorpha FI
globularis . G A 6 sanguinea FI
vulgaris G T spirogyra FI
3
Chlamydomonas : P
-
viridis FI
-
-
-
globosa .. FI T 38
reinhardi . FI P 3 Fragilaria:
D s 5
GEO
Chlorella : capucina
construens . D T
-
ellipsoidea G S
సాలులులు
pyrenoidosa crotonensis D F 2
-
G F.P.
vulgaris ... G P Glenodinium : palustre F1 T
Chlorococcum : humicola G P Gloeococcus: schroeteri .. G С
Chlorogonium : euchlorum . FI P Gloeocystis :
52 A
-
gigas .. G
-
Chromulina : rosanoffi FI С 4 planctonica G T

-
Chroomonas : Gloeotrichia :
nordstetii . FI С echinulata BG F
setoniensis FI С natans . BG s 37
1
Chrysococcus : Gomphonema :
major... FI geminatum D A 6
-
ovalis ... FI olivaceum D A

rufescens . FI 4 parvulum D P 3
Q
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Gomphosphaeria: Pediastrum:
aponina BG s 5 5
boryanum .. G S
lacustris : { 4
nomo
collinsii type BG duplex . G S 51
enon
kuetzingianum type . BG 1 tetras . G T
wichurae ---- BG Peridinium :
Gonium : pectorale. FI 5 cinctum ... FI T 1
Gyrosigma: attenuatum . D wisconsinense FI F
Hantzschia : amphioxys . D Phacotus : lenticularis . FI С 4
OA
Hildenbrandia : rivularis . R 4 Phacus :
longicauda ... FI
Hyalotheca : mucosa . De
1 pleuronectes . FI 5
Hydrodictyon : reticulatum . G F,T { 2 pyrum .- FI 3
Kirchneriella: lunaris.. S Phormidium :
AO
G
autumnale ... BG P 3
Lemanea: annulata .. R C 4
inundatum BG с
Lepocinclis:
AA retzii ... BG A,S
ovum . FI
6
au
FI P 3 uncinatum ... BG A, P
texta ..
Lyngbya :
{ 32
6
digueti . BG P 3 Phytoconis: botryoides. G А
9
lagerheimii .. BG A 6
0
A
Pinnularia :
ocracea . BG С 4
nobilis ...
20000
versicolor... BG S
С
subcapitata ..
00
con
Mallomonas: caudata 1 41
FI CAT 38 Pithophora: oedogonia ..
Plectonema: tomasiniana .. BG
Melosira :
2002
crenulata Pyrobotrys:
gracilis P
granulata 2
stellata ... P 3
Wocu
co
varians . F, P 4
Meridion : circulare . 4 Rhizoclonium : hieroglyphicum . C,A { 38
‫ܗ‬
‫ܛ‬ ‫ܝ‬
Micractinium : pusillum .. 5
‫ܛ‬
Micrasterias: truncata . De 4
Rhizosolenia : gracilis ..
020000
Rhodomonas : lacustris С 4
Microcoleus : subtorulosus . BG 4
Rhoicosphenia : curvata A
Microspora : amoena .
0000
Rhopalodia: gibba ..
0000
Mougeotia :
200
500
ooooo
nuk
Rivularia :
genuflexa
umuuseum
DEUDDE
dura .. BG F 2
AOOSE
scalaris 5
0233
haematites . BG T
sphaerocarpa
ha
Scenedesmus :
Navicula : abundans
cryptocephala ... P
exigua var. capitata С bijuga ..
gracilis.. С .4 dimorphus .
5
graciloides - F 2 quadricauda P,S {
‫ܟܛܬ‬
19
lanceolata . F
radiosa .. S Schizomeris : leibleinii . 42
DEGNA
Nitella : Schroederia : setigera ..
flexilis . G Scytonema : tolypothricoides
gracilis G 1 Selenastrum : gracile .
Sphaerocystis: schroeteri... 5
Nitzschia :
650
acicularis . Spirogyra :
communis. P 3
linearis . S
fluviatilis
palea F, P 3
majuscula T
5
Nodularia : spumigena - BG 47 porticalis F 2
on
varians... s 36
UUUUUU
Nostoc : BG S
carneum . BG S Spirulina : nordstedtii ..
P
CUCU
pruniforme. BG А Spondylomorum : quaternarium ..

Staurastrum :
Oedogonium : paradoxum .. De T 1
boscii.. A S
grande A
polymorphum .
punctulatum . 4
idioandrosporum .. S s 5
suecicum ... 6
Stauroneis: phoenicenteron .
Oocystis : borgei . 5
Stephanodiscus : F
binderanus .
Ophiocytium : capitatum . S hantzschii . F,S 5
Oscillatoria: niagarae .. T
agardhii. BG S Stichococcus: bacillaris P
amphibia BG F Stigeoclonium :
chalybea BG F, P 2 A 6
lubricum ..
chlorina BG F, P 3 s
BG
stagnatile ...
curviceps . T tenue.. 3
formosa . BG P A
Stigonema: minutum . BG
2000
lauterbornii .
290
co
BG P 3
Surirella :
6066
limosa BG P 29
op
P
ornata .. BG F ovata ---
4
oooo
2 C
{
-
splendida
-
princeps .-- BG 38
pseudogeminata . BG
F,P
F
{ 31
Synedra :
acus.- D F 2
putrida .. BG F
co
rubescens BG F var. angustissima . D с

splendida BG F var. radians D F
tenuis . BG A, P 30 D s
capitata ---
Palmella : mucosa .. G A, F pulchella D F
Pandorina : morum FI ulna.. D T 1
PT
Table 2 – Continued shown with stalks. In many cases the cell may become de
tached from the stalk very readily. Gomphonema on plate
1 2 3 4
3 is illustrated without the stalk although it is originally
present in this genus.
1
Synura : uvella FI T
{ Knobs or spines may be found extending from the cell
-
38
2000
Tabellaria : wall, or the cells may have sharp spine-like ends. Micrac
fenestrata F.T 1
-
flocculosa F 2 tinium on plate 5 has true spines while Ankistrodesmus on
Tetraedron : muticum . P. 3
A 6
plate 4 and Scenedesmus ( fig. 20) have spine-like tips.
Tetraspora : gelatinosa .
Tolypothrix : tenuis BG A 6 Knob -like swellings on the cell wall are shown on the large
Trachelomonas: crebea . F 2 cell of Chlorococcum on plate 3.
Tribonema :
bombycinum . YG F 2 Swimming (motile ) cells often are supplied with one, two,
-
minus YG S
or occasionally more than two flexible, whip -like hairs known
-
-
OGE
Ulothrix : BooE
aequalis С 4 as " flagella ,” extending from the front ( anterior ), side (lat
tenerrima eral), or back ( posterior) of the algal cell. Lateral flagella
variabilis F
A
6 are found in Merotrichia ( fig. 21 ) while anterior flagella are
-
-
zonata --- {
-
28
Uroglenopsis: americana.. T 1 shown in Pleodorina ( fig. 22 ) , and in two views of Gonium
-
Vaucheria : ( fig. 23 ) . A reduction in the illumination of the microscope

geminata G A,C 39
-
field may help in making the flagella ( singular, “ flagellum ”)

1
1
6
G
-
sessilis .- A
-
-
-
FI T
40 visible. Swimming cells also may contain a single small red
Volvox : aureus 1
-
-
Zygnema : or orange body called an " eye spot” in the protoplast. This
insigne F eye spot is generally located near the anterior end. Car
pectinatum G s
G teria and six other motile algae are illustrated on plate 3.
-
sterile . s 5
Several special terms are required in the description of a
diatom cell. The wall ( frustule) of the diatom is composed
of two approximately equal halves, the one, like a cover
(epitheca ), fitting with its edge over the edge of the other
( hypotheca ). When the cell is lying in the microscope field
Table 3. — Recent Changes in Names of Algae so that these overlapping edges are visible, the diatom is
presenting its “ girdle” view. If the cell is lying so that the
Old name New name top of the epitheca or bottom of the hypotheca is visible, the
diatom is presenting a “valve” view . In Gomphonema on
Aphanocapsa Anacystis . plate 6 the left hand cell is in girdle view and the right hand
Aphanothece Coccochloris. cell is in valve view. These views are shown together in
Chamaesiphon . Entophysalis.
iiii
Chamaesiphon incrustans Entophysalis lemaniae. Gomphonema on plate 3. When diatom cells are fastened
Chantransia Audouinella. together into a filament or ribbon , it is the valve surfaces
Chara fragilis Chara globularis.
Chlamydobotrys. Pyrobotrys. which are attached together, so that the diatoms in the col
Chroococcus Anacystis . ony are always seen in their girdle view. Thus, the two
Chroococcus limneticus .. Anacystis thermalis.
Chroococcus turgidus . Anacystis dimidiata . attached cells in Diatoma on plate 2 present the girdle view
Clathrocystis . Anacystis. while the isolated cell to the left is shown in valve view.
Coelosphaerium Gomphosphaeria.
Coelosphaerium kuetzingianum . Gomphosphaeria lacustris . In diatoms the wall markings and partial partitions, par
Coelosphaerium naegelianum Gomphosphaeria wichurae . ticularly those visible in the valve view , are important in
Encyonema - Cymbella
Encyonema paradoxum . Cymbella prostrata . identification. The many fine lines or lines of dots (punc
Euglena pisciformis Euglena agilis. tae) extending from the edge of the valve toward the center
Gloeocapsa --- Anacystis .
Gloeocapsa conglomerata Anacystis montana . are known as " striae," or, when thicker, as “ costae.” There
Gloeothece Coccochloris .
Gloeothece linearis Coccochloris peniocystis . may also be a longitudinal line called a “ raphe” or “true
Gomphosphaeria naegeliana Gomphosphaeria wichurae . raphe," extending from one end of the cell to the other, but
Holopedium .. Microcrosis.
Merismopedia Agmenellum . broken in the middle. If there is merely a clear space with
Merismopedia glauca . Agmenellum quadriduplicatum .
Merismopedia tenuissima Agmenellum quadriduplicatum . no striae crossing it, rather than a longitudinal line, the
Microcystis --- Anacystis. space is known as a “false raphe” or “ pseudoraphe.” Mo
Microcystis aeruginosa - Anacystis cyanea.
Odontidium
Oedogonium crassiusculum var .
Diatoma. tile diatoms generally have a true raphe which is apparently
idioandrosporum .
Oedogonium idioandrosporum . associated with their ability to swim or crawl. Partial wall
Polycystis --- Anacystis. like partitions are called " septa ” and extend lengthwise or
Polycystis aeruginosa. Anacystis cyanea.
Protococcus . Phytoconis. crosswise into the protoplast. They appear as coarser lines
Protococcus viridis Phytoconis botryoides.
Sphaerella ---- Haematococcus . than the striae. On plate 4, Navicula shows striae com
Spirulina jenneri ..
Synechococcus
Arthrospira jenneri .
Coccochloris .
posed of punctae while Pinnularia has costae. Both dia
Synedra delicatissima Synedra acus var. radians . toms have a true raphe. In Diatoma and Synedra on plate
2, a pseudoraphe is present. The former also has transverse
septa. Longitudinal septa are seen in the girdle view of to the same genus can be distinguished. The unit of meas
Tabellaria on plate 2. urement is the micron, designated by the Greek letter " u” .
There are two major groups of diatoms, those circular in It is one one-thousandth of a millimeter or approximately
valve view , with radiating striae, and those elongate in valve one twenty -five -thousandth of an inch . A linear scale on
view , with striae that tend to be transverse. The former are a glass disc ( ocular micrometer ) which can be placed on the
known as the " centric" diatoms, and the latter as the “pen interior shelf (diaphragm ) of a microscope eye piece (ocu
nate ” diatoms. On plate 2, Cyclotella and Melosira are lar) can be calibrated in microns with the aid of a stage
centric in form while Navicula and Cymbella are of the micrometer. The ocular micrometer can then be used to
pennate type. obtain measurements of algae. A Whipple micrometer,
used in plankton counting, can also be calibrated in microns
SPECIALIZED PARTS OF MULTICELLULAR ALGAE and thus serve in a similar manner .
The shape of the end of aa filament is an important diag TYPICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF ALGAE
nostic character. The end cells may be essentially the same
as other cells of the filament or there may be either aa grad A few examples of descriptions of algae adequate for
ual or an abrupt decrease in width (attenuation ) to a point their identification are given below as an indication of the
or even to a long spine or hair. On plate 6, Cladophora and information which would need to be obtained by micro
Lyngbya have terminal cells essentially like other cells in scopic observation before attempting to determine the genus
the filaments while Stigeoclonium shows gradual, and Bul and species name of the specimen.
bochaete, abrupt attenuation. Some of the filaments of blue Example No. 1 : See Chlorella on plate 2. Unicellular or
green algae have terminal cells which are swollen ( capitate ) in loose irregular colonies; cell spherical; no outer matrix ;
or are covered with a thick cap -like or conical membrane no projections or markings on the wall ; protoplast with one
( calyptra ). These are present in Oscillatoria on plate 2 cup -shaped green plastid filling most of the cell ; one prom
and Phormidium on plate 6. inent pyrenoid in side or base of plastid ; no great variation
Some multicellular blue-green algae also have occasional in size of cells ; diameter of cells 3-5 microns.
special cells associated with the normal ones . One type, Example No. 2 : See Phormidium on plate 6. Short cy
the " heterocyst ,” generally is swollen, has a clear, colorless lindrical cells in simple filaments which are aggregated to
protoplast, and a thick wall with aa knob -like thickening on form a mat, with formless gelatinous matrix between them .
the inside of the wall at the place or places where the cell Ends of filaments rather abruptly attenuate, bent, capitate,
is connected to the adjacent cell or cells. Heterocysts are and with aа . conical calyptra . Protoplasts homogeneous, blue
shown in Anabaena and Aphanizomenon on plate 1. An green throughout, no plastids ; no heterocysts nor akinetes.
other specialized cell, the resting spore (akinete), is swollen , Example No. 3 : See Fragilaria on plate 5. Numerous
has a dense, granular protoplast and a thick wall. It is cells united side by side into a ribbon . Contact of adjacent
illustrated in Anabaena on plate 1 and Cylindrospermum cells is continuous from one end of cell to the other. Cells
and Nodularia on plate 5. with fine transverse striations in the wall but absent in a
There are a number of other specialized cells which may wide band across the center. Pseudoraphe present; septa
be encountered in some of the algae but these are too varied absent. Valve view narrowly elliptical but with sides
or too infrequent to be dealt with here in detail. Many parallel much of the way ; ends capitate. Girdle view rec
are reproductive cells ( figs. 24, 25, 26, 27 ) . In some forms tangular, protoplast with two brown linear plastids, one on
the sexual reproductive cells must be present before iden each side. Cell length, 25–100 microns.
tification of particular species can be made. These struc Example No. 4 : See Chrysococcus on plate 4. Unicellu
tures are well described in other references ( 1 , 2 ) . lar ; protoplast with two brown lateral plastids and anterior
A peculiar type of branching of filaments found in cer red eye spot. Protoplast surrounded by a brown spherical
tain blue-green algae may need to be explained. It is called lorica with internal swelling at posterior end and an open
“false branching,” and is formed when a thread of cells ing surrounded by a thickened ring at anterior end through
splits crosswise. One or both segments break through the which extends one flagellum that is about twice as long as
surrounding sheath at this point and a portion moves out to the lorica. Cell very small, diameter of lorica 6 microns.
the side of the original thread, thus giving the appearance
of branching. False branching is evident in Tolypothrix USE OF “ KEY” FOR IDENTIFICATION OF ALGAE
on plate 6, while normal or true branching is shown in
Audouinella and Chaetophora on plate 6 and of a blue -green In order to use the key, first observe the specimen and
alga in Nostochopsis ( fig. 28 ) . determine its “essential characteristics . " Referring to the
key, lines “ la ” and “ lb ” at the beginning of the key are then
MEASUREMENTS compared with one another and with the “ essential charac
teristics” of the specimen . At the end of the line which
There are some instances where it is necessary to know agrees with the specimen is a number. Turn to the place
the diameter or the length and width of the algal body in the key where this same number is listed on the left hand
( thallus) or of the individual cells before species belonging side of the page and is divided into lines “ a ” and “ b ” . Re
Figure 19. — Microcoleus paludosus, showing a single thread and a Figure 25. — Enlarged terminal reproductive cells on filaments of
group of threads surrounded by a sheath , under high and low Audouinella violacea.
magnification .
Figure 20. — Scenedesmus Figure 26. - Terminal cells

quadricauda, showing spine specialized for sexual repro
like extensions on the termi duction in Vaucheria arecha.
nal cells. valetae.
Figure 21. - Lateral flagella in

Merotrichia capitata.
Figure 22. – Anterior fla Figure 27. — Thick walled zygospores formed during sexual repro
gella on cells of Pleodorina
duction in Zygnema normani.
illinoisensis .
BA
RN
EL
AD
AS
Figure 23.—
0
Posterior and
O
lateral views of
anterior flagel OOO OD
la on Gonium
D
..
E
sociale.
ee ..
S
S
De ..
m
U
*
E
a
n
a
m
Figure 24. - Two spore

producing cells on fila
ments of Trentepohlia Figure 28. — True branching in the blue-green alga, Nostochopsis
aurea. lobatus .
peat the above process and continue until a name for the 7. The genus Euglena. Mary Gojdics. Univ. Wis. Press, Madison,
Wis., 268 p . 1953 .
alga rather than an additional number is given at the end 8. The algae of Illinois. L. H. Tiffany and M. E. Britton. Univ.
of the line. Thus, in determining a name for “Example Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., 407 p. 1952.
No. 1 ,” above, the following lines from the key are selected, 9. A preliminary study of the algae of northwestern Minnesota. F.
until line 283b is reached giving the species name for the Drouet. Proc. Minnesota Acad. Sci. 22 : 116–138 . 1956 .
alga : 1b, 123b, 173b, 184b, 185b, 225b, 230b, 232b, 276a, 277b, 10. Algae of the western Great Lakes area . G. W. Prescott. Cran
279b, 280a, 281b, 282a, 283b ( Chlorella pyrenoidosa ). brook Inst. Sci., Bloomfield Hills, Mich ., Bull. 31, 946 p. 1951.
When a name has been reached in the key, reference can 11. Bacillariophyta ( Diatomeae ) . F. Hustedt. Heft 10 in A. Pascher,
Die Süsswasser -Flora Mitteleuropas. Gustav Fisher, Jena,
then be made to illustrations and descriptions of that par 1930 .
Germany, 466 p.
ticular genus or species in this and other manuals to de 12. The marine and fresh -water plankton . C. C. Davis. Mich . State
termine whether the specimen seen under the microscope is Univ. Press, East Lansing, Mich., 562 p. 1955 .
correctly identified . Three recent manuals on algae in water 13. Algae of importance in water supplies. Plans for a manual with
supplies have been published abroad, one in Danish ( 17) , keys and color plates. C. M. Palmer and H. J. Walter. News
one in Japanese ( 18 ) , and one in German ( 19 ) . Bull., Phycological Soc. Amer. 7 (No. 21 ) : 6–7. 1954.
14. Algae of importance in water supplies. C. M. Palmer and C. M.
Tarzwell. Public Wks. Mag . 86 ( No. 6 ) : 107–120. With 6 color
REFERENCES plates. 1955 .
15. Algae of Marion County, Indiana. A description of thirty-two
1. The fresh -water algae of the United States. Ed. 2. G. M. Smith . forms. C. M. Palmer. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 2 : 1-21. 1931 .
McGraw -Hill, N.Y., 719 p. 1950 .
16. Additional records for algae, including some of the less common
2. A treatise on the British freshwater algae. New and revised ed.
forms. C. M. Palmer. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud . 5 : 224-234 . 1942.
G. S. West and F. E. Fritsch . Univ. Press, Cambridge, England ,
534 p . 1927. 17. Dansk Planteplankton . G. Nygaard . Gyldendalske Boghandel
3. Revision of the coccoid Myxophyceae. F. Drouet and W. A. Daily. Nordisk Forlag, Copenhagen, Denmark, 52 p . With 4 color
plates. 1945 .
Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. 12 : 1-218. 1956 .
4. The Characeae of Indiana . Fay K. Daily. Butler Univ . Bot. Stud. 18. The easy classification of important microorganisms in Japanese
11 : 5-49 . 1953 . water supplies. S. Kawakita. Jour. Japanese Waterwks. and
5. Nomenclatural changes in two genera of diatoms. Ruth Patrick . Sewerage Assn ., Nos. 251, 253, 257, 258, 263, 265. 1955–56 . ( In
Notulae Naturae, Acad . Natural Sci. Philadelphia , No. 28 , 11 p. Japanese . )
1939. 19. Das Phytoplankton des Süsswassers. G. Huber -Pestalozzi. Band
6. Synopsis of North American Diatomaceae. Part II, Naviculatae, 16, Teil 1-4 . In Die Binnengewässer by A. Thienemann. E.
Surirellatae. C. S. Boyer. Proc. Acad . Natural Sci . Philadel Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, Germany.
phia 79 : 229–583. 1927 . 1938–55 .
CHAPTER IV
TASTE AND ODOR ALGAE
ONE of the requirements in the production of potable water TYPICAL ODORS FROM ALGAE
for modern communities is that the product shall be free of
obnoxious and abnormal tastes and odors. Of the several Some of the algae produce an " aromatic" odor which is
causes of these tastes and odors, the algae present in the raw described more specifically for certain organisms as that re
water supply are recognized as being either the primary, or sembling a particular flower or vegetable. Common ex
at least one of the most important. A comprehensive study amples of these would be geranium , nasturtium, violet, musk
has been made of algae of the central Missouri River ( 1 ) . melon, and cucumber. In some cases it is described as an
In addition, the time of occurrence of tastes and odors was attractive spicy odor, but in others it may be very objection
recorded at the treatment plants of cities and towns in that able, as for example, a skunk or garlic odor. Some pig
area , using the Missouri River as their source of water. It mented flagellates and diatoms produce the aromatic odors
was found that practically all of the taste and odor occur when these organisms are present in small numbers in the
water .
rences were associated with the presence of algal blooms and
that the few exceptional cases came during declines of dense A second type of odor, the “ fishy” odor, is produced often
algal growths. It is evident that, for the central Missouri by the same algae that are responsible for the aromatic
River area as well as for many other parts of the country, odors. The organisms generally are present in much larger
algae are involved, either directly or indirectly, in the estab numbers when the fishy odor is evident. More specific terms
lishment of conditions leading to taste and odor production that have been used to describe the fishy odors of various
in water supplies. algae are clam -shell, cod - liver oil, sea weed, Irish moss, rock
A nationwide survey reported in 1957 ( 2 ) indicated that weed, and salt marsh. The differences between these are
algae were considered by water works officials to be the most probably insignificant in water supply studies.
A third type of odor is the somewhat aromatic one which
frequent causes of tastes and odors in water supplies, with is described as “ grassy .” It is the most common one pro
decaying vegetation second in importance. The decay or duced by green algae and generally is apparent only when
decomposition is brought about by fungi and bacteria, in the organisms are present in large numbers. It is reported
cluding the actinomycetes. Often a considerable proportion also for certain blue -green algae and occasionally for diatoms
of the decaying vegetation is composed of dead algal cells. and pigmented flagellates.
The odors that are produced through the activities of fungi The fourth type of odor is the one which includes those
and bacteria may be either from the intermediate products described as “musty” and “earthy.” The latter is commonly
formed during the decomposition or from special substances associated with actinomycetes ( 3, 4) and with a few algae.
that are synthesized within the cells of the microorganisms. It can vary from mild to decidedly pungent. The earthy odor
The latter appears to be true in the case of actinomycetes. of soil also has been considered to be due to the presence of
A few algae are well known for the production of specific actinomycetes. The very common musty odor in water is
distinctive tastes and odors while a larger number of others encountered in the presence of certain blue - green algae and
are associated with tastes and odors that vary in type accord a few other forms. It has been described by additional
ing to local conditions. Certain diatoms, blue- green algae, terms such as potato bin and moldy. Some waters have been
and pigmented flagellates are the principal offenders but reported as having weedy, swampy, marshy, peaty, straw
green algae, including desmids, may also be involved. like and woody odors and these are possibly a modification
Thirty -nine species have been selected as representative of or a combination of the grassy and musty odors.
the more important taste and odor algae. They are listed A " septic” odor has been associated frequently with the
alphabetically under their respective groups in table 4, and presence of large accumulations of blue - green algae and
eighteen of these are illustrated in color on plate 1. Other occasionally of the green algae, Hydrodictyon and Clado
genera and species, in addition to the ones selected, must be phora. Other names applied to this type of odor are pig
considered also as potential offenders and many of these are pen , foul, objectionable, vile, fermentation , and putrefactive
included in table 5. Most of the reports dealing with spe ( 5 ) . As these terms suggest, it is produced as a result of
.
cific instances where algae are regarded as the cause of taste the decomposition of masses of algae, especially where aa lack
and odor, do not give the species names of the particular of sufficient oxygen permits the formation of odoriferous
forms involved. In the following discussion of this prob intermediate products from the algal proteins.
lem , therefore, reference is made to the genera rather than Chlorophenolic, iodoform , or medicinal odors may be pro
the species of algae. duced by the action of chlorine on the products of certain
18
Taste and Odor Algae 19
algae although somewhat similar odors may be present in the Table 4. - Taste and Odor Algae, Representative Species
water at other times because of industrial wastes. Plate
Group and Algae
Blue -Green Algae (Myxophyceae ):
MEASUREMENT OF ODORS Anabaena circinalis
Anabaena planctonica 1
For the measurement of odors in water the threshold odor Anacystis cyanea 1
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae 1
test is commonly employed ( 6 ) . The threshold odors due to Cylindrospermum musicola
1
algae tend, in some areas, to be comparatively low , ranging Gomphosphaeria lacustris, kuetzingianum type
Oscillatoria curviceps
from 1 to 14, but in other areas they frequently go up to 30 Rivularia haematites
or 40, and occasionally reach as high as 90 or more. Algal Green Algae ( nonmotile Chlorophyceae, etc. ) :
Chara vulgaris
odors are generally objectionable, however, even when the Cladophora insignis
threshold odor number is low. For satisfactory treatment, Cosmarium portianum
Dictyosphaerium ehrenbergianum
the threshold odor usually has to be reduced to 5 or less. Gloeocystis planctonica
However, each water supply and often each odor outbreak Hydrodictyon reticulatum
Nitella gracilis
1
1
must be judged independently, in determining the threshold Pediastrum tetras
number below which the water is considered palatable. Scenedesmus abundans
Spirogyra majuscula
In some plants the treatment is instituted as soon as any Staurastrum paradoxum 1
taste and odor algae increase to a predetermined number of Diatoms ( Bacillariophyceae ):
areal standard units per ml. The number varies according Asterionella gracillima 1
Cyclotella compta
to the particular kind of alga involved ; for Asterionella it Diatoma vulgare 2
may be 3,000, and for Synura, 200 ( 7 ) . Fragilaria construens

Stephanodiscus niagarae
Tastes produced by algae are seldom separated from and Synedra ulna 1
are often confused with odor. Sweet and bitter are the two Tabellaria fenestrata 1
tastes which have been recorded and it is quite possible that Flagellates ( Chrysophyceae, Euglenophyceae, etc.) :
Ceratium hirundinella 1
a sour taste may be present whenever the odor is acid or is Chlamydomonas globosa
the putrefactive, septic, or pigpen type. A salty taste ap Chrysosphaerella longispina
parently has not been recorded as an accompaniment of the Cryptomonas erosa 1
Dinobryon divergens
fishy, clam-shell, salt marsh, rockweed , Irish moss, or sea Euglena sanguinea
Glenodinium palustre
weed - like odors. Mallomonas caudata 1
An additional sensation which the tongue can detect might Pandorina morum
Peridinium cinctum
1
1
be listed as the “ feel” or “ touch .” Included here would be Synura uvella 1
Uroglenopsis americana 1
the slick or “ oily ” feel as well as a “metallic,” a “ dry, " and Volvox aureus 1
and an “ astringent” sensation. Odor, taste, and feel, as re
corded for each algal genus are given in table 5. The word
“flavor” could be used as an inclusive term embracing taste, Dinobryon develops in the southern end of Lake Michi
odor, and touch or feel ( 8 ) .
gan , in June and July, almost every year, in numbers suffi
cient to impart a prominent fishy odor to the water. As
PRINCIPAL ODOR -PRODUCING ALGAE many as 700 areal standard units per ml. of this alga have
Synura is one of the more potent algae in production of an been reported and it has represented, at times, up to 47 per
odor in water which is often described as resembling that of cent of the total algal count. Its odor has the reputation
a ripe cucumber or muskmelon . A comparatively few col of being readily adsorbed by activated carbon . In spite of
onies per ml. may be sufficient to cause a very perceptible this, it is estimated that one treatment plant required over
odor. This organism also produces aa bitter taste in the water $ 70,000 worth of the carbon to control, for a period of 2
and leaves a persistent dry metallic sensation on the tongue. months, the odor due specifically to this alga ( 11 ) .
When present in large numbers, this, as well as other flagel Asterionella is considered one of the worst offenders among
lates, may develop a fishy odor. In Massachusetts, for the diatoms, having a characteristic aromatic geranium - like
example, Dinobryon, Uroglenopsis, and the “armored” flagel odor that changes to fishy when the alga is present in large
late Peridinium produced a strong fishy odor in a large reser numbers. Tabellaria produces a similar effect, while Syne
dra has an earthy to musty odor and Stephanodiscus is
voir holding over 600 million gallons of water. These forms blamed for a “ vegetable to oily taste” with very little odor.
developed in February under a 16 -inch layer of ice ( 9 ) . Certain blue-green algae are well known for developing
There is some evidence that Uroglenopsis is stimulated to very foul “ pigpen " odors in water. Three of these algae,
rapid growth following an abundant growth of other algae. illustrated on plate 1, are Anabaena, Anacystis ( formerly
In California one of the worst offenders is the armored known as Microcystis, Polycystis, and Clathrocystis ), and
flagellate Ceratium which produces a fishy to pronounced Aphanizomenon. All of these are capable of collecting in
septic odor. The organism is capable of very rapid multi large masses sufficient to form water "blooms." The foul
plication and may develop in large numbers during any sea odor undoubtedly develops from products of decomposition
son ( 10) . as the algae begin to die off in large numbers. These same
blue-green algae, together with others such as Gomphosphae massive stone-warts, Nitella and Chara, may offend rather
ria (which now includes Coelosphaerium ), Cylindrosper than help in this biological competition between types.
mum , and Rivularia have a natural odor which is commonly Dictyosphaerium is regarded as one of the worst offenders
described as “ grassy .”" This often changes to the odor of among the green algae, giving a fishy, as well as a grassy to
nasturtium stems, probably as a result of oxidation. nasturtium odor ( 12) . Some of the swimming green algae
Green algae are less often associated with tastes and odors which are listed with the flagellates, including Volvox,
in water . In fact, their growth may help to keep in check Pandorina, and Chlamydomonas, are able to produce fishy
the blue- green algae and the diatoms and thus be a positive odors .
factor in the control of water quality. However, Hydro Research is now being conducted at the Robert A. Taft
dictyon ( water net), the desmid , Staurastrum , and the large Sanitary Engineering Center to determine what particular
Table 5. - Odors, Tastes, and Tongue Sensations Associated With Algae in Water
Odor when algae are
Algal genus Algal group Taste Tongue
sensation
Moderate Abundant
Actinastrum . Green Grassy, musty

Anabaena . Blue - green . Grassy, nasturtium , Septic .
musty.
Anabaenopsis Blue-green ..- Grassy
Anacystis.-- Blue-green Grassy - Septic Sweet ..
Aphanizomenon Blue -green .. Grassy , nasturtium , Septic Sweet Dry.
musty.
Asterionella Diatom Geranium , spicy Fishy --
Ceratium . Flagellate Fishy ---- Septic Bitter
Chara .- Green -- Skunk, garlic Spoiled, garlic.
Chlamydomonas . Flagellate Musty, grassy- Fishy, septic - Sweet Slick.
.
Chlorella . Green .. Musty -

Chrysosphaerella Flagellate Fishy
Cladophora .. Green .. Septic ..
(Clathrocystis) See Anacystis .
Closterium ... Green .. Grassy
Coelosphaerium ).
(Cosmarium See Gomphosphaeria.
Green .. Grassy
Cryptomonas Flagellate . Violet . Violet.. Sweet
ii
Cyclotella ... Diatom Geranium Fishy ..
Cylindrospermum Blue - green Grassy -- Septic.
Diatoma ... Diatom . Aromatic
Dictyosphaerium Green .. Grassy, nasturtium Fishy -
Dinobryon. Flagellate Violet .. Fishy Slick .
Eudorina . Flagellate.. Fishy
Euglena . Flagellate . Fishy Sweet
Fragilaria Diatom . Geranium Musty
Glenodinium Flagellate . Fishy . Slick .
(Gloeocapsa ) See Anacystis .
Gloeocystis . Green .. Septic
Gloeotrichia Blue-green .- Grassy
Gomphosphaeria Blue-green. Grassy Grassy Sweet li
Gonium . Flagellate . Fishy
Hydrodictyon . Green ... Sentic
Mallomonas Flagellate .- Violet .. Fishy -
Melosira .. Diatom . Geranium Musty - Slick .
Meridion . Diatom .. Spicy -
(Microcystis ). See Anacystis .
Nitella .. Green .. Grassy Bitter .
Nostoc . Blue - green . Musty Grassy, septic. --
Septic --
Oscillatoria Blue-green ..- Grassy Musty, spicy-
Pandorina . Flagellate . Fishy -
Pediastrum. Green .. Grassy
Peridinium Flagellate Cucumber . Fishy -
Pleurosigma . Diatom Fishy
Rivularia Blue-green .- Grassy Musty -
Scenedesmus . Green .. Grassy
Spirogyra .-- Green Grassy
Staurastrum . Green . Grassy
Stephanodiscus .. Diatom .. Geranium Fishy- Slick .
Synedra --- Diatom Grassy Musty Slick .
Synura Flagellate Cucumber, muskmelon , Fishy - Bitter. Dry ,
spicy . metallic,
slick .
Tabellaria Diatom Geranium Fishy
-
Tribonema Green .. Fishy

-
1
(Uroglena) -- See Uroglenopsis .

Uroglenopsis Flagellate... Cucumber Fishy - Slick .
Ulothrix Green Grassy
Volvox ... Flagellate Fishy Fishy-
Taste and Odor Algae 21
species of algae produce tastes and odors in water and under and Transport Congress. Paper No. 4. London , England.
1933 .
what conditions this takes place. Suspected forms are ob 4. Actinomycetes may cause tastes and odors in water supplies.
tained in pure growth cultures for this work ( 13) and chem J. K. Silvey and A. W. Roach . Public Wks. Mag. 87 : 103-106 ,
ical analyses are being made of their products and of various 210 , 212. 1956 .
organic wastes which have odor ( 14) . Additional research 5. The microscopy of drinking water . Ed . 4. G. C. Whipple, G. M.
is being directed toward the finding of algicides which are Fair, and M. C. Whipple. J. Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 586 p .
With 19 color plates. 1948 .
sufficiently selective to destroy certain taste and odor algae 6. Standard methods for the examination of water, sewage, and
without at the same time being wasted on nonoffending types industrial wastes. Ed . 10. Amer. Public Health Assn ., N.Y.,
(15) . The relationship of actinomycetes to earthy odors in 522 p. 1955 .
water is also being studied . 7. Tastes and odor control. G. E. Symons. Water and Sewage Wks.
The following statement by Laughlin ( 16) is an expres 1903 : 307–310, 348–355 . 1956 .
8. The relation of taste and odor to flavor . C. W. Aman . Taste
sion of the emphasis which the control of taste and odor and Odor Control Jour. 21 ( No. 10 ) : 1-4. 1955 .
problems must be given in modern programs for water treat 9. Treating algae under the ice at Westfield, Mass. E. A. Snow and
ment: " It is one of the basic duties and responsibilities of A. Iantosca . Jour. New England Water Wks. Assn . 66 : 47-54.
the water purification plant operator to furnish his public 1952
with a palatable water 24 hours a day. * * * The presence 10. Microscopic organisms in reservoirs. C. A. Cofoid . Jour . Amer .
Water Wks. Assn. 10 : 183-191. 1923 .
of any objectionable odor may cause the consumer to go to 11. Fishy odor in water caused by Dinobryon. J. R. Baylis. Pure
a more palatable but unsafe water supply. Therefore, the Water, Chicago, Hl. South District Filtration Plant, 3 : 128-150.
importance of producing a palatable water cannot be 1951.
overemphasized ." 12. Review of microorganisms in water supplies. S. 0. Swartz.
Jour. New England Water Wks. Assn . 69 : 217–227 . 1955 .
REFERENCES 13. The use of algal cultures in experiments concerned with water
supply problems. C. M. Palmer and T. E. Maloney. Butler
1. Central Missouri River water quality investigation for 1955. U.S. Univ. Bot. Stud. 11 : 87-90 . 1953 .
Dept. Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, 14. Drinking water taste and odor correlation with organic chemical
Water Supply and Water Pollution Control Section , Region 6, content. F. M. Middleton , G. Wallace and A. A. Rosen . Indust.
Kansas City, Mo., 50 p. (Mimeographed ) . 1956 . Eng. Chem . 48 : 268-274 . 1956 .
2. Control of odor and taste in water supplies . E. A. Sigworth . 15. Evaluation of new algicides for water supply purposes. C. M.
Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn . 49 : 1507-1521. 1957. Palmer. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn . 48 : 1133–1137. 1956 .
3. The role of actinomycetes in producing earthy tastes and smells 16. Palatable level with the threshold odor test. H. F. Laughlin .
in potable water. B. A. Adams. Rept. of Public Wks., Roads Taste and Odor Control Jour. 20 (No. 8 ) : 1-4 . 1954.
CHAPTER V
FILTER CLOGGING ALGAE
AS WATER passes through a sand filter in the treatment It is not yet fully understood why certain algae are more
plant the spaces between the grains of sand become filled effective than others in reducing the movement of water
with colloidal and solid particles which had been dispersed through the filters. Ability to develop in large numbers
in the water. If the raw water comes from a surface supply is certainly one essential. The rigid wall, such as is found
such as a reservoir, lake, or stream, the algae which are in in the diatoms, the copious mucilaginous material around
variably present will be well represented in the material the cells as in the case of Palmella, and the tendency to
collected by the sand filter. They are frequently the pri form flakes or a network of strands, as in Fragilaria and
mary causes for the clogging of the filter. Tribonema are other factors.
In most places the algae and other particulate materials Diatoms are present during all seasons of the year and
are sufficiently numerous throughout most of the year to are by far the most important group of organisms which
require that the water be treated by coagulation and sedi clog filters. The most serious offenders are Asterionella,
mentation previous to filtration through sand. Without Fragilaria, Tabellaria, and Synedra. Other diatoms that
this preliminary treatment the filter would clog so rapidly may occasionally cause this trouble include Navicula, Cyclo
that it would be uneconomical to use, except when relatively tella, Diatoma, and Cymbella, all of which are illustrated on
clear water is available. Certain plants in California and plate 2. The rigid cell wall of diatoms is composed prin
in Canada have been using the rapid sand filter without cipally of silica and is not subject to decomposition. There
prior coagulation at least during portions of the year ( 1 ) . fore, even though the diatoms may die off rapidly on the
Efficient coagulation and sedimentation may remove up to surface of the filter, their silica walls remain to plug the
90 or 95 percent of the algae from the water. The algae pores in the sand .
remaining in the water may still be sufficient to cause grad In England a relatively pure growth of Fragilaria de
ual or even rapid loss of head in the sand filter. The veloped in a reservoir to the extent that it was necessary
clogged filter must then be taken out of service and cleaned to remove huge quantities of this diatom at the water treat
or backwashed . Normal filter runs commonly extend for ment plant. Counts of another filter clogging diatom, As
from 30 to 100 hours before cleaning is required, while short terionella, indicated that the organism has reached a density
filter runs, caused by the presence of algae, are even less than as high as 20,000 per ml. ( 4 ) .
10 hours in length ( 2 ) . In extreme cases the clogging may In Chicago, when the water to be filtered contained ap
recur so frequently that the amount of water required to proximately 700 microorganisms per ml., principally Tabel
backwash the filter is greater than the amount of filtered laria and Fragilaria, the filter runs were only 4.5 hours.
water which reaches the distribution system . Thus the Three days later, when the count was down to approxi
presence of algae can slow up the process of water treatment mately 100 per ml., the filter run increased to 41 hours ( 5 ) .
and add materially to its cost. In Washington , D.C., filter runs were reduced from an
average of 50 hours to less than 1 hour due to the sudden
CLOGGING PROCESSES influx of the diatom Synedra, which had a concentration in
the raw water reaching 4,800 cells per ml. ( 6 ) .
Both the slow and rapid sand filters may become clogged The filter clogging blue- green algae are represented on
with algae, but in the former the algae and other aquatic plate 2 by Anacystis ( Chroococcus type) , Rivularia, Ana
microorganisms may play a useful part in the treatment baena, and three species of Oscillatoria . Anabaena is
process. They form a loose, slimy layer over the surface of known to have caused filter trouble in Illinois and Min
the sand and act as a filter. The algae in this layer release nesota while Oscillatoria is one of the offenders in Switzer
oxygen during photosynthesis, and the oxygen in turn is land. Dinobryon and Trachelomonas are pigmented flag
utilized by aerobic saprophytic bacteria, fungi, and protozoa ellates, the former being common in the Great Lakes and
which establish themselves in and on the filter. This permits
in the soft waters of the eastern United States. Chlorella,
the decomposition or stabilization of the organic material that
was present in the raw water. Diatoms, however, due to their Palmella, Spirogyra, and the desmid, Closterium , are green
rigid walls, may do more harm than good by speeding the algae while Tribonema is a yellow -green filament. Chlo
clogging of the filter, but it has been possible to use slow sand rella is the alga which has given trouble by clogging filters
filters when diatoms have put rapid filters out of commission made of glass wool. In addition, it grows on the inner
( 3 ) . The water that has passed through a slow sand filter is surfaces of the glass bottle in water coolers and in water
relatively free of bacteria, algae, and other organisms as well lines constructed of plastic tubing, when these have been ex
as of dead organic matter . posed to light. In the tropics and warm temperate zone,
22
23
Filter Clogging Algae
the filamentous green algae are often the common offenders while others disintegrate quickly as they come in contact with
in clogging of sand filters. the sand. The longer the filter run the greater the percentage
Forty -three of the more important filter clogging algae are of organisms that will penetrate below the top one-half inch.
listed alphabetically under their major groups in table 6, In Chicago, a study was made of the numbers of certain
below . Twenty-two
- of these are illustrated in color on diatoms that were caught on the surface of rapid sand filters.
plate 2, while a few of the remaining forms are to be found The samples were collected immediately before the filters
on the other plates as indicated in the table. were backwashed. During 1 year of this study, T'abellaria
ranged in numbers from 496,000 to 936,000 per square inch
Table 6. — Filter Clogging Algae of filter surface in April, and from 1,824,000 to 8,016,000 in
November. In contrast, the range for Melosira was from
Group and Algae Plate
784,000 to 2,624,000 in April, and only 16,000 to 416,000 in
Anabaena flos-aquae 2 November ( 7 ) .
Anacystis dimidiata (Chroococcus turgidus) 2 The relationships of algae to sand filters involve also the
Gloeotrichia echinulata
Oscillatoria amphibia problem caused by passage of certain algae through both
Oscillatoria chalybea 2
rapid and slow filters and into the treated water. A number
Oscillatoria ornata
Oscillatoria princeps 2 of the same algae that can clog filters have at other times
Oscillatoria pseudogeminata been offenders in penetrating them . Algae that have passed
Oscillatoria rubescens
Oscillatoria splendida 2 through rapid filters include Synedra and Oscillatoria and
Rivularia dura 2
through slow filters, Chlamydomonas, Euglena, Navicula,
Green and Yellow -Green Algae (nonmotile Chlorophyceae, etc. ) .
Chlorella pyrenoidosa 2 Nitzschia , Phacus, and Trachelomonas ( 8 ) . The ease with
Cladophora aegagropila which the algae penetrate depends upon several factors, the
Closterium moniliferum 2
Dichotomosiphon tuberosus
principal ones being the rate of flow , the grade of sand used,
Dictyosphaerium pulchellum
1
and the type of organism . Very minute algae and flagellates
Hydrodictyon reticulatum penetrate with greater facility than other types. When the
Mougeotia sphaerocarpa
Palmella mucosa 2 penetration is slow, it may be a few hours before the algae
Spirogyra porticalis 2
reach the underdrains. Frequent backwashing, even when
NNNNNN
Tribonema bombycinum 2
Ulothrix variabilis the filter is not clogged will tend to remove the algae and
Zygnema insigne reduce the number that would reach the filtered water.
Diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) :
Asterionella formosa 2
Cyclotella meneghiniana 2 REFERENCES
Cymbella ventricosa 2
Diatoma vulgare 2
1. The effects of algae in water supplies. D. H. Matheson . Inter
Fragilaria crotonensis 2
Melosira granulata 2 national Water Supply Assn. , General Rept. to 2d Congress,
Melosira varians Paris, France, 82 p . 1952.
Navicula graciloides 2
2. Algae control at Danbury, Connecticut. E. A. Tarlton. Jour. New
Navicula lanceolata
England Water Wks. Assn. 63 : 165-174 . 1949 .
Nitzschia palea 3
Stephanodiscus binderanus 3. Interesting experiences with microorganisms in the Washington
Stephanodiscus hantzschii 5 water supply. G. E. Harrington. Proc. 9th Ann. Conf. Md.-Del.
Synedra acus 2
Water and Sewerage Assn . , p. 74–99. 1935.
Synedra acus var. radians (S. delicatissima)
Synedra pulchella 4. Freshwater biology and water supply in Britain . W. H. Pearsall,
Tabellaria fenestrata 1 A. C. Gardiner and F. Greenshields. Freshwater Biolog. Assn.
Tabellaria flocculosa 2 of the British Empire, Publ. No. 11 , 90 p . 1946 .
Pigmented Flagellates ( Chrysophyceae, etc.) : 5. Effect of microorganisms on lengths of filter runs. J. R. Baylis.
Dinobryon sertularia 2
Water Wks. Eng. 108 : 127-128, 158. 1955.
Peridinium wisconsinense
Trachelomonas crebea 2 6. The significance of microorganisms in plant design. C. J. Lauter.
Proc. 11th Ann. Conf. Md .-Del . Water and Sewerage Assn.,
p. 67-74. 1937.
7. Microorganisms that have caused trouble in the Chicago water
Most of the microscopic organisms present in water that is system. J. R. Baylis. Pure Water, Dept. of Water and Sewers,
passing through a rapid sand filter generally will be caught Chicago, Ill. 9 : 47-74. 1957.
in the top one -half inch of the sand. This is particularly 8. The biological examination of water. A. T. Hobbs. Chapt. 18,
the case when the organisms are abundant in the water. A p. 716-758 in his Manual of British water supply practice.
few of the organisms will penetrate deeper into the filter bed Ed. 2. H. Heffer and Sons, Ltd., Cambridge, England. 1954.
1
Color Plates 1 to 6
ALGAE IMPORTANT IN WATER SUPPLIES
powodow.o .online
momme ANABAENA
mm momo
oooooo
MON 0000
ASTERIONELLA
ANACYSTIS
UROGLENOPSIS
SYNEDRA
HYDRODICTYON
MALLOMONAS
PERIDINIUM
B
STAURASTRUM
CERATIUM
APHANIZOMENON
GOMPHOSPHAERIA
NITELLA
DINOBRYON
TABELLARIA
PANDORINA
SYNURA
VOLVOX
PLATE 1
PLATE 1
Linear
Species Names Magnifications
Anabaena planctonica 250
Anacystis cyanea 250
Aphanizomenon flos -aquae 250
Asterionella gracillima 250
Ceratium hirundinella 250
Dinobryon divergens 250
Gomphosphaeria lacustris , kuetzingianum type 500
Hydrodictyon reticulatum 10
Mallomonas caudata 500
Nitella gracilis 1
Pandorina morum 500
Peridinium cinctum 500
Staurastrum paradoxum 500
Synedra ulna 250
Synura uvella 500
Tabellaria fenestrata 250
Uroglenopsis americana 125
Volvox aureus 125

ANACYSTIS
DINOBRYON
N
CYMBELLA
O
S
TRIBONEMA
CHLORELLA
SYNEDRA
CLOSTERIUM
MELOSIRA
RIVULARIA
RAT
TIT
CYCLOTELLA
m
TABELLARIA
w
w
w
NAVICULA
W SPIROGYRA
W
A
N
A OSCILLATORIA ASTERIONELLA
W
TRACHELOMONAS
PALMELLA
w
w
w
FRAGILARIA
w
ww .
ANABAENA
20
1000
PLATE 2
DIATOMA
PLATE 2
Linear
Anabaena flos-aquae 500
Anacystis dimidiata 1000
Asterionella formosa 1000
Chlorella pyrenoidosa 5000

Closterium moniliferum 250
Cyclotella meneghiniana 1500
Cymbella ventricosa 1500

Diatoma vulgare 1500
Dinobryon sertularia 1500

Fragilaria crotonensis 1000
Melosira granulata 1000
Navicula graciloides 1500

Oscillatoria princeps ( top) 250
Oscillatoria chalybea (middle ) 250

Oscillatoria splendida (bottom ) 500
Palmella mucosa 1000
Rivularia dura 250
Spirogyra porticalis 125
Synedra acus 500
Tabellaria flocculosa 1500

Trachelomonas crebea 1500
Tribonema bombycinum 500
POLLUTED WATER ALGAE
PHORMIDIUM
AGMENELLUM
od
CARTERIA
LEPOCINCLIS
PYROBOTRYS
NITZSCHIA
со
с
ANABAENA
EUGLENA
TETRAEDRON
CHLOROCOCCUM
SPIROG YRA
OSCILLATORIA
PHACUS
CHLOROGONIUM
CHLORELLA
GOMPHONEMA
STIGEOCLONIUM
ANACYSTIS
ARTHROSPIRA
LYNGBYA
CHLAMYDOMONAS
PLATE 3
PLATE 33
Linear
Agmenellum quadriduplicatum , tenuissima type 1000
Anabaena constricta 500
Anacystis montana 1000
Arthrospira jenneri 1000
Carteria multifilis 2000
Chlamydomonas reinhardi 1500

Chlorella vulgaris 2000
Chlorococcum humicola 1000
Chlorogonium euchlorum 1500
Euglena viridis 1000
Gomphonema parvulum 3000
Lepocinclis texta 500
Lyngbya digueti 1000

Nitzschia palea 2000
Oscillatoria chlorina (top) 1000
Oscillatoria putrida (middle ) 1000
Oscillatoria lauterbornii (bottom ) 1000

Phacus pyrum 1500
Phormidium autumnale 500
Pyrobotrys stellata 1500
Spirogyra communis 250
Stigeoclonium tenue 500
Tetraedron muticum 1500

CLEAN WATER ALGAE
RHIZOCLONIUM
CLADOPHORA
PINNULARIA
SURIRELLA
CYCLOTELLA
RHODOMONAS
ANKISTRODE SMUS
OD
88
CHRYSOCOCCUS
8
88
8 8 8
AGMENELLUM
COCCOCHLORIS NAVICULA
5
ULOTHRIX
CALOTHRIX
MICRASTERIAS
MERIDION
ENTOPHYSALIS
CHROMULINA
PHACOTUS
HILDENBRANDIA
STAURASTRUM
LEMANEA
MICROCOLEUS
COCCONEIS
PLATE 4
1
PLATE 44
CLEAN WATER ALGAE
Linear
Agmenellum quadriduplicatum , glauca type 250
Ankistrodesmus falcatus var. acicularis 1000
Calothrix parietina 500
Chromulina rosanoffi 4000
Chrysococcus rufescens 4000
Cladophora glomerata 100
Coccochloris stagnina 1000
Cocconeis placentula 1000
Cyclotella bodanica 500
Entophysalis lemaniae 1500
Hildenbrandia rivularis 500
Lemanea annulata 1
Meridion circulare 1000

Micrasterias truncata 250
Microcoleus subtorulosus 500
Navicula gracilis 1000
Phacotus lenticularis 2000

Pinnularia nobilis 250
Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum 250
Rhodomonas lacustris 3000
Staurastrum punctulatum 1000
Surirella splendida 500

Ulothrix aequalis 250
PLANKTON AND OTHER SURFACE WATER ALGAE
un
oo FRAGILARIA
oo
o NODULARIA
0 0
00.0
COELASTRUM
EUGLENA
GOMPHOSPHAERIA
MICRACTINIUM
MOUGEOTIA
BOTRYOCOCCUS
OOCYSTIS
EUASTRUM
PHACUS
CYLINDROSPERMUM
ACTINASTRUM
SCENEDESMUS
GONIUM
STEPHANODISCUS
DE SMIDIUM
SPHAEROCYSTIS
ZYGNEMA
STAURONEIS
EUDORINA
PEDIASURUM
PLATE 5
PLATE 5
PLANKTON AND OTHER SURFACE

WATER ALGAE
Linear
Actinastrum gracillimum 1000
Botryococcus braunii 1000

Coelastrum microporum 500
Cylindrospermum stagnale 250

Desmidium grevillei 250
Euastrum oblongum 500

Eudorina elegans 250
Euglena gracilis 1000
Fragilaria capucina 1000
Gomphosphaeria aponina 1500
Gonium pectorale 500

Micractinium pusillum 1000
Mougeotia scalaris 250

Nodularia spumigena 500
Oocystis borgei 1000

Pediastrum boryanum 125
Phacus pleuronectes 500
Scenedesmus quadricauda 1000
Sphaerocystis schroeteri 500
Stauroneis phoenicenteron 500
Stephanodiscus hantzschii 1000

Zygnema sterile 250
ALGAE GROWING ON RESERVOIR WALLS
PHORMIDIUM
ULOTHRIX
CLADOPHORA
GOMPHONEMA
ACHNANTHES
VAUCHERIA
STIGEOCLONIUM TETRASPORA
AUDOUINELLA
TOLYPOTHRIX
CHARA 0
00
BULBOCHAETE
LYNGBYA
MICRO SPORA
COMPSOPOGON
BATRACHOSPERMUM CYMBELLA
PHYTOCONIS
OE DOGONIUM
DRAPARNALDIA
CHAETOPHORA
PLATE 6
PLATE 6
ALGAE GROWING ON
RESERVOIR WALLS
Linear
Species names magnifications
Achnanthes microcephala 1500
Audouinella violacea 250
Batrachospermum moniliforme 3
Bulbochaete insignis 125
Chaetophora elegans 250
Chara globularis 4
Cladophora crispata 125
Compsopogon coeruleus 125
Cymbella prostrata 250
Draparnaldia glomerata 125
Gomphonema geminatum 250
Lyngbya lagerheimii 1000
Microspora amoena 250
Oedogonium suecicum 500
Phormidium uncinatum 250
Phytoconis botryoides 1000
Stigeoclonium lubricum 250
Tetraspora gelatinosa 125
Tolypothrix tenuis 500
Ulothrix zonata 250

Vaucheria sessilis 125
496792 0-5944
CHAPTER VI
WATER CONTAINING one or more of various types of Reports of more than 50 workers have been examined for
“ impurities” may be said to be " polluted.” The term pol names of algae commonly found in waters containing a high
lution is usually restricted to situations in which the con concentration of organic wastes. From these, a total of
dition is considered potentially harmful to human health more than 500 species of algae has been compiled by the
or capable of interfering seriously with the use of the writer ( 4 ) . Forty -seven of the more important species
water or its immediate environment. Most of the infor from this group have been selected and are given in table 7,
mation at present available on algae in relation to polluted and 23 of these pollution algae are illustrated in color on
water is limited to water containing treated or untreated plate 3.
domestic sewage and closely related organic wastes. The
following account, therefore, will deal primarily with this
type of water pollution .
After domestic sewage or effluent has polluted a body of Table 7. — Pollution Algae - Algae Common in Organically
water such as a stream, the algae present react in a manner Enriched Areas
that has come to be recognized as of considerable im
portance. During the process of natural purification, the Group and Algae Plate or Figure
algae oxygenate the water, and also utilize byproducts of Blue-Green Algae (Myxophyceae ):
Agmenellum quadriduplicatum , tenuissima type 3
the purification process. The kinds and numbers of algae Anabaena constricta 3
and other organisms in the polluted portion of a stream are Anacystis montana 3
3
Arthrospira jenneri
different from those present in the unpolluted portion above Lyngbya digueti 3
Oscillatoria chalybea 3
the sewer outlet. As the sewage goes through stages of de 3
Oscillatoria chlorina
composition in the stream , the numbers and kinds of micro Oscillatoria formosa
Oscillatoria lauterbornii 3
organisms continue to change until eventually the aquatic Oscillatoria limosa Fig . 29
flora and fauna in the purified water become somewhat sim Oscillatoria princeps 2
ilar to those found above the point of pollution. The algae Oscillatoria putrida 3
Oscillatoria tenuis Fig. 30
represent a conspicuous and significant group in this con Phormidium autumnale
Phormidium uncinatum
3
6
tinuously changing population in a stream . The variation
Green Algae (nonmotile Chlorophyceae ) :
in the algal population at different points or under different Chlorella pyrenoidosa 2
conditions of pollution constitutes one of the indices that can Chlorella vulgaris 3
Chlorococcum humicola 3
be applied to any desired location in the stream to determine Scenedesmus quadricauda 5
3
the presence or absence of domestic sewage or other putres Spirogyra communis
Stichococcus bacillaris
cible wastes, or to measure the degree of recovery from Stigeoclonium tenue 3.
3
Tetraedron muticum
pollution with these wastes.
Diatoms ( Bacillariophyceae ) :
It appears evident to many workers that particular genera Gomphonema parvulum 3
or even species of algae, when considered alone, are not re Hantzschia amphioxys
Melosira varians
liable indicators of organic pollution. However, when a Navicula cryptocephala
Nitzschia acicularis
number of kinds of algae are considered as a community, Nitzschia palea 3
Surirella ovata
that group may be a reliable index. Lists of algae and
other organisms indicative of the various pollution zones in Flagellates (Euglenophyceae, Volvocales of Chlorophyceae) : 3
Carteria multifilis
a stream have been compiled , including those by Kolkwitz Chlamydomonas reinhardi 3
Chlorogonium euchlorum 3
( 1 ) , Liebmann ( 2 ) , and Whipple, Fair, and Whipple ( 3 ). Cryptoglena pigra
Emphasis in this account is placed on the algae which Euglena agilis
Euglena deses
various workers have found to be present and relatively Euglena gracilis 5
prominent or persistent in the polysaprobic and alpha -meso Euglena oxyuris

Euglena polymorpha 3
saprobic zones of polluted streams. These names for the Euglena viridis
Lepocinclis ovum
zones, however, have been used by comparatively few Lepocinclis texta 3
workers who have reported on sewage-tolerant algae, and Pandorina morum 1
Phacus pyrum 3
their findings have had to be interpreted in such a way as Pyrobotrys gracilis
3
to combine the information from the many sources. Pyrobotrys stellata
Spondylomorum quaternarium
38
Polluted Water Algae 39
Many genera of algae include certain species that are Included in the group of pollution algae are some forms
tolerant of organic enrichment and others that are not. This of unusual interest . Euglena viridis, Nitzschia palea, 08
is particularly true of Chlamydomonas, Euglena, Navicula, cillatoria limosa ( fig . 30 ) and Oscillatoria tenuis ( fig. 31 )
Oscillatoria, Phormidium , and Synedra. In a few instances have been listed by workers more often than any other spe
the same thing may be true also for strains or varieties of cies as reliable indicators of organic pollution ( 5 ) . Next
a species. For example, Fjerdingstad ( 5 ) claims that there in order are Arthrospira jenneri, Stigeoclonium tenue, Eu
are two separate strains of the species Ulothrix zonata, glena gracilis, and Chlorella vulgaris. Anabaena constricta,
( fig. 29 ) the pollution type and the pure water type. Chlorella vulgaris, and Euglena viridis are encountered also
on sludge or in retention basins of sewage treatment plants.
Chlorella is the alga that grows readily in artificial culture
media and is being used in a number of laboratories to deter
HUMPH I mine the feasibility of producing algae on a large scale for
food, animal feed , and other products. Two additional
blue-green algae tolerant of organic enrichment are Oscilla
toria princeps ( fig. 32 ) and Phormidium uncinatum ( fig.
33 ),
The blue-green algae and the flagellates are the algal
groups most frequently encountered in the portion of a
Figure 29. - Ulothrix zonata , vegetative filament and stages in spore
production . Its two strains react differently to pollution .
stream containing organic wastes. Not all representatives
of the “ blue -green ” algae are actually blue- green in color
For example, the three species of Oscillatoria illustrated on
plate 3 tend to be decidedly yellow - green , although they be
long to the above group. The flagellate green alga, Chla
mydomonas, is one of the very common organisms in water.
There being a large number of species of this genus and
Figure 30. — Oscillatoria limosa .
also chlamydomonad stages of other algae, workers gen
erally have not identified the particular species of this genus
which they have encountered in polluted water. It is prob
able that there are a number of species other than the
Chlamydomonas reinhardi shown on plate 3 which could
be listed as algae indicative of organic pollution.
Many of the nonswimming green algae with rounded cells
Figure 31. - Oscillatoria tenuis.
are difficult to identify correctly and often have been mis
takenly labeled Protococcus ( name now changed to Phyto
conis ) , a type which is common on moist surfaces of tree
trunks and which is attached and not normally planktonic.
The two genera of green algae with rounded cells that are
included here as pollution algae are Chlorella and Chloro
coccum , both of which are illustrated on plate 3.
ALGAE AND SEWAGE TREATMENT
Treatment and disposal of sewage are an essential process

UNI ID D in all large cities and in an increasing number of smaller
Figure 32. - Oscillatoria princeps. communities. Extensive treatment plants are equipped with
settling basins, gravel beds, large and complicated machin
ery, and well-equipped laboratories. The actual decomposi
tion of the sewage, however, is almost invariably brought
about by microorganisms. Chemical or physical methods
such as the use of strong acids or drying and burning are
generally too expensive in comparison with the biological
BAGERADEELELED treatment.
In this biological process several types of microorganisms
are frequently involved.. The treatment plant operation
consists primarily of making conditions ideal for the rapid
DD
development of bacteria, molds, protozoa, and rotifers, since
Figure 33. — Phormidium uncinatum. it is through the activities of these microorganisms that the
496792 0-59—5
sewage is changed from an offensive to an inoffensive con source of fertilizer, vitamins, animal feed, and other prod
dition ( 6 ) . ucts for commerce . Algae also are potentially valuable as
Recently algae have received more attention for the part efficient users of the nutrient salts resulting from decom
they are able to play in sewage treatment. In sewage sta position of sewage, so that algae might supplement the land
bilization ponds or lagoons, algae can be utilized for the plants grown on farms in producing many kinds of organic
production of oxygen essential to the growth of the bacteria products useful to man. Thus the pollution algae may be
and other organisms that break down the organic wastes. come useful not only as indicators and as purifiers but as
With algae it is possible to support immense populations of producers.
aerobic bacteria, and the sewage stabilization process is
greatly accelerated . Large open shallow basins or waste REFERENCES
stabilization ponds are required in order that light will be 1. Oekologie der Saprobien. Über die Bezeihungen der Wasserorgan
available through the liquid to stimulate algal growth and ismen zur Umwelt . R. Kolkwitz. Schriftenreihe des Vereins für
activity. Certain kinds of algae are able to grow in the Wasser , Boden-, und Lufthygiene. No. 4. 64 p . 1950.
presence of a high concentration of sewage and these may 2. Handbuch der Frischwasser- und Abwasserbiologie. Band 1. H.
Liebmann . R. Oldenbourg, München , Germany, 539 p. 1951.
be stimulated to grow and multiply very rapidly. It ap The microscopy of drinking water. Ed . 4. G. C. Whipple, G. M.
3.
pears that only young algal cells will produce large quanti Fair, and M. C. Whipple. J. Wiley and Sons, N.Y., 586 p. With
ties of oxygen , thus making it desirable that the multiplica 19 color plates. 1948 .
tion of additional young cells be kept up as a continuous 4. Algae as biological indicators of pollution . C. M. Palmer. In Bio
process at the sewage treatment plant. The sewage is emp logical problems in water pollution . Dept. Health , Education ,
and Welfare, Public Health Service, Robert A. Taft San. Eng.
tied into the shallow open basin or lagoon and allowed to
Center, Cincinnati, Ohio , p . 60-69 . 1957.
move slowly through it while the algae multiply rapidly and 5. The microflora of the River Molleaa with special reference to the
produce the oxygen . The algae which develop in large num relation of the benthal algae to pollution. E. Fjerdingstad .
bers in sewage stabilization ponds and lagoons are the same Folia Limnologica Scandinavica , No. 5, 123 p. 1950 .
kinds that are present in the portions of streams which are 6. Microbiology of water and sewage. P. L. Gainey and T. H. Lord .
polluted with organic wastes (7 ) . Prentice-Hall, Inc. , N.Y., 430 p. 1952.
7. A systematic study of the algae of sewage oxidation ponds. P. C.
The massive growths of algae developed in sewage sta Silva and G. F. Papenfuss. California State Water Pollution
bilization ponds and lagoons may eventually become a new Control Board. Publication No. 7, 34 p. 1953.
CHAPTER VII
CLEAN WATER ALGAE
CLEAN WATER organisms are those found in water which green alga Entophysalis lemaniae ( formerly called Chamae
is free of sewage or other organic enrichment due to waste siphon incrustans) and the diatom Cocconeis placentula are
discharge. The clean water may be that portion of streams epiphytic, i.e., algae which grow attached to the surface of
above sewage outlets or far enough downstream for the sew other plants in the water .
age to have been reduced to relatively inoffensive salts and Several of the genera with clean water species include also
other simple compounds. Most of these products of sewage other species whose reaction to sewage pollution is different
decomposition are nutrients and will stimulate organisms from the clean water forms. Both the pollution and clean
such as algae to grow much more profusely than they do in water groups are represented by contrasting species of
the stream above the sewage outlet, where nutrients are Navicula, Nitzschia, Phormidium , Agmenellum , Surirella,
limited in quantity. The kinds of algae in the clean waters Ulothrix , and Euglena. In these same genera, as well as in
upstream and downstream tend to be similar, however. Pinnularia, Cyclotella, and Cladophora, there are also species
Large numbers of algae will be found in the section of the considered to be indifferent to sewage. Identification to spe
stream often called the “ recovery zone” which contains par cies is, therefore, essential for any accurate differentiation
tially decomposed sewage. It is difficult to select particular of pollution zones through the use of algae as indicator
algae as the best indicators of the downstream clean water organisms.
zone, since it is adjacent to the “ recovery zone” where purifi Clean water algae are commonly listed by some writers as
cation is still in progress. As with the polluted water forms, typical of the oligosaprobic zone, which is defined as the “ zone
it is more satisfactory to emphasize the presence or absence of cleaner water ” where mineralization has been completed
of several of the clean water algae rather than of any one ( 1 ) . However, from the standpoint of sanitation this zone of
species alone in defining the clean water zone. water is not likely to be clean or pure since it undoubtedly is
Forty -six species have been selected as representative of not free of bacteria and viruses of intestinal origin. The
the clean water algae and are listed in table 8. Twenty oligosaprobic zone does not have a fixed location nor length
three of these species are illustrated in color on plate 4. The since the distance required for stream purification varies ac
group includes several diatoms, several brown to reddish cording to temperature, the pollution load, the rate of flow ,
flagellates, certain greens and blue-greens, and a few fresh and other factors. The limited flora and fauna of springs
water red algae of the class Rhodophyceae. A number of and pure mountain streams are placed in a separate group
them , particularly the flagellates, are very minute and appear known as the katarobic ( 1) . More extensive lists of organ
small even under the high power of a compound microscope, isms considered characteristic of the various pollution zones
but they frequently are better indicators of clean water than have been published recently by Butcher ( 2 ) , Kolkwitz ( 3 ) ,
many larger algae that may be mixed with them . However, Lackey (4 ) , Liebmann (5 ) , Patrick (6 ) , and others.
a few of the larger forms are also useful in indicating the Butcher ( 2 ) claimed that a community composed of the
condition of the water and are represented by certain species diatom Cocconeis and the blue- green alga Entophysalis
of Cladophora, Rhizoclonium , Lemanea, and others. ( listed as Chamaesiphon ) is present in the portion of the
Some of the clean water algae are planktonic, while others stream which has returned to normal following purification
are attached to rocks or other material at the bottom or sides of a polluted condition. Kolkwitz ( 3) lists as oligosaprobic
of the stream like Calothrix parietina ( fig. 34 ). The blue 61 diatoms, 42 green algae, 41 pigmented flagellates, 23 blue
green algae, and 5 red algae. Lackey (4) found 77 species
of planktonic algae in the clean water portion of a small
DESTEKBE stream , 40 of which were absent in the polluted area a short
AR3I0N0G0 distance downstream. Liebmann ( 5 ) emphasized particu
BE B
22a ar 60
28
3 81
larly the following algae as characteristic of the oligosa
SPEE
probic zone : The flagellate Chromulina rosanoffi in slow
BB
BB
flowing water, and the flagellate Mallomonas caudata , the

98
B
02
DF
10
green algae Ulothrix zonata and Microspora amoena , and the

0
AS
BE
D
IS
EB
ES
red algae Lemanea annulata and Batrachospermum vagum in
rapidly flowing water. Patrick ( 6 ) listed Amphora ovalis
and Gyrosigma attenuatum as examples of diatoms that
Figure 34. – Calothrix parietina is attached to logs and stones in seemed to be adversely affected by high organic content of
running water . water. Brinley ( 7 ) reported that the presence of the flagel
41
late algae Chrysococcus and Cryptomonas in large numbers Some workers have emphasized the relationship of whole
indicated that the decomposition of organic matter in the groups of algae to pollution in studies involving stream puri
stream has been completed . fication. Lackey ( 8 ) reported that two classes of algae, the
olive- green flagellates, or Cryptophyceae, and the yellow
green flagellates, or Chrysophyceae, appeared to be indi
cators of clean, unpolluted water. They tended to be present
in moderate to great abundance in clean water and reacted
Table 8. — Clean Water Algae
Plate or adversely to pollution. In another study ( 4) he observed
Group and Algae Figure that all of the Chrysophyceae and most of the Cryptophyceae,
Blue -Green Algae ( Myxophyceae) : Volvocales, and Bacillarieae ( diatoms ) which were present
Agmenellum quadriduplicatum , glauca type 4
4
in clean water were killed in the zone of pollution. Patrick
Calothrix parietina
Coccochloris stagnina 4 ( 9 ) stated that a “ healthy ” portion of a stream contained
4
Entophysalis lemaniae
Microcoleus subtorulosus 4
algae which are mostly diatoms and green algae. Rafter ( 10 )
Phormidium inundatum and other earlier workers assumed that the absence of large
Green Algae (Nonmotile Chlorophyceae ): amounts of blue -green algae was an indication of clean water.
Ankistrodesmus falcatus, var. acicularis 4
Bulbochaete mirabilis It is apparent that the lists of clean water algae as reported
Chaetopeltis megalocystis by various workers include a wide variety of forms belonging
Cladophora glomerata 4
to various groups. Some are planktonic while others are
Draparnaldia plumosa 5 epiphytic or attached to rocks and other material on the
Euastrum oblongum
Gloeococcus schroeteri bottom of the stream ,
Micrasterias truncata 4
Staurastrum punctulatum 4 REFERENCES
Ulothrix aequalis 4
Vaucheria geminata Fig . 39 1. The microscopy of drinking water. Ed. 4. G. C. Whipple, G. M.
Red Algae (Rhodophyceae): Fair, and M. C. Whipple. J. Wiley and Sons, N.Y. , 586 p .
Batrachospermum vagum With 19 color plates. 1948 .
Hildenbrandia rivularis 4
Lemanea annulata 4 2. Pollution and repurification as indicated by the algae. ' R. W.
Butcher. Fourth International Congress for Microbiology ,
Diatoms ( Bacillariophyceae ) : held 1947. Rept. of Proc. 1949 .
Amphora ovalis
Cocconeis placentula 4 3. Oekologie der Saprobien . Über die Bezeihungen der Wasseror
Cyclotella bodanica 4
Cymbella cesati
ganismen zur Umwelt. R. Kolkwitz. Schriftenreihe des
Vereins für Wasser-, Boden-, und Lufthygiene. No. 4, 64 p .
Meridion circulare 4
Navicula exigua var. capitata 1950.
Navicula gracilis 4 4. Stream enrichment and microbiota . J. B. Lackey. Public
Nitzschia linearis Health Repts. 71 : 708–718. 1956.
Pinnularia nobilis 4
Pinnularia subcapitata 5. Handbuch der Frischwasser-, und Abwasserbiologie. H. Lieb
Surirella splendida 4 R. Oldenbourg, München , Germany, 539 p. 1951.
Synedra acus var. angustissima 6. Factors effecting the distribution of diatoms. Ruth Patrick .
Flagellates (Chrysophyceae, Cryptophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Bot. Rev. 14 : 473-524 . 1948 .
Volvocales of Chlorophyceae) : 7. Biological studies, Ohio River pollution survey . I. Biological
Chromulina rosanoffi 4
Chroomonas nordstetii
zones in a polluted stream . F. G. Brinley. Sewage Wks.
Chroomonas setoniensis Jour. 14 : 147–159. 1942.
Chrysococcus maior 8. Two groups of flagellated algae serving as indicators of clean
Chrysococcus ovalis J. B. Lackey. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn . 33 : 1099–
Chrysococcus rufescens 4
1110. 1941.
Dinobryon stipitatum
Euglena ehrenbergii 9. A proposed biological measure of stream conditions Ruth
Euglena spirogyra Patrick . Proc. 5th Indust. Waste Conf., Purdue Univ. Eng.
Mallomonas caudata 1
Bull. 34 : 379–399 . 1950 .
Phacotus lenticularis 4
Phacus longicauda 10. The microscopical examination of potable water. G. W. Rafter.
Rhodomonas lacustris 4 Van Nostrand Co., N.Y. 1900.
CHAPTER VIII
PLANKTON AND OTHER SURFACE WATER ALGAE
THE WATER REQUIREMENTS of growing cities and enriched with organic matter or that previously there has
industry place increasing demands on surface water sup been a superabundance of diatoms. An understanding of
plies. Already, the majority of the larger communities are relationships of this sort helps in instituting measures to
forced to rely primarily on surface rather than ground prevent troublesome growths from developing (4) .
water. More and more attention must therefore be given In waters poor in nutrients, the factors limiting the number
to both pollution control and treatment of the water par of algae may be the amounts of food materials available, par
ticularly as supplies from less desirable sources have to be ticularly nitrates, phosphates, and, for diatoms, silicates.
tapped ( 1 ) . Some localities are proposing to restrict the algal growths in
Reservoirs, lakes, rivers, and smaller streams are all the raw water supply by removal of phosphate through caus
normally capable of supporting large mixed groups of ing it to precipitate as ferric phosphate. In one of the
aquatic plants and animals. Algae of many kinds are in western cities a problem developed when 20 percent of a
cluded in this population. In lakes, reservoirs, and large ground water containing approximately 5 to 10 p.p.m. nitro
rivers the common forms would be those found especially at or gen as nitrate was mixed with aa relatively infertile surface
near the surface of the water where light is present in suf supply, causing heavy growths of the green algae, Golenkinia,
ficient intensity to permit the algae to carry on their es Palmella, and Scenedesmus. In England, the addition of
sential process of photosynthesis. The planktonic algae are ground water to a reservoir caused a copious growth of the
capable of growing and multiplying while dispersed in the yellow - green alga, Tribonema. The growths of algae in some
water and unattached to solid objects ( 2 ) . Many other localities have been so rank as to necessitate withdrawing the
algae may be carried away from the shore line and from reservoir from service. Many bodies of water are sufficiently
shallow ponds to become mixed with the true planktonic rich in the essential nutrients that these nutrients do not be
forms or to collect as mats of growth on the surface. Some come limiting factors in determining the abundance of algae.
species of algae are able to develop in abundance at depths Other factors such as turbidity, water temperature, and para
of 10, 20, or more feet below the surface. sitism may be the critical ones. Although it is assumed that
Recent studies indicate that there are many very minute the chemical and physical environment largely determines the
algae and related organisms present in the water, and that amount of algal production, the exact relationships remain
these may often exceed in volume the larger microscopic in many respects obscure.
forms. These very minute forms, are called “ nannoplank
ton,” and the smallest of these are generally missed in the BLOOMS
routine plankton analysis of water, in which only a low
magnification with the compound microscope is used ( 3 ) . A number of the surface water algae have the ability to
The possible importance of these very small forms has not accumulate, at times, in such numbers as to form loose, visible
vet been given much consideration . aggregations called "blooms,” which may cover very large
The larger unattached algae constitute the bulk of the areas of lakes and reservoirs or even streams. Blue-green
plankton counts made at many water treatment plants. So algae may form these water blooms particularly during
long as the total count remains low and no taste- and -odor periods of warm , calm weather, when the algae which pre
algae nor filter -clogging forms are present in conspicuous viously were distributed through the water rise to the surface.
numbers, the waterworks engineer assumes that he is un Other blooms may be associated with a rapid reproduction of
likely to have serious difficulties with the algae. A reason a particular alga. Some water blooms have resulted in fish
able number of various kinds of common plankton organ kills by interfering with reaearation , by excluding light nec
isms indicates a balanced biological condition in his raw essary for photosynthesis in the lower areas and thereby
water supply, implying that it will respond to water works preventing release of oxygen into the water, or by depleting
treatment with the minimum of trouble . If one group,
the oxygen through decay or respiration within the bloom .
Some water blooms release substances extremely toxic to fish ,
such as the blue- greens or the diatoms, or one particular domestic animals, and birds, and extensive kills have resulted
species, such as Anacystis cyanea ( formerly called Micro in several areas ( 5 ) .
cystis aeruginosa ) or Dinobryon divergens, begins to pre A considerable number of species of algae are capable of
dominate, then he becomes alert for possible trouble and can producing blooms. Some of the genera most frequently in
treat for the control of algae before undesirable conditions volved are the blue- green algae, Anacystis (Microcystis ),
become serious. When blue - green algae become predom Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, and Oscillatoria ; the green al
inant, it frequently indicates either that the water has been gae, Hydrodictyon, Chlorella, and Ankistrodesmus ( fig. 35 ) ;
43
the diatoms, Synedra and Cyclotella ; and the flagellates, the functioning of multiple purpose reservoirs by collecting
Synura, Euglena, and Chlamydomonas. Blooms of blue as debris on the shores and interfering with fishing and
green algae are particularly obnoxious. Blooms of flagellates bathing. Many of the mat -forming algae are resistant to
and green algae are often encouraged by the addition of fer effective treatment with copper sulfate. Frequent inspec
tilizer in farm hatchery ponds in order to increase fish pro tions of raw water supplies for detection of the visible
duction (6 ) . growths, together with routine microscopic analyses of wa
ter samples are necessary if the various kinds of algae are
to be effectively controlled .
The list of surface water algae covered in the manual is
given in table 9. It is more extensive than for the other
groups and includes aa total of 68 species with 22 illustrated
in color on plate 5. Many of the species on the other lists
in this manual could also be considered as prominent mem
bers of the flora of surface waters. Additional species
would also need to be added to make the list fairly repre
Figure 35. - Ankistrodesmus falcatus.
sentative for any particular locality. Since the total num
ber of known species of algae is several thousand, it is ob
viously not possible to include here all of even the common
Related to the blooms, are the “ mats ” or “blankets" ( fig. forms. Transeau ( 8 ) lists, for example, 275 species of the
36 ) of filamentous green algae such as Spirogyra, Zygnema, genus, Spirogyra ; Hustedt ( 9 ) describes more than 125
Oedogonium , and Cladophora which at times may cover species belonging to the genus, Navicula ; and Gojdies ( 10)
large areas of a reservoir or lake ( 7 ) . Certain blue- green recognizes 155 species of Euglena.
algae, such as Gloeotrichia natans ( fig. 37 ) may also form It is emphasized that not all of the algae in the list of
extensive floating masses. These growths cause an unsightly surface water forms are planktonic. The list includes algae
appearance in a community's water supply and serve as which may be originally benthic ( attached and bottom
breeding places for gnats and midge flies. They may clog dwelling) forms but are frequently swept away into the
intake screens, cause tastes and odors, and interfere with open water .
Figure 36. — A surface blanket of filamentous algae.

Plankton and Other Surface Water Algae 45
RHIZOSOLENIA
i 2006 SED
o
T7... D
Figure 37. — Gloeotrichia natans.

TABELLARIA
The open water algae have several mechanisms which aid ASTERIONELLA
in keeping them dispersed in the water and retard any
tendency toward settling out. The pigmented flagellates,
represented on plate 5 by Euglena, Phacus, Gonium , and
Eudorina, are swimming forms with whip-like flagella SYNEDRA
which apparently aid in the forward movement of the cells
through the water. Spines or the spine -like shapes of entire
cells help to keep certain nonswimming green algae, such ‫من‬ CYCLOTELL
as Actinastrum , Micractinium , and Scenedesmus, suspended RHIZOSOLENIA
in the water. The large flat surfaces exposed to the water
do the same thing for the diatoms Fragilaria and Tabellaria,
FRAGILARIA
and the green alga, Pediastrum . A number of planktonic
blue - green algae have internal “gas vacuoles ” which help to :)
keep the cells afloat.
Various shapes are found among the surface water algae. -TABELLARIN
Spherical or sub-spherical colonies of cells are found in MELOSIRA
Coelastrum, Oocystis, Gomphosphaeria, and Sphaerocystis.
Filamentous forms include Nodularia, Mougeotia, Zygnema,
Cylindrospermum , Melosira, and Desmidium . The diatoms
Stauroneis and Navicula are boat-shaped and capable of
moving through the water. The odd -colored Botryococcus
with its green cells embedded in a brownish mucilaginous
sheath is often irregular in form and surface.
From their specialties in shape and internal structure,
many of the algae can be recognized readily under the
microscope ( fig. 38 ) . This makes possible, in the routine
microscopic analysis of water samples, a record of the pres
ence and abundance of many of the significant species. Sev
eral helpful books have been published recently, giving lists, Figure 38.—Plankton diatoms, showing distinctive shapes of cells and
colonies. The relative sizes of the various organisms are also evident
keys, descriptions, and illustrations of the algal flora of par in this composite photomicrograph which was furnished by J. R.
ticular States or regions. Examples of these are the algae of Baylis, Engineer of Water Purification, Department of Water and
Illinois ( 11 ) , algae of Tennessee ( 12) , algae of the western Sewers, Bureau of Water, Chicago, III.
Great Lakes area ( 13 ) , and the algae of the United States
( 14) . Available information of this character will facilitate
the accurate recording of the algae found in streams, lakes, over again. Various brown and green flagellates and the
and reservoirs which are being used as the water supply for yellow-green alga Tribonema occasionally appear in the
an ever -increasing number of cities, towns, and industrial cycle as abundant growth for brief periods, the time of year
establishments. depending in part upon the particular species involved .
Each year a seasonal cycle is evident in the plankton pop When records are kept for a long period of time of the
ulation of lakes and reservoirs. Diatoms generally increase phytoplankton present in a reservoir or lake, they often re
in number in late winter, often with two or three additional veal that certain genera and species are predominant year
pulses occurring during the spring months. In early sum after year. In one metropolitan district ( 15 ) the reservoirs
contained enormous numbers of Tabellaria and Ceratium
mer, the green algae are likely to be abundant followed in with an abundance also of Asterionella, Fragilaria, Synedra,
the late summer and early autumn by an increased growth
of blue -greens. Then there will follow a late autumn max
Cyclotella , Dinobryon , and Pandorina. Over a period of ap
proximately 40 years, however, there was a gradual change
imum of diatoms. Throughout most of the winter the di
in the predominant algae. Tabellaria dropped out com
atoms and certain other algae may remain in the water but pletely and new forms appeared, chiefly Stephanodiscus
with little or no increase in numbers until conditions, in the astraea and Stephanodiscus hantzschii, together with sev
late winter, stimulate the organisms to begin the cycle all eral filamentous blue - green algae.
Table 9. — Plankton and Other Surface Water Algae Group and algae Plate
Group and algae Plate or Figure Flagellates (Chrysophyceae, Euglenophyceae, and Volvocales of
Chlorophyceae ):
Blue -Green Algae ( Myxophyceae ) : Dinobryon sociale
Anacystis thermalis Eudorina elegans 5
5 Euglena gracilis 5
Cylindrospermum stagnale
Gloeotrichia natans Fig . 37 Gonium pectorale
5 Phacus pleuronectes 5
Gomphosphaeria aponina
Gomphosphaeria lacustris, collinsii type
Gomphosphaeria wichurae Although many environmental factors are relatively con
Lyngbya versicolor
Nodularia spumigena
Nostoc carneum
5 stant for any body of water and tend to keep the phyto
Oscillatoria agardhii
plankton population stable, other factors will change suf
Phormidium retzii ficiently to influence the growth and relative abundance of
Plectonema tomasiniana
Scytonema tolypothricoides the various genera and species comprising the flora.
Spirulina nordstedtii
Filamentous Green Algae (of Chlorophyceae and Chryso REFERENCES
phyceae ) :
Cladophora fracta 1. Ecology of significant organisms in surface water supplies.
Desmidium grevillei 5
Hyalotheca mucosa C. M. Tarzwell and C. M. Palmer . Jour. Amer . Water Wks.
Assn. 43 : 568-578 . 1951.
Mougeotia genuflexa
Mougeotia scalaris 5 2. Some relationships of phytoplankton to limnology and aquatic
Oedogonium idioandrosporum biology. G. W. Prescott. P. 65–78 in Problems of lake biology,
Spirogyra fluviatilis
Spirogyra varians Fig . 36 by F. R. Moulton . Amer. Assn . for Advancement of Sci ., Science
Stigeocolonium stagnatile Press, Lancaster, Pa . 1939.
Tribonema minus 3. A new counting slide for nannoplankton. C. M. Palmer and
Ulothrix tenerrima
Vaucheria terrestris T. E. Maloney. Amer. Soc. Limnol. and Oceanog ., Special
Zygnema pectinatum Publ . No. 21 , 6 p . March 1954.
Zygnema sterile 5 4. The importance of algae to waterworks engineers. J. W. C.
Nonfilamentous , Non- Motile Green Algae (of Chlorophyceae ) : Lund. Jour. Inst. Water Engrs. 8 : 497-504. 1954 .
5
Actinastrum gracillimum 5. Toxic fresh-water algae. W. M. Ingram and G. W. Prescott.

Actinastrum hantzschii Amer. Midland Naturalist 52 : 75-87 . 1954 .
Ankistrodesmus falcatus Fig . 34
Botryococcus braunii 5 6. Manganese for increased production of water -bloom algae in
Chlorella ellipsoidea ponds. C. Henderson. Progressive Fish-Culturist 11 : 157-159.
Closterium aciculare 1949 .
Coelastrum microporum 5
7. The population of the blanket-algae of fresh -water pools.
Cosmarium botrytis Emilie
Crucigenia quadrata L. Platt. Amer . Naturalist 49 : 752–762. 1915.
Dimorphococcus lunatus 8. The Zygnemataceae ( fresh -water conjugate algae ) with keys for
Euastrum oblongum 5 the identification of genera and species. E. X. Transeau .
Kirchneriella lunaris Ohio State Univ . Press, Columbus, Ohio, 327 p . 1951.
Micractinium pusillum 5
Oocystis borgei 5 9. Bacillariophyta ( Diatomeae ). F. Hustedt. Heft 10 in Die
Ophiocytium capitatum Süsswasser- Flora Mitteleuropas, by A. Pascher. Gustav
Pediastrum boryanum 5 Fisher, Jena , Germany, 466 p. 1930 .
Pediastrum duplex Fig . 38
Scenedesmus bijuga 10. The genus Euglena . Mary Gojdics. Univ . Wisconsin Press,
Scenedesmus dimorphus Madison , Wis ., 268 p. 1953.
Scenedesmus quadricauda 5 11. The algae of Illinois. L. H. Tiffany and M. E. Britton . Univ.
Schroederia setigera Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill., 407 p. 1952 .
Selenastrum gracile
12. Handbook of algae with special reference to Tennessee and the
Sphaerocystis schroeteri 5
Staurastrum polymorphum southeastern United States. H. S. Forest. Univ . Tennessee
Press, Knoxville, Tenn ., 467 p . 1954 .
Cyclotella glomerata 13. Algae of the western Great Lakes area , exclusive of desmids and
Cymatopleura solea diatoms. G. W. Prescott. Cranbrook Inst. Sci., Bloomfield
Fragilaria capucina 5 Hills, Mich ., Bull. No. 31 , 946 p . 1951 .
Gyrosigma attenuatum
Melosira crenulata 14. The fresh -water algae of the United States. Ed . 2. G. M. Smith.
Navicula radiosa McGraw Hill , N.Y., 719 p . 1950.
Rhizosolenia gracillis 15. The reservoirs of the Metropolitan Water Board and their in
Rhopalodia gibba fluence upon the character of the stored water. E. W. Taylor.
Stauroneis phoenicenteron 5
Stephanodiscus hantzschii 5 Proc. International Assn . Theoretical and Appl. Limnol.
Synedra capitata 12 : 48-65 . 1955 .
CHAPTER IX
ALGAE ATTACHED TO RESERVOIR WALLS
MANY of the algae which grow attached to some substrate Cladophora, Pithophora ( fig. 41 ) , Chaetophora , Stigeo
are large and conspicuous, often covering a considerable area clonium , Draparnaldia , Bulbochaete, Chara, and Nitella.
and extending several inches into the water. Those of im The species Cladophora glomerata is a very common attached
portance in water supplies may grow not only in the stream , alga in rapidly flowing water and is considered the most
lake, and reservoir, but in the treatment plant itself. These abundant filamentous alga in streams throughout the world
algae are commonly found attached to such objects as the ( 1 ) . Nonbranching filamentous green algae include Oedo
wet concrete walls of settling basins, the screens at the ends gonium , Microspora, and Ulothrix and the more complex
of the intake pipes, and the wood , brick, stone riprap, or even Schizomeris ( fig. 12) . The genera , Audouinella ( formerly
soil surfaces of reservoir walls and bottoms. Many are called Chantransia ), Batrachospermum , and Compsopogon
abundant in streams where they may be attached to sub are fresh -water red algae, the last one being common in the
merged twigs or rock and other materials forming the Southern States. Some filamentous blue- green algae such
stream bed. as Phormidium , Lyngbya, T'olypothrix, and Stigonema ( fig.
In small amounts these algae are not a cause for alarm, 43 ) form dense mats, one side of which is exposed and the
but when abundant they may become a decided nuisance . other side attached to the substrate.
They may clog screens to which they are attached, and re Some diatoms, such as Achnanthes, Gomphonema, and
duce the flow in canals by the amount of space they occupy Cymbella are attached to surfaces by gelatinous stalks or
and the increased friction of their surfaces. In multiple tubes. In Australia, Gomphonema developed as an ex
purpose lakes and reservoirs, they often interfere with tensive growth and formed a slippery, felt -like mat covering
swimming and fishing or develop such rank growths in the the cement walls of an aqueduct for several miles ( 2 ) . The
shallow margins that they are the cause of constant com species of Cymbella which grows inside a hollow tube, as
plaints from nearby residents. In addition, they may break illustrated on plate 6, has sometimes been placed in a separate
away from their attachments to form unsightly surface mats, genus, Encyonema ( 3 ) ..
clog screens and filters, or produce offensive odors in the air

and water. Other smaller algal forms may produce a con
tinuous slimy and slippery layer on concrete or other sur
faces, which in swimming pools is undesirable or even
dangerous.
The attached algae considered here number 42 species,
listed under their respective groups in table 10 ; 21 are illus
trated in color on plate 6. Included are diatoms, blue-green ,
green , and fresh -water red algae, but no flagellates. Many
of these algae grow in the form of unbranched or branched
filaments or tubes and are fastened at one end to the substrate
by means of a special anchoring device. Vaucheria is a
re Figure 40. - Vaucheria
sessilis.
branched , tubular form with several common species ( figs. A white marble surface serving as the floor of an observa
39, 40) . Typical branching filamentous green algae are tion well in one water treatment plant became overgrown
with a continuous brown layer of Achnanthes. The obser
vation well was located on a conduit carrying water from
sand filters to the clear well. The marble surface was
brushed clean but the color returned again within 2 weeks.
After a second cleaning, electric lights that had been left on
180
continuously at the bottom of the observation well were then

00
turned off excepting for brief times when needed for display.
The brown color did not return because the diatoms were not
00
capable of developing in darkness.
The green alga, Phytoconis ( formerly called Protococcus)
is common as a thin green layer on the surface of moist wood
00000
and bark above the water line, but it is seldom found sub
Figure 39. - Vaucheria merged . Another green alga, Tetraspora ( fig. 44 ), is com
geminata . posed of minute rounded cells in a soft, fragile, mucilaginous,
47
common tube which is attached at one end to the substrate .

It is one of the first algae to develop in abundance in the
cold water of streams and pools after the ice melts in early
spring.
In reservoirs and lakes having rocky rather than sandy
R
shores, Cladophora and other large filamentous algae often
I
develop during the summer as extensive massive growths.
When this material becomes detached by wave action and is
thrown up on the shore, it may require immediate removal
to prevent the development of septic odors ( 4 ) .
Drastic measures often have to be taken to control the
attached algae, especially if the growths are neglected until
large quantities threaten to cause trouble. One city adapted
a floor-cleaning machine, fitted with a cylindrical wire
brush , for use in scraping the algal growth from the con
crete floor of a 13 million gallon reservoir. The machine
proved to be much more effective than hand scrapers in re
moving the attached portions of the algae from the more than
100,000 square feet of concrete. The detached algae were
then flushed from the reservoir floor by streams of water
from a fire hose ( 5 ) . The use of chemicals to kill attached
algae when they are present in quantity may not solve the
Table 10. - Algae Attached to Reservoir Walls Figure 41. — Pithophora Figure 42. - Schizo .
Group and algae Plate or Figure oedogonia . meris leibleinii.
Calothrix braunii
Lyngbya lagerheimii 6
Lyngbya ocracea
Nostoc pruniforme
Oscillatoria tenuis Fig. 30
Phormidium retzii
Phormidium uncinatum 6
Stigonema minutum
Tolypothrix tenuis 6
QO
Green Algae ( Nonmotile Chlorophyceae , Charophyceae ) :
DE
Bulbochaete insignis 6 Figure 43. — Stigonema
Chaetophora attenuata hormoides.
Chaetophora elegans 6
Chara globularis 6
Cladophora crispata 6
Cladophora glomerata
Draparnaldia glomerata
4
6 Bow
Gloeocystis gigas
Microspora amoena 6
Nitella flexilis
Oedogonium boscii
Oedogonium grande
Oedogonium suecicum 6
Palmella mucosa 2
Phytoconis botryoides 6
Pithophora oedogonia Fig . 41
Schizomeris leibleinii Fig . 42
Stigeoclonium lubricum 6
Tetraspora gelatinosa 6
Ulothrix zonata 6
Vaucheria geminata Fig . 39
Vaucheria sessilis 6
Red Algae (Rhodophyceae ):

Audouinella violacea 6
Batrachospermum moniliforme 6
Compsopogon coeruleus 6
Achnanthes microcephala 6
Cocconeis pediculus
Cymbella prostrata 6
Epithemia turgida
Gomphonema geminatum 6
Gomphonema olivaceum Figure 44. — Tetraspora. Portion of colony showing cells grouped
Rhoicosphenia curvata in fours. Pseudocilia are barely visible on a few of the cells.
Algae Attached to Reservoir Walls 49
problem because dead algae as well as living ones can clog coccum. The branching filaments of Stigeoclonium rise
filters and screens, release slimes into the water, and cause from this basal mat. Species of attached algae from the
tastes and odors. trickling filters of one treatment plant ( 7 ) were reported as
In areas in the western part of the country where there Stigeoclonium nanum , Ulothrix tenuissima, Phormidium
are extensive systems of canals for irrigation farming, mass uncinatum , Amphithrix janthina and Characium sp . Other
ive growths of attached algae, together with certain aquatic algae commonly mixed with the attached forms were Scene
flowering plants, constitute a serious problem . Because of desmus bijuga, Oocystis parva , Chlorella vulgaris, Chlamy
their bulk, they impede the flow of water through the ditches domonas, Nitzschia palea and Anacystis montana .
and clog the control gates and the distribution lines. Clad Consideration is being given to the use of attached algae
ophora and Rhizoclonium are by far the most important in tertiary treatment of sewage effluents. In addition the
algae encountered . The peak of their development is gen algal growth might be harvested and prepared for use as
erally in the spring after which they often become incon fertilizer, mulch , cattle feed , etc. The attached forms would
spicuous during the summer, with new growth beginning in not present the difficulty of harvesting that is encountered
the autumn. The green alga Enteromorpha, commonly with plankton organisms.
thought of as a brackish water form , may become abundant Thus it is evident that the attached algae may produce
during the summer, and the fresh -water red alga, Comp undesirable conditions or be put to good use depending upon
sopogon , may flourish during the autumn. One common the particular locations and conditions in which they develop.
method of control has been the mechanical removal of the
algae by means of chains or scrapers that are pulled along REFERENCES
the canals by tractors. Four irrigation districts in Arizona
1. The ecology of river algae. J. L. Blum. Bot. Rev. 22 : 291-341.
spend a total of approximately $250,000 annually to control 1956 .
this growth ( 6) . 2. The effects of algae in water supplies. D. H. Matheson . Inter
Attached algae are present and apparently significant in national Water Supply Assn ., General Rept. to 2d Congress.
the trickling filters of sewage treatment plants. They form Paris, France. 82 p. 1952.
a large part of the population of microorganisms growing 3. Fresh -water biology. H. B. Ward and G. C. Whipple. J. Wiley
and Sons, N.Y., 1110 p . 1945 .
in a layer around the stones of the filter. The exposed sur 4. Algal nuisances in surface waters. N. J. Howard and A. E. Berry.
face of the layer is predominantly fungal, the intermediate Canadian Jour. Public Health 24 : 377-384 . 1933 .
portion is predominantly algal, and the basal portion, 5. Rout reservoir algae. 0. G. Kuran and H. H. Angell. Amer. City
against the stone, is a fungal, algal, and bacterial mixture. 68 ( No. 10 ) : 90–91. Oct. 1953.
The layer may reach a thickness of 1 to 2 mm. The attached 6. The study of the algae of irrigation waters. Janet D. Wien .
Arizona State College, Tempe, Arizona . 37 p. (Mimeographed ).
alga most frequently encountered is Stigeoclonium . In ad Mar. 31 , 1958 .
dition to its branching filaments it also develops as a basal, 7. Continuous sampling of trickling filter populations. II. Popula
attached , irregular tight mat of cells which strongly re tions. W. B. Cooke and A. Hirsch . Sewage and Indust. Wastes
sembles a colony of the nonfilamentous green alga Chloro 30 : 138–156 . 1958 .
CHAPTER X
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY ALGAE

IN WATER SUPPLIES
THE WIDESPREAD distribution of algae in water sup a colored marginal ring forms at the surface of the water
plies, together with their unique combination of character in the tumbler or bathtub. Colors ranging from yellow
istics, allows them to exert effects in many places and in green through green , blue -green , red , and brown to black
many ways. In addition to those activities discussed in the could all be due to algae. In table 11 are listed some of the
preceding six chapters, the algae have been implicated in algae that have been implicated. However, colors in water
production of slime in industrial water supplies, causing may also be caused by substances other than algae.
coloration of water, inducing corrosion of concrete and of
metals, reducing the potability of treated water by their CORROSION
presence in distribution systems, interfering with the chemi
Corrosion of concrete and of metals in pipes and boilers is
cal treatment of water, and causing illness in man and a continual problem . Algae sometimes contribute to cor
animals ( 1 ) . rosion either directly in localized places where they may be
growing or through their modification of the water by physi
SLIME cal or chemical changes. Green and blue- green algae, along
with lichens and mosses growing on the surface of sub
Slime formation in water can be caused or aided by merged concrete, have caused the concrete to become pitted
various kinds of algae, bacteria, and other organisms (2 ) . and friable. The effect was most pronounced when the per
Slime-producing algae are important in open reservoirs and centage of SO3 in the mortar was 0.6 or higher. Some of
in uncovered holding basins of recirculating systems. They the algae associated with this change are given in table 11 .
can become a serious problem especially in the water sup It is assumed that the gelatin present in the living plants
plies for pulp mills and food industries by causing slime together with the carbonic, oxalic, and silicic acids produced
spots or masses in the products. Coatings of slime may also by them are adequate to corrode the cement ( 4 ) .
develop on condenser tubes in industrial cooling systems and Typical algae are unlikely to be the direct cause of corro
have the effect of reducing the rate of heat transfer to the sion of iron or steel pipes in a distribution system because
water ( 3 ) . Slime accumulation in the unlighted portions of most are incapable of active growth in the absence of light.
distribution systems may be due to bacteria, to the tardy However, algae have been reported to cause corrosion in
settling out of the coagulant, or to other agents, but not to metal tanks or basins open to sunlight. Oscillatoria grow
algae. ing in abundance in water in an open steel tank has caused
Algal slime commonly is derived from the mucilaginous serious pitting of the metal. The pits were bright and clean
capsule or sheath which envelops the cells. The blue- green because the iron was apparently going into solution and not
algae as a group are notorious slime producers. Their tech producing any covering compound such as an oxide or sul
nical name, Myxophyceae, contains the prefix “myxo ” which fide. The algal growth permitted the pitting to take place
means slime or mucus. Several diatoms as well as green and by releasing oxygen which combined with the protecting
film of oxide over the steel. When the steel tank was cov
red algae and a few flagellates also produce slimy sheaths
or capsules. A few of the slime- forming algae are given in ered to prevent entrance of light, the algae disappeared and
table 11 . the corrosion stopped ( 5 ) .
Indirectly, algae may affect the rate of corrosion in a
COLORATION number of ways. Increase in organic deposits in the pipe,
increase in the dissolved oxygen in the water through photo
Algal coloration of finished water is most frequent in com synthesis in the raw water supply, and changes in the pH,
munities that have uncovered storage reservoirs in the dis CO, content, and calcium carbonate content of the water can
tribution system , or where the treatment of the raw water all be brought about by algae. These changes can , in turn,
supply is not efficient in reducing the numbers of phy affect the rate of corrosion . Iron and sulfur bacteria may
toplankton present. Almost any small alga capable of rapid have a more direct relationship to corrosion and may be sig
multiplication could be involved . Complaints come from nificant particularly on the outside surfaces of pipe buried
patrons when the water from the faucet is colored, or when in the ground.
50
Additional Problems Caused by Algae in Water Supplies 51
ALGAE IN TREATED WATERS algae might be capable of carrying into the distribution sys
tem living bacteria, presumably even pathogenic forms,
The persistence of algae in the water of distribution sys which are protected from the lethal effect of the chlorine
tems tends to become more pronounced as additional surface by being embedded in the gelatinous covering surrounding
water supplies are tapped, but less evident as effective meas the algal cells ( 6) . Algae reported to be resistant to chlorine
ures for reducing the plankton in the water are practiced . in distribution systems include Elaktothrix gelatinosa,
As most algae cannot grow and multiply without light, the Gomphosphaeria aponina, Closterium ( fig. 45 ) , Cosmarium ,
only algae which would be encountered in the pipes of the
distribution system would be first those not removed in the
treatment process ; second , the few algae unusual in their
ability to grow in the dark ; and third, those that develop Figure 45. — Closterium
in an uncovered reservoir containing treated water. The lunula , a desmid .
algae capable of growth in the dark include some species
of Scenedesmus, Euglena, Anacystis, Coelastrum , and
Chlorococcum .
Since the treated water in most distribution systems has and Chlorella . In one water supply receiving a normal
a free chlorine residual, the algae most likely to remain intact chlorine treatment but no coagulation or filtration, counts
in the pipelines would be the chlorine -resistant forms. These of up to 2,200 algae per ml. were recorded for the tap water .
Table 11. - Additional Problems Caused by Algae in Water Supplies

Problem and algae Algal group Problem and algae Algal group
Slime-producing Algae : Algae Interfering With Coagulation :
Anacystis ( Aphanocapsa, Gloeocapsa ) Blue -green Anabaena Blue -green
Batrachospermum Red Asterionella Diatom
Chaetophora Green Euglena Flagellate
Cymbella Diatom Gomphosphaeria Blue -green
Euglena sanguinea var. furcata Flagellate Synedra Diatom
Euglena velata Flagellate
Gloeotrichia Blue-green Algae Causing Natural Softening of Water :
Gomphonema Diatom Anabaena Blue - green
Oscillatoria Blue- green Aphanizomenon Blue-green
Palmella Green Cosmarium Green
Phormidium Scenedesmus Green
Blue -green
Spirogyra Green Synedra Diatom
Tetraspora Green
Toxic Marine Algae :
Algae Causing Coloration of Water : Caulerpa serrulata Green
Color of water Egregia laevigata Brown
Anacystis Blue- green Blue - green Gelidium cartilagineum var. robustum Red
Ceratium Rusty brown Flagellate Gonyaulax catenella Dinoflagellate
Chlamydomonas Green Flagellate Gonyaulax polyedra Dinoflagellate
Chlorella Green Green Gonyaulax tamarensis Dinoflagellate
Cosmarium Green Green Gymnodinium brevis Dinoflagellate
Euglena orientalis Red Flagellate Gymnodinium veneficum Dinoflagellate
Euglena rubra Red Flagellate Hesperophycus harveyanus Brown
Euglena sanguinea Red Flagellate Hornellia marina Flagellate
Oscillatoria prolifica Purple Blue-green Lyngbya aestuarii Blue -green
Oscillatoria rubescens Red Blue - green Lyngbya majuscula Blue -green
Macrocystis pyrifera Brown
Algae Causing Corrosion of Concrete :
Anacystis ( Chroococcus ) Blue- green Pelvetia fastigiata Brown
Chaetophora Green Prymnesium parvum Flagellate

Diatoma Diatom Pyrodinium phoneus Dinoflagellate
Euglena Flagellate Trichodesmium erythraeum Blue-green
Phormidium Blue-green
Phytoconis ( Protococcus) Green
Toxic Fresh -water Algae :
Anabaena Blue -green
Algae Causing Corrosion of Steel : Anabaena circinalis Blue-green
Oscillatoria Blue-green Blue-green
Anabaena flos -aquae
Algae Persistent in Distribution Systems: Anabaena lemmermanni Blue-green
Anacystis Blue-green Anacystis (Microcystis ) Blue-green
Asterionella Diatom Anacystis cyanea (Microcystis aeruginosa ) Blue -green
Chlorella Green Anacystis cyanea (Microcystis flos -aquae ) Blue -green
Chlorococcum Green Anacystis cyanea ( Microcystis toxica ) Blue - green
Closterium Green
Coelastrum Green Aphanizomenon flos-aquae Blue -green
Cosmarium Gloeotrichia echinulata Blue -green
Green
Cyclotella Diatom Gomphosphaeria lacustris ( Coelosphaerium Blue-green
Dinobryon Flagellate kuetzingianum )
Elaktothrix gelatinosa Green Lyngbya contorta Blue -green
Epithemia Diatom Nodularia spumigena Blue -green
Euglena Flagellate
Gomphosphaeria aponina Blue -green Parasitic Aquatic Algae :
Scenedesmus Green Oodinium limneticum Dinoflagellate
Synedra Diatom Oodinium ocellatum Dinoflagellate
In the counting, no distinction was made between living and quire a water free of color, turbidity, iron and aluminum
dead organisms. Some of the most abundant genera were and with low and constant pH and hardness. The city
Asterionella, Cyclotella, Dinobryon , and Synedra (7) . water treatment plant is charged with the responsibility of
Reservoirs in the distribution system can be provided with supplying water satisfactory for the city's industries. The
covers to keep out the sunlight and thus prevent the growth raw water supply comes from reservoirs which support
of algae. Ground waters stored in open reservoirs are often populations of algae that change in concentration from day
more susceptible to prolific algal growths than are treated to day. As this change occurs, small daily adjustments in
surface waters, possibly because their lower turbidity per chemical feed , equipment and operational methods are made
mits greater light penetration. The ground waters usually in the water treatment plant in order to maintain the pre
contain in solution a supply of nitrates, phosphates, iron , determined optimum conditions such as turbidity of not
silica, and carbonic acid in quantities sufficient to support more than 2.0 on the filters, minimum filter runs of 23 hours,
the phytoplankton and especially the diatoms. The ground maximum pH of 6.7 in the treated water, minimum rates of
water is easily seeded with algae and other organisms which flow of 70,000 gallons per foot head loss per filter, and
may be carried to the reservoir by the wind or on the bodies minimum floc size in the last flocculator of 2.0 mm.
of aquatic birds. The algae can impart their characteristic Normally aa large floc particle is obtained quickly and
odors to the stored water and these can be carried into the without agitation. Agitators are used , however, when
remainder of the distribution system ( 8) . certain free floating algae, particularly Gomphosphaeria
Algae that persist in distribution systems can increase the and Anabaena, are abundant. The agitation causes smaller
organic content of the water sufficiently to deplete the floc particles to be formed which in this situation gives
residual chlorine in the water. In addition , this organic settled water with lower turbidity and color than would be
content may feed bacteria, blood worms, nematodes, cope obtained with large floc particles.
pods, fresh -water sponges, bryozoa, and other undesirable Daily blooming of algae in the reservoirs frequently in
organisms. Organisms that grow attached to the inner sur duces the formation of a weak floc during coagulation in the
face of the pipes are commonly known as “pipe moss ." treatment plant and allows appreciable amounts of undesired
substances to remain in the water and to pass through the
sand filters into the finished water. The blooming of the
ROLE OF ALGAE IN WATER TREATMENT PROBLEMS
algae may cause the pH of the raw water to rise from 7.0 to
Interference by algae with the chemical treatment of 10.0 in a few hours. It is the high pH which causes a poor
water can be due to the changes they cause in pH, alkalinity, floc to be formed when alum is added. Formerly the im
total hardness, and dissolved oxygen ( D.O. ) of the raw portance of algae in causing this change was not recognized ,
water, or to their increasing of the organic content carried by and treatment plant operators were continually puzzled by
the sudden inexplicable shift to a settled water of poor
the water. It may be necessary, for example, to vary the dos quality. During the high peak of the pH cycle the normal
age of chlorine in direct proportion to the quantity of algae amount of alum which they had added to the water was in
present in order to obtain a constant amount of residual sufficient to lower the pH to the point where good floc
chlorine in the water. formation would occur.
In the clarification of water it is necessary to treat water In some cases, the pH of the finished water is adjusted to
with a coagulant aid in addition to the coagulant if the raw be within a desired range for industry by the addition of
water has a low plankton population and low turbidity due acid or alkali. The water for a certain steel mill requires
to silt or other particles. The aid may be finely divided approximately 800 pounds of 60 percent H2SO, per day to
clay, bentonite, fuller's earth, activated carbon , or similar keep the pH of the water down to 8 as it is drawn from a
materials composed of finely divided insoluble particles. 320 - acre lake. The algae in this lake are responsible for
The addition of a small amount of the aid will furnish increases in the pH of the water, and regular phytoplankton
particles which act as centers for the formation of the floc. counts are made as an aid in estimating the amount of
Asterionella and Synedra have been reported as inhibiting change in pH which will occur .
proper floc formation ( 9 ) . While it is possible that these In another state a reservoir of 350 acres had a total hard
particular kinds of algae might give more difficulty than ness normally of 120 p.p.m. In early June of one year this
others during coagulation and sedimentation, the total vol suddenly dropped to 90 p.p.m. The D.O. increased from
ume of all the algae is apparently more important. Sedi 8.3 to 13.0 p.p.m.; the pH, from 8.6 to 8.9 ; the carbonate
mentation alone would permit dead algae to settle out grad alkalinity from 20 to 30 p.p.m ; and the turbidity from 9 to
ually along with clay and other inorganic particles present. 18 p.p.m. At the same time the blue - green alga, Anabaena,
The living planktonic algae would tend to remain distrib which was then the dominant form , increased from 750 to
uted throughout the water in the absence of a coagulant. 4,730 areal standard units per ml. Favorable conditions
Many industrial establishments require a water with nar were created for the precipitation of calcium carbonate and
row ranges of variation in physical and chemical character thus a softening of the water. According to the report, the
istics. In one Connecticut city ( 10) the felting and dyeing many cells of Anabaena had utilized sufficient " half-bound ”
processes are a part of the major industries, and they re carbon dioxide in their metabolism to increase the pH , which
Additional Problems Caused by Algae in Water Supplies 53
in turn made possible the precipitation of the calcium car Toxic fresh -water algae affecting man have been reported
bonate ( 11 ) . Other algae have been observed to bring about in the United States and elsewhere. Contact type dermatitis
a similar change. These are listed in table 11. British ex and symptoms of " hay fever” have been reported to be
perience has shown that vigorous algal growths of many caused by blue- green algae. Anabaena was implicated in
kinds can reduce water hardness by as much as one -third the former reaction ( 21 ) while Anacystis (Microcystis) and
( 12 ) . Lyngbya contorta were listed for the latter ( 22 ) . In a few
cases the green alga Chlorella has been found associated with
TOXICITY OF ALGAE fungi in mycotic lesions in man, but its significance has not
been determined (23) . Unexplained outbreaks of gastroen
Illness in man and animals has been attributed to both teritis involving thousands of people, and possibly related
marine and fresh-water algae. A toxic agent produced by to the water supplies, have been reported in the same areas
the marine armored flagellate Gonyaulax ( 13 ) can cause where extensive algal blooms were present (24) . However,
serious illness in man following eating of clams that have any direct relationship between the algal blooms and the
fed on particular species of this genus. The poison has been intestinal disorders in humans has not been clearly demon
described as a toxin 10 times as potent for mice as strychnine. strated ( 25 ) . It has been suggested as a possibility that
Gonyaulax and Gymnodinium, another armored flagellate the disintegration of large amounts of blue- green algae on
may accumulate in very large numbers in ocean water near the sand filters of water treatment plants and the passage
the shore and produce a condition known as " red tide, ” “red of toxic products into the distribution mains may be the
water," or " yellow - green peril.” These flagellate blooms cause of the gastro -intestinal disturbances ( 26 ) .
have been reported for a number of localities throughout There are many records of acute and often fatal poison
the world, including the coasts of California, Florida, and ing of livestock where the animals had been drinking from
Texas, as well as Peru, Japan, Australia, India, Africa and ponds containing dense algal blooms ( 27 ) . Animals affected
Europe. Shellfish poisoning due to Gonyaulax has also been have included horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, dogs, rabbits, and
reported for Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Van poultry. In all cases the algae implicated as the toxic agents
couver Island in Canada, and for California, Alaska, Ore are blue -greens, Anacystis (Microcystis) being the genus
gon , Maine, Mexico, British Isles, Norway, France, Belgium , most often involved. The first alga reported as toxic was
and New Zealand ( 14, 15 ) . Nodularia spumigena ( fig . 47 ). The several genera and
Many kinds of fish and other marine animals are often species which are reported as toxic are listed in table 11.
killed during the time of the red tide but perhaps as the Areas which have reported poisoning of animals, presum
result of other factors than the toxin since according to some ably due to algal blooms, include Colorado, Idaho, Iowa,
workers the poison has little or no effect on fish. When the Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, South Da
decaying fish are washed up on the beaches, the stench and kota, Wisconsin , and Alberta, Ontario, Bermuda, Argentina,
the need for quick disposal constitute a serious problem for
the communities affected . Gymnodinium veneficum , a
species related to red tide algae, has been found to kill fish
in a short time and is lethal also to shell fish, arthropods
and echinoderms ( 16 ) .
Several other marine algae have been implicated as caus
ing reef fishes to be poisonous in some areas . Large numbers
of poisonous fishes are known to be herbivorous, and con
siderable evidence exists to indicate that these fish are
poisonous as food only after they have fed on certain kinds 到的
of algae ( 17) . In a large majority of the poisonous fishes
that were examined, the blue -green alga Lyngbya ( fig. 46 )
was detected in the alimentary tract. Lyngbya majuscula
and Lyngbya aestuarië were the common species in the area
and in the fish samples. It is interesting to find a report
published in 1904 that “ numbers of horses have frequently
been killed by feeding on Lyngbya majuscula which occurs
in abundance on the coral beaches in the Gulf of Manor"
along the coast of India ( 18 ) . Other marine algae have
been found toxic to mice, but their possible toxicity to man
has not been determined ( 19 ) . An algal flagellate, Prym
nesium parvum , reported for Europe and common in brack
ish water ponds in Israel, produces an extracellular toxin
which has resulted in mass mortality among fishes and in
Israel is considered the most serious natural obtacle to fish
Figure 46. – Lyngbya majuscula, showing empty sheath extending
breeding ( 20) . between threads of cells.
Finland, Australia , and South Africa ( 28 ) . The outbreaks San . Eng. Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, 60 p. ( Mimeographed ).
Jan. 1955 .
have occurred only during the summer months when algae 8. Covers for reservoirs for filtered waters and ground waters.
are abundant. The symptoms associated with poisoning by Amer. Water Wks. Assn ., p. 243-245 in Water wks. practice.
the blue-green algae are generally prostration and convul Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, Md. 1925 .
sions followed by death . 9. Algae and other natural sources of tastes and odors in water
supplies. G. J. Turre. Chapt. 2 in Taste and odor control in
I
TOINT TIILIO
water purification . West Va . Pulp and Paper Co., N.Y.
Figure 47. — Nodularia spumi Bull . 1955 .
gena , the first blue -green alga 10. Algae control at Danbury, Connecticut. E. A. Tarlton . Jour.
reported as toxic . New England Water Wks. Assn . 63 : 165–174. 1949.
11. Investigation of an unusual natural water softening. D. W. Gra
ham . Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn. 34 : 589–594. 1942.
A few aquatic algae are known to infect the gills of fish, 12. Freshwater biological research and water supply. W. H. Pearsall .
causing a disease which interferes with respiration and is Jour. Inst. Water Engrs. 5 : 482-484 . 1951.
often fatal (29 ) . The dinoflagellate Oodinium ocellatum 13. The Florida gulf coast red tide. J. B. Lackey and J. A. Hynes.
parasitizes small fresh - water fishes. Other species of this Florida Eng. and Indust. Exp. Sta . Bull., Series No. 70, 23 p.
Feb. 1955 .
genus occur in the marine tunicates, annelid worms, and
14. Mussel poisoning — a summary. H. Sommer and K. F. Meyer. In
other aquatic invertebrates (30 ) . Manual for control of communicable diseases in California .
Fish kills in fresh -water lakes and reservoirs have often California State Dept. Public Health . 1948 .
been blamed, with considerable justification, on the algae. 15. Public health significance of paralytic shellfish poison : a review
When there is a heavy algal growth, a reduction in the of literature and unpublished research. E. F. McFarren, M. L.
Schafer, J. E. Campbell, K. H. Lewis, E. T. Jensen , and E. J.
amount of sunlight due to weather conditions will reduce Schantz . Proc. National Shellfisheries Assn. 47 : 114-141.
the photosynthetic activity of the algae. With insufficient 1956 .
byproduct oxygen being produced the algae are forced to 16. Two new species of Gymnodinium isolated from the Plymouth
use in respiration the oxygen stored in the water. If this D. Ballantine. Jour. Marine Biol. Assn. United Kingdom
35 : 467-474 . 1956 .
condition should exist for any length of time, the water
17. Marine algae from Palmyra Island with special reference to the
would lose most of its oxygen causing the algae and in addi feeding habits and toxicity of reef fishes. E. Y. Dawson, A. A.
tion the fish to die of oxygen starvation . Aleem , and B. W. Halstead. Allan Hancock Foundation Publ.
On the other hand, normal amounts of sunshine on a very Univ. Southern California . Occasional paper No. 17. 39 p.
thick mat of algae can bring about a fish kill. If the mat Feb. 1955 .
becomes thick enough to prevent the passage of light to 18. Treatise on the British freshwater algae. Revised Ed. ( p. 451 ) .
G. S. West and F. E. Fritsch . Cambridge Univ. Press, Cam
planktonic algae below the surface, the latter will then use
bridge, England, 534 p. 1927 .
up more oxygen than is produced and oxygen depletion 19. Observations on toxic marine algae. R. C. Habekost, I. M. Fraser ,
takes place which, in turn affects the fish . and B. W. Halstead . Jour. Washington State Acad. Sci. 45 : 101
A balance tends to exist between the amount of algae, the 103. 1955 .
sunlight, and the total oxygen requirements of the fish and 20. Conditions which determine the efficiency of ammonium sulfate in
other aquatic organisms. A rise in water temperature might the control of Prymnesium parvum in fish breeding ponds. M.
Shilo and M. Shilo. Appl. Microbiol. 1 : 330-333. 1953.
easily be the factor which stimulates an excessive growth of 21. Cutaneous sensitization to blue-green algae. S. G. Cohen and
algae and thereby sets off the chain of events leading up to C. B. Reif. Jour. Allergy 24 : 452-457. 1953.
oxygen starvation and a fish kill ( 31 ) . 22. Symptoms of hay fever caused by algae. II . Microcystis, another
form of algae producing allergenic reactions. H. A. Heise.
REFERENCES Ann . Allergy 9 : 100-101. 1951.
23. The role of algae and plankton in medicine. M. Schwimmer and
1. The effects of algae in water supplies. D. H. Matheson . Inter D. Schwimmer . Grune and Stratton , N.Y., 85 p. 1955 .
national Water Supply Assn . General Rept. to 2d Congress. 24. Epidemic of intestinal disorders in Charleston, West Virginia , oc
Paris, France . 82 p. 1952. curring simultaneously with unprecedented water supply condi
2. Microscopic organisms in water conduits. G. C. Whipple, G. M. tions. E. S. Tisdale. Amer. Jour. Public Health 21 : 198-200.
Fair, and M. C. Whipple. Chapt. 5 in their The microscopy 1931.
of drinking water. Ed . 4. J. Wiley and Sons, N.Y. 1948. 25. Unusually mild recurring epidemic simulating food infection . R.
3. Experiences in chlorinating condenser circulating water. V. M. R. Spencer. Public Health Repts. 45 : 2867–2877. 1930.
Frost and W. F. Rippe. Wallace and Tiernan Tech . Publ. No. 26. Discussion of article by W. D. Monie on Algae control. T. C.
112, 32 p. 1929. Nelson . Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn . 33 : 716-720 . 1941.
4. Biological corrosion of concrete. E. T. Oborn and E. C. Higgin 27. Toxic fresh-water algae. W. M. Ingram and G. W. Prescott.
son . Joint Rept. Field Crops Res. Branch, Agric. Res. Service, Amer. Midland Naturalist 52 : 75–87. 1954.
U.S. Dept. Agric. and Bur. Reclamation, U.S. Dept. Interior. 28. Algal poisoning in Ontario . A. G. Stewart, D. A. Barnum, and
8 p. Jan. 1954. J. A. Henderson . Canadian Jour. Comparative Med . 14 : 197–202.
5. The role of algae in corrosion . H. C. Myers. Jour. Amer. Water 1950.
Wks. Assn . 39 : 322–324 . 1947. 29. The use of copper sulfate as a cure for fish diseases caused by
6. Quality and quantity of plankton in the south end of Lake Michi parasitic dinoflagellates of the genus Oodinium . R. P. Demp
gan in 1942. J. B. Lackey. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn. ster. Zoologica 40 : 133–138 . 1955 .
36 : 669-674. 1944. 30. How to know the Protozoa . F. L. Jahn . Wm . C. Brown Co. ,
7. Plankton removal tests and potable water supply at Naval Sta Dubuque, Iowa, 234 p. 1949.
tion, Newfoundland. C. M. Palmer and H. H. Black. Dept. 31. The algal environment in relation to fish . A. S. Kennedy. Jour.
Health, Ed . and Welfare, Public Health Service. Robt. A. Taft New England Water Wks. Assn . 62 : 196-201. 1948 .
CHAPTER XI
ADDITIONAL USES FOR

ALGAE FOUND IN WATER SUPPLIES
REFERENCE has already been made ( ch. VI ) to the utili bodies of water. Six chief types of lakes, for instance, are :
zation of algae as indicators of domestic sewage pollution and ( a) the hard water lake with an outlet ; ( b) hard water
of natural purification in streams. They are also considered landlocked lake ; (c ) soft water lake with an outlet ; ( d ) soft
useful as indicators of the sources of a particular water water landlocked lake ; ( e ) acid bog lake ; and ( f ) alkaline
supply, the pollution of ground water supplies with surface bog lake.
water, the progress of sewage change in oxidation ponds, the The hard water lake with an outlet tends to have an algal
pollution of marine and estuarine waters, the pH and tem flora that is predominantly the blue-green-diatom type.
perature ranges of a stream or lake, the toxicity of industrial Typical components of this hard water landlocked lake in
wastes, and the relative abundance in water of chemicals clude an equal abundance of greens and blue-greens plus
such as sodium chloride, iron , and calcium phosphate. some of the euglenoids and yellow -greens ( Chrysophyta ).
In the soft water lake with an outlet , the algal flora is pre
INDUSTRIAL USES
dominantly composed of green algae and the total number is
low. The soft water landlocked lake has a scant algal flora
Algae also constitute the raw materials used commercially and the filamentous forms are practically nonexistent. This
in the manufacture of sodium alginate, agar, iodine, diato type of lake may tend to produce blooms of blue -green algae,
maceous earth, and various food products. The food prod but the number of species involved would still be small. In
ucts known under various names such as amanori, kombu, an acid bog lake, a great variety of desmids will be present.
kan -ten, carrageen , dulse, and limu are an important part Certain particular species of blue -greens can be expected.
of the diet in Hawaii, Japan, China, the Philippines, Ireland, Plankton forms are not abundant but filamentous ones will
and several other areas. These products are derived prin be well developed and common . The alkaline bog lake has
cipally from marine algae. an algal flora which is poor both in numbers and kinds.
The utilization of fresh -water algae in large amounts Hard water organisms such as Chara and Spirogyra crassa
awaits the development of practical methods for their mass and Spirogyra decimena are often abundant ( 6 ) . A knowl
culture and harvesting ( 1 ) . Their potential value as pro edge of the typical algal floras of various lakes which repre
ducers of concentrated protein, carbohydrate, and fat is very sent the sources of a water supply will help, therefore, in
great, for there is no waste in the form of fibrous or woody determining the breeding grounds of the particular algae
portions that are always present in land plants. The cheap that interfere with the treatment or use of the water.
est source of nutrients for their mass culturing is undoubt
edly sewage and organic industrial wastes. Investigations ALGAE IN WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEMS
are now under way to develop practicable methods for the
utilization of sewage in the production of algae that would be
suitable for animal feeds, fertilizers, and other products ( 2 ) . Reference has been made in chapter VI to the use of algae
for production of oxygen in sewage stabilization ponds. Re
Algae may serve in the near future as commercial sources search carried out in California ( 7 ) has indicated that the
for vitamins, hormones, and antibiotics ( 3 ) . It has been determination of the number and kinds of the more abun
estimated that, each year, about 5 million tons of algal nutri dant algae in these ponds can be used as a reliable index of
ents are wasted in the United States alone by present meth
ods of sewage disposal ( 4 ) . Where algae are grown in a the progress in oxidation of the sewage. If the effluent
closed system for treatment of sewage, there need be no waste contains principally Chlorella , the pond is assumed to be
of the nutrients. working at or over its capacity. If it contains a mixed flora
the pond can handle a heavier load. Chlamydomonas is one
ALGAE AS WATER SOURCE INDICATORS of the common forms in the mixed flora which develops when
most of the organic matter is gone and mineral nutrients
It is often possible to determine the probable source of a have been precipitated because of a high pH. Chlamydom
sample of surface water through aa determination of the num onas , in turn, appears to excrete an organic compound which
ber and kinds of algae and related organisms present. This again makes the minerals available for algal growth.
is possible because the number and kinds of microorganisms Examination of the pond effluent for its algal flora may,
which develop are related to the hydrographic features of therefore, be a useful tool for operators of sewage plants
496792 0-59—6 55
having sewage stabilization ponds. The microscopic ex according to Cairns ( 12 ) . He reports that the diatom Gom
amination would require only a few minutes, and no exten phonema parvulum grew best at 22° C., and still showed
sive training is required to recognize the few types of algae considerable growth at 34° C., while another diatom Nitzs
important here. It has not yet been determined whether the chia linearis which grew best at 22° C. showed little or no
procedure is applicable for use in all parts of the country. growth at 30° C. Temperature changes are considered more
Algae may also be put to use in the treatment of industrial important than any other environmental factor in influenc
wastes. By selection and adaptation of particular strains ing diatom growth ( 13 ) . A few blue -green algae are capable
of algae as well as of molds, yeasts, and bacteria, it may be of growth at temperatures much higher than 40° C. The
possible to bring about, biologically, changes in industrial optimum temperature for Oscillatoria filiformis is 85.2° C.
wastes which otherwise might be toxic or in other ways The types of algae found in a particular stream may be a
unsuitable for release into streams, lakes, or marine waters. good indication of the range in temperature that the water
The use of algae would be particularly advantageous when has experienced .
release of oxygen into the waste is one of the required fac Change in pH of water due to industrial wastes or to
tors ( 5) . The process has already been developed for treat natural causes will also greatly modify the algal population.
ment of oil wastes from refineries. Mine wastes tend drastically to lower the pH and reduce the
algal flora to a few acid-tolerant forms such as Euglena
ALGAE AS MARINE POLLUTION INDICATORS mutabilis, Ochromonas, Chromulina ovalis, Lepocinclis
ovum , Cryptomonas erosa , and Ulothrix zonata ( 14 ) . Addi
Pollution of estuaries and of coastal marine waters is tional acid -tolerant algae are included in table 12.
rapidly becoming a problem at bathing beaches and where The majority of algae grow best in water at or near the
the ocean frontage is used for residences, for industry, and neutral point of pH, but a. considerable number, particularly
for recreation. Pollution is also influencing the marine fish among the blue- green algae, develop readily or may even
ing and shellfish industries. grow best in water with aa high pH. In cultures the optimum
As with fresh -water forms, severe pollution in salt water for Anacystis (Microcystis) and for Coccochloris (Gloeo
first tends to reduce the marine algal population to a few of thece) ( fig . 48 ) has been found to be pH 10, with little or
the more resistant species, but the decomposition products, no growth below pH 8 ( 15 ) .
in turn , stimulate a vigorous subsequent growth of algae.
In marine polluted areas in northern Europe, the sewage
pollution is reported to prevent the growth of the brown rock
weed, Fucus, while algae that are stimulated include Blin Figure 48. — Coccochloris peniocystis.
dingia minima, Enteromorpha, Ulva lactuca, Porphyra leu
costicta , Erythrotrichia carnea, Acrochaetium virgatulum ,
Acrochaetium thuretii, and Calothrix confervicola. In addi
tion to these large sea -weed algae, microscopic planktonic Other physical factors such as light and turbulence also
algae thrive in the polluted areas, causing a decrease in the play their part in determining the particular algal flora
transparency of the water ( 8 ) . The sea lettuce, Ulva latis that will develop or remain in the water.
sima, is stimulated to active growth by sewage in England In bioassays to determine the toxicity of pollutants in
( 9 ) . Industrial pollution in an estuary, involving princi water, certain kinds of fish and the crustacean Daphnia
pally iron sulfate, stimulated the growth of the pollution are being used . Algae also are being considered for the
alga Chlorella variegata and caused the sensitive diatoms test. Some may become useful as indicators of toxicity,
Chaetoceros and Skeletonema to settle out ( 10) . especially in waters where the wastes reduce the D.O. below
Marine and brackish water diatoms are being studied to that in which animals can survive. There is comparatively
determine their usefulness as indicators of pollution with little information available on the tolerance limits of partic
either domestic sewage or industrial wastes. One apparatus ular species of algae for the various toxic pollutants.
for obtaining the diatoms from the water is a slide rack with Melosira varians may be the only dominant diatom in
floats known as a diatometer ( 11 ) . Its use is being studied streams polluted with oil ( 16 ) . Iron , which is a pollutant
in both fresh and salt waters. from steel mills may be toxic to most algae but the flagellates
Chromulina and Trachelomonas hispida ( fig. 49 ) may re
TEMPERATURE, pH AND TOXICITY main active. Certain diatoms are also found in iron - rich
water, including many species of Eunotia and some large
Several physical characteristics of water are influenced by forms of Pinnularia ( 16 ) . Algae require a small amount
utilization of the water for industrial purposes. The largest
single industrial use is cooling, and the prospects are that
this use will increase very rapidly. In general, the various
classes as well as individual species of algae have minimum, Figure 49. - Trachelomonas hispida.
optimum, and maximum temperatures for growth. The
optimum temperature for diatoms is 18 ° –30 ° C., for green
algae, 30°-35° C., and for blue-green algae, 35 ° -40 ° C.,
Additional Uses for Algae Found in Water Supplies 57
of iron for the production of their chlorophyll and most Carefully controlled bioassay experiments with known
algae grow best when the ferric oxide content of the water wastes and cultures of algae, followed by additional observa
is between 0.2 and 2.0 mg. per liter. Distinct toxicity fre tions in polluted streams, should help in obtaining more
quently is noted when it exceeds 5.0 mg. ( 17) . accurate information on the toxicity to algae of some of the
Copper is well known to be toxic to many algae, but some important industrial wastes.
species are reported to be resistant to limited concentrations
of this metal, including Cymbella ventricosa, Calothrix
brauniż and Scenedesmus obliquus ( fig. 50 ) . Others are REFERENCES
listed in tables 12 and 13.
1. Some problems in large -scale culture of algae. H. W. Milner.
Sci. Monthly 80 : 15–20 . 1955 .
2. Can sewage be converted into human food ? L. G. Williams.
Furman Univ. Faculty Stud . 2 ( No. 2 ) : 16–24 . 1955.
A 3. Algal culture from laboratory to pilot plant. J. S. Burlew .
Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 600. 357 p. 1953 .
4. Photosynthetic reclamation of organic wastes. H. B. Gotaas,
Figure 50. - Scenedesmus obliquus.
W. J. Oswald , and H. F. Ludwig. Sci. Monthly 79 : 368–379.
1954.
5. Specialized biological treatment opens new possibilities in treat

ment of industrial wastes. W. B. Hart. Indust. and Eng.
Chem . 48 : 93A-95A . Mar. 1956 .
6. Lake types and algal distribution. G. W. Prescott. P. 13–33 in
his Algae of the western Great Lakes area exclusive of desmids
and diatoms. Cranbrook Inst. Sci., Bloomfield Hills, Mich .,
Phenol at a concentration of 1.9 mg. per liter appears to Bull. No. 31, 946 p . 1951.
have no toxic effect on diatoms ( 18 ) , Chromium , bromine, 7. General features of algal growth in sewage oxidation ponds.
and many dyes from textile operations are very toxic to M. B. Allen. California State Water Pollution Control Board,
Publ . No. 13. 1955 .
algae. Spondylomorum , Pediastrum ( fig. 51 ) , and Pan
dorina are capable of developing in the presence of paper 8. The algal vegetation of Oslo Fjord. 0. Sundene. Skr. Norsk.
Vidensk . Akad. , Norway. No. 2, 244 p. 1953.
mill wastes toxic to most algae ( 19) . Distillery wastes may 9. Treatment and disposal of industrial waste waters. B. A. South
limit the algal growth to a few forms such as Chlamydo gate. British Govt. Dept. Sci. and Indust. Res., London ,
botrys, Chlorogonium ( fig. 52 ) , and Chlorobrachis ( 20 ) . England. 1948.
Hydrogen sulfide at a concentration of 3.9 mg. per liter is 10. The effect of copperas pollution on plankton . C. C. Davis. No. 2
toxic to most diatoms. Four resistant species are Achnanthes in his Studies of the effects of industrial pollution in the lower
Patapsco River area. Chesapeake Biolog. Lab. Publ. No. 72.
affinis, Cymbella ventricosa , Hantzschia amphioxys, and June 1948.
Nitzschia palea ( 18 ) . Pollution of water in oil fields and 11. A new method for determining the pattern of the diatom fiora .
in salt works with salt brine composed largely of sodium Ruth Patrick, M. H. Hohn, and J. H. Wallace. Notulae Naturae,
chloride may destroy most of the normal flora. Blooms of Acad . Natural Sci. Philadelphia. No. 259, 12 p. July 1954.
marine or estuarine forms such as the green flagellate 12. Effects of increased temperatures on aquatic organisms. J.
Dunaliella may develop. Many diatoms and other algae Cairns, Jr. Indust. Wastes 1 : 150–152. 1956 .
are tolerant to various concentrations of salt in water. Cer 13. Factors effecting the distribution of diatoms. Ruth Patrick.
Bot. Rev. 14 : 473-524 . 1948 .
tain species of the following algae are reported to be re 14. Aquatic life in waters polluted by acid mine waste. J. B. Lackey.
markably resistant to the presence of chromium (21 ) : Sti Public Health Repts. 54 : 740–746 . 1939 .
geoclonium , Tetraspora, Closterium , Nitzschia, Navicula, 15. The mineral nutrition of Coccochloris peniocystis. G. C. Gerloff,
and Euglena . G. P. Fitzgerald , and F. Skoog. Amer. Jour. Bot. 37 : 835-840 .
1950 .
16. Biological studies of polluted areas in the Genesee River system .
P. W. Claassen. Part 3 in A biological survey of the Genesee
River system . N.Y. State Dept. Conservation , Suppl. to 16th
Ann . Rept. for 1926. 1927.
17. Limnology. Revised Ed. P. S. Welch . McGraw -Hill, N.Y. 1952.
18. Die Algenflora der Mulde. Ein Beitrag zur Biologie saprober
Flüsse. H. Schroeder. Pflanzenforschung 21 : 1-88 . 1939.
19. The use of biological indicators in determination of stream pollu
Figure 51. — Pediastrum duplex. tion . J. B. Lackey. Univ. Michigan School Public Health .
Lectures presented at Inservice Training Course in Sewage and
Indust. Waste Disposal. P. 109–118. (Mimeographed .) Mar.
0
1948 .
20. The effects of distillery wastes and waters on the microscopic

flora and fauna of a small creek . J. B. Lackey. Public Health
Repts. 57 : 253-260 . 1942.
21. An ecological study of the algae of the Saline River, Michigan.
Figure 52. - Chlorogonium eu
chlorum . J. L. Blum. Hydrobiologia 9 : 361-408 . 1957 .
Table 12. - Other Uses for Algae in Water Supplies

Algae as water source indicators :
From hard water lake with an outlet : Algae as indicators of high acidity :
Actinella Diatom
Blue -green algae Blue - green Chlamydomonas Flagellate
Diatoms Diatom
Chromulina ovalis Flagellate
Green flagellates : Cryptomonas erosa Flagellate
Pandorina Flagellate Euglena adhærens Flagellate
Volvox Flagellate Euglena hiemalis
From hard water lake with no outlet : Flagellate
Euglena mutabilis Flagellate
Green algae Green Euglena stellata Flagellate
Blue- green algae Blue-green Euglena tatrica Flagellate
Euglenoids : Euglena viridis Flagellate
Euglena Flagellate Eunotia exigua Diatom
Phacus Flagellate Eunotia lunaris Diatom
Trachelomonas Flagellate Eunotia trinacria Diatom
Chrysophyta : Lepocinclis ovum Flagellate
Synura uvella Flagellate Navicula subtilissima Diatom
Tribonema Yellow -green Navicula viridis Diatom
From soft water lake with an outlet :
Ochromonas Flagellate
Desmids Green Penium cucurbitinum Desmid
Diatoms Diatom
Pinnularia Diatom
From soft water lake with no outlet : Stauroneis anceps Diatom
Green algae Green Tabellaria flocculosa Diatom
From acid bog lake : Green
Desmids Green
Ulothrix zonata
Vanheurckia rhomboides var . crassenervia Diatom
Anacystis thermalis f. major Blue-green Xanthidium antilopæum Desmid
( Chroococcus prescottii )
Red Algae indicating industrial wastes :
Batrachospermum Copper :
Hapalosiphon pumilus Blue -green Achnanthes affinis Diatom
Microspora Green
Asterionella formosa Diatom
Oedogonium Green Calothrix braunii Blue -green
Scytonema ocellatum Blue -green Chlorococcum botryoides Green
From alkaline bog lake : Cymbella naviculiformis Diatom
Chara Green Cymbella ventricosa Diatom
Spirogyra crassa Green Navicula viridula Diatom
Spirogyra decemina Green Neidium bisulcatum Diatom
Nitzschia palea Diatom
Algae as indicators of temperature range of waters : Scenedesmus obliquus Green
Low temperature algæ ( 18º -30 ° C. ) : Stigeoclonium tenue Green
Diatoms : Symploca erecta Blue - green
Diatom
Gomphonema parvulum Paper mill wastes :
Nitzschia filiformis Diatom
Amphora ovalis Diatom
Nitzschia linearis Diatom
Caloneis amphisbaena Diatom
Medium temperature algæ ( 30 ° -35 ° C. ) : Cocconeis diminuta Diatom
Green alga Green Cocconeis pediculus Diatom
Warm temperature algæ ( 35 °-40 ° C. ) : Cymatopleura solea Diatom
Blue-green algæ Blue -green Cymbella ventricosa Diatom
Hot temperature algæ ( 40 ° -85 ° C. ) : Diatoma vulgare Diatom
Gomphonema herculaneum Diatom
Coccochloris ( Synechococcus) Blue-green
Blue -green Navicula cryptocephala Diatom
Lyngbya Navicula radiosa Diatom
Mastigocladus laminosus Blue- green
Oscillatoria filiformis Blue -green
Oscillatoria Blue-green
Pandorina Flagellate
Phormidium bijahensis Blue- green Pediastrum Green
Phormidium geysericola Blue-green Scenedesmus Green
Phormidium laminosum Blue- green Spondylomorum Flagellate
Surirella ovata Diatom
Algae indicating progress of change in sewage Diatom
Surirella ovata var . salina
oxidation ponds : Diatom
Synedra pulchella
Chlamydomonas Flagellate Synedra ulna Diatom
Chlorella Green Ulothrix Green
Scenedesmus Green
Phenolic wastes :
Algae as indicators of marine and estuarine Achnanthes affinis Diatom
pollution : Ceratoneis arcus Diatom
Acrochaetium thuretii Red Cocconeis placentula Diatom
Acrochaetium virgatulum Red Cyclotella kützingiana Diatom
Actinastrum hantzschii Diatom Cymatopleura solea Diatom
Cymbella naviculiformis Diatom
Calothrix confervicola Blue -green
Chlorella variegata Green Diatoma vulgare Diatom
Fragilaria virescens Diatom
Enteromorpha intestinalis Green
Gomphonema parvulum Diatom
Enteromorpha prolifera Green
Navicula cryptocephala Diatom
Erythrotrichia carnea Red
Neidium bisulcatum Diatom
Porphyra leucosticta Red Nitzschia palea Diatom
Spirulina subsalsa Blue- green Pinnularia borealis Diatom
Ulva lactuca Green Surirella ovata Diatom
Ulva latissima Green Synedra ulna Diatom
Additional Uses for Algae Found in Water Supplies 59
Table 12. - Other Uses for Algae in Water Supplies — Continued

Algae indicating industrial wastes : Algae indicating industrial wastes :
Distillery wastes : Salt brine ( principally NaCl ) :
Chlamydobotrys Flagellate Achnanthidium brevipes var. intermedia Diatom
Chlorobrachis gracillima Flagellate Actinastrum hantzschii Green
Chlorogonium euchlorum Flagellate Amphiprora paludosa Diatom
Amphora coffeiformis Diatom
Oil :
Diatoma vulgare Diatom Anacystis Blue-green
Diatom Calothrix Blue-green
Gomphonema herculaneum Green
Melosira varians Diatom Chaetomorpha
Navicula radiosa Diatom
Chlamydomonas ehrenbergii Flagellate
Surirella molleriana Diatom Coccochloris elabens ( Aphanothece Blue- green
Synedra acus Diatom halophytica )
Cyclotella meneghiniana Diatom
Synedra ulna Diatom
Cymbella lacustris Diatom
Hydrogen sulfide : Cymbella ventricosa Diatom
Achnanthes affinis Diatom Diatoma elongatum Diatom
Caloneis amphisbaena Diatom Diploneis elliptica Diatom
Camphlodiscus Diatom Dunaliella salina Flagellate
Cyclotella meneghiniana Diatom Enteromorpha intestinalis Green
Cymbella ventricosa Diatom Enteromorpha prolifera Green
Hantzschia amphioxys Diatom Entophysalis deusta ( Aphanocapsa Blue- green
Navicula minima Diatom littoralis )
Neidium bisulcatum Diatom Euglena Flagellate
Frustulia rhomboides var . saxonica Diatom
Nitzschia ignorata Diatom Diatom
Diatom Gomphonema
Nitzschia palea Gyrosigma attenuatum Diatom
Nitzschia tryblionella var. debilis Diatom Hantzshia elongata Diatom
Surirella ovata var . salina Diatom Lyngbya astuarii Blue - green
Iron : Melosira arenaria Diatom
Anomoeoneis serians var. brachysira Diatom Meridion circulare Diatom
Chlorella variegata Green Microcoleus chthonoplastes Blue -green
Navicula anglica Diatom
Chromulina Flagellate Navicula cincta var. heufleri Diatom
Eunotia Diatom Diatom
Navicula cryptocephala
Gomphonema acuminatum Diatom Navicula gregaria Diatom
Pinnularia microstauron Diatom Navicula longirostris Diatom
Pinnularia subcapitata var. hilseana Diatom Navicula minuscula Diatom
Stauroneis phoenicenteron Diatom Navicula pygmaea Diatom
Stenopterobia intermedia Diatom Navicula salinarum Diatom
Surirella delicatissima Diatom Navicula subtilissima Diatom
Surirella linearis Diatom Nitzschia apiculata Diatom
Nitzschia epithemoides Diatom
Trachelomonas hispida Flagellate
Nitzschia frustulum Diatom
Chromium : Nitzschia palea Diatom
Closterium acerosum Desmid Oscillatoria Blue-green
Euglena acus Flagellate Pediastrum simplex Green
Euglena oxyuris Flagellate Pinnularia Diatom
Euglena sociabilis Flagellate Phormidium tenue Blue -green
Euglena stellata Scenedesmus bijugatus Green
Flagellate
Spirulina subsalsa Blue- green
Euglena viridis Flagellate
Navicula atomus Diatom Stephanoptera gracilis Flagellate
Synedra acus Diatom
Navicula cuspidata Diatom
Synedra affinis Diatom
Nitzschia linearis Diatom Synedra pulchella Diatom
Nitzschia palea Diatom Trachelomonas Flagellate
Stigeoclonium tenue Green Trichodesmium Blue-green
Tetraspora Green Ulothrix Green
CHAPTER XII
PROCEDURES FOR ENUMERATION OF

ALGAE IN WATER
IT IS NECESSARY to know the purpose for which any Whipple ocular micrometer. The magnification used is
algological investigation is to be made before a particular commonly 100X obtained by means of aa 10X ocular and 10X
analytic procedure is selected. In some instances there may objective. With microscopes calibrated for this type of
be need to designate only certain particular groups or genera analysis the field of view, as delimited by the ocular microm
or species of algae. This might be the case when analyzing eter, can be adjusted to cover 0.001 ml. of the concentrate.
samples from oxidation ponds to determine the progress of The plankton organisms appearing in 10 fields are counted
sewage change, or in analyzing stream samples for the pres and, from their total, the number of organisms per milliliter,
ence of indicator algae or certain taste and odor algae. In liter, or gallon of the unconcentrated water sample can be
other situations, a knowledge of the number as well as the calculated ( 2 ) .
general groups of algae may be required . This might be Quantitative records for each genus or species may be re
needed to determine the most effective time for treating a ported separately as well as the totals for the major groups
reservoir with an algicide. The total area or volume, par of algae. The enumeration may be in number of cells, num
ticularly of the diatoms, would be useful data for determin ber of clumps ( isolated cells plus colonies ), areal standard
ing the relationship of plankton to the length of filter runs. units, or cubic standard units. Several variations of the
For many treatment plants using surface water supplies, clump count method are in use. No single method of enu
adequate procedures would include periodic inspections of meration has been selected as a standard procedure to be fol
the raw water supply, the treatment plant, and the distribu lowed by water treatment laboratories. However, the clump
tion system for attached growths, and for floating mats and count procedure is probably the simplest method and also
blooms. This would be followed by laboratory examinations, the basic one, since the others are often derived from it by
and recording of the dominant organisms present in these extrapolation.
visible growths of algae. In addition, plankton analyses of The low magnification of 100X commonly used in count
water samples from these same areas would be made at ing plankton, together with the loss of significant numbers
regular intervals. Information of this sort, especially when of algae during preservation and concentration of the sam
taken over a period of time, and when supplemented by ade ples results in plankton values lower than those actually
quate physicochemical data, is very valuable for determining present. It has been estimated that many waters contain a
the type and application time of measures necessary for the larger volume of minute nannoplankton than of the larger
prevention and control of problems brought about by algae. forms readily visible under low magnification. In one ex
No method has yet been widely accepted as accurate for periment the use of a nannoplankton counting slide ( fig. 53)
reporting the number or volume of attached algae or of gave an average clump count of 3,055 algae per ml., while
those in floating mats. Observations can be recorded as
notes or indicated on an outline map to designate the loca
tion and the extent of the areas of algal growths. Changes
in location and amount can then be followed by comparing
the notes or map records for different dates. Identification
of the algae can be accomplished with the aid of a micro
scope and a key such as included in the appendix.
In the recording of plankton algae ( 1 ) the common pro
cedure begins with the collection of a water sample from a
designated location and depth . When the sample is not
to be taken immediately to the laboratory for analysis, pres
ervation is accomplished by the addition of formaldehyde.
The next step involves the concentration of the plankton in
the sample by means of a centrifuge or a Sedgwick - Rafter
sand filter. Using the concentrate, 1 ml . is placed in a Sedg
wick -Rafter counting cell and enumeration of the organisms
is made with the aid of a compound microscope fitted with a Figure 53. – Nannoplankton counting slide.
60
1
Procedures for Enumeration of Algae in Water 61
the count with the Sedgwick -Rafter slide was only 1,165 Rafter slide under a magnification of 100X . A concentra
( 3 ) . When samples from four different water sources were tion providing from 10 to 100 organisms per microscopic
used, the count with the nannoplankton slide in each case field tends to reduce the counting error, providing the range
was significantly higher than with the Sedgwick -Rafter in width or diameter of the organisms is 5 to 30 microns
slide because many small algae were missed by the lower (microplankton ). The forms from 1 to 5 microns (nanno
magnification used in the latter method. plankton ) may be enumerated with much greater precision
A number of the pigmented flagellates and diatoms are by using a counting slide which permits the use of aa magnifi
so small that the very high magnification of an oil immersion cation of 430X . Some specialized work may re a
objective lens is required for their identification and enu magnification of approximately 1000X .
meration . Even the nannoplankton slide cannot be used with The combined results of the three procedures can then be
the oil immersion lens because of the very short focal length
summarized as follows:
of that lens. However, if a drop of known volume of the
concentrate is placed on a standard microscope slide and Net (meso-) plankton No. per 100 ml
covered with a No. 1 cover glass so that the drop spreads out Microplankton No. per ml
to occupy the area beneath it , the organisms can be counted Nannoplankton No. per ml
for a known portion of this area, and an extrapolation may A typical form for use in recording the results of the anal
then be made to indicate the number per ml. ( 4) . ysis for plankton algae is shown in figure 54 :
Special care may have to be taken to obtain accurate rec
ords of some of the algal flagellates that are taste and odor
producers or that may be indicators of clean water. When ALGAL PLANKTON RECORD
preserved in formalin they may be changed to such an extent
Locality --- Station No .--- Collected .--- 19. Hr .
that they are difficult to identify (4 ) . They become dis
torted in form , or altered in color, and the flagella are lost. Type of analysis (Meso-, Micro-, Nanno-)
Liiiiiii
This is true particularly of Cryptomonas, Chroomonas, Total No. per
Organisms Number per field
Rhodomonas, Chromulina, Synura, Uroglenopsis, Eudorina,
Mallomonas, and Merotrichia. Even Euglena may be so
distorted as to prevent its identification to species. Un ( Diatoms)
-
-
-
-
1
1
!!!!!!
( Greens) .
preserved samples may be required , therefore, when accurate
!!!!!!
( Blue -Greens)
records of these sensitive algae are needed . ( Pigmented flagellates)
Total algae ..
Where there is special interest in enumerating all kinds Unpigmented forms .
Total organisms
and sizes in a water supply, the usual procedures for plank
--
Pseudoplankton
ton enumeration may have to be modified . For the larger
Grand total
-
-
forms ( mesoplankton ), a 100 - liter water sample is passed
!
1
1
!
through a silk bolting cloth net, size 25, which has 200 Information by Collector: Information by Examiner :
meshes to the linear inch and apertures of 30-40 microns 1. Collected by 1. Analyzed by
2. Depth .. 2. Date --
width . The organisms caught by the net are then washed 3. Volume of sample 3. Method of concentration .
4. Preservative (kind and amt . ) - 4. Amt . of water concentrated ..
into 5 percent formalin with a final volume of 100 ml . This 5. Weather 5. Amt . of concentrate .
would give a concentration of 1,000 to 1 , which might be too 6. Visible algal growths 6. Concentration ----
high and need dilution for easier counting. Enumeration 7. Water temp.------ pH . 7. Type of counting cell .
8. Turbidity - 8. Magnification used ..
may be accomplished with a 1 -ml. sample in a Sedgwick 9. Raw water odor .
10. Threshold No. Raw 9. Area of microscopic field .
Rafter slide using a magnification of 25X. The count should Finished .-- 10. Factor for No. per ml.--
be limited to organisms 30 microns or more in width or di 11. Length of filter run . 11. Interpretation of results.-
12. Other data . 12. Treatment recommended ...
ameter, which would involve principally the ciliates, crus
tacea , and other animal forms rather than algae. Extra Figure 54. - Typical form of algal plankton record.
polation will depend on the actual sample concentration used .
The smaller forms of plankton can be obtained in num
bers sufficient for counting by using the Foerst centrifuge for The interpretation of plankton records has seldom been
concentrating the sample. At a speed in excess of 15,000 based on a predetermined set of criteria . There are, how
r.p.m., the 525 ml. is centrifuged at aa flow such as to permit ever, a number of aids for interpretation which at least have
its completion in 3 minutes. The concentrate can then be a limited or localized use.
washed into a bottle and the volume brought up to 20 ml. For example, a water source for which the environmental
This gives a concentration of 25–1 which may have to be factors are not too variable from year to year would tend to
reduced for some samples if the algae are found to be too produce similar amounts of algal growth each year. Ex
numerous per field under the microscope. perience indicates that this constitutes a useful working
Enumeration of the organisms in the concentrate would ( ) make the following statement: “ We
basis. Pearsall et al. (5
be made first using the common procedure, with a Sedgwick should expect, on this basis, that each year we might get
algal growth that would tend to consist of a similar number the number of species in the mode is high ( generally between
of cell divisions in succession, to show a similar rate of 20 and 28 ) , the mode is located between the second and
growth and to yield a similar maximum number. It is clear fourth intervals, the curve covers only 10 or 11 intervals, the
that the possibility of forecasting depends largely upon this number of observed species is generally between 120 and 180,
being approximately correct, as it appears to be.” Thus, the theoretical universe contains from 150 to 210 species, and
the plankton records of previous years may give good clues the number of specimens required for the count is low (ap
as to particular times during each season when large num proximately 8,000 ).
bers or particular types of interference organisms are likely In stream areas adversely affected by pollution the num
to appear . ber of species in the mode, number of observed species, and
Pearsall, et al. emphasize, in addition, the form and struc number in the theoretical universe will all be reduced in
ture of particular plankters as indicative of whether their varying amounts corresponding to the degree of pollution.
numbers will increase or decrease. They state " that popu In stream areas slightly enriched by nontoxic organic ma
lations of algae that are not growing or that are approach terials, the height of the mode remains about the same as
ing their numerical maximum tend to show certain changes that for the clean water station but the curve extends to the
in appearance. When these changes can easily be recognized, right as a “ tail. ” With increased pollution or with toxic
they afford useful indications of the end of a period of algal materials also present, the height of the mode will decrease,
growth . This is often extremely useful when the question the “tail” will usually extend still farther, the curve may
arises of whether or not to apply treatment. " cover as many as 14 to 16 intervals, and up to 40,000 speci
In some areas the plankton count of the raw water has mens must be counted before the mode is evident. It is due
been correlated with the threshold odor test, and in one state to the fact that diatoms can be obtained in large numbers
the plankton count of the raw water has been suggested as in surface waters that this type of statistical analysis can
a means of predicting the probable plankton count of the be made .
finished water following coagulation and rapid sand filtra In summary, it is evident that among the many procedures
tion. (6 ) . for enumeration of algae it is necessary to select those that
The number of organisms and the number of areal stand will produce the amount and kind of information needed for
ard units of organisms have been used to determine the satisfactory treatment and use of each particular water
amount of trouble to be expected and the time when treat supply.
ment should begin. Thus, Whipple ( 7 ) stated that “ when
organisms were less than 500 per cc. they would cause no REFERENCES
trouble ; between 500 to 1,000 per cc ., little trouble; between 1. Biologic examination of water, sewage sludge, or bottom materials.
1,000 and 2,000, noticeable trouble; between 2,000 and 3,000, Part 6 in Standard methods for the examination of water, sew
decided trouble; and above 3,000, trouble would be serious.” age and industrial wastes . Ed. 10. Amer. Public Health Assn .,
At one treatment plant, where lake water was being used, N.Y. 1955 .
the length of the filter run was found to be reduced rapidly 2. Simplified procedures for collecting, examining, and recording
with an increase in areal standard units of algae from 50 plankton in water. W. M. Ingram and C. M. Palmer. Jour.
Amer. Water Wks. Assn. 44 : 617-624 . 1952.
to about 300. When the areal standard units of algae were 3. A new counting slide for nannoplankton. C. M. Palmer and T. E.
50 the probable filter run was 70 hours ; with 100 areal units, Maloney . Amer. Soc. Limnol. and Oceanog ., Special Publ. No. 21 ,
the filter run dropped to 35 hours; with 200 units, 18 hours; 6 p . 1954 .
with 400 units, 11 hours ; and with 1,000 units, 6 hours. 4. The manipulation and counting of river plankton and changes in
some organisms due to formalin preservation . J. B. Lackey.
Recently a diatometer has been described for sampling the Public Health Repts. 53 : 2080-2093. 1938.
diatom population of a stream ( 8 ) . By enumerating and 5. Freshwater biology and water supply in Britain . W. H. Pearsall,
identifying up to 8,000 or more diatom specimens obtained A. C. Gardiner, and F. Greenshields. Freshwater Biolog. Assn .
from the diatometer, it is possible, through statistical of the British Empire, Sci . Publ. No. 11 , 90 p. 1946 .
analysis, to determine the frequency distribution and to con 6. Numerical rating of water supplies. Section 14, table 1416, in
struct a truncated normal curve for the sample. The height Manual of water supply sanitation. Minnesota Dept. Health ,
Minneapolis, Minn. 1941.
and position of the mode, shape of the curve, number of 7. Records of examination . Chapt . 6 in The microscopy of drinking
frequency intervals, number of observed species, number of water. Ed . 4. G. C. Whipple, G. M. Fair, and M. C. Whipple.
species in the theoretical universe, and number of specimens J. Wiley and Sons, N.Y. 1948.
required for construction of the curve are reported to be im 8. A new method for determining the pattern of the diatom flora.
Ruth Patrick , M. H. Hohn, and J. H. Wallace. Notulae
portant in evaluating the data for indications of water pol Naturae, Acad . Natural Sci . Philadelphia . No. 259, 12 p. July
lution. Thus, when the water is relatively free of pollution, 1954.
CHAPTER XIII
CONTROL OF ALGAE
IT IS BETTER to anticipate and prevent problems from as a group are relatively susceptible but they have often
algae than to delay until they become serious. Effective developed in large numbers following the destruction of
control of algal growth requires adequate records as to the other algae through treatment with copper sulfate.
numbers, kinds, and locations of algae in the water supply. Fortunately a considerable number of the taste and odor
Control of algae applies variously to the raw water sup and filter clogging algae are very susceptible even to low
ply, to the treatment plant, and to the distribution system. concentrations of the algicide. All of the following inter
The use of algicides will be considered in more detail under ference algae are normally considered as being very suscep
raw water applications, although similar procedures may tible to copper sulfate : Asterionella, Fragilaria, Tabellaria,
sometimes be applied in the other two control areas. Spirogyra, Ceratium , Dinobryon, Synura, Anabaena, and
Anacystis (Microcystis). A more complete list of the
CONTROL IN RAW WATER SUPPLIES genera of algae, grouped according to their reported suscep
tibility to the toxic effect of copper sulfate is given
table 13.
The application of an algicide frequently is carried out to
prevent or destroy the excessive growths of algae which The lowest concentration of copper sulfate which is toxic
occur as blooms, mats, or as high concentrations of plankton. for a particular alga also varies according to the abundance
However, the algicide may sometimes be applied to control of the alga, the temperature of the water, the alkalinity of
relatively low concentrations of certain algae, such as the water, the amount of organic material in the water, and
Synura and Uroglenopsis, which may cause trouble even in other factors. Thus, the listing of a specific concentration of
small numbers. an algicide as the minimum effective dosage is not reliable
Copper sulfate is the only algicide in common use in water unless these other factors have first been taken into consider
supplies at present, although chlorine may serve as an algi ation. In table 13, therefore, the grouping of the algae is by
cide besides as a bactericide or an oxidizing agent. The very general ranges in the dosage required for treatment.
“ blue stone ” or copper sulfate is toxic to many algae at com The information used in preparing table 13 was obtained
paratively low concentrations, is ordinarily nonlethal to fish from several sources , including Hale ( 2 ) , Cox ( 3 ) , Prescott
at the strengths recommended , and is relatively inexpensive. ( 4 ) , Maloney and Palmer ( 5 ) , Pearsall et al. ( 6) , and
However, in alkaline waters, it precipitates quickly as cop Matheson ( 7 ) .
per carbonate and more slowly as copper hydrate, and in There are a number of chemical groups which contain
such instances is considered to be effective as an algicide only compounds that are algicidal. The most promising of these
for a short time following its application. Bartsch ( 1 ) em groups include the inorganic salts, organic salts, rosin amines,
phasizes that the dosage should be dependent upon the alka antibiotics, quinones, substituted hydrocarbons, quaternary
linity of the water and states that the following rule has been ammonium compounds, amide derivatives, and phenols (8) .
used successfully in various midwestern lakes : If the methyl The chemicals, to be selected as satisfactory for use in domes
orange alkalinity is less than 50 p.p.m., the blue stone tic water supplies, will have to be not only economically
( CuSO, : 5H,O ) is effective at the rate of 0.9 pound per acre feasible but also nontoxic to animal life and to plants other
foot. If the methyl orange alkalinity is greater than 50 than algae. As these will probably cost more per pound than
p.p.m. , the rate should be 5.4 pounds per acre. In the waters the algicides now in use, they will, therefore, be used only
with a high alkalinity the dosage is not dependent upon where careful plankton records are kept, which would permit
depth since precipitation would make it ineffective below early localized treatment to prevent undesirable species of
the surface. algae from increasing in number. Algicides which are selec
The various genera and species of algae are not all alike tively toxic to the algae which produce tastes and odors, mats
in their reaction to copper sulfate and this factor has fre or blankets ( fig . 55 ) , blooms, slimes, and other undesirable
quently been neglected in determining the concentration of conditions, and clog filters would be particularly valuable.
the algicide to be applied . A number of the very minute A pretreatment basin may simplify the control of algae
planktonic green algae are very resistant to the toxic effects and algal odors when the raw water has a high algal produc
of blue stone. The stonewarts, Chara and Nitella, are also tivity. The algicide is released continuously into the water
considered to be resistant as are a few of the green flagellates as it enters the basin . Cement baffles installed in the basin
and some of the filamentous blue - green algae. The diatoms and arranged alternately from the two sides forces the water
63
to flow zig -zag through the basin before reaching the outlets. For new reservoirs, clearing the site of vegetation and or
For one supply in Wisconsin where this procedure has been ganic debris before filling will reduce the nutrients that
in use, the algal population is consistently and radically re otherwise would be present to stimulate algal growths. For
duced . The threshold odor number also has been reduced an all water supply reservoirs, provisions should be put into
average of 67 percent ( 9 ) . effect as early as possible for keeping the inflow of nutrients
Continuous treatment with copper sulfate of Croton Lake to a minimum. These would include measures for reducing
Reservoir in New York was established about 1925. The the runoff from agricultural land and the selection of a sup
copper sulfate dosage over a period of almost 20 years aver ply as free as possible of upstream sewage effluents and other
aged 0.18 parts per million ( p.p.m. ) and the overall reduc organic wastes. The degree of sewage treatment generally
tion of plankton for this period was 65 percent ( 10 ) . has little or no effect in reducing the potential nutrient value
A number of methods other than by algicides are in use of the sewage for algae. Chemical methods of extracting ni
for the control of algae in raw water supplies. An increase trates, phosphates, and other nutrients from water are not
in turbidity due to silt will tend to reduce the phytoplankton as yet considered to be economically practical.
population by limiting the penetration of light that is essen When a reservoir receives its water from a stream there is
tial for the growth of algae. Thus, in shallow reservoirs, a period of time after which the stream plankton dies out in
fish which stir up the bottom mud and make the water turbid the reservoir and before the reservoir plankton has had time
will aid in controlling plankton populations. A turbidity to develop. The ideal period of storage, as far as water with
of 100 p.p.m. in rivers may be sufficient to cause plankton a low plankton count is concerned , therefore, may be between
algae to disappear but they quickly reappear as the turbidity 10 and 14 days ( 14 ) rather than a longer period of 28 to 30
decreases ( 11) . days that has often been recommended in the past. It is not
Attached algae and water weeds can become a problem in often possible, of course, for the capacity of the reservoir to
the shallow margins of lakes and reservoirs. When sodium be governed by this consideration .
arsenite can not be employed, these forms are often difficult The particular position and depth of the raw water supply
to control ( 12 ) . The common procedure is to cut them or intake in a reservoir or lake often predetermines the quality
pull them out. One Connecticut utility riprapped the shore of the water which will enter the treatment plant. In order
of the reservoir in an attemptto eliminate their growth . to ascertain the optimum position and depth for the intake a
Mechanical removal of algae may be the simplest way of knowledge of the biological as well as the chemical and
disposing of massive growths which become detached and physical characteristics of the water at various locations is
washed ashore or which collect in localized areas of the res required. For one water supply in Europe, 3 years of in
ervoir. This is of particular importance where the reservoir vestigations of plankton and water temperature indicated
or lake is used for recreational purposes as well as for do that a depth of 60 meters was to be recommended for the
mestic water supply. Reduction in the amount of plankton intake. This depth was below the area of greatest density of
algae in a lake has been attempted by passage of the water plankton, and below the autumn thermocline and the strata
through a rapid sand filter, the filtered water being returned of greatest decomposition and mineralization of organic
to the lake ( 13 ) . The backwash containing the algae collected matter. No important improvement in quality of water
by the filter can be used as a land fertilizer or disposed of would have been obtained by placing the intake at a greater
a lagoon. depth ( 15 ) .
Table 13. — Relative Toxicity of Copper Sulfate to Algae
Group Very susceptible Susceptible Resistant Very resistant
Blue-green . Anabaena , Anacystis , Cylindrospermum , Oscilla-

Oscilla | Nostoc, Phormidium . Calothrix, Symploca.
Aphanizomenon , Gom- toria , Plectonema.
phosphaeria , Rivularia .
Green algae . Closterium , Hydrodictyon, Botryococcus, Cladophora, Characium , Chlorella, Chlo- | Ankistrodesmus , Chara,
Spirogyra, Ulothrix. Coelastrum , Draparnal- rococcum , Coccomyxa, Elaktothrix , Kirchneriel
dia , Enteromorpha , Gloe- Crucigenia, Desmidium , la, Nitella, Scenedesmus.
ocystis, Microspora, Tri- Golenkinia, Mesotaenium ,
bonema, Zygnema . Oocystis, Palmella, Pe
diastrum , Pithophora ,
Staurastrum , Stigeodlo
nium , Tetraedron .
Diatoms . a, Nitzschia,
Asterionella , Fragilaria , Gomphonem Achnanthes, Cymbella , Nei
Melosira , Navicula . Stephanodiscus, Synedra, dium .
Tabellaria .
Flagellates . Dinobryon , Synura, Uro- Ceratium , Cryptomonas, Chlamydomonas, Peridini- Eudorina, Pandorina .
glenopsis, Volvox. Euglena, Glenodinium , um, Haematococcus .
Mallomonas.
Control of Algae 65
Figure 55a . — Experimental testing of a potential algicide : Applying Figure 55b . — Experimental testing of a potential algicide: Result
the algicide to a blanket of algae. of the test : Blanket of algae has disappeared .
CONTROL IN TREATMENT PLANTS CONTROL IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Control of algae in the water treatment plant involves Control of algae in the distribution system is generally
primarily the processes of coagulation, sedimentation, and limited to the use of algicides in open reservoirs containing
filtration . Well regulated coagulation with sedimentation treated water. A permanent control would involve covering
will often remove up to 90 percent of the algae, and in some the reservoir to exclude light to prevent the algae from de
cases 95–96 percent removal has been reported. A similar veloping. Where covering is considered too costly , chlorine
percentage of removal may occur in a rapid sand filter run or copper sulfate is required at least during the warmer
efficiently. Assuming 90 percent removal by each of the two months. When the former is used certain chlorine-resist
processes, 1,000 algae per ml . in raw water would be reduced
to 100 by coagulation and to 10 by filtration . However, if the ant algae sometimes tend to become predominant. One of
these is aa minute desmid belonging to the genus Cosmarium .
removal was only 70 percent in each case, the treated water Most of the algae in the distribution system either develop
would still contain 90 algae per ml. The percentage removal in the exposed reservoirs or are transient organisms remain
by coagulation tends to be low when the number of algae in
ing in the water after its passage through the treatment
the raw water is low but the efficiency of the process can be plant. The majority of the organisms capable of multiply
improved through the use of a coagulant aid such as activated
silica. ing in the pipes of the distribution system are not algae but
are heterotrophic forms represented by various bacteria ,
Treatment with chlorine is often carried out in the plant
fungi, protozoa , worms, copepods, and other small aquatic
primarily to destroy pathogenic organisms, but the dosages animals.
commonly used are sufficiently high to be toxic also to many
algae. However, dead as well as living organisms can cause TYPES OF CONTROL METHODS
tastes and odors and clog filters. Coagulation of motile algae
such as Euglena may be improved by prechlorination. When Control of algae in water supplies thus may involve the
plain sedimentation is used, prechlorination will kill many of use of algicides; the mechanical cleaning of settling basins,
the algae and facilitate their settling out, since their motility filters, intake channels, and reservoir margins; the modifi
is stopped and their buoyancy due to oxygen production in cation of coagulation, filtration, chemical treatment or lo
photosynthesis is reduced. cation of the raw water intake ; and, finally, the modification
A process known as micro -straining is being used in some of the reservoir to reduce the opportunities for massive
treatment plants particularly in England. This involves the growths. Control of tastes and odors and other algal prod
passing of the water through a finely woven fabric of stain ucts involves additional procedures such as the use of ab
less steel. The size of the openings in the mesh determines sorbents and the removal of organic deposits from settling
the size of the plankton organisms removed from the water. basins and distribution lines. Effective control of algae is
The micro - strainer is usually in the form of an open drum . dependent upon adequate procedures for detecting their
While it revolves, that portion exposed to air is back washed presence and interpreting the significance of any change in
with jets of water ( 16 ) . their numbers and kinds.
REFERENCES 9. Pre-treatment basin for algae removal. A. J. Marx. Taste and

Odor ControlJour. 17 ( No. 6 ) : 1-8. 1951.
1. Practical methods for control of algae and water weeds. A. F. 10. Methods of controlling aquatic growths in reservoirs. B. C.
Bartsch . Public Health Repts. 69 : 749–757 . 1954. Amer . Water Wks Assn .
Nesin and R. L. Derby.. Jour. Amer.
2. The use of copper sulphate in control of microscopic organisms. 46 : 1141-1158 . 1954 .
F. E. Hale. Phelps Dodge Refining Corp., N.Y. 1950. 11. Plankton ecology of the Licking River, Ky. J. B. Lackey . U.S.
3. Water supply control. C. R. Cox. N.Y. State Dept. Health , Public Health Service, San. Eng . Div., Water and Sanitation
Bur. Environmental San ., Bull. 22, 279 p. 1952. Investig. Cincinnati, Ohio. 14 p. (Mimeographed .) 1942.
4. Objectionable algae and their control in lakes and reservoirs. 12. A study in the chemical control of aquatic vegetation . M. M.
G. W. Prescott. Louisiana Municipal Rev. 1, Nos. 2 and 3. Boschetti. Sanitalk 5 ( No. 2 ) : 21-25 . 1957 .
1938 .
13. Control of algae, a means of prolonging the life of lakes. H. C.
5. Toxicity of six chemical compounds to thirty cultures of algae. Leibee and R. L. Smith . Wastes Eng. 24 : 620-621. 1953 .
T. E. Maloney and C. M. Palmer. Water and Sewage Wks. 14. The reservoirs of the Metropolitan Water Board and their in
103 : 509-513 . 1956.
fluence upon the character of the stored water. E. W. Taylor.
6. Freshwater biology and water supply in Britain . W. H. Pear
sall, A. C. Gardiner, and F. Greenshields. Freshwater Biolog .
Proc. International Assn. Theoretical and Appl. Limnol.
12 : 48–65 . 1955 .
Assn . of the British Empire, Sci. Publ. No. 11 , 90 p. 1946 .
7. The effects of algae in water supplies. D. H. Matheson . Inter 15. The limnological conditions for a large water -supply intake on
the Uberlinger Lake ( Lake Constance ) . R. Muckle . Gas - u
national Water Supply Assn ., General Rept. to 2d Congress,
Paris , France . 82 p. 1952. Wasserfach 97 : 213-222. 1956 .
8. Evaluation of new algicides for water supply purposes. C. M. 16. Micro - straining. P. L. Boucher. Jour. Institution Water Engrs.
Palmer. Jour. Amer. Water Wks. Assn . 48 : 1133–1137 . 9 : 561-595 . 1955.
Appendix
Key
Glossary
Bibliography
Genus and Species Index
KEY TO ALGAE OF IMPORTANCE
IN WATER SUPPLIES
la. Plant a tube, thread , strand, ribbon, or membrane ; 17a. Heterocysts and vegetative cells rounded
frequently visible to the unaided eye----- 2 Nostoc pruniforme
1b. Plants of microscopic cells which are isolated or in 17b. Heterocysts and vegetative cells oblong
irregular, spherical, or microscopic clusters ; Nostoc carneum
cells not grouped into threads---- 123 18a. Heterocysts and vegetative cells shorter than the
2a. Plant a tube, strand, ribbon, thread, or membrane thread width .. Nodularia spumigena
composed of cells --- 3 18b. Heterocysts and vegetative cells not shorter than
2b. Plant a branching tube with continuous proto the thread width ---- 19
plasm , not divided into cells... 120 19a. Heterocysts rounded (Anabaena ) 20
3a. Plant a tube, strand, ribbon, thread, or a mat of 19b. Heterocysts cylindric------ Aphanizomenon flos-aquae
threads 4 20a. Cells elongate, depressed in the middle ; hetero
3b. Plant a membrane of cells one cell thick ( and two cysts rare Anabaena constricta
or more cells wide) ----- 116 20b. Cells rounded ; heterocysts common.. 21
4a. Cells in isolated or clustered threads or ribbons 21a. Heterocysts with lateral extensions
which are only one cell thick or wide----- 5 Anabaena planctonica
4b. Cells in a tube, strand , or thread all ( or a part) of 21b. Heterocysts without lateral extensions.--- 22
which is more than one cell thick or wide 108 22a. Threads 4-8 u wide Anabaena flos-aquae
5a. Heterocysts present- 6 22b. Threads 8–14 u wide Anabaena circinalis
5b. Heterocysts absent 23 23a. Branching absent--- 24
6a. Threads gradually narrowed to a point at one end. 7 23b. Branching ( including " false" branching ) present 84
6b. Threads same width throughout --- 12 24a. Cell pigments distributed throughout the pro
7a. Threads as radii, in a gelatinous bead or mass --- 8 toplasm .-- 25
7b . Threads not in a gelatinous bead or mass- 11 24b. Cell pigments limited to plastids- 49
8a. Spore ( akinete ) present, adjacent to the terminal 25a. Threads short and formed as an even spiral --- 285
heterocyst- ( Gloeotrichia ) 9 25b. Threads very long and not forming an even spiral 26
8b. No spore ( akinete ) present . ( Rivularia ) 10 26a. Several parallel threads of cells in one common
9a. Gelatinous colony a smooth bead sheath ----- Microcoleus subtorulosus
Gloeotrichia echinulata 26b. One thread per sheath if present . 27
9b. Gelatinous colony irregular-------- Gloeotrichia natans 27a. Sheath or gelatinous matrix present- 28
10a. Cells near the narrow end as long as wide 27b. No sheath nor gelatinous matrix appar
Rivularia dura ent.-
( Oscillatoria ) 35
10b. Cells near the narrow end twice as long as 28a. Sheath distinct ; no gelatinous matrix between
wide----- Rivularia haematites threads ---- ( Lyngbya ) 29
11a. Cells adjacent to heterocyst wider than hetero 28b. Sheath indistinct or absent; threads inter
cyst --- Calothrix braunii woven with gelatinous matrix be
tween
11b. Cells adjacent to heterocyst narrower than heter ( Phormidium ) 32
ocyst---- Calothrix parietina 29a. Cells rounded .. Lyngbya ocracea
12a. Branching present 13 29b. Cells short cylindric- 30
12b. Branching absent 14
30a. Threa ds in part formi ng spiral s.- Lyngb ya lagerh eimiä
13a. Branches in pairs. Scytonema toly pothricoides 30b. Threads straight or bent but not in spirals------ 31
13b. Branches arising singly---- Tolypothrix tenuis 31a. Maximum cell length 3.5 m ; sheath
14a. Heterocyst terminal only ----- ( Cylindrospermum ) 15 thin .--- Lyngbya digueti
14b. Heterocysts intercalary (within the filament) --- 16 31b. Maximum cell length 6.5 m ; sheath thick
15a. Heterocyst round . Cylindrospermum muscicola Lyngbya versicolor
15b. Heterocyst elongate ------ Cylindrospermum stagnale 32a. Ends of some threads with a rounded swollen
16a. Threads encased in a gelatinous bead or mass " cap " cell.-- 33
(Nostoc) 17 32b. Ends of all threads without a “ cap ” cell.. 34
16b. Threads not encased in a definite gelatinous 33a. End of thread ( with " cap ” ) abruptly
mass 18 bent --- Phormidium uncinatum
68
1
Key 69
33b. End of thread (with “ cap ” ) straight 53a. Wall markings of two types, one coarse ,
Phormidium autumnale one fine ----- 185
34a. Threads 3-5 u in width ------ Phormidium inundatum 53b. Wall markings all fine--- ( Fragilaria ) 54
34b. Threads 5–12 uu in with. Phormidium retzii 54a . Cells attached at middle portion
35a. Cells very short, generally less than one-third the only ---- Fragilaria crotonensis
thread diameter -- 36 Cells attached along entire length.
54b. 55
35b. Cells generally one -half as long to longer than Cell

55a . length 25–100 u----
M - Fragilaria capucina
the thread diameter... 39 Cell length 7–25 u-----
55b. Fragilaria construens
36a. Cross walls constricted .. Oscillatoria ornata Plastid in the form of a spiral band-- ( Spirogyra) 57
56a.
36b. Cross walls not constricted.. 37 56b.
Plastid not a spiral band. 61
37a . Ends of thread, if mature, curved. 38 57a.
One plastid per cell.-- . 58
37b . Ends of thread straight Oscillatoria limosa Two or more plastids per cell ..
57b . 60
38a. Threads 10–14 jM thick . Oscillatoria curviceps 58a . Threads 18–26 M wide__ Spirogyra communis
38b. Threads 16–60 u thick_ Oscillatoria princeps 58b. Threads 28-50 M wide----- 59
39a. Threads appearing red to pur 59a. Threads 28–40IM u wide_ Spirogyra varians
plish .-- Oscillatoria rubescens 59b . Threads 40–50 uM wide --- Spirogyra porticalis
39b. Threads yellow - green to blue-green 40 60a. Threads 30–45 u wide ; 3-4 plastids per
40a . Threads yellow -green --- 41 cell --- Spirogyra fluviatilis
40b . Threads blue-green- 43 60b . Threads 50-80 M wide ; 5-8 plastids per cell
41a. Cells 4–7 times as long as the thread diam Spirogyra majuscula
eter . Oscillatoria putrida 61a. Plastids two per cell . 62
41b. Cells less than four times as long as the thread 61b. Plastids either one or more than two per cell.- 66
diameter 42 62a. Cells with knobs or granules on the wall.--- 63
42a. Prominent granules ( “ pseudovacuoles ” ) in cen 62b. Cells with a smooth outer wall ----- ( Zygnema) 64
ter of each cell . Oscillatoria lauterbornii 63a . Each cell with two central knobs on the wall
42b . No prominent granules in center of Desmidium grevillii
cells.- Oscillatoria chlorina 63b. Each cell with a ring of granules near one end
43a. Cells 12–2 times as long as the thread diameter-- 44 Hyalotheca mucosa
43b. Cells 2–3 times as long as the thread diameter . 48 64a. Cells dense green , each plastid reaching to the
44a. Cell walls between cells thick and transpar wall.--- Zygnema sterile
ent.-- Oscillatoria pseudogeminata. 64b. Cells light green, plastids not completely filling
45 the cell
44b. Cell walls thin, appearing as a dark line---- 65
45a. Ends of thread straight-------- Oscillatoria agardhii 65a. Width of thread 26–32 ; maximum cell length
45b. Ends of mature threads curved .. 46 60 M ---- Zygnema insigne
46a. Prominent granules present especially at both 65b. Width of thread 30–36 m ; maximum cell length
ends of each cell ... Oscillatoria tenuis 120 M----
u- Zygnema pectinatum
46b. Cells without prominent granules --- 47 66a. Plastid a wide ribbon , passing through the cell
47a . Cross walls constricted --- Oscillatoria chalybea axis.- (Mougeotia ) 67
476. Cross walls not constricted ------ Oscillatoria formosa 66b. Plastid or plastids close to the cell wall
48a. End of thread long tapering --- Oscillatoria splendida (parietal) ----- 69
48b. End of thread not tapering ---- Oscillatoria amphibia 67a. Threads with occasional “knee -joint” bends
49a. Cells separate from one another and enclosed in Mougeotia genuflexa
a tube--- (Cymbella ) 2516 67b. Threads straight--- 68
68a. Threads 19–24 u wide ; pyrenoids 4-16 per cell
49b. Cells attached to one another as a thread or rib
bon 50 Mougeotia sphaerocarpa
68b. Threads 20–34 wide ; pyrenoids 4-10 per cell
50a. Cells separating readily into discs or short cylin Mougeotia scalaris
ders, their circular face showing radial 69a . Occasional cells with one to several transverse
markings -- 233a
wall lines near one end---------- ( Oedogonium ) 70
50b. Cells either not separating readily, or if so , no 69b. Occasional terminal transverse wall lines
circular end wall with radial markings .. 51 not present.- 73
51a. Cells in a ribbon, attached side by side or by 70a. Thread diameter less than 24 u- 71
their corners . 52 70b. Thread diameter 25 u or more 72
51b. Cells in a thread, attached end to end. 56 Oedogonium suecicum
71a . Thread diameter 9-14 p --------
52a. Numerous regularly spaced markings in the cell 71b. Thread diameter 14-23 p- M ------ Oedogonium boscii
wall 53 72a. Dwarf male plants attached to normal thread,
52b. Numerous markings in the cell wall ab when reproducing ---- Oedogonium idioandrosporum
sent - ( Scenedesmus) 128 72b . No dwarf male plants produced - Oedogonium grande
73a. Cells with one plastid which has a smooth 91b. Short branches on the main thread rebranched
74
surface two to four times Nitalla gracilis
73b. Cells with several plastids or with one nodular 92a. Terminal cells each with a colorless spine having
plastid --- 78 an abruptly swollen base ------ (Bulbochaete) 93
74a. Cells with rounded ends------- Stichococcus bacillaris 92b. No terminal spines with abruptly swollen bases_ 94
74b . Cells with flat ends --- ( Ulothrix ) 75 93a. Vegetative cells 20-48 uM long--- Bulbochaete mirabilis
75a. Threads 10 uμ or less in diameter . 76 93b. Vegetative cells 48–88 uM long Bulbochaete insignis
75b . Threads more than 10 u in diameter 77 94a . Cells red, brown, or violet_ . Audouinella violacea
76a. Threads 5-6 u in diameter ------ Ulothrix variabilis 94b. Cells green. 95
76b. Threads 6-10 u in diameter --- Ulothrix tenerrima 95a. Threads enclosed in a gelatinous bead or mass. 96
77a. Threads 11-17 u in diameter .. Ulothrix aequalis 95b. Threads not surrounded by a gelatinous mass.- 99
77b . Threads 20–60 u in diameter . Ulothrix zonata 96a. Abrupt change in width from main thread to
78a. Iodine test for starch positive; one nodular branches ( Draparnaldia ) 97
plastid per cell--- 79 96b. Gradual change in width from main thread to
78b . Iodine test for starch negative ; several plastids branches ( Chaetophora ) 98
per cell... 80
97a. Branches ( from the main thread ) with a central,
79a. Thread when broken, forming " H ” shape seg main axis .-- Draparnaldia plumosa
ments Microspora amoena 97b. Branches diverging and with no central main
79b. Thread when fragmented, separating irregu axis -- Draparnaldia glomerata
larly or between cells--- ( Rhizoclonium ) 100a 98a. End cells long -pointed, with colorless tips
80a. Side walls of cells straight, not bulging. A pat Chaetophora attenuata
tern of fine lines or dots present in the wall 98b. End cells abruptly pointed, mostly without long
but often indistinct- ( Melosira ) 81 colorless tips--- Chaetophora elegans
80b. Side walls of cells slightly bulging. Pattern of 99a. Light and dense dark cells intermingled in the
wall markings not present.--- ( Tribonema) 83 thread ---- Pithophora oedogonia
81a. Spine-like teeth at margin of end walls----- 82 99b. Most of cells essentially alike in density----- 100
81b. No spine-like teeth present ---- --- Melosira varians 100a. Branches few in number, and short , colorless
82a. Wall with fine granules, arranged obliquely Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum
Melosira crenulata 100b. Branches numerous and green. 101
82b . Wall with coarse granules, arranged parallel to 101a. Terminal attenuation gradual , involving two or
sides --- Melosira granulata more cells_--- ( Stigeoclonium ) 102
83a. Plastids 24 per cell. Tribonema minus 101b. Terminal attenuation absent or abrupt, involv
83b . Plastids more than four per cell ing only one cell . ( Cladophora ) 104
Tribonemabombycinum 102a. Branches frequently in pairs -- 103
84a. Plastids present; branching “ true”. 85 102b. Branches mostly single----- Stigeoclonium stagnatile
84b. Plastids absent ; branching " false " 103a. Cells in main thread 1–2 times as long as wide
Plectonema tomasiniana Stigeoclonium lubricum
85a . Branches reconnected, forming a net 103b. Cells in main thread 2–3 times as long as wide
Hydrodictyon reticulatum Stigeoclonium tenue
86
85b. Branches not forming a distinct net --- 104a. Branching often appearing forked, or in threes
86a. Each cell in a conical sheath open at the broad Cladophora aegagropila
end.- ( Dinobryon ) 87 104b. Branches distinctly lateral--- 105
86b. No conical sheath around each cell .. 90 105a. Branches forming acute angles with main
87a. Branches diverging, often almost at a right angle thread , thus forming clusters
Dinobryon divergens Cladophora glomerata
87b. Branches compact often almost parallel --- 88 150b. Branches forming wide angles with the main
thread ---- 106
88a. Narrow end of sheath sharp pointed --- 89
106a . Threads crooked and bent Cladophora fracta
88b. Narrow end of sheath blunt pointed 106b. Threads straight---- 107
Dinobryon sertularia
89a. Narrow end drawn out into a stalk
107a. Branches few, seldom rebranching
Cladophora insignis
Dinobryon stipitatum 107b. Branches numerous, often rebranching
89b. Narrow end diverging at the base-- Dinobryon sociale Cladophora crispata
90ą. Short branches on the main thread in whorls of 108a . Plant or tube with a tight surface layer of
four or more (Nitella ) 91 cells and with regularly spaced swellings
90b. Branching commonly single or in pairs ---- 92 ( nodes ) ----- Lemanea annulata
91a. Short branches on the main thread rebranched 108b. Plant not a tube that has both a tight layer of
once .. Nitella flexilis surface cells and nodes . 109
Key 71
109a . Cells spherical and loosely arranged in a gela 126a. Red eye spot and two flagella present for each
tinous matrix----- Tetraspora gelatinosa cell.-- Gonium pectorale
109b. Cells not as loosely arranged spheres- 110 126b. No red eye spots nor flagella present.. 127
110a. Plants branched- 111 127a. Cells elongate, united side by side in one or
110b . Plants not branched . Schizomeris leibleinië two rows_ ( Scenedesmus) 128
111a. Clustered branching 112 127b. Cells about as long as wide.. 131
111b. Branches single---- 115 128a. Middle cells without spines but with pointed
112a. Threads embedded in gelatinous matrix ends---- Scenedesmus dimorphus
128b. Middle cells with rounded ends . 129
(Batrachospermum ) 113
112b. No gelatinous matrix around the threads 129a. Terminal cells with spines- 130
( Chara ) 114 129b . Terminal cells without spines--- Scenedesmus bijuga
113a. Nodal masses of branches touching one an 130a. Terminal cells with two spines each
other . Batrachospermum vagum Scenedesmus quadricauda
113b . Nodal masses of branches separated by a nar 130b.. Terminal cells with three or more spines
row space ------- Batrachospermum moniliforme each ----- Scenedesmus abundans
114a. Short branches with two naked cells at the 131a. Cells in regular rows, immersed in colorless
tip ---- Chara globularis matrix ( Agmenellum quadriduplicatum ) 132
114b. Short branches with 3-4 naked cells at the 131b . Cells not immersed in colorless matrix ... 133
tip------- Chara vulgaris 132a. Cell diameter 1.3–2.2 u
115a. Heterocysts present ; platids absent Agmenellum quadriduplicatum , tenuissima type
Stigonema minutum 132b. Cell diameter 3–5 u
115b. Heterocysts absent; plastids present Agmenellum quadriduplicatum , glauca type
Compsopogon coeruleus 133a. Cells without spines, projections, or inci
116a. Red eye spot and two flagella present for sions . -Crucigenia quadrata
each cell .--- 125 133b. Cells with spines, projections, or incisions---- 134
116b . No eye spots nor flagella present- 117 134a. Cells rounded. Micractinium pusillum
117a. Round to oval cells, held together by a flat 134b. Cells angular--- ( Pediastrum) 135
gelatinous matrix .-- (Agmenellum ) 131a 135a. Numerous spaces between cells.--- Pediastrum duplex
117b. Cells not round and not enclosed in a gelatinous 135b. Cells fitted tightly together---- 136
matrix ---- 118
136a. Cell incisions deep and narrow ---- Pediastrum tetras
118a. Cells regularly arranged to form an unattached 136b . Cell incisions shallow and wide
disc. Number of cells 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128_ 133b Pediastrum boryanum
118b. Cells numerous ; membrane attached on one 137a. Cells sharp -pointed at both ends ; often arcuate 138
surface 119 137b . Cells not sharp - pointed at both ends ; not
119a . Long hairs extending from upper surface of arcuate 140
cells... Chaetopeltis megalocystis 138a . Cells embedded in a gelatinous matrix
119b. No hairs extending from cell surfaces Kirchneriella lunaris
Hildenbrandia rivularis 138b. Cells not embedded in a gelatinous matrix.---- 139
120a. Constriction at the base of every branch 139a. Cells all arcuate; arranged back to back
Dichotomosiphon tuberosus Selenastrum gracile
120b. No constrictions present in the tube . ( Vaucheria ) 121 139b. Cells straight or bent in various ways ;
121a. Egg sac attached directly, without a stalk, to loosely arranged or twisted together
the main vegetative tube------ Vaucheria sessilis ( Ankistrodesmus) 140
140a. Cells bent.. Ankistrodesmus falcatus
121b. Egg sac attached to an abrupt, short, side
branch 122 140b . Cells straight. Ankistrodesmus falcatus var. acicularis
141a. Flagella present; eye spots often present. 142
122a. One egg sac per branch .-- Vaucheria terrestris
nt- 152
a ts
141b. No flagell nor eyespo prese
122b. Two or more egg sacs per branch_ Vaucheria geminata 142a. Each cell in a conical sheath open at the wide
123a. Cells in colonies generally of a definite form end .- (Dinobryon ) 86a
or arrangement--- 124 143
142b. Individual cells not in conical sheaths..
123b. Cells isolated, in pairs or in loose, irregular 143a. Each cell with 1-2 long straight rods extend
aggregates 173 ing--- Chrysosphaerella longispina
124a. Cells with many transverse rows of markings 143b. No long straight rods extending from the cells-- 144
on the wall.- 185 144a . Cells touching one another in a dense colony-- 145
124b. Cells without transverse rows of markings ---- 125 144b. Cells embedded separately in a colorless matrix. 149
125a. Cells arranged as a layer one cell thick. 126 145a. Cells arranged radially, facing outward. 146
125b. Cell cluster more than one cell thick and not 145b. Cells all facing in one direction . 147
a flat plate --- 137 146a . Plastids brown ; eyespot absent.- Syn ura uve lla
146b. Plastids green ; eyespot present in each cell 166b. Outer matrix homogeneous-- Sphaerocystis schroeteri
Pandorina morum 167a. Colonies angular .. Gloeocystis planctonica
147a. Each cell with four flagella 167b . Colonies rounded . Gloeocystis gigas
Spondylomorum quaternarium 168a. Cells equidistant from center of colony
147b . Each cell with two flagella ------- (Pyrobotrys) 148 (Gomphosphaeria ) 169
148a. Eyespot in the wider ( anterior) end of the cell 168b. Cells irregularly distributed in the colony--- 172
Pyrobotrys stellata 169a. Cells with pseudovacuoles , Gomphosphaeria wichurae
148b. Eyespot in the narrower (posterior) end of 169b. Cells without pseudovacuoles_ 170
the cell .-- Pyrobotrys gracilis 170a. Cells 244 u in diameter
149a. Plastids brown . Uroglenopsis americana ( Gomphosphaeria lacustris) 171
149b . Plastids green --- 150 170b. Cells 4-15 u in diameter--- Gomphosphaeria aponina
150a . Cells 16, 32, or 64 per colony- Eudorina elegans 171a. Cells spherical
150b . Cells more than 100 per colony 151 Gomphosphaeria lacustris, kuetzingianum type
151a. Colony spherical; each cell with an eyespot 171b. Cells ovate - Gomphosphaeria lacustris, collinsii type
Volvox aureus 172a. Cells ovoid ; division plane perpendicular to
151b. Colony tubular or irregular ; no eyespots long axis ( Coccochloris ) 286a
( Tetraspora ) 109a 172b. Cells rounded ; or division plane perpendicular
152a. Elongate cells, attached together at one end ; to short axis . ( Anacystis) 286b
arranged radially---- ( Actinastrum ) 153 173a. Cells with an abrupt median transverse groove
152b. Cells not elongate, often sperical 154 or incision 174
153a. Cells cylindric- Actinastrum gracillimum 173b. Cells without an abrupt transverse median
153b. Cells distinctly bulging------ Actinastrum hantzschii groove or incision ---- 184
154a. Plastids present. 155 174a. Cells brown ; flagella present
154b. Plastids absent; pigment throughout each pro (armored flagellates) 175
toplast 168 174b. Cells green ; no flagella ----- ( desmids) 178
155a. Colonies, including the outer matrix, orange to 175a. Cell with three or more long horns
red -brown --- Botryococcus braunii Ceratium hirundinella
155b. Matrix, if any, not bright colored ; cell plastids 175b. Cell without more than two long horns----- 176
green 156 176a. Cell wall of very thin smooth plates
156a. Colonies round to oval .. 160 Glenodinium palustre
156b. Colonies not round, often irregular in form ---- 157 176b. Cell wall of very thick rough plates
157a. Straight ( flat) walls between adjacent cells ( Peridinium ) 177
( Phytoconis) 278a 177a. Ends of cell pointed .---- Peridinium wisconsinense
157b. Walls between neighboring cells rounded .. 158 177b. Ends of cell rounded- Peridinium cinctum
158a. Cells arranged as a surface layer in a large 178a. Margin of cell with sharp pointed, deeply cut
gelatinous tube ---- (Tetraspora ) 109a lobes or long spikes ---- 179
158b. Colony not a tube ; cells in irregular pattern --- 159 178b . Lobes, if present, with rounded ends --- 182
159a. Large cells more than twice the diameter of the 179a. Median incision narrow , linear. Micrasterias truncata
small cells.- ( Chlorococcum ) 280b 179b. Median incision wide, “ V ” or “ U ” shaped
159b. Large cells not more than twice the diameter of ( Staurastrum ) 180
the small cells---- (Palmella ) 281a 180a. Margin of cell with long spikes
160a. Cells touching one another ; tightly grouped Staurastrum paradoxum
Coelastrum microporum 180b. Margin of cell without long spikes--- 181
160b . Cells loosely grouped 161 181a . Ends of lobes with short spines
161a. Colorless threads extend from center of colony Staurastrum polymorphum
to cells.__ 162 181b. Ends of lobes without spines
161b. No colorless threads attached to cells in colony- 164 Staurastrum punctulatum
162a. Cells rounded or straight, oval 182a. Length of cell about double the width
(Dictyosphaerium ) 163 Euastrum oblongum
162b. Cells elongate, some cells curved 182b. Length of cell 1 to 112 times the width
Dimorphococcus lunatus ( Cosmarium ) 183
163a. Cells rounded ---- Dictyosphaerium pulchellum 183a. Median incision narrow linear.- Cosmarium botrytis
163b. Cells straight, oval . Dictyosphaerium ehrenbergianum 183b . Median incision wide, “ U ” shaped
164a . Cells rounded .. 165 Cosmarium portianum
164b. Cells oval.--- Oocystis borgei 184a. Cells triangular ---- Tetraedron muticum
165a. One plastid per cell.-- 166 184b. Cells not triangular . 185
165b. Two to four plastids per cell.- Gloeococcus schroeteri 185a. Cells with one end distinctly different from
166a. Outer matrix divided into layers-- (Gloeocystis ) 167 the other._ 186
Key 73
185b. Cells with both ends essentially alike------- 225 205b. Furrow present; gullet absent - Rhodomonas lacustris
186a. Numerous transverse ( not spiral ) regularly 206a. Plastids yellow-brown------- Chromulina rosanoffi
spaced wall markings present (diatoms) 187 206b. Plastids not yellow -brown; generally green .--- 207
186b. No transverse regularly spaced wall markings 193 207a. One plastid per cell---- 208
187a. Cells curved ( bent) in girdle view 207b. Two to several plastids per cell----- 211
Rhoicosphenia curvata 208a. Cells tapering at each end-- Chlorogonium euchlorum
187b . Cells not curved in girdle view .- 188 208b. Cells rounded to oval... 209
188a. Cells with both fine and coarse transverse 209a. Two flagella per cell. ( Chlamydomonas) 210
lines --- Meridion circulare 209b. Four flagella per cell .. Carteria multifilis
188b. Cells with transverse lines all alike in thickness- 189 210a. Pyrenoid angular; eyespot in front third of cell
189a. Cells essentially linear to rectangular ; one Chlamydomonas reinhardi
terminal swelling larger than the other 210b. Pyrenoid circular ; eyespot in middle third of
( Asterionella ) 190 cell ---- Chlamydomonas globosa
189b. Cells wedge -shaped ; margins sometimes wavy 211a. Two plastids per cell . Cryptoglena pigra
(Gomphonema) 191 211b. Several plastids per cell. 212
190a. Larger terminal swelling 11/2 to 2 times wider 212a. Cell compressed ( flattened ) ( Phacus) 213
than the other ---- Asterionella formosa 212b. Cell not compressed ----- 214
190b. Larger terminal swelling less than 112 times 213a. Posterior spine short, bent------ Phacus pleuronectes
wider than the other.----- Asterionella gracillima 213b. Posterior spine long, straight ---- Phacus longicauda
191a. Narrow end enlarged in valve view 214a. Cell margin rigid ----- 215
Gomphonema geminatum 214b. Cell margin flexible --- ( Euglena) 217
191b. Narrow end not enlarged in valve view - 192 215a. Cell margin with spiral ridges. Phacus pyrum
192a. Tip of broad end about as wide as tip of nar 215b. Cell margin without ridges, but may have spiral
row end in valve view .----- Gomphonema parvulum lines- ( Lepocinclis) 216
192b. Tip of broad end much wider than tip of narrow 216a. Posterior end with an abrupt, spine- like tip
end in valve view-------- Gomphonema olivaceum Lepocinclis ovum
193a. Spine present at each end of cell .. Schroederia setigera 216b. Posterior end rounded - Lepocinclis texta
193b . No spine on both ends of cell . 194
217a. Green plastids hidden by a red pigment in the
194a. Pigments in one or more plastids_ 195
cell.-- Euglena sanguinea
194b. No plastid ; pigments throughout the protoplast 217b. No red pigment except for the eyespot- 218
Entophysalis lemaniae
195a. Cells in a conical sheath .--. ( Dinobryon ) 86a 218a. Plastids at least one - fourth the length of the
cell --- 219
195b. Cells not in a conical sheath.. 196
218b. Plastids discoid or at least shorter than one
196a. Cell covered with scales and long spines
fourth the length of the cell. 220
Mallomonas caudata
196b . Cell not covered with scales and long spines .--- 197 219a. Plastids two per cell. Euglena agilis
197a. Protoplasts separated by a space from a rigid 219b. Plastids several per cell, often extending radi
sheath ( lorica ) --- 198 ately from the center ---- Euglena viridis
197b. No loose sheath around the cells_ 202
220a. Posterior end extending as an abrupt colorless
221
198a. Cells compressed ( flattened ) ---- Phacotus lenticularis spine
198b . Cells not compressed --- 199 220b. Posterior end rounded or at least with no color
199a. Lorica opaque ; yellow to reddish or brown less spine------- 222
Trachelomonas crebea
221a. Spiral markings very prominent and granular
199b. Lorica transparent; colorless to brownish Euglena spirogyra
( Chrysococcus) 200
200a. Outer membrane ( lorica ) oval.- Chrysococcus ovalis 221b. Spiral markings fairly prominent, not granular
201 Euglena oxyuris
200b. Outer membrane ( lorica ) rounded- 222a. Small ; length 35–55 M-
201a. Lorica thickened around opening Euglena gracilis
222b. Medium to large; length 65 u or more .. 223
Chrysococcus rufescens
201b. Lorica not thickened around opening 223a. Medium in size ; length 65–200 u------ 224
Chrysococcus major 223b. Large in size; length 250–290 p-- Euglena ehrenbergië
202a . Front end flattened diagonally 203 224a. Plastids with irregular edge; flagellum two
202b . Front end not flattened diagonally 206 times as long as cell --------- Euglena polymorpha
203a. Plastids bright blue -green --- --- ( Chroomonas) 204 224b. Plastids with smooth edge; flagellum about one
203b. Plastids brown, red, olive-green, or yellowish . 205 half the length of the cell.--- Euglena deses
204a. Cell pointed at one end .--- Chroomonas nordstetii 225a. Cells distinctly bent (arcuate) ; with a spine or
204b. Cell not pointed at one end.. Chroomona s setoniensis narrowing to a point at both ends_ 226
205a. Gullet present ; furrow absent.--- Cryptomona s erosa 225b. Cells not arcuate --- 230
496792 0-59—7
226a. Vacuole with particles showing Brownian move 243a . Cell sigmoid in valve surface
ment at each end of cell. Cells not in view ----- Gyrosigma attenuatum
clusters. ---- ( Closterium ) 227 243b . Cell sigmoid in square ended ( girdle ) surface
226b. No terminal vacuoles. Cells may be in clusters view- Nitzschia acicularis
or colonies... 228
244a. Cell longitudinally unsymmetrical in at least
227a. Cell wide ; width 30–70 ---- Closterium moniliferum one view . 245
227b . Cell long and narrow ; width up to 5 u 244b . Cell longitudinally symmetrical... 254
Closterium aciculare 245a . Cell wall with both fine and coarse transverse
228a. Cell with a narrow abrupt spine at each blunt lines ( striae and costae ) ------ 246
end ---- Ophiocytium capitatum 245b. Cell wall with fine transverse lines ( striae) only- 247
228b . No blunt ended cells with abrupt terminal 246a. Valve face about as wide at middle as girdle
spines--- 229 face Epithemia turgida
246b. Valve face one-half or less as wide at middle as
229a. Sharp pointed ends as separate colorless spines . 193a
229b . Sharp pointed ends as part of the green girdle face Rhopalodia gibba
protoplast --- 137a 247a. Line of pores and raphe located at edge of
230a. One long spine at each end of cell. 231 valve face 248
230b . No long terminal spines ------ 232 247b . Raphe not at extreme edge of valve face --- 250
231a. Cell gradually narrowed to the spine--- 137a 248a . Raphe of each valve adjacent to the same girdle
231b. Cell abruptly narrowed to the spine
surface Hantzschia amphioxys
Rhizosolenia gracilis 248b. Raphe of each valve adjacent to different girdle
232a . A regular pattern of fine lines or dots in the surfaces (Nitzschia ) 249
wall .--- (diatoms) 233 249a . Cell 20–65 u long Nitzschia palea
232b. No regular pattern of fine lines or dots in the 249b . Cell 70–180 u long- --- Nitzschia linearis
wall ---- 276 250a. Cell longitudinally unsymmetrical in valve
233a . Cells circular in one ( valve ) view ; short rec view .. 251
tangular or square in other ( girdle ) view - 234 250b . Cell longitudinally unsymmetrical in girdle
240 view- Achnanthes microcephala
233b. Cells not circular in one view----
234a. Valve surface with an inner and outer (mar 251a. Raphe bent toward one side at the middle
ginal) pattern of striae--------- (Cyclotella ) 235 Amphora ovalis
234b. Valve surface with one continuous pattern of 251b. Raphe a smooth curve throughout-- (Cymbella ) 252
.
striae---- ( Stephanodiscus) 238 252a. Cell only slightly unsymmetrical --- Cymbella cesati
235a. Cells small; 4-10 u in diameter - Cyclotella glomerata 252b . Cell distinctly unsymmetrical. 253
235b . Cells medium to large ; 10–80 u in diameter --- 236 253a. Striations distinctly cross- lined ; width 10–30 u
236a. Outer half of valve with two types of lines, Cymbella prostrata
one long, one short .. 237 253b. Striations indistinctly cross -lined ; width 5–12 u
236b. Outer half of valve with radial lines all alike Cymbella ventricosa
Cyclotella meneghiniana 254a. Longitudinal line (raphe) and prominent mar
237a. Outer valve zone constituting less than one ginal markings near both edges of valve ---- 255
half the diameter . Cyclotella bodanica 254b. No marginal longitudinal line (raphe) nor keel;
237b . Outer valve zone constituting more than one raphe.or pseudoraphe median .--. 257
half the diameter--- Cyclotella compta 255a. Margin of girdle face wavy ------ Cymatopleura solea
238a . Cell 4–25 u in diameter .. 239 255b. Margin of girdle face straight ---- ( Surirella ) 256
238b. Cell 25–65 uр in diameter ---- Stephanodiscus niagarae 256a. Cell width 8-23 M---- Surirella ovata
239a. Cell with two transverse bands, in girdle 256b. Cell width 40–60 M. Surirella splendida
view .-- Stephanodiscus binderanus 257a. Girdle face generally in view and with two or
239b . Cell without two transverse bands, in girdle more prominent longitudinal lines. In valve
view ---- Stephanodiscus hantzschii view, swollen central oval portion bounded by
240a. Cells flat, oval.. ( Cocconeis) 241 a line --- ( T'abellaria ) 258
240b . Cells neither flat nor oval. 242 257b. Girdle face with less than two promi nent longi
241a . Wall markings ( striae) 18-20 in 10 tudinal lines. In valve view , whole central
M ---- Cocconeis pediculus portion not bounded by a line... 259
241b. Wall markings ( striae) 23–25 in 10 258a. Girdle face less than one - fourth as wide as long
M----- Cocconeis placentula Tabellaria fenestrata
242a. Cell sigmoid in one view . 243 258b. Girdle face more than one -half as wide as long
242b. Cell not sigmoid in either round or point ended Tabellaria flocculosa
( valve) or square ended ( girdle ) surface 259a. Valve face with both coarse and fine transverse
view 244 lines Diatoma vulgare
Key 75
259b. Valve face with transverse lines, if visible, alike 275b. Cells 90–120 times as long as wide ; central area
in thickness_ 260
rectangular------- Synedra acus var. angustissima
260a. Valve face naviculoid ; true raphe present----- 261 276a. Green to brown pigment in one or more plastids. 277
260b. Valve face linear to linear -lanceolate ; true 276b. No plastids; blue and green pigments through
raphe absent - 270 out protoplast------- 284
261a. Valve face with wide transverse lines (costae) 277a. Cells long and narrow or flat 233
( Pinnularia ) 262 277b . Cells rounded .- 278
261b. Valve face with thin transverse lines ( striae ) -- 263 278a. Straight, flat wall between adjacent cells in
262a. Cell 5–6 u broad.. Pinnularia subcapitata colonies --- Phytoconis botryoides
262b . Cell 34–50 u broad . Pinnularia nobilis 278b. Rounded wall between adjacent cells in colonies_ 279
263a. Transverse lines ( striae ) absent across trans 279a. Cell either with 2 opposite wall knobs or colony
verse axis of valve face. Stauroneis phoenicenteron of 2-4 cells surrounded by distinct membrane
263b . Transverse lines ( striae) present across trans or both .-- 164a
verse axis of valve face .. 264
279b. Cell without two wall knobs; colony not of 24
264a . Raphe strictly median- ( Navicula ) 265 cells surrounded by distinct membrane----- 280
264b . Raphe located slightly to one side - 252
280a. Cells essentially similar in size within the col
265a. Ends of valve face abruptly narrowed to a beak 281
ony
Navicula exigua var. capitata 280b . Cells of very different sizes within the col
265b. Ends of valve face gradually narrowed . 266
ony Chlorococcum humicola
266a. Most of striations strictly transverse Navicula gracilis
266b. Most of striations radial ( oblique ) - 267 281a. Cells embedded in an extensive gelatinous ma
trix ----- Palmella mucoso
267a. Striae distinctly composed of dots ( punctae )
Navicula lanceolata 281b. Cells with little or no gelatinous matrix around
them
267b . Striae essentially as continuous lines --- 268 (Chlorella ) 282
268a. Central clear area on valve face rectangular 282a. Cells rounded 283
Navicula graciloides 282b . Cells ellipsoidal to ovoid------- Chlorella ellipsoidea
268b. Central clear area on valve face oval. 269 283a. Cell 5–10 p in diameter; pyrenoid indistinct
269a. Cell length 20–40 m ; ends slightly capitate Chlorella vulgaris
Navicula cryptocephala 283b. Cell 3–5 u in diameter ; pyrenoid distinct
269b. Cell length 30–120 m ; ends not capitate Chlorella pyrenoidosa
Navicula radiosa 284a. Cell a spiral rod. 285
270a. Knob at one end larger than at the other 284b . Cell not a spiral rod .. 286
(Asterionella ) 189a 285a. Thread septate ( with crosswalls) – Arthrospira jenneri
270b . Terminal knobs if present equal in size 285b. Thread nonseptate ( without crosswalls)
( Synedra ) 271 Spirulina nordstedtii
271a. Clear space ( pseudonodule ) in central
area.md
286a. Cells dividing in a plane at right angles to the
Synedra pulchella long axis.- Coccochloris stagnina
271b. No pseudonodule in central area ---- 272
286b. Cells spherical or dividing in a plane parallel to
272a. Sides parallel in valve view ; each end with an
enlarged nodule------ Synedra capitata the long axis .-- ( Anacystis) 287
272b. Sides converging to the ends in valve view---- 273 287a. Cell containing pseudovacuoles---- Anacystis cyanea
273a. Valve linear to lanceolate-linear; 8–12 striae 287b. Cell not contaning pseudovacuoles- 288
per 10 u- Synedra ulna 288a. Cell 2–6 u in diameter ; sheath often colored
273b . Valve narrowly linear- lanceolate; 12–18 striae Anacystis montana
u-
per 10 --- 274 288b. Cell 6–50 u in diameter; sheath colorless---- 289
274a. Valve 5-6 M wide --- Synedra acus 289a. Cell 6–12 uM in diameter; cells in colonies are
274b . Valve 2-4 wide----- 275 mostly spherical---- Anacystis thermalis
275a. Cells up to 65 times as long as wide ; central 289b. Cell 12–50 рp in diameter ; cells in colonies are
area absent to small oval . Synedra acus var. radians often angular Anacystis dimidiata
GLOSSARY
Actinomycetes. A group of branching filamentous bacteria, Bloom. A concentrated growth or aggregation of plankton,
reproducing by terminal spores. They are common in the sufficiently dense as to be readily visible.
soil. Selected strains are used for production of certain Blue -green algae. The group Myxophyceae, characterized
antibiotics. by simplicity of structure and reproduction, with cells in
Aeration . The mixing of water or other liquid with air, in a slimy matrix and containing no starch , nucleus, or plas
cluding the absorption of air through the surface of the tids and with a blue pigment present in addition to the
liquid . green chlorophyll.
Aerobic. A condition involving the presence of free (ele Bound carbonates. The nearly insoluble monocarbonates
mentary ) oxygen in a medium such as water or sewage. present in water, where a balance is maintained between
Algae (singular, alga ). Comparatively simple plants con the amounts of bound, half bound and unbound
taining photosynthetic pigments. A majority are aquatic carbonates.
and many are microscopic in size. Calibration. Determination of the dimensions of a line,
Algicide ( or algaecide ). A chemical highly toxic to algae area or mass, present in an istrument such as a micro
and satisfactory for application to water . scope. It is accomplished by measurement with a known
Alpha -mesosaprobic zone. Area of active decomposition, scale.
partly aerobic, partly anaerobic, in a stream heavily pol Calyptra. A cap or lid on some terminal cells in certain
luted with organic wastes. filamentous blue -green algae.
Alternate branching. Only one branch per node or at any Capitate. Presence of a round cell at the end of a fila
one height on a filament or strand. ment ; a cell with a rounded enlarged end.
Anaerobic. A condition involving the absence of free (ele Cell. The organized ultimate unit of structure and growth
mentary ) oxygen in aa medium such as water or sewage. of a plant or animal. It is composed of a protoplast
Anterior. The front or forward end of an organism that is which, in plants, is generally sourrounded by a cell wall.
capable of movement. Cell face. The particular surface of a cell which con
Aquatic. Living in water . fronts a person who is observing it under a microscope.
Arcuate. Moderately curved, like a bow. Cell sap. The watery fluid of a cell which may separate
Areal standard unit. An area of 400 square microns, used from the gelatinous protoplasm to form one or more
as a unit in designating the amount of plankton in water. vacuoles.
Armored flagellates. Flagellates having a cell wall com Cell wall . The rigid to semirigid, inert, permeable layer
posed of distinct, tightly arranged segments or plates. The of cellulose, silica or other material which surrounds, and
wall is generally thick , rough and brown. is in contact with, the protoplast of plant cells. It is to
Aromatic. A fragrant, spicy or pungent odor. be distinguished from the flexible, selectively permeable
Attenuation . A continuous decrease in width of a filament, surface membrane ( ectoplast ) of the protoplast, and the
often to a point or thin hair. capsule, sheath or lorica which may be outside of the
Back wash . The cleaning of a rapid sand or mechanical cell wall.
filter by reversing the flow of water upward through it. Centric. Refers to diatoms which are circular in form in
valve view and have radial striae.
Bacteria ( singular, bacterium ). Simple one-celled but often
colonial microorganisms, typically free of chlorophyll, and Chlorophyll. Green photosynthetic pigment, present in
rigid in form . Their common method of reproduction is plant cells including the algae.
Chromatophore. A color-carrying body within a cell
by cell division . With few exceptions they live on organic
materials. protoplast.
Benthic. Referring to aquatic organisms growing in close Clean water zone. That area of water, in a polluted
association with the substrate. stream, in which self-purification has been completed.
Benthos ( or benthon ). Aquatic microorganisms capable of Coagulant aid. A substance which , when added with the
growth in close association with the substrate. coagulant to water, improves the formation of floc.
Biological Associated with or caused by living organisms. Coagulation . The agglomeration of suspended or colloidal
Biology. The field of study dealing with living organisms. matter in a liquid such as water, commonly induced by
It may be divided into the study of plants ( botany ) and of addition to the water of a floc-forming chemical.
animals ( zoology ) . Colloidal. A condition involving particles dispersed in a
Blanket algae. A mass of filamentous algae floating as a medium such as water which do not go into solution nor
visible mat at the surface of the do they settle out.
76
Glossary 77
Colony. An isolated group of cells which have developed False raphe ( or pseudoraphe ) . A longitudinal clear space on
together from a single original parent plant or repro the valve face of a diatom , and bounded on both sides by
ductive cell. Each cell is theoretically capable of life lines of striae.
activities independent of the others. Filament. A linear series of cells, forming a thread, and held
Constricted . The surface wall of aа . filament curved in together by their cell walls or sheath.
ward to meet the cross walls, thus leaving grooves on the Filter. A bed of sand or related ingredients through which
surface of the filament. water is passed to reduce the amount of solid and colloidal
ling tower. An enclosure for holding water while its material in the water.
temperature is decreasing. The cooling tower is part of Filter clogging. The settling of algae, silt and other sub
a system which involves absorption of heat by the water stances from the water into the pores and on the surface
from some heat generating apparatus or machinery. of a sand or other granular filter bed, thus reducing the
Costae ( single, costa ) . Thick, rib-like striae in diatom rate of flow of the water through the filter.
walls. Filter run . The time between two successive washing opera
Cross walls. Transverse walls in a filament, dividing it into tions of a rapid sand filter.
units or cells. Filter skin ( or Schmutzdecke ). The scum or gelatinous
Crustacea. Aquatic animals with a rigid outer covering, layer over the top of a slow sand filter and containing
jointed appendages and gills. Included are the water fleas various types of aquatic microorganisms.
such as Daphnia and the copepoda such as Cyclops. Filtration. The process used in water treatment plants of
Cubic standard unit. A volume equal to 8,000 cu. microns passing water through a granular medium such as sand
and used as a unit in designating the amount of plankton for the removal or reduction in amount of suspended or
in water . colloidal matter.
Culture. A growth of microorganisms in an artificial Flagellum . A microscopic whip -like extension present on
medium containing the necessary nutrients. many of the motile algae and protozoa.
Desmids. Organisms belonging to the subgroup Desmid Flavor. An inclusive term for odor plus the tongue sensa
iaceae of the green algae and characterized by cells of tions of taste, texture, and temperature of a substance.
distinctive shapes one half of which corresponds in shape, Flexible. A solid or semisolid body capable of readily
size and contents to the other half. In many desmids the changing its shape when subjected to variations in ex
two " semicells ” are connected by a short narrow tube ternal factors.
( isthmus ). Frustule. The cell wall of a diatom.
Diatoms. Organisms belonging to the group Bacillario Fungus ( plural, fungi ) . Simple plants without chlorophyll,
phyceae and characterized by the presence of silica in the and in a broad sense including both the bacteria and the
cell walls, which are sculptured with striae and other mark molds, yeasts and mushrooms. The simpler forms are one
ings, and by the presence of a brown pigment associated celled ; the higher forms are branching filaments.
with the chlorophyll. Furrow. A groove or trench on the side of the cell of cer
Dissolved oxygen ( D.O. ) . The amount of elementary oxygen tain flagellates.
present in water in a dissolved state. It is commonly re Gelatinous matrix. Semisolid material surrounding the cell
ported in parts per million (by weight ), or milligrams per wall, and for some algae, having a characteristic shape or
liter, of oxygen in the water. color.
Distribution system . Pipes or other conduits through which Genus. A group ( in the classification system for plants and
a water supply is distributed to consumers. animals) into which are placed species that resemble one
Elliptical. Narrowly oval in form , the greatest width being another more than they do other species.
across the middle rather than nearer one end . Girdle view. The side, rather than the front or top view,
Enrichment. The addition to water of substances which in of a diatom. It reveals the junction (girdle ) of the
crease the amounts of nutrients used by aquatic organisms epitheca and hypotheca.
in their growth . Green algae. Organisms belonging to the class Chlorophy
Epitheca. The slightly larger half of the two pieces of the ceae and characterized by photosynthetic pigments similar
diatom wall . It fits as a flanged cover over the smaller but in color to those of the higher green plants. The storage
otherwise corresponding “hypotheca.” food is starch .
Eye piece (or ocular ). The short cylindrical frame holding Ground water. Water ( excepting capillary water ) located
a lens or combination of lenses, and fitting into the top of below the surface of the ground, generally limited to that
the microscope tube. below the water table .
Eye spot. A light sensitive, red to orange body within the Gullet. An internal sac-like cavity, open to the outside at
protoplast of a flagellate. the anterior end of the cell. It is present in certain flagel
False branching ( or pseudobranching ). A lateral outgrowth lates.
initiated by a cross breakage of a filament, followed by the Half bound carbonates. Somewhat soluble bicarbonates
protrusion through the sheath of one or both of the broken present in water where a balance is maintained between
ends of the filament. the amounts of bound, half bound and unbound carbonates.
Hardness. Ability of water to form a curd-like scum when which is of concern because of its growth on foods or other
soap is added and to form scale in boilers. It is caused products used by man.
by presence in the water of carbonates, sulfates, and other Mu (w) . The Greek letter M, pronounced “ mū”, is used as
related substances. a symbol to indicate “ micron ” or “ microns. ”
Hay fever. Allergic symptoms involving the upper respira Multicellular. An organism with sufficient specialization to
tory tract. require more than one cell for its various growth
Healthy (portion of) stream . Flowing water in which the activities.
aquatic life has not been adversely affected by human acti Nannoplankton . Unattached aquatic organisms which are
vities such as pollution or by other relatively recent so small that very high magnification with the microscope
changes in the environment. is required to make them clearly visible. The magnifica
Heterocyst. A specialized cell in certain filamentous blue tion commonly used for them is 430 to 1,200X .
green algae. It is larger, clearer and thicker walled than Naviculoid . Having the form of a ship ; pointed or wedge
the regular vegetative cells. shaped at both ends, and widest at the middle.
Heterotrophic. Referring to organisms that for their metab Node. A swelling, generally occurring at equal distances
olism are dependent upon organic matter supplied from along the tube- like strands of certain algae.
sources outside of their own bodies. Nonseptate. A tube- like body that is not subdivided by cross
Hypotheca. The smaller or bottom half of the diatom cell partitions.
wall, its upturned , flanged edge fitting inside of a cor Nucleus. An organized, specialized body within the proto
responding flange of the “ epitheca." plast and containing the chromatin.
Impoundment. A reservoir used for collection and storage Nuisance organisms. Aquatic organisms that are capable of
of a water supply and for its controlled release as re interfering with the use or treatment of water.
quired for use . Nutrient. A substance, such as a nitrate, absorbed by an or
Impurities in water. Foreign materials present in water, ganism and essential as a raw material for its growth.
particularly those impairing its usefulness. Ocular ( or eye piece). The lens or lens combination, fitted
Intercalary. Located between other structures rather than into a short cylindric holder which, in turn, fits into the
at the end . top of the microscope tube..
Katarobic zone . That area of a stream which is free of Ocular micrometer. A glass disc, marked with a scale, that
both organic pollution and its products. fits on the diaphragm of the microscope ocular.
Key. A series of paired, contrasting statements each pair Odor. The property of a substance, receptive to the nose,
leading to other pairs of statements and eventually reveal which permits pleasant or unpleasant sensations of fra
ing the names of organisms. It is for use in the identifi grance or smells to be recognized.
cation of algae and other plants and animals. Oligosaprobic zone. That area of a stream which contains
Lateral. Refers to the side, in contrast to the ends, of the the mineralized products of self-purification from organic
body of an alga or other organism . pollution but with none of the organic pollutants re
Lorica. A rigid wall-like covering around a motile cell and maining.
separated by a space from the protoplast or cell wall. An Opposite branching. With branches attached two per node
opening is present at the anterior end, through which the or at any one heighton a filament, tube or strand .
flagellum extends. Organism . A plant or animal. A body that has developed
Loss of head. A decrease in water pressure due to friction as a result of being alive.
and commonly expressed in terms of the difference in ele Outer matrix. The sheath or other cell material outside of
vations to which water will rise in open tubes. the cell wall .
Mat. A layer of algae, generally of the filamentous type. Oxidation pond. An enclosure for sewage designed to pro
The layer may be either floating on the water or covering mote the intensive growth of algae. These organisms re
a substrate. lease oxygen that stimulates transformation of the wastes
Membrane. A wide, flat, thin plant body. A partition or into inoffensive end products.
covering, such as the flexible, selectively permeable outer Oxygenation. The absorption by water of elemental oxygen
surface film of a protoplast. which has been released into the water by aquatic plants as
Metabolic. Referring to the building up (anabolic) and a waste product of photosynthesis.
tearing down (katabolic ) processes going on within liv Parietal . Located near or against the margin . A contrast
ing cells. ing term : “ axial.”
Micron . A unit of linear measurement appropriate for de Pennate diatom . A diatom which is elongate rather than
scribing the dimensions of microscopic organisms. It is circular in the valve view . The wall ornamentation is ar
equivalent to one one-thousandth of a millimeter. ranged along the sides of the longitudinal axis rather than
Microorganism . Any minute organism either plant or ani about a central point.
mal, invisible or barely visible to the unaided eye. Peripheral. Located at the margin .
Microscopic. An object too small to be clearly visible with Photosynthesis. Process of manufacture by algae and other
out the aid of a microscope. plants of sugar and other carbohydrates from inorganic
Mold . Any fungus exclusive of the bacteria and yeasts raw materials with the aid of light and chlorophyll.
Glossary 79
Phytoplankton. Plant microorganisms, such as certain al The rate is commonly from 2 to 3 gallons per minute per
gae, living unattached in the water. Contrasting term : square foot of filter surface.
zooplankton. Raw water. Water which is available as a supply for use
Pigmented. Having color, particularly that due to the pres but which has not yet been treated or " purified ."
ence of photosynthetic colored material, in the cells of algae Reaeration . Contact of air with water permitting absorp
and other plants. tion of oxygen into the water from the air.
Pigmented flagellates. Algae that are capable of swimming Recovery zone. The area of a stream in which active, pri
and are furnished with one or more flagella. They belong marily aerobic, decomposition of the pollutants is occur
to a number of classes, including Euglenophyceae, Xantho ring.
phyceae, Dinophyceae, Chlorophyceae ( Volvocales only ) Red algae. A class of algae (Rhodophyceae) most members
and Cryptophyceae. of which are marine. They contain a red pigment in
Pipe moss. A mat or mass of growth formed by aquatic addition to the chlorophyll.
organisms that are attached to the inner surface of a water Red tide. A visible red to orange coloration of an area of
pipe. water caused by the presence of a bloom of certain
Plankton . Unattached aquatic microorganisms growing as " armored ” flagellates.
bodies dispersed throughout the water . Reservoir. A basin, lake, pond, tank or impoundment which
Plastid. A body in a plant cell that contains photosynthetic is used for control, regulation and storage of water. It
pigments. may be either natural in origin or created by the building
Pollution. Presence of foreign material in water, particu of a dam or retaining wall.
larly that which interferes with its use. Resting spore. A specialized , thick walled reproductive cell,
Polysaprobic zone . That area of a grossly polluted stream capable of dormancy and of germination , without sexual
which contains the complex organic waste matter that is fusion, to form a new plant.
decomposing primarily by anaerobic processes. Rhodophyceae. A class of algae popularly called "red
Posterior. The hinder end of the body of a swimming algae.” The cells contain a red pigment in addition to the
organism . chlorophyll. Mostly marine forms.
Potable. Referring to water which is drinkable as a result Rigid. A structure with a fixed, nonflexible form.
of being free of pathogens, toxic materials, tastes, odors, Rotifer. A microscopic aquatic animal with a ciliated crown
color and other undesirable physical, chemical and bio attached to its head . The cilia give the appearance of
logical characteristics. moving in a regular procession around the rim of the
Protoplasm . The gelatinous, colloidal material of plants crown .
and animals in which all life activities occur. Sand filter. A bed of sand through which water is permitted
Protoplast. The unit of protoplasm comprising one cell . to pass to reduce the amount of silt, plankton , colloidal
Protozoa. Unicellular animals, including the ciliates and material and related substances that were present in the
nonchlorophyllous flagellates. water. It is in common use in water-treatment plants.
Pseudonodule. A clear area resembling a swelling ( nodule ) Saprophytic. The capability by some plants, including cer
on a diatom wall . tain bacteria and molds, of utilizing dead organic matter
Pseudoraphe (false raphe). A longitudinal clear space on as nutrients.
the valve face of a diatom and bounded on both sides by Schmutzdecke. A German term for “ filter skin ” ; the gelat
striae. inous layer over the top of a slow sand filter and contain
Pseudovacuoles. Numerous minute bodies, resembling oil ing various types of aquatic microorganisms.
globules, in cells of certain planktonic blue-green algae. Sedgewick -Rafter method. A procedure for the quantitative
Their function and content are not fully determined . They determination of plankton in water, involving the use of a
appear as black granules under high magnification . special funnel and a special counting slide.
Punctae. Pores (appearing as dots) arranged in rows Sedimentation. A phenomenon used in water and sewage
treatment in which the rate of flow of the water is reduced
( striae) in diatom walls.
Pure culture. A growth in an artificial nutrient medium of or stopped, permitting the settling out by gravitation of
the suspended particles.
a single kind of microorganism and with no other kinds Semirigid. A structure capable of limited change in form.
of organisms present .
Sewage. The spent water supply after it has received the
Pyrenoid. A body, often within a plastid , around which various household , industrial and other wastes of a com
starch granules are aggregated.
munity.
Radii ( Singular, radius). Lines extending from the center Sewage treatment. Any artificial process to which sewage is
of a circle and at right angles to tangents. subjected in order to remove or reduce its objectional con
Raphe. A line ( cleft ) or clear space extending lengthwise stituents.
on the valve surface of a diatom . See true raphe and false Slow sand filter. A bed of sand for water treatment con
raphe. structed to permit water to flow through it at a relatively
Rapid sand filter. A bed of sand for water treatment con slow rate. The rate is commonly from 3 to 6 million gal
structed to permit a rapid rate of flow of water through it . lons per day per acre of filter surface area .
Stabilization . Biological transformation of organic wastes Unbound carbonates. The soluble carbonic acid present in
into more durable metabolic end products. water where a balance is maintained between the amounts
Stabilization pond. An enclosure for sewage designed to of bound, half bound and unbound carbonates.
promote the intensive growth of algae. These organisms Unialgal culture. A growth of only one kind of alga in an
provide oxygen that stimulates transformation of the artificial nutrient medium , but not necessarily free of
wastes into inoffensive end products. other types of microorganisms such as bacteria and pro
tozoa .
Strand. A cylindrical, stem-like plant body that is more than
one cell thick. Unicell. An organism composed of an isolated single cell.
Striae. Lines of pores (appearing as dots ) arranged in a Unicellular. One celled .
regular pattern in the walls of diatoms. Unsymmetrical diatom. Lack of correspondence in shape,
Subspherical. Almost spherical. size and relative position of parts in the two longitudinal
Surface water. Water that rests upon the surface of the or transverse halves of a diatom.
earth in contrast to ground water. Vacuole. An area within a protoplast which contains a
Symmetrical diatom . Correspondence in shape, size and liquid such as cell sap or oil .
relative position of parts of the two longitudinal or trans Valve view. The top surface, rather than the side, of the
verse halves of a diatom . epitheca or hypotheca of a diatom.
Taste. A type of sensation ( such as sweet or bitter) that the Water mites. Small, sometimes microscopic aquatic organ
tongue recognizes in addition to texture and temperature isms with a more or less round unsegmented body and
of a substance. with four pairs of legs and one pair of palpi ( processes
Taxonomic. Emphasis on the classification and identifica attached to the mouth ).
tion of organisms. Water quality. Those characteristics of a supply of water
Thallus. The plant body of an alga or fungus, composed which are important in determining its purity and use
of one or more cells. fulness to man .
Threshold odor number. A unit designating the intensity of Water table. The surface of a body of ground water when
odor in water as determined by its perception in a series its level is not confined by any overlying impermeable
of dilutions with odor - free water. layer of rock or soil.
Tongue sensation . The feel or texture that the tongue reg Whipple micrometer. A subdivided square, marked off on a
isters when in contact with water containing various glass disc, that fits into the microscope ocular. At a mag
solutes. This is in addition to the sensations of taste and
nification of 100X , in many microscopes, the square covers
temperature.
True branching. An elongated lateral growth initiated by approximately 1 sq. mm. of the microscope field . It is
the longitudinal division of a marginal cell or cells in a designed for use in plankton counting.
filament or strand. Whorled branching. More than two branches per node or
True raphe. A slit ( appearing as a line ) extending almost at any one height on a filament or strand.
the length of the valve face of a diatom and interrupted Yeast. Unicellular fungi which in general commonly re
in the middle by a nodular area . The raphe is bounded produce by budding, and ferment one or more carbohy
by a clear area which, in turn, is bounded by striae. drates with the production of gas.
Tube. A thread - like plant body, one cell wide, that is not Zooplankton. Protozoa and other animal microorganisms
divided into segments by cross walls. living unattached in water .
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GENUS AND SPECIES INDEX
Page references in boldface indicate the pages on which illustrations occur. Words in parentheses are synonyms.
Achnanthes, 11, 12, 36 , 47, 64, 74 Botryococcus, 11 , 12, 34, 45, 64, 72 Chrysococcus, 10, 12, 15, 32, 42, 73
Achnanthes affinis , 57 , 58, 59 Botryococcus braunii, 12, 35, 46, 72 Chrysococcus major, 12, 42, 73
Achnanthes microcephala , 12, 37, 48 , 74 Bulbochaete, 12, 15, 36, 47, 70 Chrysococcus ovalis, 12, 42, 73
Achnanthidium brevipes var. intermedia , 59 Bulbochaete insignis, 12, 37, 48, 70 Chrysococcus rufescens, 12, 33, 42, 73
Acrochaetium thuretii, 56, 58 Bulbochaete mirabilis, 12, 42 , 70 Chrysosphaerella , 12, 20, 71
Acrochaetium virgatulum , 56, 58 Chrysosphaerella longispina, 12, 19, 71
Actinastrum , 12, 20 , 34, 45, 72 Caloneis amphisbaena, 58, 59 Cladophora, 12, 14, 18, 20, 32, 36, 41, 44, 47, 48,
Actinastrum gracillimum , 12, 35, 46, 72 Calothrix, 12, 32, 59, 64, 68 49, 64, 70
Actinastrum hantzschii, 12 , 46 , 58, 59, 72 Calothrix braunii, 12, 48, 57, 58, 68 Cladophora aegagropila, 12, 23, 70
Actinella , 58 Calothrix confervicola , 56 , 58 Cladophora crispata, 12, 37, 48, 70
Agmenellum , 10, 12, 14, 30, 32, 41, 71 Calothrix parietina, 12, 33, 41, 42 , 68
9 Cladophora fracta , 12, 46 , 70
Agmenellum quadriduplicatum , 9, 14, 71 Campylodiscus, 59 Cladophora glomerata, 12, 33, 42, 47, 48, 70
Agmenellum quadriduplicatum, glauca type, Carteria , 12, 14, 30 , 73 Cladophora insignis, 12, 19, 70
12, 33, 42, 71 Carteria multifilis, 12, 31 , 38, 73 ( Clathrocystis ), 14, 19, 20
Agmenellum quadriduplicatum , tenuissima Caulerpa serrulata , 51 Closterium , 12, 20, 22, 28, 51 , 57, 64, 74
type, 12, 31, 38, 71 Ceratium, 12, 19, 20, 26, 45, 51 , 63, 64 , 72 Closterium acerosum , 59
Amphiprora paludosa, 59 Ceratium hirundinella, 12, 19, 27, 72 Closterium aciculare , 12, 46 , 74
Amphithrix janthina, 49 Ceratoneis arcus, 58 Closterium lunula , 51
Amphora , 12, 74 Chaetoceros, 56 Closterium moniliferum , 12, 23 , 29, 74
Amphora coffeiformis, 59 Chaetomorpha, 59 Coccochloris, 12, 14, 32 , 56 , 58, 72, 75
Amphora ovalis, 12, 41 , 42, 58, 59, 74 Chaetopeltis, 12, 71 Coccochloris elabens, 59
Anabaena, 10, 12, 15, 19, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30, 43, Chaetopeltis megalocystis, 12, 42, 71 Coccochloris peniocystis, 14, 56
51, 52, 53 , 63 , 64, 68 Chaetophora, 10, 12, 15, 36, 47, 51 , 70 Coccochloris stagnina , 12, 33, 42, 75
Anabaena circinalis, 12, 19, 51, 68 Chaetophora attenuata, 12, 48, 70 Coccomyxa , 64
Anabaena constricta, 9 , 12, 31, 38, 39, 68 Chaetophora elegans, 12, 37, 48, 70 Cocconeis, 12, 32, 41 , 74
Anabaena flos -aquae, 12, 23, 29, 51, 68 ( Chamaesiphon ) , 14, 41 Cocconeis diminuta , 58
Anabaena lemmermanni, 51 ( Chamaesiphon incrustans ), 14, 41 Cocconeis pediculus, 12, 48, 58, 74
Anabaena planctonica , 12, 19, 27, 68 ( Chantransia ) , 14, 47 Cocconeis placentula , 12, 33, 41 , 42, 58, 74
Anabaenopsis, 20 Chara , 8, 10 , 12, 20, 36 , 47, 55 , 58, 63, 64, 71 Coelastrum , 12, 34, 45, 51, 64, 72
Anacystis, 8, 10, 12, 14, 19, 20, 22, 26, 28, 30, ( Chara fragilis ), 14 Coelastrum microporum , 12, 35, 46 , 72
43, 51, 53, 56 , 59, 63, 64, 72, 75 Chara globularis, 12, 14, 37, 48, 71 ( Coelosphaerium ) , 10, 14, 20
Anacystis cyanea , 9, 12, 14, 19, 27, 43, 51, 75 Chara vulgaris, 12, 19, 71 ( Coelosphaerium kuetzingianum ) , 14, 51
Anacystis dimidiata , 12, 14, 23, 29, 75 Characium , 49, 64 (Coelosphaerium naegelianum ) , 14
Anacystis montana, 12, 14, 31, 38, 49, 75 ( Chlamydobotrys ), 14, 57, 59 Compsopogon , 11 , 12, 36 , 47, 49, 71
Anacystis thermalis , 12, 14, 46 , 75 Chlamydomonas, 12, 20, 23, 30, 39, 44, 49, 51 , Compsopogon coeruleus, 11, 12, 37, 48, 71
Anacystis thermalis f. major, 58 55 , 58, 64, 73 Cosmarium, 12, 20, 51 , 65 , 72
Ankistrodesmus, 12, 14, 32, 43, 64, 71 Chlamydomonas ehrenbergii, 59 Cosmarium botrytis, 12, 46 , 72
Ankistrodesmus falcatus, 12, 44, 46, 71 Chlamydomonas globosa , 12, 19, 73 Cosmarium portianum, 12, 19, 72
Ankistrodesmus falcatus var. acicularis, 12, Chlamodomonas reinhardi, 12, 31, 38 , 39, 73 Crucigenia , 12, 64, 71
33, 42, 71 Chlorella , 8, 10, 11, 12, 15, 20, 22, 28 , 30, 39, Crucigenia quadrata , 12, 46, 71
Anomoeoneis serians var. brachysira, 59 43, 51, 53, 55 , 58, 64, 75 Cryptoglena, 12
Aphanizomenon , 12, 15, 19, 20, 26 , 43 , 51, 64 , 68 Chlorella ellipsoidea, 12, 46 , 75 Cryptoglena pigra , 12, 38 , 73
Aphanizomenon flos -aquae, 12, 19, 27, 51, 68 Chlorella pyrenoidosa , 12, 16 , 23 , 29, 38, 75 Cryptomonas, 12, 20, 42, 61 , 73
( Aphanocapsa ), 14, 51 Chlorella variegata , 56, 58 , 59 Cryptomonas erosa , 12, 19, 56 , 58, 73
( Aphanocapsa littoralis ), 59 Chlorella vulgaris, 12, 31, 38 , 39, 49, 75 Cyclotella , 8, 12, 15, 20, 22, 28, 32, 41 , 44, 45 ,
( Aphanothece ), 14 Chlorobrachis, 57 51, 52, 74
( Aphanothece halophytica ), 59 Chlorobrachis gracillima, 59 Cyclotella bodanica , 12, 32, 42, 74
Arthrospira , 10, 12, 30, 75 Chlorococcum , 12, 14, 30, 39, 49, 51 , 64, 72, 75 Cyclotella compta , 12, 19, 74
Arthrospira jenneri, 12, 14, 31, 38, 39, 75 Chlorococcum botryoides, 58 Cyclotella glomerata , 12, 46, 74
Chlorococcum humicola , 12, 31 , 38, 75 Cyclotella kuetzingiana , 58
Asterionella , 12, 19, 20, 22, 26, 28, 45, 51, 52,
Chlorogonium , 12, 30, 57, 73 Cyclotella meneghiniana, 12, 23, 29, 59, 74
63, 64, 73 , 75
Chlorogonium euchlorum , 12, 31 , 38 , 57, 59, 73 Cylindrocystis brebissonii, 9
Asterionella formosa , 12, 23, 29, 58, 73
Chromulina, 12, 32, 56, 59, 61, 73 Cylindrospermum , 12, 15, 20, 34, 45, 64, 68
Asterionella gracillima, 12, 19, 27, 73 Cylindrospermum muscicola , 12, 19, 68
Audouinella , 10 , 12, 14, 15, 36 , 47, 70 Chromulina ovalis, 56 , 58 9
Cylindrospermum stagnale , 12, 35 , 46 , 68
Audouinella violacea, 12, 16 , 37, 48, 70 Ohromulina rosanoffi, 12, 33, 41, 42, 73
Cymatopleura , 12, 74
( Chroococcus ) , 14, 22, 51
Cymatopleura solea , 12, 48, 58, 74
Batrachospermum , 12, 36 , 47, 51, 58, 71 (Chroococcus limneticus) , 14
Cymbella , 12, 14, 15, 22, 28, 36, 47, 51, 64, 69, 74
( Chroococcus prescottii ), 58
Batrachospermum moniliforme, 12, 37, 48, 71 Cymbella cesati, 12 , 42, 74
Batrachospermum vagum, 12, 41, 42, 71 (Chroococcus turgidus ), 14 , 23 Cymbella lacustris, 59
Blidingia minima, 56 Chroomonas, 12, 61, 73 Cymbella naviculiformis, 58
Botrydium , 10 Chroomonas nordstetii, 12, 42, 73 Cymbella prostrata , 12, 14, 37, 48, 74
Botrydium granulatum , 11 Chroomonas setoniensis, 12, 42, 73
Cymbella ventricosa , 12, 23, 29, 57, 58, 59, 74
85
Desmidium , 12, 34, 45, 64 , 69 Eunotia exigua, 58 Hyalotheca, 13, 69

Desmidium grevillii, 12, 35, 46 , 69 Eunotia lunaris, 58 Hyalotheca mucosa , 13, 46, 69
Desmonema, 8 Eunotia trinacria , 58 Hydrodictyon, 8, 10, 13, 18, 20, 26, 43, 64, 70
Desmonema wrangelii, 9 Hydrodictyon reticulatum, 9, 13, 19, 23, 27, 70
Diatoma, 11, 12, 14, 20, 22, 28, 51, 74 Fragilaria , 12, 15 , 20 , 22, 28, 34 , 45 , 63, 64, 69 Hydrurus, 10
Diatoma elongatum , 59 Fragilaria capucina, 12, 35 , 46, 69 Hydrurus foetidus, 11
Diatoma vulgare, 12, 19, 23, 29, 58, 59, 74 Fragilaria construens, 12, 19, 69
Dichotomosiphon , 12, 71 Fragilaria crotonensis, 12, 23, 29, 69 Kirchneriella, 13, 64 , 71
Dichotomosiphon tuberosus, 12, 23 , 71 Fragilaria virescens, 58 Kirchneriella lunaris, 13, 46 , 71
Dictyosphaerium , 12, 20, 72 Frustulia rhomboides var, saxonica , 59
Dictyosphaerium ehrenbergianum , 12, 19, 72 Fucus, 56 Lemanea , 10 , 11, 13, 32, 41 , 70
Dictyosphaerium pulchellum, 12, 23, 72 Lemanea annulata , 13, 33, 41, 42, 70
Dimorphococcus, 12, 72 Gelidium cartilagineum var. robustum, 51 Lepocinclis, 13, 30, 73
Dimorphococcus lunatus, 12, 46 , 72 Glenodinium , 12, 20, 64, 72 Lepocinclis ovum, 13, 38, 56 , 58 , 73
Dinobryon , 10 , 11, 12, 18, 19, 20, 22, 26, 28, 45, Glenodinium palustre, 12, 19, 72 Lepocinclis texta, 13, 31, 38, 73
51, 52, 63 , 64 , 70 , 71, 73 (Gloeocapsa ) , 14, 20 , 51 Lyngbya , 11 , 13, 15, 30, 36 , 47, 53, 58, 68
Dinobryon divergens, 12, 19, 27, 43, 70 (Gloeocapsa conglomerata ) , 14 Lyngbya aestuarii, 51, 53, 59
Dinobryon sertularia , 12, 23 , 29, 70 Gloeococcus, 12, 72 Lyngbya contorta , 51, 53
Dinobryon sociale, 12, 46 , 70 Gloeococcus schroeteri, 12, 42, 72 Lyngbya digueti, 13, 31, 38, 68
Dinobryon stipitatum, 12, 42, 70 Gloeocystis, 12, 20, 64, 72 Lyngbya lagerheimii, 13, 37, 48, 68
Diploneis elliptica, 59 Gloeocystis gigas, 12, 48 , 72 Lyngbya majuscula , 51, 53
Draparnaldia , 12, 36 , 47, 64, 70 Gloeocystis planctonica, 12, 19, 72 Lyngbya ocracea , 13, 48 , 68
Draparnaldia glomerata, 12, 37, 48, 70 (Gloeothece ) , 14, 56 Lyngbya versicolor, 13, 46, 68
Draparnaldia plumosa , 12, 42, 70 (Gloeothece linearis ), 14
Dunaliella, 57 Gloeotrichia , 12, 20, 51 , 68 Macrocystis pyrifera , 51
Dunaliella salina, 59 Gloeotrichia echinulata, 12, 23 , 51, 68 Mallomonas, 19, 20 , 26, 61, 64, 73
Gloeotrichia natans, 12, 44 , 45, 46 , 68 Mallomonas caudata , 13, 19, 27, 41, 42, 72
Egregia laevigata , 51 Golenkinia, 43, 64 Mastigocladus laminosus, 58
Elaktothrix, 64 Gomphonema, 10, 11, 12, 14, 30, 36 , 47, 51, 59, Melosira , 5, 13 , 15, 20 , 28, 45, 64, 70
Elaktothrix gelatinosa , 51 64, 72, 73 Melosira arenaria , 59
( Encyonema ), 14, 47 Gomphonema acuminatum , 59 Melosira crenulata , 13, 46 , 70
( Encyonema paradoxum ), 14 Gomphonema geminatum , 12, 37, 48, 73 Melosira granulata , 13, 23 , 29, 70
Enteromorpha , 49, 56 , 64 Gomphonema herculaneum , 58 , 59 Melosira varians, 13, 23, 38, 56 , 59, 70
Enteromorpha intestinalis, 58, 59 Gomphonema olivaceum , 12, 48 , 73 Meridion , 13, 20, 32 , 73
Enteromorpha prolifera, 58, 59 Gomphonema parvulum , 12, 31, 38, 56 , 58, 73 Meridion circulare, 13, 33, 42, 59, 73
Entophysalis, 14, 32, 41, 73 Gomphosphaeria , 10 , 13, 14, 20, 26 , 34, 45, 51 , ( Merismopedia ), 10, 14
Entophysalis deusta , 12, 59 52, 64, 72 ( Merismopedia glauca ), 9, 14
Entophysalis lemaniae, 12, 14, 33, 41 , 42, 73 Gomphosphaeria aponina, 13, 35, 46 , 51, 72 ( Merismopedia tennuissima ), 14
Epithemia , 12, 51 , 74 Gomphosphaeria lacustris, 14, 51 , 72 Merotrichia , 14, 61
Epithemia turgida , 12, 48, 74 Gomphosphaeria lacustris, collinsii type, 13, Merotrichia capitata, 16
Erythrotrichia carnea , 56, 58 46, 72 Mesotaenium , 64
Euastrum , 12 , 34, 72 Gomphosphaeria lacustris, kuetzingianum Micractinium , 13, 14, 34, 45, 71
Euastrum oblongum, 12, 35, 42, 46 , 72 type, 13, 19, 27, 72 Micractinium pusillum, 13, 35, 46, 71
Eudorina, 12, 20, 34, 45, 61, 64 , 72 (Gomphosphaeria naegeliana ) , 14 Micrasterias, 13, 32 , 72
Eudorina elegans, 12, 35, 46, 72 Gomphosphaeria wichurae, 13, 14, 46 , 72 Micrasterias truncata , 13, 33, 42, 72
Euglena, 8 , 10 , 11, 12 , 20, 23, 30, 34, 39, 41 , 44, Gonium , 11 , 13, 20 , 34 , 45 , 71 Microcoleus, 11, 13, 32, 68
45 , 51, 57, 58, 59, 64, 65 , 73 Gonium pectorale, 13, 35, 46 , 71 Microcoleus chthonoplastes, 59
Euglena acus, 59 Gonium sociale , 16 Microcoleus paludosus, 16
Euglena adhaerens, 58 Gonyaulax, 53 Microcoleus subtorulosus, 13, 33, 42, 68
Euglena agilis, 12, 14, 38 , 73 Gonyaulax catenella, 51 Microcrocis, 14
Euglena deses , 12, 38 , 73 Gonyaulax polyedra, 51 ( Microcystis ), 8, 10, 14, 19, 20 , 43, 51 , 53, 56 ,
Euglena ehrenbergii, 12, 42 , 73 Gonyaulax tamarensis, 51 63
Euglena gracilis, 12, 35, 38 , 39, 46 , 73 Gymnodinium , 53 ( Microcystis aeruginosa ), 9, 14, 43 , 51
Euglena hiemalis, 58 Gymnodinium brevis, 51 ( Microcystis flos -aquae ), 51
Euglena mutabilis, 56 , 58 Gymnodinium veneficum , 51 , 53 (Microcystis toxica ) , 51
Euglena orientalis, 51 Gyrosigma, 13, 74 Microspora, 13, 36 , 47, 58, 64, 70
Euglena oxyuris, 12, 38 , 59, 73 Gyrosigma attenuatum, 13, 41 , 46, 59, 74 Microspora amoena , 13, 37, 41 , 48, 70
( Euglena pisciformis ), 14 Microthamnion , 10
Euglena polymorpha , 12, 38, 73 Haematococcus, 10, 14, 64 Microthamnion strictissimum , 11
Euglena rubra , 51 Haematococcus lacustris, 9 Mougeotia , 13, 34, 45 , 69
Euglena sanguinea , 12, 19, 51 , 73 Hantzschia , 13, 74 Mougeotia genuflexa , 13, 46 , 69
Euglena sanguinea var. furcata, 51 Hantzschia amphioxys, 13, 38 , 57, 59, 74 Mougeotia scalaris, 13, 35, 46, 69
Euglena sociabilis, 59 Hantzschia elongata , 59 Mougeotia sphaerocarpa , 13, 23, 69
Euglena spirogyra , 12, 42, 73
Hapalosiphon pumilus, 58
Euglena stellata , 58 , 59
Hesperophycus harveyanus, 51 Navicula , 8 , 11 , 13, 14, 15, 22, 23, 28, 32, 39, 41,
Euglena tatrica , 58 44 , 45, 57, 64, 75
Hildenbrandia , 11 , 13, 32 , 71
Euglena velata , 51 Hildenbrandia rivularis, 13, 33, 42, 71 Navicula anglica , 59
Euglena viridis, 12, 31, 38, 39 , 58 , 59 , 73 Navicula atomus, 59
( Holopedium ), 14
Eunotia , 56, 59 Hornellia marina , 51 Navicula cincta var . heufleri, 59
Genus and Species Index 87
Navicula cryptocephala, 13, 38, 58, 59, 75 9 Oscillatoria princeps, 13, 23, 29, 38, 39, 69 Rhizosolenia gracilis, 13, 46 , 74
Navicula cuspidata , 59 Oscillatoria prolifica, 51 Rhodomonas, 13, 32, 61, 73
Navicula exigua var . capitata , 13, 42, 75 Oscillatoria pseudogeminata, 13, 23, 69 Rhodomonas lacustris, 13, 33, 42, 73
Navicula gracilis, 13, 33, 42, 75 Oscillatoria putrida, 13, 31, 38, 69 Rhoicosphenia , 13, 73
Navicula graciloides, 13, 23, 29, 75 Oscillatoria rubescens, 13, 23, 51, 69 Rhoicosphenia curvata , 13, 48, 73
Navicula gregaria , 59 Oscillatoria splendida, 13, 23 , 29, 69 Rhopalodia , 13, 74
Navicula lanceolata , 13, 23, 75 Oscillatoria tenuis, 13, 38, 39, 48, 69 Rhopalodia gibba, 13, 46, 74
Navicula longirostris, 59 Rivularia, 19, 20, 22, 28, 64, 68
Navicula minima, 59 Palmella , 13, 22, 28 , 43 , 51, 64, 72, 75 Rivularia dura , 13, 23 , 29, 68
Navicula minuscula , 59 Palmella mucosa , 13, 23, 29 , 48, 75 Rivularia haematites, 13, 19, 68
Navicula pygmaea , 59 Pandorina, 10, 13, 20, 26 , 45 , 57, 58, 64, 72
Navicula radiosa , 13, 46 , 58, 59, 75 Pandorina morum , 13, 19, 27, 38, 72 Scenedesmus, 11 , 13, 14, 20 , 34, 43, 45, 51 , 58,
Navicula salinarum , 59 Pediastrum, 8, 19, 20, 34, 45, 57, 58, 64 , 71 64 , 69, 71
Navicula subtilissima, 58, 59 Pediastrum boryanum , 9, 13, 35 , 46, 71 Scenedesmus abundans, 13, 19, 71
Navicula viridis, 58 Pediastrum duplex, 13, 46, 57, 71 Scenedesmus bijuda, 13, 46 , 49, 71
Navicula viridula, 58 Pediastrum simplex , 59 Scenedesmus bijugatus, 59
Neidium , 64 Pediastrum tetras, 13 , 19, 71 Scenedesmus dimorphus, 13, 46, 71
Neidium bisulcatum , 58, 59 Pelvetia fastigiata , 51 Scenedesmus obliquus, 57, 58
Nitella , 13, 20, 26 , 47, 63, 64 , 70 Penium cucurbitinum , 58 Scenedesmus quadricauda, 13, 16, 35, 38, 46, 71
Nitella flexilis, 13, 48 , 70 Peridinium , 13, 19, 20 , 26 , 64, 72 Schizomeris , 13, 47, 71
Nitella gracilis, 13, 19, 27, 70 Peridinium cinctum , 13, 19, 27, 72 Schizomeris leibleinii, 13, 48 , 71
Nitzschia , 13, 23 , 30, 41, 57, 64, 74 Peridinium wisconsinense , 13, 23 , 72 Schroederia , 13, 73
Phacotus,13, 32, 73 Schroederia setigera , 13, 46 , 73
Nitzschia acicularis, 13, 38, 74 Phacotus lenticularis, 13, 33, 42, 73
Nitzschia apiculata , 59 Scytonema, 13, 68
Nitzschia epithemoides, 59 Phacus, 13, 23, 30, 34, 45, 58, 73 Scytonema ocellatum , 58
Nitzschia filiformis, 58 Phacus longicauda, 13, 42, 73 Scytonema tolypothricoides, 13, 46 , 68
Nitzschia frustulum , 59 Phacus pleuronectes, 13, 35 , 46, 73 Selenastrum , 13, 71
Nitzschia ignorata , 59 Phacus pyrum , 13, 31 , 38, 73 Selenastrum gracile, 13, 46 , 71
Phormidium , 10, 13, 15 , 30, 36, 39, 41 , 47, 51, Skeletonema, 56
Nitzschia linearis, 13, 42, 56, 58, 59, 74
Nitzschia palea, 13, 23, 31, 38 , 39, 49 , 57, 58, 59 , 64, 68, 69 ( Sphaerella ) , 10, 14
74 Phormidium autumnale, 13, 31 , 38, 69 ( Sphaerella lacustris ) , 9
Nitzschia tryblionella var. debilis, 59 Phormidium bijahensis, 58 Sphaerocystis, 11, 13, 34, 45, 72
Nodularia , 13, 15, 34 , 45 , 68 Phormidium geysericola , 58 Sphaerocystis schroeteri, 13, 35 , 46 , 72
Nodularia spumigena, 13, 35, 46 , 51, 53, 54, 68 Phormidium inundatum, 13, 42, 69 Spirogyra , 8 , 10, 13, 20 , 22, 28, 30 , 44, 51 , 63,
Nostoc, 20 , 64, 68 Phormidium laminosum , 58 64, 69
Nostoc carneum , 13, 46 , 68 Phormidium retzii, 13, 46 , 48, 69 Spirogyra communis, 13, 31 , 38, 69
Nostoc pruniforme, 13, 48, 68 Phormidium tenue, 59 Spirogyra crassa , 55 , 58
Nostochopsis, 15 Phormidium uncinatum , 13, 37, 38, 39, 48, 49, Spirogyra decimena, 55 , 58
Nostochopsis lobatus, 16 69 Spirogyra ellipsospora, 8, 9
Phytoconis, 10, 13, 14, 36, 39, 47, 51, 72, 75 Spirogyra fluviatilis, 13, 46 , 69
Ochromonas, 56 , 58 Phytoconis botryoides, 9, 13, 14, 37, 48, 75 Spirogyra majuscula , 13, 19, 69
( Odontidium ) , 14 Pinnularia , 13, 14, 32, 41 , 56 , 58, 59, 75 Spirogyra porticalis, 13, 23, 29, 69
9
Oedogonium , 13, 36, 44, 47, 58, 69 Pinnularia borealis, 58 Spirogyra varians, 8, 9 , 13, 46 , 69
Oedogonium boscii, 13, 48, 69 Pinnularia microstauron , 59 Spirulina , 13, 75
(Oedogonium crassiusculum var. idioandro Pinnularia nobilis, 13, 33, 42, 75 ( Spirulina jenneri ), 14
sporum ), 14 Pinnularia subcapitata , 13, 42, 75 Spirulina nordstedtii, 13, 46 , 75
Oedogonium grande, 13, 48, 69 Pinnularia subcapitata var. hilseana, 59 Spirulina subsalsa, 58, 59
Oedogonium idioandrosporum , 13, 14, 46 , 69 Pithophora , 13, 47, 64 , 70 Spondylomorum , 13, 57, 58, 72
Oedogonium suecicum , 13, 37, 48, 69 Pithophora oedogonia, 13, 48, 70 Spondylomorum quaternarium , 13, 38, 72
Oocystis, 10, 11, 13, 34, 45, 64, 72 Plectonema, 13, 64 , 70 Staurastrum , 13, 20, 26, 32, 64, 72
Oocystis borgei, 13, 35, 46, 72 Plectonema tomasiniana , 13, 46 , 70 Staurastrum paradoxum , 13, 19, 27, 72
Oocystis novae -semliae, 9 Pleodorina , 14 Staurastrum polymorphum , 13, 46 , 72
Oocystis parva , 49 Pleodorina illinoisensis, 16 Staurastrum punctulatum , 13, 33, 42, 72
Oodinium limneticum , 51 Pleurosigma , 20 Stauroneis , 13, 34, 45, 75
Oodinium ocellatum , 51, 54 ( Polycystis ), 14, 19 Stauroneis anceps, 58
Ophiocytium , 13, 74 ( Polycystis aeruginosa ), 14 Stauroneis phoenicenteron , 13, 35 , 46, 59 , 75
Ophiocytium capitatum , 13, 46, 74 Porphyra leucosticta , 56, 58 Stenopterobia intermedia , 59
Oscillatoria , 8, 10, 13, 15, 20, 22, 23 , 28, 30, 38, ( Protococcus ), 10, 14, 39, 47, 51 Stephanodiscus, 13, 20, 34 , 64 , 74
39, 43, 50 , 51, 58 , 59, 64 , 68 , 69 ( Protococcus viridis ) , 9, 14 Stephanodiscus astraea , 45
Oscillatoria agardhii, 13, 46, 69 Prymnesium parvum , 51 , 53 Stephanodiscus binderanus, 13, 23, 74
Oscillatoria amphibia , 13, 23, 69 Pyrobotrys, 13, 14, 30, 72 Stephanodiscus hantzschii , 13, 23 , 35 , 45, 46,
Oscillatoria chalybea , 13 , 23 , 29, 38 , 69 Pyrobotrys gracilis, 13, 38, 72 74
Oscillatoria chlorina, 13, 31, 38, 69
9
Pyrobotrys stellata , 13, 31, 38 , 72 Stephanodiscus niagarae, 13, 19, 74
Oscillatoria curviceps, 13, 19, 69 Pyrodinium phoneus, 51 Stephanoptera gracilis, 59
Oscillatoria filiformis, 56 , 58 Stichococcus, 13, 70
Oscillatoria formosa, 13, 38, 69 Rhizoclonium , 13, 32, 41 , 49, 70 Stichococcus bacillaris , 13, 38, 70
Oscillatoria lauterbornii, 13 , 31, 38, 69 Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum , 13, 33, 42, 48, Stigeoclonium , 10, 13, 15, 30, 36, 49, 57, 64, 70
Oscillatoria limosa , 13, 38, 39, 69 70 Stigeoclonium lubricum , 13, 37, 48, 70
Oscillatoria ornata, 13, 23, 69 Rhizosolenia , 13, 45 , 74 Stigeoclonium nanum , 48
Stigeoclonium stagnatile, 13 , 46 , 70 Synura , 5, 8, 10, 14, 19, 20, 26 , 44, 61 63, 64, 71 Ulothrix variabilis, 14, 23, 70
Stigeoclonium tenue, 13, 31 , 38, 39, 58, 59, 70 Synura uvella, 14, 19, 27, 58, 71 Ulothrix zonata , 14, 37, 39, 41 , 48, 56 , 58 , 70
Stigonema, 13, 47, 71 Ulva , 8
Stigonema hormoides, 48 Tabellaria , 5, 14, 15, 20, 22, 26 , 28, 45, 63, 64, 74 Ulva lactuca, 56 , 58
Stigonema minutum, 13, 48, 71 Tabellaria fenestrata , 14, 19, 23, 27, 74 Ulva latissima, 56 , 58
Surirella , 13, 32, 41, 74 Tabellaria flocculosa, 14, 23, 29, 58, 74 Uroglena, 20
Surirella delicatissima, 59 Tetraedron , 10, 14, 30, 64, 72 Uroglenopsis, 13, 19, 20, 26, 61, 63, 64, 72
Surirella linearis , 59 Tetraedron muticum , 14, 31, 38, 72 Uroglenopsis americana, 14 , 19, 27, 72
Surirella molleriana, 59 Tetraspora, 10, 14, 36, 47, 48, 51, 57, 59, 71, 72
Surirella ovata , 13, 38, 58, 74 Tetraspora gelatinosa , 14, 37, 48, 71 Vanheurckia rhomboides var. crassenervia ,
Surirella ovata var. salina , 58, 59 Tolypothrix , 13, 15, 36 , 47, 68 58
Surirella splendida, 13, 33, 42, 74 Tolypothrix tenuis, 14, 37, 48, 68 Vaucheria , 8, 10, 13, 36 , 47, 71
Symploca , 10, 64 Trachelomonas, 11 , 13, 22, 23 , 28, 58, 59, 73 Vaucheria arechavaletae, 16
Symploca erecta , 58 Trachelomonas crebea , 14, 23 , 29, 73 Vaucheria geminata, 14, 42, 47, 48, 71
Symploca muralis, 9 Trachelomonas hispida , 56 , 59 Vaucheria sessilis, 14, 37, 47, 48, 71
( Synechococcus ), 14, 58 Trentepohlia aurea , 16 Vaucheria terrestris, 46 , 71
Synedra, 5, 13, 14, 20 , 22, 23 , 26, 28 , 39, 44, 45 , Tribonema, 13, 20 , 22 , 28, 43, 45, 58, 64, 70 Volvox, 10, 13, 20, 26 , 58, 64, 72
51, 52, 64, 75 Tribonema bombycinum , 14, 23 , 29, 70 Volvox aureus, 14, 19 , 27, 72
Synedra acus, 13 23 29, 59, 75 Tribonema minus, 14, 46 , 70
Synedra acus var. angustissima, 13, 42, 75 Trichodesmium, 59 Xanthidium antilopaeum , 58
Synedra acus var. radians, 13, 14, 23, 75 Trichodesmium erythraeum , 51
Synedra affinis, 59 Zygnema, 13, 34, 44 , 45, 64, 69
Synedra capitata , 13, 46, 75 Ulothrix , 13, 20, 32, 36 , 41 , 47, 58, 59, 64, 70 Zygnema insigne, 14, 23 , 69
( Synedra delicatissima ) , 14, 23 Ulothrix aequalis, 14, 33, 42, 70 Zygnema normani , 16
Synedra pulchella , 13, 23, 58, 59, 75 Ulothrix tenerrima, 14, 46 , 70 Zygnema pectinatum , 14, 46, 69
Synedra ulna, 19, 27, 58, 59, 71 , 75 Ulothrix tenuissima, 49 Zygnema sterile , 14, 35, 46 , 69
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1959 0-496792

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Public Health Service Publication No. 657

Algae in Water Supplies

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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

U. S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION, AND WELFARE

Public Health Service

An Illustrated Manual on the Identification, Significance, and

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY CLARENCE M. TARZWELL

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH , EDUCATION , AND WELFARE

PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE

Bureau of State Services · Division of Water Pollution Control

Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center

1 Public Works, vol. 86 no. 6 pp. 107–120 ( June 1955 ) .

| for the cover design to Judith A. Walters. All photographs

shed by the writer except Figure 38 which was obtained from

er Purification, Bureau of Water, Chicago, Illinois. The writer

; and many others for their painstaking cooperation in prepara

C. MERVIN PALMER, In Charge

Robert A. Taft Sanitary Engineering Center

2. Significance of Algae in Water Supplies 5

7. Clean Water Algae . 41

11. Additional Uses for Algae Found in Water Supplies . . 55

1. Comparison of the four major groups of algae in

2. Algae in water supplies -- a list of the more im

5. Odors, tastes, and touch sensations associated

12. Other uses for algae in water supplies 58

Figure Page Page

22. Anterior flagella on cells of Pleodorina illinoi 50. Scenedesmus obliquus . 57

in Vaucheria arechavaletae disappeared . 65

SIGNIFICANCE OF ALGAE IN WATER SUPPLIES

Figure 1.—Mats of algae floating on the surface of water.

oxide in respiration. These changes in hardness and in pH REFERENCES

mented flagellates. This is a simplification of the grouping Characteristics

Figure 8. — Anacystis cyanea (formerly

OD0D Figure 9. – Agmenellum quadriduplicatum

Figure 11. — Haematococcus

wote Figure 4.Spirogyra varians. lacustris ( formerly Sphaerella

Figure 5. — A blue-green alga , Desmonema wrangelii.

Figure 12. — Colonies of indefinite form in Oocystis novae-semliae.

Figure 13.—A simple filament, Anabaena

from one another. Lemanea on plate 4 and Compsopogon on

partially hides the green plastids within the protoplasts. In

SPECIALIZED PARTS OF CELLS

Certain additional cell parts may be characteristics useful

Table 2. - Algae in Water Supplies 1 2 3 4

Chaetopeltis : megalocystis .. G С deses . FI

Chromulina : rosanoffi FI С 4 planctonica G T

ovalis ... FI olivaceum D A

pruniforme. BG А Spondylomorum : quaternarium ..

rubescens BG F var. angustissima . D с

Vaucheria : ( fig. 23 ) . A reduction in the illumination of the microscope

field may help in making the flagella ( singular, “ flagellum ”)

Figure 20. — Scenedesmus Figure 26. - Terminal cells

Figure 21. - Lateral flagella in

Figure 24. - Two spore

TASTE AND ODOR ALGAE

may be 3,000, and for Synura, 200 ( 7 ) . Fragilaria construens

Actinastrum . Green Grassy, musty

Chlorella . Green .. Musty -

Tribonema Green .. Fishy

(Uroglena) -- See Uroglenopsis .