Ef3b45ad 1
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STEEL CONSTRUCTION
Modern
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4 FEBRUARY 2014
MODERN STEEL CONSTRUCTION (Volume 54, Number 2) ISSN (print) 0026-8445: ISSN (online) 1945-0737. Published monthly by the American Institute of Steel
Construction (AISC), One E. Wacker Dr., Suite 700, Chicago, IL 60601. Subscriptions: Within the U.S.single issues $6.00; 1 year, $44. Outside the U.S. (Canada
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DISCLAIMER: AISC does not approve, disapprove, or guarantee the validity or accuracy of any data, claim, or opinion appearing under a byline or obtained or
quoted from an acknowledged source. Opinions are those of the writers and AISC is not responsible for any statement made or opinions expressed in MODERN
STEEL CONSTRUCTION. All rights reserved. Materials may not be reproduced without written permission, except for noncommercial educational purposes where
fewer than 25 photocopies are being reproduced. The AISC and MSC logos are registered trademarks of AISC.
February 2014
ON THE COVER: At the base of the tallest building in the U.S., p. 26. (Photo: WSP Cantor Seinuk)
steelwise
17
Tips to Take Your Team to the Top
BY MATTHEW D. BRADY, P.E., AND
CLIFF SCHWINGER, P.E.
There are countless ways to improve
constructability on your next project.
Here are 50 of them.
business issues
24
Up to Speed on LEED
BY JOHN CROSS, P.E., LEED AP
What you need to know about the new
version of the ubiquitous green building
rating system.
26
Rising to the Top
BY AHMAD RAHIMIAN, S.E., P.E., PH.D.,
AND YORAM EILON, P.E.
The most highly anticipated American
skyscraper in recent history, One World
Trade Center comes together in the context
of past tragedy, present demands and future
expectations for tall buildings.
32
Building up the Fort
BY ROBERT WAYNE STOCKS, P.E.,
ZACHARY KATES, P.E., AND KEVIN
MACLEOD
The new Army hospital at Fort Benning is
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers first-
ever design-build hospital project.
40
Quick Thinking
BY WILLIAM KILLEEN, P.E.
Emergency steel spans reopen an Interstate
river crossing shortly after a bridge collapse.
44
Keep on Rolling
BY GEOFF WEISENBERGER
An inside look at a modern, high-tech
steelmaking operation.
52
Stability Matters
BY LAWRENCE G. GRIFFIS, P.E., AND
DONALD W. WHITE, PH.D.
A new AISC publication offers guidance
on the three options for stability analysis
and design.
56
To Toronto
BY TASHA WEISS
Canadas largest city is set to host this years
NASCC: The Steel Conference.
columns
features
departments
6 EDITORS NOTE
9 STEEL INTERCHANGE
12 STEEL QUIZ
60 NEWS & EVENTS
66 STRUCTURALLY SOUND
resources
64 MARKETPLACE
65 EMPLOYMENT
in every issue
44
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6 FEBRUARY 2014
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Editorial Contacts
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PRESIDENT
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STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
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editors note
EVER SINCE WE ANNOUNCED THAT THE 2014 NASCC: THE STEEL CONFERENCE
WAS GOING TO BE HELD IN TORONTO AT THE END OF MARCH, I STARTED
HEARING COMMENTS WORRYING ABOUT THE WEATHER. Amazingly, a lot of these
complaints were from my same friends who boast about how the end of March is a great
time to visit Chicago; the cool days make walking around downtown a pleasure, etc.
As most of my friends know, my wife is
from Toronto, so Ive had daily weather reports
from that city for more than 20 years. And
typically the weather is just about the same as
Chicagosplus or minus a degree or two.
If youve never visited Toronto, buy
your ticket now. Not only will you have
the opportunity to attend the years best
conference, but youll also get to see one of
the top cities in North America. Because of
the quality of the restaurants, and because
we recognize that many attendees will have
never visited Toronto before, this year were
reserving Thursday as a free night for you to
explore the city. (If you want a sampling of
activities, start with www.seetorontonow.
com. And if you need more suggestions, drop
me an email!)
If youve previously attended a Steel
Conference, you know what to expect.
More than 100 technical sessions (structural
engineering, fabrication, bridges and
more). Theres a huge exhibition hall with
more than 200 companies. And, of course,
there are more than 3,500 professionals in
attendance (engineers, fabricators, detailers,
erectors, educators, transportation offcials,
contractors and everyone else involved in
the design or construction of steel-framed
buildings and bridges).
SCOTT MELNICK
EDITOR
If you have a smartphone, you can
download the free NASCC app at either the
Apple App store or the Google Play store. The
app allows you to browse the schedule and
make your own calendar of sessions to attend.
You can start with a session on BIMsteel,
welding inspection or foor vibrations on
joist-framed foors. You can check out the
session on stability bracing or effective BRBF
design. You can learn about direct analysis,
torsion and K-factors. You can attend stability
sessions, bridge sessions or technology
sessions. Attendees can earn 18.5 PDHs.
Make sure you visit www.aisc.org/nascc to
check out all the sessions and to register.
I hope to see you in Toronto, March 26-
28! Bring an umbrella (just to be safe), and
dont forget to pack your walking shoes too.
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Modern STEEL CONSTRUCTION 9
Thermal Cutting
We are purchasing a plasma table for our fabrication facil-
ity. Is plasma permitted to be used to create holes for
bolts and anchor rods?
Thermally cut holes for bolted connections in buildings are
explicitly allowed in the AISC Specification. See Section M2.5,
which states:
Bolt holes shall comply with the provisions of the RCSC
Specification for Structural Joints Using High-Strength Bolts,
hereafter referred to as the RCSC Specification, Section 3.3
except that thermally cut holes are permitted with a surface
roughness profile not exceeding 1,000 in. (25 m) as
defined in ASME B46.1. Gouges shall not exceed a depth of
1
16 in. (2 mm). Water jet cut holes are also permitted.
The glossary to the Specification then defines thermally
cut as being cut with gas, plasma or laser (see page 16.1-liv
of the 2010 AISC Specification).
So, assuming that the plasma equipment in question can
produce holes of the necessary quality, it is permittedand
indeed plasma equipment is becoming extremely common due
to the efficiencies they can provide.
You may also find Section M2.2 of the AISC Specification
to be useful, as it discusses thermal cutting for purposes
other than bolt holes (the Commentary to Chapter M is also
useful in a general sense). The above applies to buildings and
building-like structures.
Note: If you are working on bridges, then thermally cut
holes may be prohibited by the owner.
Martin Anderson
Group A & B Bolts
The tables in the 14th Edition of the AISC Steel Construc-
tion Manual refer to Group A and Group B bolts. What is
the definition of Group A and Group B bolts?
This terminology is pursuant to Section J3.1 of the 2010 AISC
Specification, and the groups correspond to material strength.
Per J3.1, Group A is composed of those materials that have
a tensile strength similar to ASTM A325, and includes ASTM
A325/A325M, F1852, A354 Grade BC and A449. Group B
is composed of those materials that have a tensile strength
similar to ASTM A490, and is composed of ASTM A490/
A490M, F2280 and A354 Grade BD.
Section J3.1 itself can be found on page 16.1-118, with some
relevant Commentary on the matter starting on page 16.1-400.
This change was made to simplify references to those
strength groups (for example, when discussing connections it
is convenient to distinguish between Group A and Group B as
they have different strengths; it similarly simplifies discussions
of minimum bolt pretension).
Martin Anderson
Stability Design and the ELM
In AISC 360 Table C-C1.1 Comparison of Basic Stabil-
ity Requirements with Specific Provisions, in reference
to the effective length method, it states, regarding basic
requirements (3), (4) and (5): All these effects are con-
sidered by using KL from a sidesway buckling analysis in
the member strength. Can you explain how using KL
addresses each of these items? In addition, on a current
project, I noticed that the K-factor from an eigenvalue
buckling analysis is almost equal to that given by the
alignment charts. Does this mean that an eigenvalue anal-
ysis considers basic requirements (3), (4) and (5)?
First, the K-factor you get from an eigenvalue analysis is an
elastic K-factor, so it does not account for any inelastic effects
(4), it is not able to account for out-of-straightness (3) and it
does not address uncertainty (5). Now, let me go through the
six items that Table C-C1.1 says are addressed by using KL
from a sidesway buckling analysis:
1) Member imperfections on structure response. You
must do a second-order analysis in each method. This
is the P- or member effect and its influence on the
sway effect. Eigenvalue does not do this.
2) Member imperfections on structure strength. The
column strength equations in AISC 360 Chapter E are
based on initial out-of-straightness of the member, thus
there is nothing more for the engineer to do in either
method.
3) Effect of stiffness reduction on response. In
determining the effective length factor you must take
stiffness reduction into account. You can do this with
the stiffness reduction factor when using the alignment
chart. This has been in the AISC Manual for a very long
time. Eigenvalue does not do this.
4) Effect of stiffness reduction on strength. In
determining strength, inelastic buckling is already taken
into account in the column strength equations in AISC
360 Chapter E. There is nothing more for the engineer
to do.
5) Effect of uncertainty on response. This already is
taken into consideration in the stiffness reduction factor
for effective length. Eigenvalue does not do this.
6) Effect of uncertainty on strength. This is already
accounted for the resistance or safety factors.
The fact that your eigenvalue solutions closely match the
alignment chart is likely because your model matches the
assumptions used in developing the chart. I find it hard to believe
this is always the case for your structures as we almost always
violate some of these assumptionsgravity-only columns,
inelastic behavior, all columns buckling at same time, etc.
Heath Mitchell, S.E., P.E.
(with assistance from Louis F. Geschwindner, P.E., Ph.D.)
steel
interchange
If youve ever asked yourself Why? about something related to
structural steel design or construction, Modern Steel Constructions
monthly Steel Interchange column is for you! Send your
questions or comments to [email protected].
10 FEBRUARY 2014
Special Inspection
I cannot seem to find the Special Inspection tables for
structural steel in the 2012 International Building Code.
Where are they located?
Those tables are no longer in the IBC. They are now located
as chapters within the relevant AISC standards. For special
inspection of structural steel other than seismic lateral force
resisting systems, 2012 IBC Section 1705.2.1 states:
1705.2.1 Structural steel. Special inspection for
structural steel shall be in accordance with the quality
assurance inspection requirements of AISC 360.
You will find these special inspection (QA) requirements in
AISC 360 Chapter N. For special inspection of seismic lateral
force resisting systems, 2012 IBC Section 1705.11.1 states:
1705.11.1 Structural steel. Special inspection for
structural steel shall be in accordance with the quality
assurance requirements of AISC 341.
Exception: Special inspections of structural steel in structures
assigned to Seismic Design Category C that are not specifically
detailed for seismic resistance, with a response modification
coefficient, R, of 3 or less, excluding cantilever column systems.
You will find these special inspection requirements in AISC
341 Chapter J. These are in addition to the special inspection
requirements in AISC 360-10 Chapter N.
All AISC specifications noted above are available as free
downloads at www.aisc.org/epubs.
Heath Mitchell, S.E., P.E.
Capacity of Existing Welds
I am trying to determine the capacity of existing welds.
Can I do this using NDT methods?
No. There are no nondestructive testing methods that can be used
to determine the strength of the weld metal or the base metal. To
determine the strength you generally have to break something.
NDT is used to determine the quality and geometric
characteristics of welds. If the weld is a CJP groove weld,
then ultrasonic testing or radiographic testing could be used
to investigate the quality of the weld. These methods could
also be used to determine if a groove weld is a PJP groove
weld rather than a CJP groove weld. However, the quality of
a PJP groove weld or fillet weld generally cannot be easily
or accurately determined through these tests. The size of a
fillet weld can be easily determined through visual inspection.
Visual inspection can also reveal any issues at or near the
surface of the weld.
Appendix 5 Section 5.2.5 of the AISC Specification (a free
download at www.aisc.org/2010spec) states:
Where structural performance is dependent on
existing welded connections, representative samples
of weld metal shall be obtained. Chemical analysis and
mechanical tests shall be made to characterize the weld
metal. A determination shall be made of the magnitude
and consequences of imperfections. If the requirements of
AWS D1.1/D1.1M are not met, the engineer of record shall
determine if remedial actions are required.
The tests described are destructive tests. You must take
representative samples of weld metal and physically test them.
Larry S. Muir, P.E.
Filling Weld Access Holes
If weld access holes are required to be filled, how should
this be accomplished? Is filling them with weld metal
appropriate?
In the June 2009 issue of MSC (www.modernsteel.com), the
article In the Moment by Victor Shneur offers the following
advice:
Do not fill weld access holes with weld material for
cosmetic or corrosion-protection reasons. In addition
to the cost, it creates undesirable triaxial stresses. Using
mastic materials is preferable to welding.
Weld access holes exist not only to facilitate welding, but
also to limit the undesirable triaxial stresses, Shneur explains.
The only pros to filling weld access holes are likely to be based
in cosmetic or aesthetic reasons. The cons to filling them with
weld metal include changes in the assumed stress distribution,
increased cost and the cracking that weld access holes are used,
in some applications, to prevent. Also, when filling by welding,
unless done using a qualified procedure shown to develop the
strength of the base metal, the resulting strength and behavior
of the material within the filled hole may be dubious.
Larry S. Muir, P.E.
steel interchange
Larry Muir is director of technical assistance and Martin Anderson is solutions center
specialist at AISC. Heath Mitchell is a consultant to AISC.
Steel Interchange is a forum to exchange useful and practical professional ideas and
information on all phases of steel building and bridge construction. Opinions and
suggestions are welcome on any subject covered in this magazine.
The opinions expressed in Steel Interchange do not necessarily represent an official position of
the American Institute of Steel Construction and have not been reviewed. It is recognized that the
design of structures is within the scope and expertise of a competent licensed structural engineer,
architect or other licensed professional for the application of principles to a particular structure.
If you have a question or problem that your fellow readers might help you solve, please
forward it to us. At the same time, feel free to respond to any of the questions that you
have read here. Contact Steel Interchange via AISCs Steel Solutions Center:
1 E Wacker Dr., Ste. 700, Chicago, IL 60601
tel: 866.ASK.AISC fax: 312.803.4709
[email protected]
The complete collection of Steel Interchange questions and answers is available online.
Find questions and answers related to just about any topic by using our full-text search
capability. Visit Steel Interchange online at www.modernsteel.com.
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12 FEBRUARY 2014
The answers to this months Steel Quiz can be found in AISC Design
Guide 27 as well as on the AISC and Modern Steel Construction websites
(www.aisc.org and www.modernsteel.com). And for more on DG 27, see
A New Guide for Stainless in the December 2013 issue.
1 How much does the coefficient of
thermal expansion for austenitic
stainless steel differ from that for
carbon steel?
a) 10% higher
b) 20% lower
c) 30% higher
d) 40% lower
TURN TO PAGE 14 FOR ANSWERS
2 True or False: Stainless steels for
structural applications are generally
austenitic.
3 True or Fal se: When wel di ng
stainless steel, the welder does
not need to be qualified to weld
stainless if they are qualified to weld
carbon steel.
4 The properties of cast stainless steels
differ from their rolled versions. For
example, austenitic stainless steel
castings may be slightly _________.
a) Deformed
b) Blue in color
c) Magnetic
5 True or False: There is not a specific
welding code for welding carbon
steel to stainless steel.
6 The L designation in the material
(such as 304L, 316L, etc.) stands for
___________.
a) Low-carbon
b) Lite (contains less nickel)
c) Less ductile
d) Low-chromium
7 True or False: When designing with
stainless steels, the material test
report yield and tensile strengths are
used.
8 True or False: Austenitic stainless
steel s can exhi bi t hi gh-i mpact
toughness.
9 Pl ast i c anal ysi s of f r ames i s
__________ stainless steel.
a) not applicable to
b) applicable to
10True or Fal se: Even stai nl ess
steels may be subject to various
forms of corrosion under certain
circumstances.
steel
quiz
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HIGH QUALITY
FABRICATION
DATA
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eel C
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14 FEBRUARY 2014
ANSWERS steel quiz
1 c) The coefficient of thermal expansion for austenitic
stainless steels is about 30% higher than that for carbon
steel. Where carbon steel and austenitic stainless steel
are used together, the effects of differential thermal
expansion coefficients should be considered in design.
2 True. Structural applications that use stainless steel
require a combination of good strength, corrosion
resistance, formability (this includes the ability to
make tighter bends), field and shop weldability and
elongation. The austenitic stainless steels provide these
combined qualities.
3 False. Stainless weld metals run differently than carbon
or low-alloy steel weld metals. The welder should be
qualified by welding using a stainless wire of the same
F number that they will use in production. AWS D1.6
provides qualification information for both the welder
and the welding procedure.
4 c) Magnetic. Austenite is soft, ductile and nonmagnetic,
while ferrite is harder, less ductile and magnetic. Austenitic
stainless steel castings may contain higher levels of
ferrite than rolled products, increasing magnetism. The
additional ferrite also contributes to increased strength,
increased resistance to stress corrosion cracking, less severe
consequences of intergranular corrosion, and increased
resistance to cracking during welding and casting
(see www.stainlessfoundry.com/magnetic.asp).
5 True. Welding carbon steel to carbon steel has one set
of requirements, which are covered by the AWS D1.1
welding code. Welding stainless steel to stainless steel
has a separate set of requirements, which are covered
in the AWS D1.6 welding code. No AWS document
covers the mixing of products directly; however, there
is some discussion of this topic in the Commentary to
AWS D1.6.
6 a) The L in the designation indicates a low-carbon
version with reduced risk of sensitization (of chromium
carbide precipitation) and of intergranular corrosion in
heat affected zones of welds.
7 False. It is recommended that the specified minimum
yield stress, F
y
, and the specified minimum tensile
strength, F
u
, be taken as the minimum values specified in
the relevant ASTM standard, just as with carbon steels.
8 True: Even at low temperatures, austenitic stainless
steels behave well. Often, they are used for cryogenic
applications and can demonstrate impact toughness well
above 74 ft-lb (100 J) at 320 F (196 C).
9 a) Pl asti c anal ysi s of frames i s not appl i cabl e to
stainless steel due to a lack of research in this area.
10 True. However, good design and proper stainless steel
selection provides suitable performance.
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Toll Free: 1 800 724-5678 x333
CANADA: [email protected]
USA: [email protected] www.graitec.com
GET THE POWER
& SAVE
BIM software for structural steel
engineering, detailing and fabrication
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S T E E L T H I N K I N G
The Endeavor is the latest additon to the Ficep complete product range of drilling and sawing systems for the fabricaton of structural steel. The engineering department
at Ficep has taken their decades of drill line experience to create the cleanest, most trouble-free system on the market today. In additon to the simplicity of design, the
Endeavor features such unique capabilites as a sub axis on each of the three spindles to permit simultaneous scribing and drilling even when the holes, for example, do
not share the same lineal dimension. As part of the simplicity theme that is evident throughout the Endeavour, all the spindles are Direct Drive so they deliver up to
37 HP at the tool as there is no transmission power loss. The product range includes multple models with size capabilites ranging from 24 to 100.
ENDEAVOUR
The latest in beam processing
Ficep is the true market share and technology leader in the producton of systems for the
fabricaton of structural steel and plate. Currently, Ficep has systems installed in nearly 90
countries globally that are serviced by 13 Ficep worldwide companies.
Ficep ofers completely integrated systems with full automaton
of the equipment and the material handling. No longer are
operators ted to each machine in a system as the atendant
monitors the mult-tasking system operatons. Jobs or
sequences are even simulated prior to fabricaton to achieve
the optmum productvity. During the hands-of operaton of
the complete system, the actvity can be graphically viewed
remotely and uploaded to the model for true 4D capability.
Automatic Systems
GEMINI
Automatc CNC Plate Fabricaton Center for Drilling,
Tapping, Milling, Marking and Thermal Cutng
The Gemini is a complete range of plate fabricaton cells for the drilling,
tapping, milling, marking and thermal cutng of fnished parts including
beveling for weld prep. The Geminis unique sub axis with dual spindle
capability doubles the productvity over single spindle systems without a
sub axis.
Ficep Corporaton
2301 Industry Court
Do not delegate
design of plate girder
welds. (How does the
fabricator know what
the shear ow is?)
Also, do not make these
welds CJP welds. Size for
actual required strength;
llet welds usually work.
FABRICATOR TO
REINFORCE WEBS AT
OPENINGS WHERE
REQUIRED TO DEVELOP
SHEAR IN BEAM
Figure 2
Figure 3
18 FEBRUARY 2014
steelwise
Tip 10: Verify that framing can be installed (Figure 4). Talk
to a fabricatortheyll be happy you asked!
Tip 11: Use one-sided shear connections (like single-angle
and single-plate connections) to simplify feld work, unless they
cant provide the required strength.
Tip 12: Avoid full-depth stiffeners where possible. Eliminate
them, and if theyre unavoidable, consider if they can be de-
tailed to avoid ftting the stiffener (see Figure 5).
Bolting
Tip 13: Allow the use of bearing bolt strength values where
slip-critical values are not required in the AISC and RCSC
Specifcations.
Tip 14: Permit the use of any diameter and type of bolt, but
avoid mixing grades in the same diameter.
Tip 15: Permit the use of short-slotted holes, especially in
shear connections with the load transverse to the slot.
Tip 16: Remember that all slip-critical bolted connections
are pretensioned, but not all pretensioned bolts need to be slip-
critical. AISC 360-10, Section J1.10 has a list of connections
where pretensioned bolts (or welds) are required, but these are
not slip-critical.
Welding
Tip 17: Use fllet welds sized for required strength whenever
possible. Overwelding increases volume and cost proportion-
ally to the square of the weld size!
Tip 18: Avoid specifying arbitrary CJP groove welds and
all-around fllet welds unless they are needed to achieve the
required strength.
Tip 19: Favor fllet welds over groove welds.
Tip 20: Strive to confgure connection details with a fat or
horizontal welding position.
Tip 21: Favor a longer
5
16-in. (or smaller) fllet weld over
larger fllet welds;
5
16 in. is the largest fllet weld size that can
be made in one pass. Multi-pass welds are three to four times
more expensive than single-pass welds.
Columns
Tip 22: Use the deepest practical column; especially avoid
W8 and smaller columns with connections to the web (Figure 6).
Tip 23: Size columns to eliminate the need for stiffeners,
especially for the trapped double-angle connection illustrated
in Figure 7, which cannot be installed.
Tip 24: Where column stiffeners cant be avoided, make the
opposing beams the same depth, and consider the effect of the
stiffeners on beams framing in the perpendicular direction.
Tip 25: Orient columns to minimize skewed connections
(Figure 8 ).
Figure 4: Framing geometry may present installation challenges.
Do not extend stiffeners
full-depth without reason
Figure 5
Figure 7
Possible connections to column web
all more expensive than a standard
full-depth connection
May not be able to install
beam (depending on whats
happening at the other end)
May have web shear problems
due to large cope on bottom
Inefcient skewed
connections to
column web
3 skewed connections
1 square connection
3 square connections
1 skewed connection
MOMENT CONNECTION
SidePlate designs use less steel tonnage than conventional
ones, and now, by eliminating all feld welding, our new
bolted connection reduces feld labor and delivers even
lower construction costs on projects governed by wind or
low seismic (R=3). Not to mention our engineers provide
responsive assistance and customer service at no charge
to the design team. Visit SidePlate.com to fnd out what
we can save on your next project.
20 FEBRUARY 2014
steelwise
Tip 26: Simplify base plates and anchor rod details (Figure 9).
Beams
Tip 27: Watch
out for connection
interference where
beams are slightly
offset from columns
(Figure 10). Change
the details or
determine that the
geometry can work
before showing
this on the design
drawings; again, ask a
fabricator, and theyll
be glad you did.
Tip 28: Increase beam depth to avoid web reinforcing (Fig-
ure 11).
Tip 29: Size members to have suffcient strength at the net
section. This usually can be accomplished by limiting the re-
quired strength to 75% of the gross section strength when the
connection details are not known during member selection
(Figure 12 ).
Hollow Structural Sections (HSS)
Tip 30: Favor round HSS or steel pipe columns over square/
rectangular HSS when there are skewed connections (Figure 13).
Tip 31: Confgure HSS framing to simplify connections
(Figure 14 ).
Smallest base plate, but...
Different anchor rod pattern
for every base plate
Unsymmetrical anchor rod
pattern
Fractional anchor rod spacing
(based on base plate size)
Largest base plates, but...
Square plates
Doubly symmetric anchor
rod pattern and fewer
different anchor rod patterns
Easier to build
1
1
ROD
SPACING
E.W.
Square plates;
square anchor
rod patterns
Space anchor
rods based on
column size,
not base plate
dimensions.
Figure 9: Keep column base plates and anchor rod patterns square.
Connection interference
As shown
on framing
plan
Figure 10
Web
reinforcing
plate
Use deeper beam
to eliminate web
reinforcing
plate
W14
W18
Figure 11
Possible situations
requiring web
reinforcing:
Large copes with
heavy reactions
High beams
framing to low
girders
Skewed beams
with long copes
Angle if required to prevent
web buckling
(If web reinforcing is required, a
less expensive solution may be
to use a deeper beam)
Max. recommended
stress ratio at
gross section
Required strength
Usable strength
= 0.75 (max.) =
Figure 13
square
square
square
square skewed
skewed
End plate
Shim
Cope
HSS
Double-
angle
connection
NO! YES
NO! YES
Single plate
shear conn.
Thru-plate
single-plate
shear conn.
(not necessary)
I
y
> 2.5
heavy
girder
BEAM-TO-COLUMN
FLANGE MOMENT
CONNECTION
BEAM-TO-COLUMN
WEB MOMENT
CONNECTION
Size columns
to eliminate
need for
stiffeners
Extended single-
plate shear
connection
All bolted
shear
connections
Note: If columns were upsized to
control drift, they may already be
large enough to eliminate the need
for stiffeners
Fitted T&B
ange plates
Figure 20
Figure 21: Where girder moments are big and column moments
are small, consider running girders continuous through columns.
22 FEBRUARY 2014
Tip 38: Run cantilevered roof beams over the tops of col-
umns (Figure 22).
Tip 39: Avoid skewed beam-to-column moment connec-
tions (Figure 23).
Tip 40: Beams with fange-bolted moment connections
must have suffciently wide fanges to install bolts (Figure 24).
Many light beams do not have wide enough fanges!
Framing
Tip 41: Frame members with very large reactions square to
columnspreferably to the fanges (Figure 25 ).
Tip 42: Confgure framing so that no more than one beam
frames to any one side of a column (Figures 26 and 27).
Tip 43: Head off steeply skewed connections (Figure 28 ).
Tip 44: Confgure framing to minimize skewed connections
(Figure 29 ).
steelwise
Figure 22: Note: If roof framing slopes, coordinate so theres
not a kink in the beam at the column.
YES! NO!
Cantilever Cantilever
Non-standard bent
plate connection
Flange
interference
Weld connections
to beam webs (to
avoid bolt interference)
Big cope; check
web buckling
Web
reinforcing,
if required
Do not do this!
Figure 26
Figure 27
DOUBLE
ANGLE
CONN. w/
THK.
ANGLES &
10 ROWS
OF
7
8
A490N
BOLTS
1 PL.
w/ (20)-
1
A490N
BOLTS
CJP WELD FILLET WELDS NO WELDS
W36150, V
u
=490k
1 PL.
(ASTM
A572, GR
50) w/
(40)-1
A490N
BOLTS
Modern STEEL CONSTRUCTION 23
Tip 45: Confgure framing to minimize
the number of beams (Figure 30 ).
Tip 46: Maximize slab span to minimize
the number of beams (Figure 31).
Tip 47: Minimize the gingerbread
extra small pieces of steel (Figure 32).
Miscellaneous topics
Tip 48: Avoid torsion in W shapes.
Tip 49: Use R=3 and the associated basic
seismic design without AISC 341 require-
ments, when possible.
Tip 50: Use camber intelligently. It often
is more economical to design stiffer foors
without camber.
steelwise
Turning deck
eliminates these
small beams
Remember: The more choices the fabricator, erector
and connection design engineer have available to them
and the earlier in the process they are able to provide in-
putthe more likely they are to provide better solutions.
Engage them early and theyll help enhance your projects
constructability and success.
30
3
0
Benets
Fewer pieces
Less steel weight (usually)
Fewer connections
Fewer crane picks
More tributary area
per beam =
greater LL reduction
More mass per beam =
Less vibration
Thicker slab =
greater composite
beam M
n
(1 DECK + 3 L.W. CONCRETE) (3 DECK + 3 L.W. CONCRETE)
6 SLAB 5 SLAB
6-0 10-0
Figure 31
Figure 32
24 FEBRUARY 2014
LEED WAS NEVER INTENDED to remain static but rather
evolve over timeand evolve it has yet again.
Version 4 of the U.S. Green Building Councils rating sys-
tem (which stands for Leadership in Energy and Environmen-
tal Design) is now a reality, approved by ballot in late spring
of 2013 and announced to be open for the registration of new
projects at USGBCs Greenbuild conference in Philadelphia
this past November.
In an attempt to push building performance levels to a
higher level, LEED V4 represents a major change from ear-
lier versions of the rating system. In no section are the credit
changes more dramatic than the one focusing on building
materials. Whether these changes were well thought through,
appropriate and based on a good analytical foundation was cer-
tainly much debated. But the fact is that LEED V4 is now a
reality and the design and construction community is in the
process of adapting to this new world.
LEED is not intended to exist in a vacuum as the only green
building standard or rating system available for project owners.
USGBCs stated strategy is to encourage the adoption of green
building codes and standards, such as the International Green
Building Code and ASHRAE 189.1, by state and local jurisdic-
tions to defne a baseline for sustainable construction. The
LEED program will then sit on top of this baseline, recogniz-
ing projects that go above and beyond building code require-
ments. The combination of this strategy and the more complex
and stringent credit requirements in LEED V4 will probably
result in a decrease in projects seeking LEED certifcation but
also an increase in the sustainable performance of the overall
inventory of new buildings.
Many of the nuances relative to the implementation of
LEED V4, as it relates to materials used in building projects,
are yet to be worked out in practice. Below are a series of ques-
tions related to LEED V4 that merit immediate attention by
designers, fabricators and constructors.
Does LEED V4 immediately replace prior versions
of LEED? No, projects can continue to be registered under
LEED 2009 until June 1, 2015, and based on previous transi-
tions between LEED versions those projects will then prob-
ably have until mid-2021 to complete construction and apply
for actual LEED certifcation. This means that the existing
requirements for recycled content and regional material docu-
mentation will continue to be in use for another seven years.
For an overview of how these credits are addressed by the use of
structural steel, see A Green Roadmap (MSC 02/13).
Does LEED V4 encourage the use of life-cycle assess-
ments (LCAs) to select framing systems? Yes, the only way
that new construction can gain any credit points under the MR
credit for Building Life-Cycle Impact Reduction is either
through the use of a large percentage of reused or salvaged
materials or to conduct a life-cycle assessment of the projects
structure and enclosure, comparing the structure to a similar
baseline building. To gain three credit points the LCA must
demonstrate a 10% improvement of the selected building in
three of six environmental impact categories (one of which
must be global warming potential) and no degradation of
greater than 5% in the remaining three categories.
Are the data, expertise and technology required for
LCAs available to support this level of analysis? No, the
world of LCAs is a return to the Wild West. A limited number
of LCA experts exist that understand the boundaries and cal-
culation methodologies behind the various material data sets
and are trained to use assessment tools that require the actual
modeling of the entire construction process rather than an esti-
mation of average impacts.
A variety of estimating programs for comparing the environ-
mental impacts of competing framing systems have entered the
marketplace in the last few years. The intention of these tools
is to allow a design professional not trained in life-cycle assess-
ment to perform these comparisons. The problem with them is
twofold. First, relative to the environmental impact data, many
assumptions are being made with respect to the environmen-
tal impacts of various materials and construction operations.
These assumptions include the boundary defnitions for the
equivalent comparison of data and underlying methodologies
for determining the LCAs for individual products and materials.
In addition, no distinction is made between different sources of
(or process for making) the same product; rather industry aver-
ages are used for material impacts. Secondly and of even greater
UP TO SPEED
ON LEED
BY JOHN CROSS, P.E., LEED AP
business issues
What you need to know about the new version of
the ubiquitous green building rating system.
John Cross is an AISC vice
president. You can reach him at
[email protected].
Modern STEEL CONSTRUCTION 25
concern is the determination of the quantities of materials used
in each of the two framing scenarios. The quantities being
used in these tools are based on rough parametric estimates
rather than on preliminary design quantities. The parametric
estimates are based on simple assemblies and limit the opportu-
nity of the design professional to improve the effciency of the
structural system before the LCA comparison is made.
The AISC Steel Solutions Center routinely develops con-
ceptual solutions for structural steel-framed projects using
structural design software. While these conceptual solutions
are one step before an actual preliminary design, they have been
found to be typically within 10% of the fnal steel quantities for
a projecta range that is appropriate for use in a LCA esti-
mate. A random sample of 100 structural steel-framed projects
for which conceptual solutions had been performed were ana-
lyzed using one of the more prevalent environmental impact
estimators. The difference between the quantities generated by
the estimator and the quantities determined in the conceptual
solution were signifcant, ranging from an 80% overstatement
of steel quantities to a 40% understatement (see Figure 1). It is
impossible to make a meaningful comparison of environmen-
tal impacts to the required level of 10% improvement or 5%
degradation if the variation of the material quantities can be as
great as plus 80% or minus 40%.
The bottom line is that for a meaningful comparison of the
environmental impacts of two building structures, it is neces-
sary to engage the expertise of two trained professionals. An
LCA expert who understands the background and limitations
of the data sets being used in developing the comparison and a
structural engineer who can create preliminary design models
for the two alternatives from which material quantities can be
extracted; see And the Winner is (MSC 08/10) for an LCA
study comparing two alternative building designs.
Whats all this talk about transparency? Transparency
is a key concept in LEED V4. Three credits address transpar-
ency in three different areas: transparency in the reporting of
environmental impacts, transparency in reporting the sourcing
of raw materials and transparency in the disclosure of material
ingredients. To meet the requirements of these sections a mini-
mum of 20 products used in the building project must have this
information available. In each of the three credits, a point can
also be earned for making a selection between similar products
based on the information that has been disclosed.
Environmental impacts will be reported on a product basis
through the use of an environmental product declaration (EPD).
EPDs can be issued for the product at any stage of the products
life cycle and on either an industry average or individual prod-
uct manufacturer basis. For example, there will be an industry
average EPD for hot-rolled structural steel sections from cradle-
to-mill gate and the individual mills producing hot-rolled struc-
tural steel may also opt to create a producer-specifc EPD for
hot-rolled structural steel. In addition, an industry average EPD
for fabricated hot-rolled structural steel from cradle-to fabricator
gate will also be produced using fabrication industry data col-
lected in a survey to be conducted over the next several months.
Responsible sourcing documentation can be either self-
declared manufacturer reports of product sourcing practices (if
self-declared, the product only gets half credit) or third-party
verifed reports relative to the supply chain of the project. In
addition, a separate credit is available based on the sum of a
number of single attribute factors including recycled content
of all the materials in the project exceeding 25% of the cost of
project materials (however, the overall contribution of struc-
ture and enclosure materials is limited to 30% of the compliant
building materials).
The disclosure of material ingredients will most likely take
the form of a health product declaration (HPD) or material
data sheets that list all of the ingredients of the product down to
1,000 parts per million. This data is product-specifc and can-
not be presented as an industry average. An additional point of
credit is available for use of materials in the project exceeding
25% of the cost of the overall project materials, whose material
ingredient disclosures are third-party verifed and do not con-
tain any chemicals with health-related issues.
This seems pretty complex; is the structural steel
industry ready to provide this documentation? The struc-
tural steel industry will continue to provide the documentation
of recycled content and regional sourcing required by LEED
2009 and is committed to providing environmental impact doc-
umentation required by LEED V4 on an industry average basis
by mid-2014. Individual producers are working on developing
the documentation required for responsible sourcing and mate-
rial ingredients. As the transition to LEED V4 will be occur-
ring over the next several years, this should meet the ongoing
requirements of any building project.
Will LEED V4 result in more sustainable buildings? Any
rating system like LEED cannot guarantee that it will result
in more sustainable buildings. A rating system only focuses on
limited discrete aspects of the buildings design and construc-
tion. It is when design and construction professionals work
together, using their expertise to optimize their designs and
activities from both an economic and sustainable perspective,
that the actual building becomes a more sustainable structure.
LEED V4 can provide incentives, perspective and market push
to help accomplish those goals, but in the end it is the expertise,
collaboration and common sense of the design and construc-
tion professionals and the guidance of the project owner that
will result in a sustainable structure.
Where can I get additional help in understanding the
requirements of LEED V4? MSC will continue to publish
articles exploring the requirements of LEED V4. In addition,
AISC regional engineers are available to discuss issuesand
give presentationsregarding the sustainable characteristics
of structural steel and the requirements of LEED V4, and the
Steel Solutions Center is happy to answer questions regarding
this new version of LEED.
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
-20.0
-40.0
-60.0
-80.0
%
v
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n
f
r
o
m
c
o
n
c
e
p
t
u
a
l
m
o
d
e
l
Figure 1: Variation (by percentage) between
LCA estimator and conceptual solution material
estimate, by project.
26 FEBRUARY 2014
FOR SOME WHO VISITED the massive hole that was
left in Lower Manhattan and the nations heart following the
events of September 11, 2001, it was likely diffcult to imagine
that the area would eventually be the home of the nations tall-
est building. For others, there may have never been any doubt
that it would.
For more than 12 years, however you thought the redevelop-
ment of Ground Zero would happen, its largest, most symbolic
and most prominent piece is now in place.
One World Trade Center (1WTC), the tallest of four high-
rises planned as part of the Ground Zero reconstruction master
plan for lower Manhattan, was offcially declared by the Coun-
cil on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) to be the
tallest building in North America; it will likely be the third-
tallest building in the world upon completion.
In keeping with Daniel Libeskinds master plan, the overall
height of the tower from the ground level to the top of the
spire reaches 1,776 ft, in reference to the year of the nations
founding, though the main roof is designed to have the same
height as the original WTC towers (1,368 ft). The addition of
a 408-ft-tall spire rising from the main roof (mounted atop a
reinforced concrete mat directly supported by the towers con-
crete core) brings the tower to its symbolic full height, and a
multilayer circular lattice ring atop the main roof, which pro-
vides support for the spire, allegorically recalls the torch held
by the Statue of Liberty.
A New Standard
The symbolic and high-profle nature of the building cre-
ated a wide range of challenges and opportunities, and the
structural considerations were equally immense. The collapse
of the Twin Towers in 2001 created a major debate in engi-
neering communities worldwide with respect to the appropri-
ate lessons to be learned from the consequences of the attack
and the need for mitigation strategies to be implemented for
future high-rise buildings. The design team, faced with numer-
ous and unique challengesparamount among them being
security issueswas expected to meet or exceed future codes
and standards that had not yet been published. We were also
keenly aware that the design of this tower would perhaps set a
standard for future tall buildings, inspiring us to think beyond
the conventional techniques of tall building design.
The most highly anticipated
American skyscraper in recent history,
One World Trade Center comes
together in the context of past tragedy,
present demands and future
expectations for tall buildings.
BY AHMAD RAHIMIAN, S.E., P.E., PH.D.,
AND YORAM EILON, P.E.
Rising to the
TOP
Modern STEEL CONSTRUCTION 27
28 FEBRUARY 2014
...and during the day. 1 WTCs elevation
is transformed into eight tall isosceles
triangles forming an elongated square
antiprism frustum.
Silverstein Properties
Silverstein Properties
Modern STEEL CONSTRUCTION 29
designed to be self-suffcient. The tower
structure is comprised of a hybrid sys-
tem combining a robust concrete core sur-
rounded by steel foor framing and with a
perimeter ductile steel moment frame. The
reinforced concrete core wall system at the
center of the tower acts as the main spine
of the tower, providing support for gravity
loads as well as resistance to wind and seis-
mic forces. The core is approximately square
in footprint with a depth of about 110 ft at
the baselarge enough to be its own build-
ing; it houses mechanical rooms and all
means of egress. The walls are connected to
each other over the access openings using
steel wide-fange link beams developed into
the concrete shear walls. A ductile perimeter
moment frame system is introduced for re-
dundancy and to further enhance the over-
all building performance under lateral wind
and seismic loads. The perimeter moment
frame wraps around all vertical and sloped
perimeters, forming a tube system.
The towers antiprism geometry cre-
ates unique structural conditions along
its height, which necessitated the design
and fabrication of special nodal elements
using relatively large plating with signif-
cant capacity for load transfer. For further
enhancement of the lateral load resisting
system, the concrete core at the upper
mechanical levels is connected to the pe-
rimeter columns via a series of multilevel
outrigger trusses, composed of built-up
box sections, in both orthogonal directions.
Taken together, the perimeter and core sys-
tems make 1WTC safer than either system
could make it on its own, thanks to the re-
dundancy they provide to one another.
Defying Gravity
The foor system within the concrete
core zone is a formed cast-in-place con-
crete beam and fat slab system, while the
foor area outside the core is concrete on
composite metal deck supported on steel
beams and connected via shear connec-
tors. The column-free foor system spans
between the core and the perimeter steel
moment frame (with a maximum span of
47 ft) for construction effciency and maxi-
mum fexibility of tenant use.
One of the most common approaches
to hybrid construction is having the
concrete core constructed using jump-
forms or slip-forms, independent of and
ahead of the steel framing. Subsequently,
steel framing is constructed around the
advancing constructed core. In New
York City, however, this approach has
generally not been available to the
construction community until recently.
The construction is sequenced by frst
erecting an all-steel framing system
throughout the foor, both inside and
outside of the core, preceding the
concrete core construction; the steel
framing within the core is primarily
an erection system that is embedded
in the concrete core walls. The
construction of the structure was
staged in four highly orchestrated
sequences of steel framing, metal
deck and concrete outside the core,
concrete core shear wall and concrete
foor construction inside the core. A
wide-fange ring beam is introduced at
the outer face of the core in order to
maintain a temporary gap between the
foor system and the core wall allowing
for the raising of the forms. The total
30 FEBRUARY 2014
lag for the entire sequences is about eight to 12 foors. The
construction sequencing was a critical aspect of the structures
design as it would affect the connection approach and details
between various elements, especially at the interface between
the concrete core walls and adjacent areas. It would also affect
the nature of axial shortening of the tower as well as the
method of computation and the construction compensation.
Axial shortening becomes more important in hybrid structures
due to the differing natures of the materials behavior, such as
the shortening of steel and concrete as a result of elastic, creep
and shrinkage effects over time.
Axial shortening studies were performed to identify the an-
ticipated deformation of the concrete core wall and perimeter
steel framing during and following construction. The elastic
shortening of the steel erection columns at the core before en-
casement had to be carefully considered. The goal was that at
the end of construction the foors would be leveled and po-
sitioned at the theoretical elevations. In order to compensate
for the shortening, the contractor could adjust the elevations
of perimeter steel columns and center concrete walls by super-
elevating them to differing degrees. For the structural steel this
could be achieved by either fabricating the columns longer than
the theoretical, shimming in the feld during erection or a com-
bination of both.
Correct Code
From the onset, one of the main challenges was the selection
of appropriate codes and standards for the design of the structure.
The latest edition of the New York City Building Code at the time,
which was based on the 1968 code with amendments, was used as
the primary design code in combination with the Port Authoritys
design guidelines. However, acknowledging that it was essential to
design this building with the most advanced standard available at
the time, the IBC 2003 structural provisions were adopted with re-
spect to wind and seismic loading (and were selected knowing they
would be the basis for the new version of New York City Building
Code). With respect to structural integrity, hardening and structural
redundancy, the U.S. Government Standards such as GSA, DOD
and FEMA were used as references for further enhancements. In
addition, the latest edition of AISC and ACI codes, standards and
specifcations were adopted, particularly those regarding ductile
design of the moment frame connections.
Wind Tunnel Testing
The structure has been designed for wind load requirements
of IBC 2003, taking into consideration New Yorks local wind
conditions. In addition, a series of wind tunnel tests were per-
formed to ascertain a more accurate measurement of wind load-
ing and wind response of the tower with respect to hurricane
Owner
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
Owners Representative
STV Construction, New York
Architect
Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, New York
Structural Engineer
WSP Cantor Seinuk, New York
SBP, New York (Spire)
Construction Manager
Tishman Construction Company, New York
Steel Team
Fabricators
MRP, LLC, South Plaineld, N.J.
(AISC Member/AISC Certied Fabricator)
Banker Steel Company, LLC, Lynchburg, Va.,
(AISC Member/AISC Certied Fabricator)
Detailers
Dowco Consultants, Ltd., Mississauga, Ontario, and
Surrey, British Columbia (AISC Member)
Automated Steel Detailing Associates, Ltd., Toronto
(AISC Member)
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The team participated in several full-day
design charettes attended by all disciplines,
where design concepts were studied for
cost and constructability. Having all of the
major stakeholders present at the charettes
improved collaboration and focus and al-
lowed decisions to be made quickly, with
everyone understanding the driving forces
behind the decisions. For example, the team
prioritized fexibility of space in the hospital
building and quickly determined that pe-
rimeter steel moment frames, in lieu of steel
braced frames, would meet that goal. Schuff
Steel, the fabricator, was on board from the
beginning of the pursuit and offered great
direction into the availability and selection
of steel materials and steel-related detailing.
Repetitive design details such as exterior
wall attachments, steel connection types and
slab edge support conditions were chosen to
align with Schuffs fabrication and erection
preferences.
The collaboration and active participa-
tion of the designers and the builders in
these early charettes made the difference,
said Martin Miller, project executive for
Turner. The collaboration allowed the
team to study, discuss and decide on de-
sign concepts in days what would normal-
ly take months.
To accurately capture steel costs, Thorn-
ton Tomasetti (TT) created preliminary de-
sign models using RAM Structural System
and transmitted them directly to Schuff Steel
for tonnage determinations. TT provided
estimates of additional tonnage required for
project-specifc requirements, such as steel
framing premiums at vibration-sensitive
areas supporting medical equipment or ad-
ditional framing needed to support major
piping runs. Preliminary tonnage estimates
for the steel frame were found to be within a
few percent of the actual steel frame tonnage.
In addition, the design met the strict re-
quirements of the request for proposal au-
thored by the Corps of Engineers, includ-
ing the referenced International Building
Code, Savannah District Design Manual and
Department of Defense Unifed Facilities
Criteria. Overall, the pursuit phase was a
two-month effort.
A truss for the concourse.
34 FEBRUARY 2014
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Chicago Metal Rolled Products Saved Their Customer
More Than 80,000 lbs. of 12 Sq. Tubing.
Early involvement in the University of Phoenix Stadium (2007 IDEAS
2
National Award Winner) allowed
Chicago Metal Rolled Products to save their customer time and money when curving 402 tons of 12 x 12 x
5
8
and 12 x 12 x
1
2
tubing to radiuses from 1000 to 1200 feet for the roof trusses.
Using advanced technology, Chicago Metal curved 52 feet of distortion-free arc from stock only 54 feet long.
With traditional curving methods, 6 to 10 feet of each tube would be lost to scrap. Chicago Metals solutions
also substantially reduced freight charges.
Always meeting the fabricators schedule, the company received 213 pieces of tubing from mills, stored it clean
and dry, and then curved and shipped it over the course of five months.
According to the project manager and subcontract administration manager, this project went almost flawlessly
despite its complexity and challenging schedule. A tribute to the teamwork of the roller, the fabricator and
the erector.
Model Sharing
From day one, Turner was committed
to a building information modeling (BIM)
approach for the project, which minimized
conficts during construction and reduced
requests for information and costly feld
work. The design team produced work us-
ing Revit and traded coordination models
on a weekly basis, and the structural Revit
models were transferred to Schuff as the
basis for the Tekla fabrication models. The
fabrication models were then combined
with the architectural and mechanical mod-
els by Turners in-house modeling group to
create one comprehensive BIM model. This
model was used to coordinate the location
of work in the feld, perform clash detection
and help resolve system interferences.
The steel frame became the base layer for
the development of the architectural model,
providing excellent coordination of the en-
tire exterior shell, said Miller. The interior
details were then added as design progressed.
In retrospect, the biggest coordination prob-
lems in the feld were with construction
elements that did not get put into the BIM
model during the accelerated proposal devel-
opment period, such as precast panel bracing.
Consistent with Turners commitment to
BIM, TT and Schuff employed an innova-
tive use of the 3D Tekla fabrication model
by performing in-model review of the steel
shop drawings. Specifcally, a model-based
shop drawing review was performed wherein
steel elements were approved directly in the
model. Because hard-copy shop drawings
were a required submittal by the Corps of
Engineers, shop drawings in PDF format
were linked to each steel piece and accessible
directly through the model. Shop drawing
markups were made using a PDF writer, and
the submittal, model and shop drawings were
returned electronically. This allowed a more
effcient and higher-quality review process
for TT, as repetitive elements were grouped
and reviewed together. More complex, high-
ly detailed connections were viewed in 3D,
clearly showing the relationship to adjacent
connecting members. The process resulted
in a faster approval process and a reduction
in re-detailing efforts, which subsequently
led to a reduction in fabrication time and
feld work.
A birds-eye view of the new facility.
Modern STEEL CONSTRUCTION 35
Truss installation.
The triangular-shaped roof area includes steel roof deck supported by steel beams and
girders, and the column-free space is made possible by two long-span tension rod trusses.
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36 FEBRUARY 2014
TTs Construction Support Services group in Kansas City
was employed directly by Schuff to perform all steel connection
design on the project. This allowed the connection designers to
communicate directly with the structural engineers to resolve
questions quickly, avoiding the cumbersome RFI process; con-
frming RFIs replaced the traditional approach of ineffcient
sequential communication. The construction support team
was able to help identify and resolve areas where complicated
and expensive connections could be avoided or simplifed, and
working as an integrated team saved time and ultimately pro-
duced an effcient and coordinated end product.
Designing For the Unthinkable
The hospital, clinics and concourse comply with Department
of Defense requirements of the Anti-Terrorism Force Protection
(ATFP) Directorate and resistance against progressive collapse,
with the goal of minimizing occupant fatalities during a terror-
ist attack. Blast consultant Weidlinger Associates determined the
blast loading on the structure and provided reactions at critical
steel connections. Resistance against blast loads is mainly pro-
vided by the exterior precast concrete panels and glazing on the
clinic and hospital buildings, while the blast loads on the con-
course are supported entirely by the steel frame. The blast-rated
curtain wall is supported by a grid of 12-in. by 8-in. HSS girts
tied to the perimeter wide-fange columns. These columns span
from the ground level to the roof diaphragm, a vertical distance
of up to 60 ft, and horizontal truss members were introduced
into the roof diaphragm to ensure that the concourse roof will
distribute blast loads to the lateral frames.
The goal of the progressive collapse requirements is to pre-
vent an uncontrolled collapse of a large portion of the structure
in the event of removal or damage of a local structural element.
Horizontal and vertical tension ties extending the full height
and width of the buildings were detailed into each steel frame
to allow the structure to bridge over damaged areas without
disproportionate collapse. Tension forces were considered in
all connection and element designs along each tie, and the steel
moment frames for the hospital also provide a high degree of
redundancy to help mitigate any progressive collapse conditions.
Medical Equipment
The vibration-sensitive medical equipment was carefully co-
ordinated early to help mitigate its impact on the steel frame;
these units are not only heavy but also have strict defection and
vibration requirements. In a typical bay for the hospital, the foor
system consists of 4.5 in. of normal-weight concrete on a 3-in.
composite metal deck and is supported by W1631 beams and
W2455 girders. For the typical MRI bay, the foor system was
increased to 6 in. of normal-weight concrete on 3-in. compos-
ite metal deck to minimize sound transmission. In addition, the
beams and girders were increased to W30124 and W30191, re-
spectively, to stiffen the foor system and control vibration.
The design-build team members on the Fort Benning Mar-
tin Army Community Hospital were true partners during the
design and construction of this project. The 3D BIM approach
allowed full integration of the systems and is driving the on-
time delivery of this fast-track project to the base.
Without the entire teams active participation and the use
of BIM, we could not have achieved the successful design and
construction in the 1,200 calendar days allowed in the RFP,
said Miller. The results have been extraordinary. I cant imag-
ine building another project in the future without the full use
of BIM and the active collaboration of the design and construc-
tion professionals.
Owner
Fort Benning/Army Corps of Engineers, Savannah District
Design-Build Contractor
Turner Construction Company
Architect
Ellerbe Becket (now AECOM), Arlington, Va., and
RLF, Orlando, Fla.
Structural Engineer and Steel Detailer
Thornton Tomasetti, Inc., Washington, D.C., and
Kansas City, Mo.
Steel Fabricator and Erector
Schuff Steel Atlantic, Inc., Orlando
(AISC Member/AISC Certied Fabricator)
The truss diagonals consisted of double 1-in. tension rods in one direction and single 1-in. tension rods in the opposite direction. Steel
wide-flange columns surrounding the high bay space support a grid of HSS girts that provide lateral support to the glass curtain wall.
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Theres always a solution in steel.
American Institute of Steel Construction
One E Wacker Drive, Suite 700
Chicago, IL 60601
www.aisc.org 312.670.2400
Class begins February 24, 2014
AISC
Night School
www.aisc.org/nightschool
Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering
for Building Structures
Presented by Rafael Sabelli, S.E.
Monday nights 7:00 p.m. Eastern Time
(90 minutes each)
2/24 Seismology and Earthquake Effects
3/3 Dynamics and Response
3/10 Building Dynamics and Response
3/17 Steel Behavior
3/31 System Ductility and Seismic Design
4/7 Steel Systems
4/21 Building Confguration Issues
4/28 Building Codes
With the construction of One World Trade Center,
a symbolically planned 1,776-foot-tall building on the site of the old World Trade Center,
the rebuilding of America has begun. And the rebuilding is going to be green.
Because One World Trade Center will be using about 143,000 tons of recycled Nucor steel,
helping to make it eligible for LEED
42 FEBRUARY 2014
with our engineers at our corporate head-
quarters in New Jersey and the engineers
at Atkinson. Everyone worked around the
clock to assemble the emergency bridg-
es and roll them out across the Skagit
River. The highway bridge was formally
reopened in June, only 23 days after the
collapse of the damaged span. The Acrow
spans were in place until mid-September
when the permanent spans were installed
via a roll-out/roll-in method. The Acrow
bridge was then disassembled and shipped
to the companys storage yard in Washing-
ton. Later in the year, almost all of these
components were shipped to California as
part of a planned detour bridge.
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44 FEBRUARY 2014
LATE LAST YEAR, Nucor-Yamato Steels (NYS) mill in Blytheville,
Ark., reached a signifcant milestone: a quarter-century of operation.
Since opening in 1988, it has produced an estimated 48 million
tons of structural steelall of it via the electric arc furnace (EAF) pro-
cess. The short version is that the mill makes new steel products out of
old steel products, melting down scrap and casting it into new wide-
fange and other shapes. The long version is much more interesting.
The Right Mix
It all starts with scraplots of scrap. Thanks to the mills strategic
positioning on the Mississippi River, the majority of scrap arrives via
barge and is typically sourced from within a 500-mile radius. (Blytheville
is about an hour north of Memphis, Tenn., and the site was chosen for
its central U.S. location, access to the river, reliable local electrical grid,
regional scrap supply and proximity to a good transportation network of
An inside look at a modern, high-tech steelmaking operation.
STORY AND PHOTOS BY GEOFF WEISENBERGER
Keep on
ROLLING
Geoff Weisenberger
(weisenberger@
modernsteel.com) is
Modern Steel s senior editor.
Molten steel is fed directly into the caster from the ladle. It is
at this point that it takes on its dog bone prole.
Steel exiting the breakdown mill (left) and being rolled in the
universal rougher/edger mill (right).
After going through all three sets of rollers, each one further
forming the shape, steel is ready for nal cutting.
48 FEBRUARY 2014
fned with the addition of various other alloys to bring it
to the perfect mix before it is cast. It is at this stage that the
chemistry is adjusted to create a specifc end product. For
example, too many alloys for a light product will cause the
mechanical properties to be too high for the specifcation,
while too few alloys for a heavier product will cause the me-
chanical properties to be too low for the specifcation. Basi-
cally, the chemistry is fne-tuned to specifc, tight, internal
specifcations within a general specifcation such as ASTM
A992 or ASTM A588.
Without this step, it would be like a cake without
four, says Jim Schoen, one of the plants metallurgists.
Basically, the steel would be of little use because it could
not meet the intended properties without deoxidation,
desulfurization and alloying.
At the LMF, an operator takes a sample of the steel,
which cools into a small shape resembling a lollipop,
and tests it with an optical emission spectrometer.
This machine tells you the chemical composition of
the sample, explains Schoen. Sometimes the LMF op-
erators achieve the procedural aim for the end product
with the frst addition.
If not, the proper proportions of specifed alloys are
further added until the perfect mix is achieved.
Casting Call
At this point, the ladle is transported to the caster, where
the steel will be cast into long shapes called beam blanks or
dog bonesas this is what the cross section resembles
which will then be cut and rolled into fnished products.
As the liquid steel fows out from a ceramic gate in the
ladle bottom, it is guided into the caster in perfect strands.
Granulated powder, which is designed to melt at a specifc
temperature for NYS products, is continuously fed into the
bottomless caster mold so that the solidifed steel shell that
forms along the mold wall doesnt stick to itmuch like
greasing a pan. The emergence from the caster is where the
steel frst begins to take on the look of a fnished product
a cast beam with a web and two fanges (in the case NYS
main products, W- and HP-shapes). However, there are a
few products produced at rolling Mill 1 that come from a
bloom with a rectangular cross section.
At this point, the steel needs to be cut, as it emerges
from the caster in lengths of up to 40 ft. Still orange-
hot, the dog bones are cut with an oxygen torch, then
cooled slightly with water so magnets can move them
to storage if they are not going to be taken directly to
the rolling mill. All water used at the plant is pulled
from wells and is recirculated as many times as possi-
ble through a closed-loop system, then treated before
being released. The mill is working toward zero dis-
charge into the local groundwater and sewage systems
and is currently using some of its treated, nutrient-
rich discharge to irrigate adjacent farmland.
52 FEBRUARY 2014
The following is a brief outline of what is included in the guide:
Chapter 1: Introduction
Purpose of the guide and how to use it
Overview of stability analysis and design methods
The concept of notional loads
Chapter 2: Effective Length Method (ELM)
Chapter 3: Direct Analysis Method (DM)
Chapter 4: First-Order Analysis Method (FOM)
Chapter 5: Related Topics
Application to seismic design
Common pitfalls and errors in stability analysis
and design
Appendix A: Basic Principles of Stability
Appendix B: Development of the First-Order Analysis
Method
Appendix C: Modeling Out-of-Plumbness for Taller
Building Structures
Appendix D: Practical Benchmarking and Application of
Second-Order Analysis Software
Appendix E: Bracing Requirements for Columns and
Frames Using Second-Order Analysis
Types of column bracing
A summary of design recommendations for stability
bracing problems using the new DM
Solution to practical column and frame bracing
problems found in practice
Analyzing Analysis Methods
The primary purposes of the new guide are to discuss the ap-
plication of each of the above three methods and to introduce
the DM to practicing engineers. Some of the most attractive
features of the new DM are that there is no need to calculate K
factors; internal forces are represented more accurately at the
ultimate limit state; and it applies in a logical and consistent
manner for all types of steel frames, including braced frames,
moment frames and combined framing systems.
The concept of notional loads is also presentedincluding
the role these loads play in the DMas is the concept of
WITH NEW DESIGN RESOURCES come new ways of
doing things.
When the 2005 AISC Specifcation for Structural Steel Build-
ings was published, it offered three methods for stability design,
including a powerful new approach: the direct analysis method
(DM). The DM is a practical alternative to the more traditional
effective length method (ELM), which has been the primary
basis of stability considerations in earlier editions of the AISC
Specifcation and continues to be permitted. A streamlined de-
sign procedure called the frst-order analysis method (FOM),
which is based upon the DM with a number of conservative
simplifcations, was also introduced.
And now practicing engineers, students and teachers
have a new resource for stability analysis and design of steel
buildings that incorporates these three methods: Design
Guide 28Stability Design of Steel Buildings. While the guide
was primarily written around the 2005 Specifcation, it includes
notes throughout to explain simplifcations and improvements
that were incorporated into the stability design provisions in
the 2010 Specifcation.
A new AISC publication offers guidance on the three options
for stability analysis and design.
BY LAWRENCE G. GRIFFIS, P.E., AND DONALD W. WHITE, PH.D.
Lawrence G. Grifs is a senior consultant with Walter P Moore, and
can be reached at [email protected]. Donald W. White
is a professor at the Georgia Institute of Technology and can be
reached at [email protected].
Stability
MATTERS
Modern STEEL CONSTRUCTION 53
b
Model A
Moment Frame
P
m
P
g
Rigid Link H
Leaning
Column
El
c
L
c
54 FEBRUARY 2014
58 FEBRUARY 2014
Back to School
Those who have been in the working
world for a while are also able to learn
something new, whether its a highly
technical issue or a business-related
strategy.
This years keynote speaker is Neil
Pasricha, author of The Book of Awesome,
a #1 international bestseller. His lecture,
1,000 Awesome Things, will touch upon
his project of posting one awesome thing
every weekday for 1,000 consecutive
weekdaysand hell teach you how to
bring awesome principles to life in your
organization.
Another, more technically oriented pre-
sentation, the T.R. Higgins Award Lecture,
Statics, Strength, Ductility, and the Uni-
form Force Method, will be presented by
Larry S. Muir.
Muir is the 2014 recipient of AISCs
T.R. Higgins Award for his paper Design-
ing Compact Gussets with the Uniform
Force Method, published in the frst quar-
ter 2008 issue of AISCs Engineering Jour-
nal. Muir recently became AISCs director
of technical assistance.
I am so very pleased that Larry is the
recipient of the Higgins Award, said
Charlie Carter, AISCs vice president
and chief structural engineer. His pa-
per is very meaningful; it simplifies gus-
set design by the uniform force method
and allows the use of even more compact
gusset plates than the original method.
Larry is a very accomplished and deserv-
ing recipient.
Registration Tips
The registration fee as of February 1
is $400, but be sure to register as early as
possible; the rate increases $10 every week
until the conference opens.
This single registration fee gains you
entry to all technical sessions, the exhibi-
tion hall, the keynote address and the T.R.
Higgins Award Lecture. It also includes
admission to all Structural Stability Re-
search Council, Technology in Steel Con-
struction Conference and World Steel
Bridge Symposium sessions. The main
conference offers up to 18.5 PDHs; at-
tendees of short courses can earn an ad-
ditional 4 PDHs for a total of 22.5 PDHs.
Visit www.aisc.org/nascc to register or
view the advance program.
See you in Toronto (and dont forget
your passport)!
structurally
sound
INSIDE OUT
Photos by Barry Halkin Photography, courtesy of Spillman Farmer Architects