Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2000

Kyushu - Tohoku, Japan, May 28 - June 10, 2000

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY RESOURCES OF INDIA: COUNTRY UPDATE

D. Chandrasekharam
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay 400076, India

Key words: Geothermal, heat flow, thermal gases, Barren Though geothermal energy sources can potentially generate
island, hot dry rock 10,600 MW of power, they have not been exploited to date.
Additional exploration studies on thermal gases from these
ABSTRACT geothermal provinces have been carried out since 1996 in
order to understand the reservoir characteristics. In addition,
All the geothermal provinces of India are located in areas Deep Seismic Sounding (DSS) profiles were carried out
with high heat flow and geothermal gradients. The heat flow across several geothermal provinces (Son-Narmada-Tapi;
and thermal gradient values vary from 75–468 mW/m2 and West coast and Cambay ) to understand the crustal structure
59–234°C respectively. Additional exploration studies and below these thermal provinces. Several potential sites were
reservoir modelling have been carried out between 1995 and identified for further exploration through deep drilling.
1998 to understand the reservoir characteristics. Thermal gas Private power producers are keen to develop this source with
discharges from several thermal provinces recorded high financial partners from other countries.
helium concentration varying from 0.5–6.9%. Gas data,
together with heat flow and thermal gradient data, suggests 2. EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES
the presence of granites and related intrusives with high U
concentration (0.19–10.7%) in these provinces. Many such Exploration activities in terms of geochemical studies on
provinces are also best suited for HDR projects. High 4He thermal gases, computer simulations and geophysical data
content in the thermal gases is obliterating the presence of acquisition, are being carried out in some of the most
primordial helium. Pilot power plants, commissioned at promising geothermal fields, like the Puga, Manikaran,
certain thermal discharge sites, proved the power generating Tattapani, Cambay, and the West coast. Work on other
capacity of these provinces. The estimated power generating thermal provinces is yet to make a beginning.
capacity of the thermal discharges is about 10,600 MW. The
available geophysical and geochemical data are sufficient to
identify sites for undertaking deep drilling projects, and to 2.1 Geochemical studies on thermal gases and
commission binary power plants. Many independent power waters
producers are keen to collaborate with foreign financial
institutions to develop geothermal energy sources in rural After the oil crisis in the 70’s, a reconnaissance survey by the
India. With the existing environmental problems associated U.N. organization and the Geological Survey of India, on a
with coal based mega power projects, and with incentives majority of thermal springs were carried out, the results of
given to develop non-conventional energy sources, the future which are reported in the “Geothermal Atlas of India”
of the Indian geothermal energy program is bright. (G.S.I., 1991). Since then, focussed studies on the
geological, tectonic and geochemical characteristics of the
1. INTRODUCTION springs suggest that some of them can be exploited for power
generation and for direct utilization by industries (Ravi
The seven major geothermal provinces of India, enclosing Shanker, 1991; Chandrasekharam, et al., 1992;
nearly 400 thermal springs, are associated with mid- Chandrasekharam and Antu, 1995; Chandrasekharam et.al.,
continental rifts, subduction, sedimentary basins and 1996; Chandrasekharam and Prasad, 1998; Pitale and Padhi,
Cretaceous-Tertiary volcanism (Fig. 1). These provinces 1996). Although several authors have reported chemical and
include i) The Himalayas, ii) Sohana, iii) Cambay, iv) Son- isotopic data on the thermal springs (Giggenbach, 1976;
Narmada-Tapi rift zone (SONATA), v) West coast, vi) Giggenbach et al., 1983; Gonfianti, 1977; Nevada and Rao,
Godavari, and vii) Mahanadi. With the recent volcanic 1991; Chandrasekharam et al., 1989, 1997), studies on the
eruption, the Barren island has become one the most associated gas phase can be considered practically missing.
important geothermal provinces in the Indian subcontinent. In order to fill this gap, as a part of a collaborative project
The estimated energy from one third of these springs is of the between the Department of Sciences and Technology, Govt.
order of 40.9x1018 calories. This is equivalent to the energy India and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Italy , two
that can be obtained from 5.7 billion tonnes of coal or 28 extensive sampling campaigns on thermal waters and
million barrels of oil. If these energy resources are developed associated gas emissions were carried out in 1997 and 1998,
for a medium to low temperature application it will substitute in three of the most promising geothermal provinces, i.e. i)
about 10,600 MW of power (Ravi Shanker, 1996). The the West coast, ii) the eastern boundary of the Cambay basin,
estimated power shortfall in India at present is about 5000 and iii) along the Son-Narmada-Tapi lineament (SONATA),
MW and it could rise to about 43,000 MW in the next five which represents the most important E-W mid-continental
years. To decrease this supply-demand gap, renewable structure. The gases from these provinces are rich in N2 and
energy sources have been given increased importance during Ar, which are apparently atmospheric in origin. The most
the last few years. Thus, wind energy is expected to generate remarkable finding is the high 4He concentration in these
about 1000 MW, biomass about 140 MW, small hydro gases which range from 0.5–6.9%. Such a high 4He
power about 172 MW and solar about 810 MW of power.

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concentration in the thermal gases is suppressing the mantle is well known for its numerous thermal springs with
3
He, thereby registering a low R/RA ratio. Deep and temperatures up to 90°C (boiling of water at that elevation).
prolonged circulation of thermal waters, and the presence of Sulphur and borax deposits have been reported from this
anomalous geothermal gradients, have been recorded in the area. The results indicate that the low resistivity zone,
above three provinces (Chandrasekharam et al., 1997; representing the geothermal reservoir, extends between 1 and
Casiglia et al., 1999). Such a high 4He is apparently due to 3 km (Singh and Nabetani, 1995). This shallow reservoir has
the presence of a large reservoir of He in the Precambrian a power potential of 45 MW (Ravi Shanker et.al., 1977). It
rocks lying below the Deccan trap cover. Similar He may be mentioned that the Yangbajing geothermal field in
concentration (1.4–2.77%) in the thermal waters from the China, which is located about 1200 km ESE of Puga, is
Bakreswar geothermal province in West Bengal has been already producing 25 MW of power (Ravi Shanker, 1996). In
reported by the Atomic Minerals Division (Nagar et al., fact, a pilot binary geothermal energy plant to generate 5 kW
1996). Even the soils around this geothermal province have of power, was installed at Manikaran (located in Parbati
registered anomalously high He concentration (46.6–82.8 valley, SW of Puga) in Himachal Pradesh, by the Geological
ppm). Like in the above three geothermal provinces, high Survey of India, in collaboration with National Aeronautical
helium concentrationin thermal waters in Bakreswar, is Laboratory in the eighties, using R113 as a secondary fluid.
obviously being produced by decaying U and Th in the This pilot plant, which was later abandoned due to
Precambrian crystallines. This is further supported by heat landslides, proved the capability of some of the geothermal
flow value of 145–200 mW/m2 for this province, a value provinces of the Himalayan region in generating power. With
which is greater than twice the average global value, and is the present available technology, it should be possible to
similar to the value reported for young spreading ocean generate more power using the thermal water and steam in
ridges, such as the Red Sea ridge axis (Gettings et al., 1986). this region.
Similar heat flow values have been reported for the Godavari
geothermal province. Geochemical exploration carried out in Deep Seismic Sounding (DSS) experiments across major
the Godavari geothermal province indicates two promising structures like the Godavari rift, Son-Narmada-Tapi
areas, i) the Bugga, and ii) Manuguru, for geothermal energy lineament, Cambay rift and the Himalayas, have been
development. The thermal reservoir here appears to be the conducted to delineate the subsurface tectonic fabric and to
Talchir sandstone (Gondwana Super group), a secondary decipher information related to the crust-mantle boundary
reservoir with storage capacity of 35 million cubic meters. (Kaila and Krishna, 1992).
With surface flow rate of 1000 l/min, the reservoir, with
power generating capacity of about 38 MW, should yield Along the SE part of the Godavari thermal province, the P
thermal waters for 75 years (Chandrasekharam and wave velocity increases from 5.3 km/s to 6.5 km/s indicating
Jayaprakash, 1996). upwarp of the lower crust at a depth of 3.5 km. Several deep
seated faults have been recorded within the sedimentary
The geothermal province which is unexplored is the Barren formation which are intruded by several irregularly shaped,
Island volcano. This volcano, located over a trench in the branching basic and ultrabsic bodies (Chaterji and Gosh,
Andaman sea (12o 17’ 30” N; 93o 52’ 30” E) is the only 1970). The thermal reservoir at Bugga and Manuguru in this
active volcano on the Indian subcontinent. Captain Blair, the province is reported to be at a depth of 2.5 km
founder of the harbour (Port Blair) in the Andamans, (Chandrasekharam and Jayaprakash, 1996 ).
reported violent activity of the volcano in 1789. Barren is a
tiny island, 7.8 km2, in an area with a maximum elevation of Across SONATA, which encloses the famous Tattapani
350 m. It is located 116 km ENE of Port Blair. This volcano geothermal province, DSS results indicate deep seated faults
erupted in 1991 after lying dormant for two centuries. extending down to mantle depths. However, primordial 3He
Olivine basalts erupted during the first phase of eruption and has not been detected in the gases from this province
the second phase was dominated by high alumina basalts (Casiglia et al., 1999). Therefore these “deep seated faults”
(Haldar et al., 1992). Its eruption coincided with that of Mt. may be sealed, thus preventing escape of 3He from the
Pinatubo of Philippines and Mt. Unzen of Japan. Super mantle or they may represent other structures. Detailed
heated steam and gas started emanating from the volcano geological, gravity, magnetic and seismic investigation
since 1950s (Raina, 1987). A number of centres with conducted by several institutes in collaboration with the
fumerolic activity and thermal manifestation are seen around Geological Survey of India (CRUMANSONATA, 1995)
the volcano as well as within the crater (Bandyopadhyaya et delineate these deep seated faults to be paleo-suture zones
al., 1973). Detailed geothermal exploration activity is being developed during collision of the Deccan protocontinent with
planned with CNR, Italy and ETH, Switzerland. the Bundalkhand protocontinent (Jain et al., 1995). The
Tattapani geothermal province falls north of this paleo-suture
zone. The R/RA ratio in the thermal gases also support the
2.2 Geophysical activities presence of such structure in this region (Casiglia et al.,
1999). Several other faults which are sympathetic to the main
Two dimensional resistivity structure of Puga, one of the suture are channeling thermal waters to the surface and these
potential geothermal fields of Ladakh district of Jammu and faults have been activated periodically during the geological
Kashmir State, has been delineated using magnetotelluric history and some of them are still active (Ravi Shanker,
recordings and geoelectromagnetic induction tomography 1987). Borehole logs in this province indicate the presence
(GEMIT). Puga valley is located at 4000 m elevation, lies of Gondwana sedimentary formations lying over the
towards the southern margin of the Tsangpo suture zone and

134
Proterozoic basement intruded by younger granites and respectively). Free flowing and geyseric conditions were
pegmatites. encountered in these boreholes. Isotherms and thermal
gradient contours at 100 and 300 m depths indicate upflow
Cambay basin is enclosed by failed arms of the triple zones have an area of 1 to 2 km2. These wells are yielding
junction related to the Deccan volcanism (Sheth and 1800 l/min of hot water at 112°C. With this flow rate and at
Chandrasekharam, 1997). Shallow and deep section 6% plant efficiency, electrical energy potential calculated is
delineated from DSS along this basin, extending from about 11 MWe for twenty years. Temperature of the order of
Mehmadabad to Billimora (Fig. 1), reveals that the basin is 160°C is envisaged at a depth of 1.5 km (Sharma et al.,
bounded by step faults on the eastern and western margins of 1996). Earlier, reservoir temperature of 217°C has been
the basin with several deep seated faults extending to mantle estimated at 3 km depth for this thermal province, based on
depths (Kaila and Krishna, 1992). Towards the southern part experimental results and geochemical thermometers
of the basin (at Billimora) the Moho is encountered at a (Chandrasekharam and Antu, 1995).
depth of about 18 km (Kaila and Krishna, 1992; Singh et.al.,
1991) and the 1250°C isotherm is located at a depth of about Based on magnetic, electrical, and resistivity surveys over the
40 km. The presence of high density material at shallow Bakreswar-Tantloi geothermal province of West Bengal and
depth in this area is further supported by positive gravity Bihar, which registered heat flow value and geothermal
anomaly (+35 mgals). Granite intrusives, like the Godhra gradient of 200 mW/m2 and 90°C/km respectively, (Ravi
granite, with radiometric age of about 955 Ma, outcrop Shanker,1988), two exploratory boreholes to a depth of 200
within the basin near Tuwa. These geological and tectonic m at Tantloi in Bihar were drilled by the AMD. Thermal
features are contributing to the high heat flow value in this gases and waters with high concentration of He (1.4–2.77%)
region, which ranges from 67–93 mW/m2, with thermal have been encountered in these boreholes. The rate of flow
gradient as high as 70°C/km. (Gupta, 1981; Ravi Shanker, of gas and that of water vary between 0.02-0.06 l/min and
1988). Mantle degassing through such deep seated faults is 900 l/min respectively (Nagar et.al., 1996). High heat flow
indicated by relatively high R/RA ratio (0.3) and higher CO2 coupled with very high He concentration in the gases and
content (3%) in gases from the Tuwa thermal province thermal waters apparently indicate that the granites and
(Casiglia et al., 1999). gneisses through which the thermal waters are circulating,
are enriched in uranium minerals. A pilot helium extraction
Magnetotelluric investigation across Tapi basin, which plant has been commissioned by the above organization to
encloses the Jalgaon geothermal province, indicates the recover He from thermal gases and water.
presence of a granite intrusive between 2 and 10 km depth,
covered by thick Gondwana sedimentary formation (Rao et About 34 boreholes were drilled to a depth of 400 m in the
al., 1995; Chandrasekharam and Prasad, 1998). Thus, the Puga valley, which encloses both the Puga and Chumathang
geothermal province (heat flow: 120 mW/m2; thermal geothermal fields. The bottom hole temperature recorded at
gradient: 60°C/km; Ravi Shanker, 1988) in this basin is this depth is 140°C, with pressures ranging from 2–3 kg/cm2.
related to the above magmatic body. Of these, 17 are flowing wells with a total discharge of 190
tonnes/h and maximum discharge measured for a single well
The NW Himalayan region, enclosing nearly 100 thermal is 30 tonnes/h. Geothermal gradients greater than 200°C/km
springs, includes the well known Puga, Manikaran and and heat flow varying from 140–468 mW/m2 have been
Chummathang geothermal provinces. A conceptual 2D recorded from these wells (Ravi Shanker, 1988). A large
computer model for the Puga geothermal province using the number of granite, granitoid and pegmatite intrusives with
MULCOM computer programme (using SHAFT 79; radiometric ages ranging from 3.4 Ma to 495 Ma, and with
O’Sullivan, 1985) has been developed, to assess the potential U2O3 content varying from 0.19–10.7%, which appear to be
of the reservoir for electrical power generation, at the the main source of heat, have been reported from several
Geothermal Institute, University of Auckland (Mishra et al., localities in these geothermal provinces (Ravi Shanker et al.,
1996). This model is based on the existing geological, 1977; Srikantia and Bhargava, 1998). Space heating
borehole logs, thermal gradient, heat flow, rate of the thermal experiments using hot water from the wells have been
discharge and other hydrological parameters of the aquifer. conducted by the Geological Survey of India (G.S.I., 1991).
The results indicate that Puga geothermal province can These space heated huts have been used to extract and refine
generate 2 MW power for 30 years. borax and sulphur which occur in large quantities there.

3. DRILLING ACTIVITIES The West coast thermal province, located within the Deccan
volcanic terrain, is a narrow stretch of 300 km, aligned
All the exploratory boreholes drilled by the Geological parallel to the coast. About 60 thermal springs clustered in
Survey of India and Atomic Minerals Division in some of the 16 localities, with surface temperatures varying from 47 to
geothermal provinces are shallow, reaching maximum depth 71°C, lie within this province. Six boreholes drilled to a
of about 600 m. About 26 boreholes were drilled in Tattapani depth of 500 m recorded temperature gradients of 47–
geothermal province between 1981 and 1993. In addition, in 59°C/km and heat flow value of 75–129 mW/m2 (Ravi
order to assess the possibility of commissioning a pilot Shanker, 1987). Though the surface flow rates of some of the
binary cycle power generation plant, five production wells thermal springs are low (48 l/min; Ravi Shanker, 1987),
have been drilled to a maximum depth of 350 m. These measured discharge through the boreholes is 24 tonnes/h
boreholes lie in an area of anomalously high thermal gradient (Muthuraman, 1986). The continental crust is attenuated and
and high heat flow (~90°C/km and 290 mW/m2, foundered at several places along the west coast during the

135
Deccan volcanic episode (Chandrasekharam, 1985), thereby the rocks (Rao et. al., 1976). Thus, many of the geothermal
recording positive gravity anomalies along the coast. provinces discussed above are excellent sites for hot dry rock
Geophysical investigation along the coast and off-shore of (HDR) programme as well (Chandrasekharam 1996). In all
Bombay recorded thin lithosphere (~18 km) and the 1250°C the geothermal provinces investigated so far, the geothermal
isotherm in this region is expected at a depth of 20 km reservoir is estimated to be at depth varying from 1–3 km.
(Pande et al., 1984). The present scenario in India is similar to that of Australia,
where burried granites with sedimentary blankets, at depths
4. OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES varying from 2–5 km, with temperature exceeding 250°C are
identified as the prime sites for HDR programme. The high
In order to assess the potential of non-conventional energy heat flow here is attributed to high heat generation in these
resources and collate the existing data on geothermal energy granites (Burns et.al.,1995). Experimental programmes, like
resources from various research institutes, the Geological those conducted at Fenton Hill, New Mexico (Jelacic and
Survey of India organized a seminar on Geothermal Energy Hooper, 1996), and like those proposed to be taken for the
in India during October 1996. The developmental activities Muswellbrook site, Australia, to generate 20 MWe power
reported by various workers at this seminar are quite from 1 cubic kilometer of hot rock (250°C) at a depth of 5
encouraging. km (Somervillie et al. 1994), should be initiated at some of
the geothermal provinces in India. Deep drill hole to a depth
In order to eleminate the effect of conventional binary fluids, of 2 km in the geothermal provinces discussed above should
such as CFC’s, on the ozone layer, experimental and be able to generate substantial power and also support
thermodynamic analyses have been carried out to asseses the several industries. The present mood of the Indian industries
performance of a new binary fluid, commercially known as is upbeat with many private power companies prepared to
HFC-134a. The advantages of using this fluid are, the invest in geothermal energy resources with foreign
irreversibility of the flashing binary cycles are much lower collaboration.
and hence the utilisation factors are substancially higher as
compared to the conventional cycles (Tyagi and Bhave, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1996).
The author thanks the Director, IIT and the Head,
A heat exchanger has been designed to dehydrate onions Department of Earth Sciences, IIT for providing facilitites to
using the thermal waters of Bugga and Manuguru located in prepare this paper.
the Godavari basin geothermal province of Andhra Pradesh.
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TABLE 7. ALLOCATION OF PROFESSIONAL PERSONNEL TO GEOTHERMAL
ACTIVITIES (Restricted to personnel with a University degress)

(1) Government (4) Paid Foreign Consultants

(2) Public Utilities (5) Contributied Through Foreign Aid Programs
(3) Universities (6) Private Industry

Year Professional Person-Years of Effort

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1995
1+
1996
1+
1997
1+ 3
1998
1+ 3
1999
1+ 3
Total
5+ 9
+number varies from 0-2(students involved in geothermal projects)

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 M

Fig. 1. Map of India showing the geothermal provinces, heat

flow values (mW/m2: in italics) and geothermal gradients
(oC/km). I: Himalaya; II: Sohana; III: Cambay; IV:
SONATA; V: West coast; VI: Godavari; VII: Mahanadi. M:
Mehmadabad; B: Billimora.

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