JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

Vol.80, July 2012, pp.39-47

Geothermal Investigations in the Upper Vindhyan Sedimentary

Rocks of Shivpuri Area, Central India

P. NAGARAJU, LABANI RAY, G. RAVI, VYASULU V. AKKIRAJU and SUKANTA ROY

CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute, Uppal Road, Hyderabad – 500 606
Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Heat flow has been determined by combining temperature measurements in 7 boreholes with thermal
conductivity measurements in the Upper Vindhyan sedimentary rocks of Shivpuri area, central India. The boreholes are
distributed at 5 sites within an area of 15 x 10 km2; their depths range from 174 to 268 m. Geothermal gradients
estimated from borehole temperature profiles vary from 8.0-12.7 mK m-1 in the sandstone-rich formations to 25.5-
27.5 mK m-1 in the shale-rich formations, consistent with the contrast in thermal conductivities of the two rock types.
Heat flow in the area ranges between 45 and 61 mW m-2, with a mean of 52±6 mW m-2. The heat flow values are similar
to the >50 mW m-2 heat flow observed in other parts of the northern Indian shield. The heat flow determinations
represent the steady-state heat flow because, the thermal transients associated with the initial rifting, convergence and
sedimentation in the basin as well as the more recent Deccan volcanism that affected the region to the south of the basin
would have decayed, and therefore, the heat flow is in equilibrium with the radiogenic heat production of the crust and
the heat flow from the mantle. The present study reports the heat flow measurements from the western part of the
Vindhyan basin and provides heat flow information for the Bundhelkhand craton for the first time. Radioelement (Th, U
and K) abundances have been measured both in the sedimentary rocks exposed in the area as well as in the underlying
basement granite-gneiss of Bundelkhand massif exposed in the adjacent area. Radioactive heat production, estimated
from those abundances, indicate mean values of 0.3 µW m-3 for sandstone with inter-bands of shale and siltstone,
0.25 µW m-3 for sandstone with inter-bands siltstone, 0.6 µW m-3 for quartzose sandstone, and 2.7 µW m-3 for the
basement granitoids. With a total sedimentary thickness not exceeding a few hundred metres in the area, the heat production
of the sedimentary cover would be insignificant. The radioactive heat contribution from the basement granitoids in the
upper crust is expected to be large, and together with the heat flow component from the mantle, would control the crustal
thermal structure in the region.

Keywords: Heat flow, Geothermal gradient, Thermal conductivity, Vindhyan basin, Central India.

INTRODUCTION sedimentary basins (e.g., Proterozoic Cuddapah basin, Upper

Heat flow data constitutes a key parameter for computing Carboniferous to Lower Cretaceous Gondwana basins and
the subsurface temperature distribution in a geologic Tertiary Cambay basin) as well as the crystallines (e.g., the
province. Information on geothermal gradient, thermal Dharwar craton and gneiss-granulite province in southern
properties of rocks and heat flow are useful for mineral and India, the Bastar craton and the Deccan Volcanic Province
oil exploration in the shallow levels (a few km) in the crust in central India, and Aravalli and Singbhum cratons in
as well as for geodynamic interpretations usually at deeper northern India). Among the sedimentary basins, the
levels (Rao et al. 2003 and references therein). Temperature Gondwana basins of the Damodar valley are characterized
is a key controlling factor for seismicity; it determines the by a consistently high and uniform heat flow ranging from
depth to the seismic-aseismic transition in the lithosphere 69 to 79 mW m-2 (Rao and Rao, 1980, 1983). Heat flow is
(see for example, Scholz, 1998). The mantle heat flow, variable in the Godavari valley Gondwana basin,
derived by subtracting the crustal radiogenic heat production comparatively lower (63 mW m-2) in the northern part and
from the surface heat flow, serves as the boundary condition higher (92 and 104 mW m-2) in the southern parts (Rao and
for computations of temperatures deeper down in the Rao, 1983). The Satpura and Son-Mahanadi Gondwana
lithosphere. basins are inadequately covered. Heat flow values in two
In the past five decades, heat flow studies have been areas in the Satpura basin are 49 and 60 mW m-2 (Rao et al.
carried out in the Indian sub-continent covering the 1970) and in the Son-Mahanadi basin, 59 and 107 mW m-2

0016-7622/2012-80-1-39/$ 1.00 © GEOL. SOC. INDIA

40 P. NAGARAJU AND OTHERS

(Rao and Rao, 1983). In the Cambay basin, which is a Viadyanadhan, 2008). The Purana basin sedimentary
pericontinental rift basin (Biswas, 1987), heat flow is higher sequences are thought to represent the infill of failed rifts
in the northern part, 75-96 mW m-2 compared to the southern that developed on early Archean and/or early
part, 55-67 mW m-2 (Gupta et al., 1970). In the Cuddapah Paleoproterozoic cratonic blocks (Ram et al. 1996;
basin, heat flow is low (51 mW m-2) in the southwestern Chaudhuri et al. 2002). The Vindhyan basin is bounded by
part, whereas it is high (75 mW m-2) in the northeastern Aravalli Mountains along the NE-SW trending Great
part. Thus, sedimentary basins of the Indian sub-continent Boundary Fault in the west and the ENE–WSW trending
are characterized by high as well as variable heat flow (49- Narmada–Son lineament zone in the south (Fig. 1a). The
107 mW m-2). The observed high heat flow in these basins basin extends beneath the Indo-Gangetic alluvium to the
has been attributed to relatively high heat production of the north (Srivastava et al. 1983; Kaila et al. 1989; Verma 1991;
basement rocks except in the Cambay basin, where transient Chakraborty and Bhattacharyya, 1996) and beneath the
thermal effects due to rifting cannot be precluded. Deccan Traps to the southwest (Ram et al. 1996). The basin
Heat flow determinations in the Aravalli province in evolved on a rifted crust as foreland basin in front of co-
northwestern India show a systematic variation, with the eval orogenic belts of Aravalli-Delhi-Satpura (Chakraborty
lowest value 56 mW m-2 in the Archaean Banded Gneissic and Bhattacharyya, 1996).
Complex in the eastern part, intermediate 62-67 mW m-2 in The Vindhyan Supergroup, deposited in this basin, is
the terrane of Aravalli Supergroup and highest 59-96 mW composed of un-metamorphosed, mostly low dipping and
m-2 in the terrane of Delhi Supergroup (Roy and Rao, 2000). mildly deformed formations of sandstone, shale and
The Singbhum craton in eastern India is characterized by carbonate, with a few conglomerate and volcanoclastic beds
relatively uniform heat flow, 59-63 mW m-2 (Rao and Rao, (Chakraborty and Bhattacharyya, 1996). The estimated
1974). In contrast to southern India, both the Aravalli and maximum thickness of the sedimentary succession is
Singhbhum provinces show a distinctly higher heat flow 4-5 km (Srivastava et al. 1983; Kaila et al. 1989). The
regime. The large region comprising the Vindhyan basin sediments range in age from 1.7 to 0.7 Ga (Ray, 2006 and
and Bundelkhand craton that is exposed between the references therein). The Vindhyan Supergroup is composed
Aravalli and Singbhum provinces is devoid of heat flow of four Groups, i.e., Semri, Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander.
determinations (Fig. 1a). Due to lack of any geothermal The first one belongs to Lower Vindhyan Group of
datasets and meagre geophysical information in this region, volcanogenic sediments while the latter three comprising
inferences about the likely extension of deep thermal regimes primarily of sedimentary rocks represent Upper Vindhyan
characteristic of either Singbhum or Aravalli provinces to Group with a major discontinuity at the base of the Kaimur
this region are at best hypothetical. Group. Lower Vindhyan Group belongs to Meso-Proterozoic
In the present study we report for the first time (1.7-1.6 Ga, Kumar et al. 2001, Rasmussen et al. 2002, Ray
(i) temperature measurements from seven boreholes of et al. 2003, Sarangi et al. 2004), while the Upper Vindhyan
opportunity (174–268 m depth) from Shivpuri area in Upper Group belongs to Meso- Neoproterozoic (1.1- 0.7 Ga,
Vindhyan basin, Central India, (ii) radioactive heat Kumar et al. 1993; Kumar and Srivastava., 1997; Rai et al.
production for Upper Vindhyan sedimentary rocks and 1997, Ray et al. 2003; Ray, 2006). The Vindhyan sediments
basement granitoids exposed in the study area, (iii) thermal are underlain by basement rocks belonging to the
conductivity of Upper Vindhyan sedimentary rocks and Paleoproterozoic Bijawar Group and the Archaean
(iv) implications for heat flow and sub-surface thermal Bundelkhand granite-gneiss complex (see, Chakraborty,
regime in the area. 2006 and references therein). It is unclear whether the
Banded Gneissic Complex of the Aravalli Province underlies
the Vindhyan sediments in the western parts.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The study area near Shivpuri is located in the Upper
The Vindhyan basin in Central India is an intracratonic Vindhyan rock formations belonging to Kaimur and Rewa
(Chakraborty, 2006 and references therein), east–west Groups (Fig. 1b). The boreholes of the present study
trending basin formed in response to intraplate stresses (see, penetrate the Upper Rewa sandstone (consisting thinly
for example, Bose et al. 2001). It is the largest among the bedded sandstone with thin layers of shale and siltstone)
Purana (Proterozoic) sedimentary basins of the Indian and/or Jhiri shale (consisting shale with interbands of
subcontinent, with an exposed area of ~60,000 sq km and ferruginous sandstone and siltsone) of the Rewa Group,
a concealed area of ~1,62,000 sq km beneath the Indo- underlain by one or more of the following rock
Gangetic alluvium and Deccan Traps (Ramakrishnan and formations belonging to the Kaimur Group: pinkish/white

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 GEOTHERMAL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UPPER VINDHYAN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, CENTRAL INDIA 41

Fig.1. (a) Geological map of central India simplified from 1:200,000 Geological Map of India (GSI, 1998), showing heat flow distribution
in different geologic provinces. The study area, indicated by a small rectangular box around Shivpuri, is expanded in Fig. 1b.
Heat flow values are in mW m-2. [GBF: Great Boundary fault, SNNF: Son Narmada North fault, SNSF: Son Narmada South
fault] (b) Geological map of Shivpuri and its surrounding areas, simplified from 1:250,000 geological quadrangle map 54G
(GSI, 2003), showing the heat flow sites of the present study.

Dudauni sandstone with interbands of siltsone, alternating reproducible to better than 20 mK, as indicated by
beds of Balabehat shale and siltsone, and thinly bedded comparisons of multiple temperature logs.
quartzose Sumen sandstone (GSI, 2003). The individual
rock formations exposed in the study area are shown in Thermal Conductivity
Fig.1b. The Bundelkhand granite complex is exposed to Thermal conductivity measurements at near-ambient
the east of the Sumen sandstone, and constitutes the temperature are carried out in the laboratory using a steady-
basement over which the sedimentary rock formations state thermal conductivity meter (model QL-10 of Anter
were deposited. Corporation). Rock samples collected from the borehole
sites are cored, cut and polished into cylindrical discs of
MEASUREMENT METHODS 2.54 cm diameter and thickness varying between 1.2 and
2.5 cm. Rock sample of known thickness is placed under
Borehole Temperatures reproducible compressive load between two polished metal
Temperature measurements were made by manually surfaces (upper and lower stack), each controlled at a
lowering a calibrated Fenwal thermistor probe into a different temperature. A constant temperature difference of
borehole and measuring the transducer resistance at 3 m ~40oC is maintained by keeping upper and lower stacks at
intervals in the “stop-go” mode. The resistance values are 45oC and 5oC, respectively. The lower stack is part of a
converted to temperature values using the previously calibrated heat flux transducer. As heat flows from the upper
determined calibration constants. The probe is calibrated surface through the sample to the lower surface, an axial
against a standard thermometer and the calibration is temperature gradient is established. At steady-state, thermal
checked before every field campaign. Our temperature conductivity of the sample can be determined by measuring
precision with this equipment is ±3 mK for a 2 K ohm the voltage developed across the upper stack, the sample
thermistor. In practice, because temperature measurements and the lower stack. The reproducibility of measurement is
in boreholes are affected by borehole thermal stability and ±2% and the accuracy varies between ±3% to ±8%
instrumental noise and stability, temperatures are generally depending upon sample size and thermal conductivity.

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42 P. NAGARAJU AND OTHERS

Measurements of Radioelements and Heat Production

boreholes of opportunity (SHIV-1, SHIV-2, SHIV-3, SHIV-
4, SHIV-5, SHIV-6 and SHIV-7) distributed in a small, ~15
Radioelemental abundances (Th, U and K) in rocks were x 10 km2 area near Shivpuri (Fig.1b). Depths of boreholes
measured by laboratory low-level counting, spectrum- range from 174 m to 268 m. The boreholes penetrate
stabilized gamma ray spectrometer. The basic sensor is a different sedimentary rock formations (dominantly
NaI (Tl) crystal, 5" (12.7 cm) in diameter and 6" (15.24 cm) sandstones and shales) of the Kaimur and Rewa Groups of
high. It is hermetically sealed and coupled to a photo- the Vindhyan Supergroup (GSI, 2003). They are percussion-
multiplier tube 5" in diameter. The two together, along with drilled for groundwater, but had very poor yield and were
a dynode chain and a pre-amplifier, constitute the detector either abandoned or unused for at least 9 days and up to 1
assembly. This assembly is housed in a lead-shield, which year prior to our measurements. Our experience through
presents at least 7" thickness of lead all around. High-voltage measurements in similar boreholes in which no mud-
(~750 V) required for the dynode chain in the photo- circulation is involved show that the temperatures reach 95%
multiplier tube, and a bias of -24 V to the pre-amplifier are of their steady-state values within 48 hours after completion
maintained. The output signals from the detector are of drilling. Therefore, we consider the temperature profiles
analyzed using a multi-channel analyzer card connected to to be in equilibrium with the surrounding rock formations,
a display. and if perturbations due to groundwater flow are absent,
For Th, U and K-analysis, three energy windows are geothermal gradient can be computed reliably from long,
chosen around the 0.911, 0.964, 0.969 MeV- peaks due to linear sections in the temperature profiles.
the daughters in the 232Th series, the 1.76 MeV-peak due to The temperature profiles are shown in Fig. 2. The
214
Bi, a daughter in the 238U series and the 1.46 MeV-peak individual profiles show curvature in the top 75-100 m
due to 40K. Measurements were carried out for background that is attributable to the diffusion of surface temperature
and Th, U and K standards before, during and after changes during the past few decades to about two
measurements on rock samples. Counting time for centuries, as observed at several tens of sites in the Indian
background and standards is about 50,000 s, whereas for subcontinent (Roy et al. 2002). Below this zone, the profiles
individual rock samples, it is between 10000 and 12000 s are relatively unperturbed except near 95 m depth in the
depending upon the activity level.
Samples analyzed in this study were rocks from fresh
outcrops. Rocks are broken down into chips to a size less
than 5 mm. These are filled into cylindrical plastic
containers. All containers are filled to a uniform degree of
compaction, very close to the degree to which the standard
samples are filled. After filling up, the containers are sealed
and stored for at least 7 days before being counted, to ensure
repair of the radon loss that could have occurred during
crushing of the samples.
Heat production (HP) has been computed using the
relation given by Birch (1954):
A = 10-3ρ (0.035 CK + 0.097 CU + 0.026 CTh)
where A is heat production in µW m-3, ρ is density in kg m-3
and CK, CU and CTh refer to K, U and Th concentrations by
weight (K in %, U and Th in ppm), the numerical constant
0.035 refers to heat production (10-9 W) per kg of rock per
1% of K, and the constants 0.097 and 0.026 refer to heat
Fig. 2. Temperature-depth profiles for seven boreholes located in
production (10-9 W) per kg of rock, per 1 ppm of U and
Shivpuri area, Vindhyan Supergroup, Central India. Profiles
1 ppm of Th, respectively.
pass though mainly five rock formations as inferred from
DATA geological quadrangle map of the area (as shown in Fig. 3
and described in text). The profiles are offset horizontally
Temperature Profiles and Geothermal Gradient
to avoid overlap; the amount of offset in oC is indicated in
Temperature measurements were carried out in seven parentheses.

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 GEOTHERMAL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UPPER VINDHYAN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, CENTRAL INDIA 43

borehole SHIV-3 and 150-175 m in borehole SHIV-5. The over shale-rich formations with ferruginous sandstone
former is likely caused by groundwater flow up the and/or siltstone.
borehole at the contact between the upper shale and
underlying sandstone formations, and the latter due to the Thermal Conductivity Data
occurrence of a narrow fracture or aquifer close to the The boreholes of the present study pass through one or
contact between an upper, sandstone formation and the more of the five rock formations exposed from west to east
underlying, alternating shale and siltstone formation. in the Shivpuri area: (i) thinly bedded sandstone with thin
Nevertheless, the temperature gradients outside these two layers of shale and siltstone, (ii) shale with interbands of
zones are relatively unperturbed in both cases, and as in the ferruginous sandstone and siltstone, (iii) thinly bedded
other boreholes, the contrasts in gradients are consistent with sandstone with interbands of siltstone, (iv) alternating beds
the changes in thermal conductivity of the corresponding of shale and siltstone, and (v) thinly bedded quartzose
rocks. Sumen sandstone (Fig. 1b). These formations dip towards
Temperature gradients calculated from linear sections the west, as shown in Fig. 3. Outcrops of the formations (i),
in the temperature profiles using least squares regressions (iii) and (v) could be sampled for thermal conductivity
are given in Table 1. Depth sections over which the measurements.
gradients are estimated and the corresponding rock Thermal conductivity measurements were carried out on
formations inferred from detailed geological cross-section 32 outcrop samples covering the three varieties of sandstone
provided in the quadrangle map of the area (GSI, 2003) are represented in the boreholes. Measurements on 11 samples
also listed. The gradients range between 8.0 and 10.8 mK m- of sandstone with interbands of siltstone yield thermal
1
over sandstone with interbands of siltstone, 12.7 mK m-1 conductivity in a narrow range, 5.4-5.9 W m-1K-1, with a mean
over quartzose Sumen sandstone, and 25.5 to 27.5 mK m-1 of 5.6±0.2 (SD) W m-1 K-1. Eight samples of quartzose Sumen

Table 1. Temperature gradient, thermal conductivity, and heat flow in the Shivpuri area, Vindhyan basin, central India
Bore Locality Latitude, Longitude, Depth Rock type Temperature Thermal conductivity, Heat
o o
hole # N E interval gradient Wm-1K-1 Flow (SE),
(m) (SE), mKm-1 N Mean (SE) mWm-2
SHIV-1 Fatehpur 25o24'50" 77o38'07" 114-156 Sandstone with interbands
of siltstone 8.0 (0.1) 11 5.6 (0.1)a 45 (1)
o o
SHIV-2 Daharwara 25 18'56" 77 32'18" 93-129 Shale with interbands of
ferruginous sandstone and
siltstone 27.5 (0.2) — 1.9b 53 (–)
135-183 Sandstone with interbands
of siltstone 9.5 (0.1) 11 5.6 (0.1)a 53 (1)
o o
SHIV-3 Near Kusyara 25 19'32" 77 33'13" 117-204 Sandstone with interbands
of siltstone 9.8 (0.1) 11 5.6 (0.1)a 55 (1)
o o
SHIV-4 Daharwara 25 18'58" 77 32'26" 99-132 Shale with interbands of
ferruginous sandstone and
siltstone 25.5 (0.2) — 1.9b 49 (–)
135-252 Sandstone with interbands
of siltstone 8.8 (0.1) 11 5.6 (0.1)a 49 (1)
o o
SHIV-5 Shivpuri 25 24'55" 77 39'16" 81-144 Sandstone with interbands
of siltstone 10.8 (0.1) 11 5.6 (0.1)a 61 (1)
b
180-220 Alternating shale and siltstone 26.1 (0.1) — 2.3 61 (–)
220-268 Quartzose Sumen sandstone 12.7 (0.2) 08 4.8 (0.2) 61 (2)
SHIV-6 Chhar 25o26'16" 77o33'27" 87-210 Sandstone with interbands
of siltstone 9.4 (0.1) 11 5.6 (0.1)a 53 (1)
o o
SHIV-7 Chhar 25 26'23" 77 33'32" 126-201 Sandstone with interbands
of siltstone 8.2 (0.02) 11 5.6 (0.1)a 46 (0.4)
a
Measured on outcrops exposed between Parora and Gora, ~10 km southeast of Shivpuri area.
b
Because suitable outcrops of shale-rich formations were not available in the area for measurements, in-situ thermal conductivities of two formations –
(i) shale with interbands of ferruginous sandstone/siltstone and (ii) alternate bands of shale and siltstone have been inferred from comparison with
gradient and conductivities of neighbouring sandstone formations occurring in the same borehole (see text), SE indicates standard error.

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44 P. NAGARAJU AND OTHERS

and radioactive heat production was

estimated from the Th, U and K
abundances. Range and mean for Th, U,
K and heat production are listed in
Table 3. Sandstones with interbands of
shale and/or siltstone have the lowest
Th, U and K contents, resulting in a low
heat production of 0.3±0.1 µW m -3 .
Quartzose Sumen sandstone is relatively
Fig. 3. A simplified geologic cross-section along a profile (AB) cutting across the different more enriched in Th, U and K with a
-3
rock formations exposed in Shivpuri and surrounding region (after GSI, 2003). mean heat production of 0.6±0.1 µW m .
The basement granitoids rocks have
sandstone yield a mean conductivity of 4.8±0.5 (SD) W m -1
the highest heat production (range: 1.6-4.1 µW m -3 ,
-1
K . Sandstone with interbands of shale and siltsone are the mean: 2.7±0.8 µW m-3), primarily due to high Th (mean
-1 -1
most variable, 3.7-6.1 Wm K , likely attributable to the 19.2 ppm), U (mean 3.8 ppm) and K (mean 2.9%) contents
presence of variable thicknesses of shale which has a low in them.
-1 -1
thermal conductivity of ~2 Wm K . The data are
summarized in Table 2. Heat Flow
Heat flow has been determined by combining
Table 2. Thermal conductivity of different sedimentary rock formations
information on temperature gradient at seven sites and
in Shivpuri area, Vindhyan basin, central India
thermal conductivity data on representative rock samples.
Rock type N Thermal conductivity
-1
(W m K ) -1 Gradient, conductivity and heat flow are summarized in
Table 1. In cases where a good estimate of temperature
Range Mean±SD
Sandstone with thin layers of gradient has been made from a specific depth interval at a
shale and siltstone 13 3.7-6.1 5.1±0.8 site but thermal conductivity measurements are not available
Sandstone with interbands of for the corresponding rock formation, we have inferred the
siltstone 11 5.4-5.9 5.6±0.2 in-situ conductivity from comparison with gradient and
Quartzose sandstone 8 3.9-5.2 4.8±0.5 conductivity data from a neighbouring depth interval,
assuming a constant heat flow at the site. We adopted this
Radioelemental Abundances and Heat Production approach for the shale-rich segment in borehole SHIV-4 at
Radioelemental (Th, U and K) abundances in outcrops Daharwara village and inferred a value of 1.93 Wm-1K-1 for
of three varieties of sandstones representative of those met shale with interbands of ferruginous sandstone and siltstone.
with in the boreholes and the underlying basement granitoids The inferred value is consistent with the range for shale-
were measured in the laboratory using a low-level counting rich formations reported in literature (Cermak and Rybach,
gamma-ray spectrometer set up at CSIR-NGRI. In all, 35 1982; Blackwell and Steele, 1988). This conductivity value
samples covering sandstone with interbands of shale and was then combined with the gradient computed over the
siltstone, sandstone with interbands of siltstone, quartzose same rock formation in a nearby borehole SHIV-2 to
Sumen sandstone, and basement granitoids were analyzed, determine the heat flow. In the borehole SHIV-5 at Shivpuri,

Table 3. Radioelemental abundances and heat production of sedimentary rock formations in Shivpuri area, Vindhyan basin and the underlying basement
granitoids near Karera in the Bundelkhand craton

Rock Type N Th (ppm) U (ppm) K (%) HP (µW m-3)

Range Mean±SD Range Mean±SD Range Mean±SD Range Mean±SD

Sandstone with interbands 4 0.30-2.25 1.6±0.9 0.49-1.06 0.7± 0.3 0.01-0.02 0.18±0.05 0.25-0.44 0.3±0.1
of shale and siltstone
Sandstone with interbands 4 1.71-2.02 1.8±0.1 0.36-0.60 0.5±0.1 0.10-0.80 0.04±0.03 0.22-0.30 0.25±0.03
of siltstone
Quartzose sandstone 3 2.70-2.88 2.8±0.1 1.41-2.09 1.7±0.4 0.06-0.08 0.07±0.01 0.58-0.75 0.6±0.1
Basement granite/gneiss 24 10.1-34.20 19.2±7.1 2.07-6.43 3.8±1.2 1.72-4.27 2.90±0.63 1.56-4.07 2.7±0.8
(Karera area)

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 GEOTHERMAL INVESTIGATIONS IN THE UPPER VINDHYAN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, CENTRAL INDIA 45

gradient was computed from undisturbed temperature is not seen in the present-day heat flow field in areas of
measurements in the depth interval 180-200 m. Conductivity volcanism older than 10 Ma (Sass and Lachenbruch, 1979).
data of the corresponding rock formation, alternating shale Therefore, the present-day heat flow in the Shivpuri area
and siltstone formation, could not be obtained due to lack would be in equilibrium with the radiogenic heat production
of suitable samples. However, comparison with the gradient of the crust and the heat flow from the mantle. Given the
and conductivity information from the sections 81-144 m relatively small area in which the seven heat flow sites in
and 220-268 m yields a consistent estimate of 2.3 Wm-1K-1. Shivpuri area are distributed, the variability in heat flow
Heat flow estimates from the gradient and conductivity data determinations, 45 to 61 mW m-2, could be attributed
at seven sites in the Shivpuri area are in the range 45 to 61 primarily to uncertainties in both geothermal gradient and
mW m-2, with a mean of 52±6 (SD) mW m-2. thermal conductivity of the sedimentary rock formations in
the area rather than variations in radioactive heat production
of underlying rocks or other structural / tectonic causes.
DISCUSSION
Nevertheless, the observed variability is characteristic of
Heat flow determinations from borehole temperature and the sedimentary basins in the Indian shield, and provides
thermal conductivity measurements from Shivpuri area useful bounds for heat flow in the region.
represent the first measurements from the western part of Radioelement (Th, U and K) abundances have been
the Vindhyan basin and provide heat flow information for measured both in the sedimentary rocks exposed in the area
the Bundhelkhand craton for the first time. The mean heat as well as the underlying granite-gneiss basement rocks
flow computed from measurements at seven sites in the area, exposed in the adjacent Bundelkhand massif to the east of
52±6 (SD) mW m-2, is on the lower side of the range Shivpuri. Radioactive heat production, estimated from those
observed in the northern Indian shield, but clearly higher abundances, indicate mean values of 0.3 µW m-3 for
than that in the Dharwar craton and much of the gneiss- sandstone with inter-bands of shale and siltstone, 0.25 µW
granulite province of southern India (Roy and Rao, 2003; m-3 for sandstone with inter-bands siltstone, 0.6 µW m-3 for
Ray et al. 2003). There is no evidence of any tectonothermal Quartzose sandstone, and 2.7 µW m -3 for basement
event in the Vindhyan basin after the Neo-Proterozoic time granitoids. With a total sedimentary thickness not exceeding
(~600 Ma ago) when the Upper Vindhyan sedimentation a few hundred metres in the Shivpuri area, the heat
was complete. Thermal transients associated with the production of the sedimentary cover would be insignificant
initial rifting and convergence processes that created the and significant contribution to heat flow comes from
Vindhyan basin and the later sedimentation would basement granitoids.
have decayed long ago (by ~500 Ma before present). The Vindhyan sedimentary basin appears as a region of
Nevertheless, there are geological evidences for subsequent low Bouger gravity, which has been attributed to the
thermal events to the south of the basin. The southern margin occurrence of Vindhyan sediments to the south and west of
of the Vindhyan basin witnessed rifting that serves as the the Bundelkhand craton (GSI-NGRI, 2006; Mishra, 2011).
boundary of the Gondwana basin (Ramakrishnan and The maximum thickness of Vindhyan sedimentary cover has
Vaidyanadhan, 2008), followed more recently by the been reported to be about 5 km only in the southern parts of
outpouring of Deccan volcanism that affected the region to the basin, compared to a crustal thickness of 40-45 km (Kaila
the south of the exposed Vindhyan basin and the Narmada- et al. 1989; Rajendra Prasad and Vijaya Rao, 2006). There
Son lineament zone at around 65 Ma. Because the thermal are evidences for mafic to ultramafic rocks of the Bijawar
time constant of a 40 km - thick crust is ~13 m.y. Group to underlie parts of the Vindhyan sediments and
(Lachenbruch and Sass, 1978), it is unlikely that the present- overlying the granitic basement. Because the mafic and
day heat flow would carry a thermal signature of events older ultramafic rocks are generally depleted in radioelements, it
than about 40 m.y. Heat flow measurements at a large number is unlikely that they would have much influence on the
of sites in the region of Deccan Traps to the south of the subsurface thermal regime in the region. Therefore, in
Son-Narmada lineament zone did not reveal anomalous the absence of potential heat generating active tectonic
thermal regime compared to the Archaean Dharwar craton, processes in the present-day scenario as well as the low
confirming that the thermal transients due to the passage of heat production of the sedimentary/metasedimentary
the Indian landmass over the Reunion hotspot and the sequences of the Vindhyan basin, it is safe to conclude that
consequent Deccan volcanism have decayed (Roy and Rao, the surface heat flow and radiogenic heat production of
2000). A similar result has been observed along the eastern the granitic basement would mainly control the crustal
edge of Australia, where the effect of Cenozoic volcanism thermal structure in the region. However, unlike the

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46 P. NAGARAJU AND OTHERS

Dharwar craton where the mantle heat flow is relatively 1 Geothermal gradients vary from 8.0-12.7 mK m-1 in
well constrained from heat flow, seismic shear wave the sandstone-rich formations to 25.5-27.5 mK m-1 in
velocity and xenolith geothermo-barometry datasets to lie the shale-rich formations, consistent with the contrast
in the 12-20 mW m-2 range (Roy and Rao, 2003; Roy and in thermal conductivities of the two rock types.
Mareschal, 2011), it is premature to infer the mantle 2 Heat flow in the area varies in the range 45 to 61 mW
component of heat flow from the limited data on surface m-2, with a mean of 52±6 mW m-2. This represents the
heat flow in this region. Higher mantle heat flow relative to steady-state heat flow, which is in equilibrium with the
the Dharwar craton would imply higher temperatures in the radiogenic heat production of the crust and the heat
sub-crustal lithosphere beaneath the Vindhyan basin. flow from the mantle.
On the western side of the Vindhyan basin, heat flow of 3 Mean heat production of different types of sandstones
56 mW m-2 is reported from the Archaean Banded Gneissic ranges between 0.25 and 0.6 µW m-3, in contrast to
Complex of the Aravalli province (Roy and Rao, 2000). the basement granitoids (mean: 2.7 µW m-3). With a
There are no heat flow data in the Bundelkhand craton in sedimentary thickness not exceeding a few hundred
the eastern side. Although two kimberlite fields, Majhgawan metres and low radioactive heat production of the
and Hinota, occur in the Vindhyan basin to the south of the sedimentary rocks, the significant component of heat
Bundlekhand craton, the P-T conditions of mantle xenoliths flow in Shivpuri area is therefore contributed by
are yet to be evaluated. Studies are underway to acquire radioactive heat produced in an upper crust comprising
heat flow data in the Bundelkhand craton, which, together mainly the basement granitoids of the Bundelkhand
with the heat flow determination reported from Shivpuri area craton. The other component, mantle heat flow, is
in this study and xenolith geothermobarometry would throw difficult to infer in view of the limited datasets.
more light on the crustal thermal structure and the mantle
heat flow beneath the region. Acknowledgements: The work was funded by the Supra-
Institutional Project of CSIR-NGRI. One of us (PN)
acknowledges the financial support received from CSIR
CONCLUSIONS
Research Intern Scheme. We thank S. Seshikanth Babu for
Temperature measurements in seven boreholes in the help in preparation of samples for laboratory measurements.
Shivpuri area, central India combined with thermal The manuscript has benefited from constructive suggestions
conductivity and radioactive heat production datasets on provided by an anonymous reviewer. We are grateful to
rocks in the area lead to the following conclusions Director, CSIR-NGRI for support.

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(Received: 6 January 2012; Revised form accepted: 26 March 2012)

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