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UNIT 2
WIRELESS MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL AND CDMA-
BASED COMMUNICATION

Unit 2: SYLLABUS
Wireless Medium Access Control and CDMA-based Communication: Medium Access
Control, Introduction to CDMA-based Systems, OFDM. (6 Hours)

2.1 Medium access control (MAC)
When a number of signal sources attempt to access a wireless medium simultaneously,
networks encounter the problem of receiving signals from each radio carrier distinctly. This is
because the signals tend to interfere with each other when they are simultaneously transmitted
through a medium. Also we come across the problem of hidden and exposed terminal, near and
far terminal. To overcome these problems we use some of the protocols as shown below.
SDMA: Wireless stations (WSs), which are distantly located, access the medium by
transmitting at the same f
c0
as well as in the same time-slot SL in different spaces only.
Wireless stations located at suitable distances from each other are then said to transmit using
SDMA.
TDMA: When WSs are located in the same space, then WSs can access the medium in m
different time-slots, SL
0
to SL
m-1
, when there are m slots in a TDMA. DECT systems use
TDMA for controlling medium access. Half of the TDMA slots are used for uplink and half
for downlink.
FDMA: This is the another scheme of operation is that the uplink and downlink access of the
WSs in the medium are in different time-slots or in the same slots,SL
0
to SL
m-1
, but the
uplink and downlink frequencies of the radio carrier, f
c
, are distinct for FDD access. Also
different uplink-downlink frequency pairs are assigned distinct f
c
s in a cell. This is called
FDMA.
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ALOHA: Simple method for reducing the collisions is to employ the basic ALOHAnet
protocol for a point-to-point or broadcast network. Whenever a WS has any voice-data or
data to transmit, it just transmits the data. In case there is interference or collision, the WS
retransmits the data at a later instant.
Slotted ALOHA: In which a WS retransmits in a discrete time-slot instead of transmitting at
a random time. A WS cannot transmit at any time, but just at the beginning of that time-slot.
Thus the chances of collisions are reduced.
Reservation ALOHA: In which the slots of the WSs are reserved as per the current demand
of the WSs.
CSMA: Each WS first listens whether the carrier f
c
is already present in the channel to be
used and transmits only when there is no carrier present because only then will there be a
negligible chance of interference or collision. This method is called CSMA.
CSMA/CA [CSMA/collision avoidance]: Each node wits for certain period of time after
sensing the carrier after which the carrier is sensed again.
CSMA/CD [CSMA/collision detection]: Is a protocol in which it is checked whether a
collision is detected at the transceiver before transmitting.

2.1.1 Exposed terminal problem
When ch
2
is active, then ch
0


cannot be used by WS
3
for transmitting to WS
0
even though
there is no interference between ch
0
and ch
2
. This is because WS
3
senses that the radio carrier
frequency f
c
is being used by WS
2
and backs off. Ws
3
is thus exposed to the WS
2
carrier
2.1.2 Hidden terminal problem

There could also be a case where WS
3
cannot sense the ch
0
signals from WS
0
. This is
because the signal strength decreases as the inverse of the square of the distance between the two
terminals. When WS
0
transmits to WS
1
or WS
2
, since WS
3
does not sense that the radio carrier f
c

is being used by WS
0
, WS
3
also starts transmitting to WS
1
or WS
2
. The radio carriers from WS
0
and WS
3
interfere in the region near WS
1
and WS
2
. The collisions of the signals from WS
0
are
not detected by WS
0
in CSMA. This is because WS
0
is hidden to the WS
3
carrier.
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2.1.3 Media Access Control for Near and Far Terminals
Assume that WS
3
sends signals via ch
0
for WS
0
. The signal strength is weak along the
ch
0
region near WS
0
. This is because the signal strength decreases as inverse of the square of the
distance between the two terminals. When WS
0
is transmitting to WS
1
or WS
2
, the WS
3
signal,
being weak because of its proximity to WS
0
, is not listened by WS
0
. This is because the ch
1

signal strengths are higher near WS
0
as compared to the ch
0
signal strength. The strong ch
1

signals superimpose on the weak ch
0
signals at WS
0
. WS
3
is the far terminal and WS
1
or WS
2
are
the near terminal.
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2.2 Introduction to CDMA-based systems
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is used as a multiplexing method in many mobile
telephony systems. Such systems are called CMDA systems.
FEATURES OF CDMA SYSTEMS:
CDMA is more robust for multi-path delay and provides higher immunity towards
frequency selective fading.
CDMA systems use a good set of codes. A good set of CDMA code is one in which all
the codes are orthogonal to each other and which results in autocorrelation at the receiver.
A set of n equally spaced frequencies, known as chipping or hopping frequencies, is used
for transmission either in direct sequence or by frequency hopping. The n chipping or
hopping frequency signals are given as.
S
(n-1)
(t)=s
(n-1)
*(s
0
/n) sin{2*(f
c0
+(n-1)f
s
)* t +
r0
}
A CDMA DSSS receiver (fig. 4.6) XORs the received signal with the chipping code,
which was used for transmission, thus giving back the original symbol in user data.
A CDMA FHSS receiver (fig. 4.7) demodulates the signals of that channel frequency
which corresponds to the code symbol for the hop.
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CDMA systems give signals of higher voice and data quality and small bit error rate.
CDMA systems have soft handover.
CDMA systems perform power control by open loop or closed loop methods to solve the
problem of drowning of signals from far mobile terminals by those from the near
terminal.









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2.2.1 Spread spectrum in CDMA systems
CDMA systems employ spread spectrum techniques for medium access control, CDMA
can work in two different ways.
1. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).
2. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS).
Spread spectrum is a transmission technique that provides a novel solution to the
interference problem.
FEATURES OF SPREAD SPECTRUM:
Reduced co-channel interference.
Greatly reduced narrow-band interference.

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2.2.2 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
If a sequence of data needs to be transmitted by the sender, data is XORed with a
pseudorandom code. The result looks like a random set of numbers. This random set of numbers
is transmitted.
The receiver receives the random number, the random number is XORed with the same
pseudorandom code to retrieve back the data that user intended to send.
The block diagram for DSSS transmitter and receiver is fig: 4.6 in page 144.

2.2.3 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS):
FHSS is a method of transmitting user data using one of the carrier-frequency channels in
a given interval of time from among multiple channels and then hop the channel frequency to
another channel in the next interval of time.
If a sequence of data needs to be transmitted, then it will be transmitted at different
frequencies based on pseudorandom code.
The receiver should know the random code. The receiver should read the frequencies in
the order of the random code to obtain the data back.
Slow FHSS: FHSS spectrum in which the interval during a hop, t
h
>> t
s
, is called FHSS. A
number of symbols transmitted during a channel hop period.
Advantage:
Even if a channel frequency signal is faded at the receiver due to narrow band
interface, the other symbols are received correctly.
Fast FHSS: FHSS in which the interval during a hop, t
h
>> ts. During a symbol period, a large
number of frequency hops take place.
Advantage:
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Even if a few channel frequencies are faded at the receiver due to narrow band
interference, the symbol is received correctly.

The block diagram for FHSS transmitter and receiver is fig: 4.7 in page 145.

2.3 OFDM:
OFDM is a spread-spectrum-based technique for distribution of data over a larger of sub-
carriers that are spaced at precise frequency intervals with a coding scheme.
OFDM is also called COFDM (code orthogonal frequency division multiplexing), it is
also called spread-spectrum based multi-carrier or discrete multi-tone modulation. The term
COFDM is used in order to distinguish the modulation method from quadrature modulation
QPSK.
Characteristics:
High spectral efficiency.
Strong resiliency to RF inter-symbol interferences.
Lower multi-path distortion.
Applications:
Used in Wireless LANs for point-to-point transmission and for multicasting.
Used in digital audio broadcasting (DAB), digital video broadcasting (DVB).
Also used in asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL).
2.3.1 Techniques in OFDM:
Wideband OFDM (WOFDM): Is a technique in which spacing between multi-carrier channels
is made large. Therefore, any frequency error between the transmitter and the receiver do not
affect system performance.
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Flash OFDM: Is another technique based on the FHSS spectrum. It is also called fast-hopped
OFDM.
MIMO-OFDM (multiple input, multiple output OFDM): Is a technique in which multiple
antennae are used for inputs and outputs. It provides broadband wireless access (BWA) and
performs well in multiple non-line-of-sight multiple-path environments.
VOFDM (vector OFDM): Is another technique based on MIMO-OFDM.