1969 EandW On The Purification Concept in Indian Tradition With Special Regard To Yoga
1969 EandW On The Purification Concept in Indian Tradition With Special Regard To Yoga
1969 EandW On The Purification Concept in Indian Tradition With Special Regard To Yoga
0)
A, VII, pp. 98 and 1 12; VI, p. 285.
Cf. also Siddhi, p. 771.
(
1
1
)
A, VII, p. 101.
(
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0
2
)
Siddhi, II, p. 771 and A, VII, p. 1 12.
( 1
3
)
Ibid., II, p. 507.
( 1
4
)
Ibid. , p. 800.
praJna , as E. Lamotte observes, apparait en pleine lumiere cans les abhijna ou pouvoirs
surnaturels decoulant du recueillement e05 ). And the association between abhijnas and
prajna or higher knowledge is constant : i AK we read that the abhijnas are "prajna de
vimuktimirga" e06 ) and in the prajniparamiti lterature, for example, the declaration that
the bodhisattva who wishes to preserve the six abhijnis must cultivate perfection of the
prajni e07) is frequendy repeated. Moreover, particularly in Mahayanic literature, the
abhijnas take frst place in all the lists of qualities, states, means favourable to illumination,
either peculiar to the bodhisattva or to the "body of Tathagata" cos ) or to the "nature of
Buddha" C0").
From these few references, that could however be multiplied for ever, it is evident
that the close conexion between the concepts of purifcation, knowledge and power, their
dynamism and functionality already noted in classical Yoga and, under other forms, also
in certain aspects of Vedism, are equaly present, and even more clearly, in Buddhism.
Even in this feld Buddhism seems to have gone deeper into and made more clear and arti
culate themes that have not been completely analyzed or made explicit in other doctrines .
The comparison with Yoga, particularly close to Buddhism for various reasons, both his
torical and typological, seems most useful to us since it helps to confrm and enrich the
general and particular conclusions drawn above with regard to Yoga; general, in relation
to the central position and continuity of the purifcation -knowledge -power pattern
i Indian tradition; particular in the sense that the comparison with Buddhism and the
doctrine of the abhijnas makes the inadequacy of an oversimple and unilateral judgement
:m the siddhis and vibhutis in Yoga directly evident. Conversely, the complex function
rg of the latter within the basic structure hinged on purifcation, knowledge and power,
apart from being indicated by the Yoga texts themselves, is illustrated point by point in
Buddhism' s corresponding doctrine of the abhijnas.
It is interesting to note how in the development of Mahayana the abhijnas at a certain
pit no longer appear in balance with the other dharmas useful for attaining the ultimate
:eazations, but begin to predominate until they reach a veritable ination, an "unbridled
-haumaturgy" (
11
0 ) : the bodhsattva is a being endowed with unlimited abhijnas, with
-bch, in contrast to the Hinayanic saint, he plays (abhijnavikrztana) without efort (cit-
-1naboghena) C11 ), using them incessantly both to convert and to mature. The abhijnas
:. us become the pivot of upayakaufalya or ability in the saving means, an expression, in
i:s turn, of the great compassion ( mahakarua). The plenitude of the abhijnas is no other
;a the science of Buddha ( buddhajnina) Cu), it is the force of the abhijnis that makes
:he wheel of the law ( dharmacakra) go round. The greatest danger, in this context, is no
( 15 ) Sss, lntrod. , p. 23.
(
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6)
AK, VII, p. 100.
(
1
"7) Cf. for example Pafca-vitsati-sahasrika
?"ifi-paramita, ed. N. DuTT, Lndon, 1934, p.
251 .
2 19
(
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0
8
) Cf. for example Vkn, p. 140.
(
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9) Cf. for example Sss, pp. 31 and 1 31 f.
{
11
0
) Sss, Introd. , p. 58.
( m) Ibid. , p. 35.
(
112
) Vkn, p. 1 10.
longer seen in the use of the powers, but rather in complacent indulgence in ecstasy ad
meditation: dhyana, samadhi and samapatti are to be considered as hell, woe be to those
who enjoy its savour (samadhirasasvadana) ( 11 3 ) . Yoga or other forms of Buddhism, while
maintaining that samadhi is only a means and as such also to be overcome, does not give
similar attention to the dangers of the phenomenon nor, even less, does it demonstrate such
radical intransigence; not to speak of a misunderstood conception of Yoga that identifes
its goal with samadhi. In a word, in the way of the bodhisattva !'accent est mis non plus
sur la technique de la concentration, mais sur la force magique ( rddhibala) qui en decoule
pour le plus grand bien des etres
( 114 )
.
For ths reason the least desirable abhijfa, from
some aspects, is precisely the sixth which by changing the devotee into arhat prevents him
from remaining among human beings ; it wil thus be necessary not to obtain it "a con
tretemps" ( akalam) (
11
5 ), or to realize it only in part, in conformity, i other words, with
the apratiHhitanirvata or non defnitive nirVata, that allows h to remain in the satsara
for the relief of his fellow men.
7 - Purity and Ritual
Classical Yoga, together with other doc trines conventionally noted for their peculiarly
1'anti-ritualist" nature - such as Buddhism and Vedanta - actually reveal several ritual
elements . Among the various obligations ( niyama) YS II, 32, for example, mentions sauca
or purity, produced, according to the commentators, both by practices such as ablutions,
etc. , and by eating sacrifcially pure food ( medhya) , in relation to which TV mentions
cow' s urine, barley, etc. It should moreover be remembered that in current practice of
any type of Yoga a ritual approach is constantly to be found: choice of a place that is
either naturally pure" - like a mountain top - or that has been duly purifed with
aspersions and scents; choice of the most propitious time; contact of the devotee with pure
objects, like the antelope hide (
11
6) - associated since ancient times with consecration cere
monies - on which he sits during meditation, etc. All this not to speak of the precepts,
such as chastity or fasting linked with phases of the moon, generaly associated with the
most various rituals and with that fundament al Vedic-Brahmanic component, brahmacarya.
In relation to Buddhism, Paul Levy ( 1
1
7 ) has recently devoted particuar attention to its
ritualistic aspect ( sufce it to thi of the monastic ordination ceremonies) which has for the
most part been neglected or undervalued in studies of the subject. Similarly it is hardy
necessary to recal that a sannyasin or ascetic of the "philosophic" order par excellence,
i . e. Vedanta, must undergo a dik!a or consecration (
118
)
,
and, i givig hself up to medit-
( 113)
Ibid. , p. 347.
(
114 ) S
ss, Introd. , p. 23.
(
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S
ss, p. 133.
(
116
)
Cf. for all this in general, LINDQUIST,
Die Methoden, cit. , pp. 22 f. ; for the antelope
hide, Sathapata - Brahmaa, transl. by EGGELING,
220
V, Index.
{
117 ) P. LEV, Buddhism: a Mystery Religion'?,
London, 1957.
.
(
118
)
Cf. GoNA, Change, ct. , pp. 337 f. ;
G. S. GHRY, Indian Sadhus, Bombay, 19642,
pp. 82-97; for a fairly interesting approach to the
ation, must subject hmself too to the injunctions of a ritual nature mentioned wid1 refe
rence to Yoga
( 118 ) .
Now we may wonder what is the relation between these ritual elements and the gen
eral conception of purifcation-knowledge-power seen to be at the basis of Yoga and similar
doctrines. Obviously, while rejecting a mechanical and sclerotized ritual approach
C
20),
Yoga, and also Buddhism, seem far from excluding certain fundamental principles proper
to VedismjBrahmanism. For this motive we feel it is quite legitimate - without ques
tioning all the diferentiations that have occurred throughout the historical development of
Indian religions - to speak, with Hauer, of an "eternal India" C21). In this way the
questionable interpretation of pre-Aryan inuences ( evidence of which is i any case fairly
vague) as responsible for radical changes and innovations in India' s religious panorama C
22
)
may be avoided. Here also, moreover, it may be observed - as in the case of the siddhis
- that explaining the persistence of ritual elements in Yoga by attributing them to a tra
ditionalist conservatism proper to the schools - like Yoga and Buddism - that were i
fact opposed to the brahmanic tradition on various points ( animal sacrifce, castes, etc. ) is
most unconvincing. Rather, it seems clear to us that Yoga ( and naturally, similar sote
riological doctrines ) considers recourse to means that are not exclusively psychical as ef
cacious for its purpose, evidently deeming the m useful from the purifcaton-power-kow
ledge aspect described above. Ths is a cohe rent part of the more specifcally yogic
theory: if the three gufas must be progressively purifed in order to reach the complete
purity that is Yoga' s aim, then the tamas, which includes the physical sphere - hence the
body, environment and objects C23 )
P
must also be the object of purication. This puri-
Vedantic dzki as it appears today, see A. BHARATI,
The Ochre Robe, London, 1961, pp. 1 14 f.
(
1
19) Further, for Saikhara's position on rites
see below, p. 30.
(
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0 )
W
hich, as G. VA DER LEEUW, Phno
menologie de Religion, Tubingen, 19562, It. transl.
Turin, 1960, p. 283, observes, is a feature common
to varios religions : when the sacrifice becomes a
mechanism there is opposition within the religions
and the sacrificial practice is denounced as impiety.
The Author's observations on the connexion be
tween purification and power and the central
position occupied by these concepts in the various
religions ( ibid., pp. 271-276 and pp. 7-18) are
also, we feel, particularly interesting for the pur
poses of this research. We do not however find
adequate confirmation in Indian religions of what
he afrms on the subject of interiorization: viz.
that the latter, together with scepticism, is detri
mental to belief in the purifying force of the
celebration ( ibid., p. 275). Yet in the more
advanced forms of Tantrism for example, we
would appear to find ourselves in the presence
of a type of interioriation that has in no way
221
debilitated faith i n the efcacy of the ritual.
( 121) HUER, Der Yoga, cit., p. 95.
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Once again we would like to quote
GNA's balanced words : it is my conviction that
the differences have, on the other hand, not rarely
been exaggerated or thrown into undue relief. Or
perhaps we should rather say, that a systematical
examination of the similarities has not always been
carried out, that their very occurrence has ben
left in the dark (Change, cit. , p. 199) .
( 123)
In other words the principle of external
( bihya) purity, of such central importance throug
out Hinduism ( to the point of reaching a veritable
hypertrophy: sufce it to think of the endless
codification of pure and impure items in relation
to the caste system), a premise in general of the
religious and social order and in particular of the
acquisition of interal (intara) or mental purity
for anyone following a way of liberation. In the
Tantric tradition some of these rituals, as for
example nyisa the casting of syllables or man
tras onto the various .arts of the yogin's body
to purify it, often assimilating it to the deities
represented by the syllables and mantras used -
fcation, since the tamas is the lowest and heaviest of the gutas, must necessarily precede
purifcation of the emotional and mental spheres ( rajas and sattva) : in view of the unitary
relationship linking the three gutas it would be nonsensical to consider purifying the rajas
and sattva while the tamas is still impure. Its impurity would be a basic impurity that
would succeed in impeding the purity of the other two: the process is strictly ascensional
and gradual. On the other hand, in fact, achievement of purity of the rajas or sattva
due to the relationship described above - automatically implies possession of a tamas that
is already pure and thus makes recourse to ri tes and purifying precepts C
2
4) , i. e. , in Yoga,
yama and niyama, superfuous. The afore-mentioned