Sustainable Mobility in African Cities
Sustainable Mobility in African Cities
Sustainable Mobility in African Cities
2 Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities
HS/013/11E
ISBN: 978-92-1-132324-5
Acknowledgement
Principal authors: Sara Candiracci, Christian Schlosser (UN-HABITAT), Heather Allen (UITP)
Contributors: Yvonne Kunz, Moritz Blasius, Jeppe Mikel Jensen (UN-HABITAT),
Ousmane Thiam (UATP), Eric Kouakou (UITP)
Editor: Dominic O’Reilly
Design and layout: Andrew Ondoo
Printed by: Printing and Prepress: UNON/Publishing Services Section/Nairobi, ISO 14001:2004-certified
Cover photo: An overloaded lorry in the streets of Nairobi. © UN-HABITAT
Disclaimer
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression
of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of
any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries
or regarding its economic system or degree of development. The analysis, conclusions and recommendations
of the report do not necessarily reflect the views of UITP, UATP nor the United Nations Human Settlements
Programme, the Governing Council of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme or its Member
States.
Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities 3
Background
T
he following report is the summary of the seminar Agenda 21, a key outcome of the Earth Summit,
‘Sustainable Development of Public Transport in clearly mentions transport in Chapter 7, “Promoting
Africa’, held in Nairobi, Kenya, on November 10 sustainable human settlements development”, and
and 11, 2009. The event was jointly organised by the Chapter 9, “Protection of the atmosphere”. Transport is
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN- part of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPoI,
HABITAT), UITP (the International Association of 2002). Countries agreed to promote an integrated
Public Transport) and UATP (the African Association approach to policy making, including policies and
of Public Transport). planning for land use, infrastructure, public transport
systems and goods delivery networks with a view to
The meeting assembled experts from around the providing safe, affordable and efficient transportation,
world to share knowledge and expertise with a focus increasing energy efficiency, reducing pollution,
on urban passenger mobility in Africa in preparation reducing congestion, reducing adverse health effects
for the United Nations Commission of Sustainable and limiting urban sprawl.
Development’s 18th and 19th sessions in 2010 and
2011. The joint declaration and this report synthesise The United Nations Commission for Sustainable
the key messages from the event. Development (CSD) was established in 1992 to review
progress on the implementation of the commitments
For UN-HABITAT, urban mobility is a key element and goals set out in Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg
of sustainable urbanization in response to social and Plan of Implementation. The CSD review and policy
economic challenges in developing countries as well debate focuses on thematic clusters of selected topics and
as climate change. UITP, in its role as the professional the goal is to advance global consensus on sustainable
body advocates the use and increased investment in development in the various sectors.
organised passenger public transport, covers all modes
of collective urban passenger transport, including bus, Since CSD reviewed the topic of transport, together
rail (metro, light rail and commuter), waterborne, cars with energy, at its ninth, 14th and 15th sessions (2001,
and bike sharing. Its African division, UATP, focuses 2006 and 2007), significant new challenges have
on the specific needs and requirements of Sub-Saharan emerged for transport globally. Transport is again part
Africa and its membership also includes those involved of the 2010-2011 cycle. At its 18th session in May 2010,
in transporting freight. the Commission reviewed progress in implementation
with regard to the thematic clusters of transport,
In 2005, UN-HABITAT and UITP signed a chemicals, waste management, mining and the ten-year
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to foster framework of programmes on sustainable consumption
cooperation in the areas of sustainable mobility and and production patterns. The review session focussed
public transport and which aims to combine research, on the analysis of trends, issues and policy options while
policy advocacy, capacity building and expert assistance the policy cycle in 2011 will look at how to overcome
to improve the sustainability of cities worldwide. constraints, obstacles and barriers to implementation1.
International agreements and sustainable This report and the declaration supports the concept
development that sustainable urban transport can play a significant
In recent years, the international community role in efforts towards achieving the most broadly-
has taken important decisions aimed at enhancing supported development aims - the Millennium
sustainable development worldwide. These include Development Goals - to eradicate extreme poverty and
historic summits and high-level meetings such as the hunger and to ensure environmental sustainability.
United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), commonly known as the
Earth Summit (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1992) and the
World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD,
Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002).
1 UN Department of Social and Economic Affairs 2009
Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities 5
Contents
Background 4
List of Abbreviations 6
01. Introduction 7
1.1 Global developments and sustained urbanization 7
1.2 Urban transport and climate change: the role of developing countries 8
04. Moving forward: opportunities for sustainable urban mobility in African Cities 19
APPENDIX 22
A. Declaration on “Sustainable Public Transport for Africa” 22
B. List of Participants “Sustainable Public Transport for Africa”, Nairobi,
Kenya – November 10-11, 2009 23
C.Programme “Sustainable Public transport for Africa”, Nairobi,
Kenya – November 10-11, 2009 26
References 29
Table of Boxes
Box 1: Key challenges faced by African cities in promoting sustainable transport 10
Box 2: Douala, Cameroon focuses on comprehensive measures for road rehabilitation,
new vehicles and services improvements 10
Box 3: Transport demand management tools 11
Box 4: Bikes for water, sanitation & income generation in Kenyan informal settlements 14
Box 5: Public transport experiences from Dakar, Senegal 15
Box 6: Rea Vaya (“We are going”), Johannesburg – a world class BRT system 16
Box 7: The BRT “Lite” System in Lagos, Nigeria 17
6 Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities
List of Abbreviations
01. Introduction
E
fficient and inclusive urban mobility is essential developing countries3. Fewer than 20 per cent 4of urban
for economic and social development since it residents own and use a private car while the majority
enables citizens to access goods, services, jobs, relies on informal or formal public transport, taxis,
markets, education opportunities and social contacts. walking or cycling.
Access to mobility enhances quality of life but growing
motorisation and unmanaged transport in many cities Despite this, cities have the potential to contribute to
is also associated with congestion, air pollution, traffic- economic growth and wealth generation of developing
related accidents, the waste of productive time and other nations but the rapid deterioration of the living
social and environmental costs. environments in heavily-congested cities and towns
threatens to undermine their ability to be engines of
This report intends to raise awareness of sustainable growth. Roads unsafe for walking and cycling and the
urban transport systems among policy-makers in decreasing efficiency and reliability of public transport
developing cities and their advisors. It outlines examples affect the poor the most but the increasing levels of air
of successful policies and reforms as well as cutting- pollution and congestion hampers economic vitality and
edge operational and technical expertise. The aim is to quality of life in general, which has a negative impact on
support progress in moving towards more sustainable everyone.
transport systems and to outline key messages from the
combined knowledge of all actors active in the transport The recent worldwide financial and economic crisis
sector which will include private and public operators, has had a direct impact on transport. Fewer funds
local, regional and national governments, the service are available for infrastructure investments and there
and supply industry, scientific institutions and civil has been a dampening of travel demand. However, it
society organizations. is likely that these effects are only temporary and that
demand for travel will increase further in much of
urbanised Africa5.
1.1 Global developments and
Current trends suggest that few cities in developing
sustained urbanization
countries will be able to afford the investment required
Half of the world’s population now live in cities and for transport infrastructure and services to satisfy either
by 2030 this figure is expected to rise to two-thirds. A present or future mobility demands. At present, the
total of 95 per cent of future urban growth is expected majority of the investment in transport infrastructure
to occur in developing countries, where motorization is caters to the needs of the users of private motor
rising rapidly and creating major challenges2. vehicles, who are still a minority in most African cities.
Sustainable urban transport policies have to address
Generally, transport and mobility can be regarded
such imbalances, which has immediate relevance for
as essential preconditions for achieving sustainable
alleviating social inequity.
development. However, looking at recent trends in
developing countries it is clear that a lack of adequate
transport infrastructure and affordable transport services
has exacerbated rather than alleviated widespread
poverty and social exclusion and is a major obstacle
to the achievement of the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs).
Cities in developing countries are facing severe traffic
congestion and worsening air pollution. The health
effects of urban air pollution are estimated to cost 3 UNEP, 2009
4 Trans African Consortium, 2010. Note: This figure is considered to be quite
approximately more than 5 per cent of the GDP in conservative and in many cities in Sub-Saharan Africa it is nearer 10 - 12per
cent whilst it may be slightly over 20per cent in South African cities.
5 For further information please see presentations give at the meeting (http://www.
2 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2008 unhabitat.org/content.asp?cid=7997&catid=639&typeid=11&subMenuId=0)
8 Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities
T
he situation of and the impacts caused by the public transport compounded by inadequate transport
transport sector in Africa matches the picture infrastructure. Increased population, widespread
described for developing countries in general. poverty and inequality combined with limited public
Fast-growing cities demand increased transport services capacity and resource shortages exacerbate the challenge
and they are especially prevalent in Africa. of moving people and goods efficiently.
Traffic congestion is an everyday problem that is
2.1 Challenges for Sustainable Urban hampering Africa’s economic development and every
Mobility in Africa day a lot of productive time is lost. Regardless of income
or social status, the conditions under which residents of
Africa is home to over 13 per cent of the world’s total
African cities travel has become more and more difficult
population and is growing at 2.7 per cent per year,
and, for many, is close to being intolerable. Unfortunately,
which is the world’s fastest rate. The share of Africa’s
it is often those that have the least that have to pay the
urban areas in relation to the average annual population
highest price on – both financially and socially.
growth is expected to more than double between the
years 2000-2030. How well rapidly-growing cities are able to meet
the demand for urban transport will have profound
Africa also faces special challenges when it comes
implications for economic productivity, social equity
to urban mobility. Over the past few decades, African
and environmental protection and will be reflected in
cities have experienced rapid motorization rates, which
the standards of living. Nairobi, for instance, is one of
resulted in chronic traffic congestion, extremely high
the fastest-growing cities in the world, with more than
levels of local pollution and poor levels of service for
10 Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities
5 per cent annual growth7. The city faces significant 2.2 Infrastructure and road
challenges to reconcile demand for transport with maintenance
the present infrastructure and what it can afford to
Road transport is the predominant mode in Africa for
change as it tries to move its citizens towards better and
trips of more than 10 km. There is not only a lack of
sustainable transport.
paved roads, with 7 km per 100 km², compared with
Decisions taken today on infrastructure development 170 km per 100 km² in Europe, but 40 per cent of
and urban planning will lock cities into mobility behaviour these roads are in poor condition. Moreover, there is
patterns for the next 30 to 50 years. Therefore, it is vital also a lack of facilities for non-motorized transport
that these decisions help African countries to take low- modes such as bike lanes or footpaths that would make
carbon development opportunities rather than following walking more attractive and safer.
conventional economic models based on fossil fuels.
2.3 Integrating transport and land patterns in order to reduce the use of energy and natural
use planning resources.” 8
In African cities, transportation and land use policies In recent years, more and more African city
are frequently considered separately, which results in the governments have recognized the need for an integrated
inefficient use of resources and higher environmental city planning approaches. As presented in the workshop,
damage. Due to a prevailing lack of coordination, the City of Mombasa is now looking at a comprehensive
construction of new transport infrastructure often low-carbon city (re)development strategy, which will
disrupts neighborhoods and results in the relocation of include transit-oriented planning, parking management
urban residents to the periphery, increasing their travel and the creation of high-quality walking areas in the
distances and expenditure on transport. Residents of historic city centre.
low-income neighborhoods are especially prone to
displacement and more vulnerable to changes in their Better planning is also increasingly on the policy
mobility patterns. agenda at regional and national level. In recent years,
a number of transport and city master plans have been
For achieving sustainable mobility, it is crucial to developed. The Republic of South Africa, for instance,
integrate infrastructure development with land use has approved a national transport master plan for the
planning. Agenda 21 calls upon year 2050 to enhance integration and efficiency of land
use and transport planning countrywide. The future
“all countries to integrate land use and transportation
will show whether such plans will actually expand access
planning to encourage development patterns that reduce
and improve the quality of mobility for urban residents
transport demand; adopt urban transport programmes
in Africa.
favoring high occupancy, as appropriate; encourage non-
motorized modes of transport by providing safe cycle The workshop also served as a platform for presenting
ways and footways in urban and sub-urban centers in best practices for integrated land use planning, both
countries, as appropriate; devote particular attention to from developed and developing countries. Based on the
effective traffic management, efficient operation of public input by Mr. Armin Wagner of GTZ, Box 3 outlines an
transport and maintenance of public infrastructure; overview of transport and demand management tools,
promote the exchange of information among countries which have been proven to be successful in many cities
and representatives of local and metropolitan areas; around the globe.
and reevaluate present consumption and production
Transport demand management includes a variety of instruments as highlighted by the following table:
Planning Instruments Integration of Land Use and Transport Planning e.g. Transit-oriented development
Public Transport Promotion e.g. Priority at Intersections
Strategies for Non-Motorised Modes e.g. Cycling Policy
Regulatory Instruments Physical Restraint Measures e.g. Pedestrian Zones
Traffic Management Measures ITS
Regulation of Parking Supply Maximum parking limits
Low Emission Zone In City Center
Speed Restrictions (30 km/h) In built up areas
Economic Instruments Road Pricing e.g. during peak hours
Tax Incentives e.g. for cleaner vehicles
Parking Pricing Off- and on-street parking
Information Instruments Public Awareness Campaigns E.g. participation in Mobility Weeks
Stakeholder Conferences On transport policy documents
Driver Training/ Eco Driving e.g. for City drivers
Promotion of Mobility Management in Companies e.g. Employer Passes, flexible work hours
Technology Promotion of Cleaner Technology e.g. Green Procurement
Source: GTZ 2009
03. infrastructure
Travel modes and availability of
and services
T
he choice of the mode of transport for any trip is of everyday problems related to mobility. Access to
rarely an entirely free choice and often determined employment, social services and activities or educational
by financial resources available to the individual. opportunities requires long daily commutes. It is quite
At the same time, travel choices are shaped by the common for four hours or more to be spent in traffic
mobility needs of communities, the quantity and quality every day. The lack of decent transport options wastes
of mobility options or complementary alternatives, land both time and productivity.
use factors as expressed by the location of employment
opportunities or services and housing affordability. The past 30 years have seen the widespread demise
of formal public transport across Africa. Nowadays, the
Despite rapidly growing motorisation across the sector is almost entirely dominated by the privately-
continent, on average 80 per cent of Africa’s urban operated informal sector. This has resulted in poor
residents do not have access to personal vehicles and levels of service quality and transport being costly for
a large proportion does not even have any access to the urban poor with many residents spending 30 per
motorized transit services. Non-motorised modes of cent or more of their income for travelling to their work
transport such as cycling and walking make up the place.
overwhelming majority of all urban transport trips
while the lion’s share of motorized trips are made on
informal minibuses or motorcycle taxis9.
Many low-income residents who are living on the
outskirts of large cities such as Nairobi face a wide variety
9 Trans-African Consortium, 2010a
Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities 13
3.1 Non-motorized transport and Overall, the road design in most African cities lacks
road safety almost all of the features and facilities that would enable
safe and efficient road use for all.
In Africa, the majority of trips are still made by
walking and cycling. For example, in Dakar, Senegal, Another area of concern is the increasing use of
walking typically represents 71 per cent of all trips10. It motorized two-wheelers. In Douala, Cameroon, for
is believed that the same is true in many other African instance, motorcycle taxi use has grown tremendously,
cities yet providing precise figures on a comprehensive and now represents 30 per cent of all motorised trips11.
basis is difficult since non-motorized trips are often not This trend creates safety issues due to the poor or zero
counted in official census surveys. training undergone by many riders. In particular, many
do not have a driving license, have not been trained in
The perception of walking and cycling has frequently
safety or customer service and are not properly insured
had a negative connotation since both are often
to carry paying passengers.
associated with poverty rather than being seen as an
indicator of progress and efficiency. As a result, these Overall, participants of the conference agreed that
environmentally-benign modes of transport are often the image of walking and cycling needs to be improved
neglected in the design and modernization of either new across Africa to make it fashionable and attractive to use
or existing urban transport infrastructure investments. a bike, especially for trips of less than 15 km. New bike
loans or share schemes, as introduced in many cities
Under prevailing road infrastructure conditions,
across the developed and developing world, could be
the co-existence of non-motorized and motorized
a good option if adapted to the needs and conditions
transportation systems poses severe safety problems in
of Africa. Such new models would also create jobs for
most African cities. Pedestrians, cyclists, bullock-drawn
the management and maintenance of these systems.
carts, luxury cars, lorries and tractor-trailers share the
Another application for NMT, presented by UN-
same roadway. Traffic-related injuries and mortality rates
HABITAT, is the use of bicycle as a tool for water and
are extremely high by global standards — especially for
sanitation service provision (see Box 4).
pedestrians, since many streets do not have sidewalks.
10 See 9 11 Trans-African Consortium, 2010b
14 Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities
In 1999 Dakar’s transport was dominated by the old vehicles and now some 500 new vehicles
informal sector and was extremely fragmented and
difficult to manage. Problems with the transport (minibuses) and 400 city buses have been bought.
system were thought to be costing about 4% of GDP. A 99% recovery rate of the loans over a 3-5 year
There were more than 1,200 minibus operators and period demonstrates the success of this system.
converted vans nicknamed ‘car rapides’ and ‘ndiaga Indeed, these reforms benefitted the whole transport
nidaye’, with the majority of operators owning system – informal transport operators’ dominance
between one and four vehicles. This is still typical dropped from 95.4% to 66%, the private public bus
in most African cities. In Dakar the vehicles were on operator increased its market share from 3 to 13%
average 28 years old and the operators were not in and the small suburban rail network also became
a financially stable position to replace them. more attractive. In addition to the creation of these
Reform stared in 1997 with the creation by the state bodies and the commitment to fleet renewal, the
of a coordinating body with executive powers for CETUD is also responsible for Dakar’s mobility plan.
urban transport in Dakar named Conseil Executif Further benefits to the community included the
des Transports (CETUD). In 2001, 446 operators introduction of area-wide ticketing, routes and
were regrouped into 13 cooperatives (GIE – Groups passenger information. Compensation could be paid
of economic interest – Groupements d’Intérêt to operators and training in financial management
Economic) to provide transport service under has been organized. By reducing the number
franchise. of operators, integrated transport planning and
This scheme supported by the World Bank makes integration between the different operators was
joining the GIE attractive to private operators as they made easier and more efficient. Bilateral aid has
can benefit from preferential financial conditions been forthcoming and this would not be an option
though this officially recognized body. The state without the creation of these formally-recognized
offered a scrappage scheme for the destruction of bodies.
Lagos, Nigeria – BRT Lite. © UITP Traffic congestion in Yaounde, Cameroun. © UITP
In 1999, public transport in Dakar was dominated by financial position to replace them.
the informal sector, which made it extremely fragmented
and difficult to manage. It was estimated that deficits Reform started in 1997 when the government created
associated with the transport system cost about 4 per a coordinating body with executive powers for urban
cent of GDP. There were more than 1,200 minibus transport in Dakar, the Conseil Executif des Transports
operators and converted vans nicknamed ‘car rapides’ (CETUD). In 2001, 446 operators were regrouped into
and ‘ndiaga nidaye’. The majority of operators owned 13 cooperatives (GIE – Groups of economic interest –
between one and four vehicles, a typical pattern in most Groupements d’Intérêt Economic) to provide transport
African cities. In Dakar, the vehicles were on average 28 service on a franchise basis.
years old and operators were not in a sufficiently stable
16 Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities
The scheme, supported by the World Bank, made the different actors was made easier and more efficient. It
joining the GIE attractive to private operators since was also possible to mobilize bilateral aid, which would
they were able to benefit from preferential financial not have been an option without the creation of these
conditions through this officially recognized body. The formally-recognized bodies.
government also offered a scrappage scheme for the
destruction of old vehicles, which led to the consecutive
acquisition of around 500 new minibuses and 400 city 3.3 Re-introducing mass transit in
buses. A 99 per cent recovery rate of these loans over a African cities
three to five year period demonstrates the success of this In recent years, Bus Rapid Transit systems (BRT) have
system. been successfully implemented in many Latin American
cities and the idea is now gaining popularity in Africa.
Moreover, these reforms benefitted the entire transport
Two projects have already been implemented and there
system: informal transport operators’ dominance
are several others in the pipeline. Valuable lessons can be
dropped from 95 to 66 per cent, private public bus
drawn from these first experiences in the region.
operators increased their market share from 3 to 13 per
cent and the small suburban rail network also became “Rea Vaya” in Johannesburg, South Africa, the first
more attractive. In addition to creating these new bodies full BRT system in Africa, and the BRT “Lite” system
and promoting fleet renewal, the CETUD has also been in Lagos, Nigeria, demonstrate that the idea is feasible
responsible for Dakar’s mobility plan. for African cities and that these new models can help to
reduce congestion and air pollution, reduce travel time
Further benefits to the community included the
and create new jobs. Box 6 offers a summary of the BRT
introduction of area-wide ticketing, routes and passenger
scheme in Johannesburg as presented by Ms. Coleen
information. Other components included the option to
McCaul. For the Lagos BRT “Lite”, an introduction
pay compensation to operators and training in financial
was given by Mr. Erik Kouakou (Box 7).
management. By reducing the number of operators,
integrated transport planning and integration between
Box 6: Rea Vaya (“We are going”), Johannesburg – a world class BRT system
To prepare for major international events such The implementation of the BRT system led to
the 2010 FIFA Football World Cup, the city of a significant reduction in the air pollution and
Johannesburg recognized the need for establishing congestion associated with the old minibuses. The
an effective mass transport system. With most intervention also had a significant role in improving
commuters having to travel long distances between the professionalism of the minibus and taxi industry.
the townships and the urban centre where they Furthermore, the government strengthened its role
work, mini buses or motor taxis were the only option in the design, monitoring and operations of the
available at that time. public transport network in line with the integrated
transport plans. Overall, the reforms implemented
Institutional reform was the first step towards a more brought wide benefits across the system. Minibus taxi
efficient public transport system in the most populous drivers now have improved working conditions and
city in South Africa, and the BRT system Rea Vaya is the they currently earn well above the average worker.
end product of an extensive consultation process. A fast
turnaround from planning to operations is one of the One of the key learning experiences that can be
main advantages of BRT as a public transport system, replicated elsewhere is how taxi and minibus owner
along with its affordability. An initial 25km corridor and drivers were given employment by inviting them
of BRT with Euro IV city buses replaced at least 1,100 to become shareholders in the new system. It was
minibus taxi vehicles. Phase 1 of the Rea Vaya already important to work with these owners and drivers
carries nearly 34,000 passengers daily and links the since 575 taxis needed to be withdrawn from serving
poorer township of Soweto to central Johannesburg. the corridor of the new BRT. Rea Vaya also created
The city paid for most of the construction: bus way about 700 new jobs in the 1st phase and 3,300
infrastructure and stations, an IT system for passenger temporary jobs during the construction period1.
information and fare collection. Private operators are
contracted to run the bus services, collect the fares and
maintain the stations.
Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities 17
In Lagos, BRT operations began in 2008 with a Construction of the BRT infrastructure and its
short 22km corridor along a congested bottleneck maintenance are the responsibilities of the local
and were designed to carry more than 200,000 government, whilst the operations are franchised
passengers daily. The scheme is referred to as a BRT to the private sector. Operators are responsible for
‘Lite’ system as it does not have all the attributes the purchase and maintenance of their own vehicles
of a full BRT system and the corridor is only partly and for the profitability of their operation.
segregated from the other traffic. However, it was
put in place quickly, taking only 15 months from The success of the new service was also helped by
conception to operation, and was delivered at a cost an extensive media campaign, including local radio
of Euro 1.2 million per km. After the introduction and TV talk shows, prior to opening. The public
of the system, 35 per cent fewer vehicles carry the enthusiastically adopted the system as fares were
same number of passengers and fuel consumption 30 per cent cheaper than on the informal transport
fell by 32 per cent along the corridor, reducing the vehicles and passengers enjoyed a 35 per cent
total annual output of CO2 by 25,000 tonnes. reduction in travel time with waiting time at bus
stops cut by an average of 55 per cent and by 73
A new institutional body and regulatory framework per cent at peak times.
was put in place and great care was taken from the
early planning and design phases to include both
the local trade unions and taxi and mini bus owners
who were already serving the route. They were
invited to be stakeholders in the new organisations
and take up the newly-franchised routes.
18 Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities
3.4 Skills, staffing and operational in Africa is to acquire second-hand vehicles both in the
challenges in the public transport formal and informal sector. The main reasons are the
sector poor state of the roads, leading to a quick degradation
of new vehicles.
The informal transport sector represents the majority
of operators in the transport system of African cities. In the context of the TransAfrica13 project, data was
Services are run on a day-to-day basis rather than with gathered on average operational costs in the public
any long-term perspective, and can be changed or cut transport sector. Results show that more than 30 per cent
on the whim of the owner. The prevalence of informal
transport operators has resulted in a lack of experienced
Figure 2: Average Operational Expenditures of the Pub-
personnel to run formal services. This lack of qualified lic Transport Sector (surveyed in the TransAfrica project)
staff is especially prevalent in the areas of middle
management with skills in staffing, customer relations, Fuel and oils 61.65 per cent
technical operations and maintenance. Spare parts 23.94 per cent
While there are few rail services still in operation Tyres 7.67 per cent
across Africa, there are good train services in South Labor 4.85 per cent
Africa. A promising new rail line in Gauteng province Other 1.89 per cent
linking Pretoria and Johannesburg marks the first
route of a series of ambitious projects to revitalize the
of the operating costs faced by bus operators are spent
country’s rail sector. Obviously, rail systems are more
on spare parts and tyre replacement. In combination
capital intensive than bus systems and need skilled staff
with expenditure for energy, these items represent the
for their implementation and maintenance. On the
lion’s share of the operational costs in public transport.
other hand, they have considerably longer life cycles
This pattern underscores the need to secure energy
of around 30 years, while road-based systems require
supplies, to use reliable and proven technology rather
major maintenance after only five years.
than expensive complex electronic systems and the
Apart from walking and cycling, buses are used for importance of keeping roads in good condition.
the majority of inner-city trips. Where formal public
The Trans-Africa project14 proved that the overall
transport is available, in such areas as Addis Ababa
expense of buying poorly-performing older vehicles is
(Ethiopia), Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire) and, to some
higher in the long run and it causes more environmental
extent, Nairobi (Kenya), the city bus is the workhorse.
harm. SOTRA, the public transport company in
However, as buses become more complex to maintain
Abidjan, Ivory Coast, conducted research comparing
and repair, the skills gap becomes more pronounced and
the economic sustainability of buying new (0-4 year
mechanics need to be not only able to read and write
old) and second-hand (4-7 year old) vehicles. According
and understand basic engineering but also be computer
to their experience, the higher capital investment of
literate as well.
newer buses can be offset within two to four years when
In the formal sector, the average age of public transport compared to the costs of a higher number of breakdowns
vehicles is between five and 15 years old. There is little from cheaper, older buses15.
information on the average age of privately-owned
informal sector vehicles. In Dakar, Senegal, for instance,
13 Trans-African Consortium, 2010b
prior to the bus reform the vehicles used were on 14 TransAfrica is a EU funded project lead by UITP from the 7th Framework
average 28 years old. Generally, the prevailing approach Programme
15Trans-African Consortium, 2010a
Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities 19
O
verall, participants of the workshop agreed efficient, affordable mobility systems that provide
that transport will be a key element for the access to markets, employment, education and enhance
future socio-economic development of African living standards and quality of life — all of which are
cities. As in other parts of the world, well-functioning critical for sustainable economic development and the
transport networks are seen as the basis of economic alleviation of poverty.
activity, social participation and significant generators In response, the central planning challenge for African
of employment and wealth. cities today is to devise strategies that increase mobility
Despite all the contemporary challenges, rapidly- for broad segments of the population at an affordable
growing cities in Africa also have a range of opportunities price without causing major environmental problems.
for urban development and developing mobility patters
that are less car-oriented when compared to other Towards a range of integrated mobility
options
regions and more socially inclusive.
The efficiency and reliability of any transportation
As the experiences exchanged at the event and beyond system depends on the multiplicity of options that
demonstrated, there are a number of positive trends are available. A transportation system dependent on a
already visible. BRT is becoming more popular in limited choice of transport modes is far more susceptible
Africa as seen by new systems in Johannesburg, South to inefficiency, disruption and system failure than one
Africa; Lagos in Nigeria, and soon in Dar es Salam, with a wider choice. What is needed is an urban space in
Tanzania, with plans for several other cities. Dakar in which alternative modes are allowed to cater for different
Senegal started its public transport reform in 1997, needs and wallets within a set of rules ensuring safety,
which included a reorganisation of informal transit affordability and a fair allocation of public road space.
operators and a scrappage scheme for the destruction
of high-emission vehicles and the acquisition of around
Informal Public Transport
500 new minibuses and 400 city buses.
High-quality public transport systems that cater for all
In Africa, many metropolises are only at the beginning segments of society can be a catalyst for the achievement
of their urbanization paths so there is a chance to avoid of the Millennium Development Goals since they provide
mistakes made in many developed countries. There, safe and affordable access to housing and employment
planning and designing cities prioritized cars and not opportunities across metropolitan areas.
people in cities for a long time. In many industrialized
countries, the post-World War II emphasis of urban However, in most African cities the contemporary
design was on improving conditions for car travel while public transport sector is currently still dominated
neglecting the needs of non-motorized transport users by loosely-regulated informal sector operators and
and public transport. uncoordinated transit systems. This creates a challenge
for gathering data and statistics on the economic value of
Addressing the energy challenge in transport transport and also poses economic, environmental and
social risks. For instance, unregulated and underpaid
Another challenge that can be turned into an informal transport can exert a downward pressure on
opportunity is the need to address the global energy pay and working conditions in the entire sector and is
challenge. Over the next 20 years, transportation is often associated with ignorance towards environmental
expected to be the major driving force behind a projected protection requirements.
growing world demand for energy, mostly from
developing countries and emerging economies. Further Generally, there is greater job security for those working
resource depletion, pollution and rising expenditures in the formal sector or in informal sector operations
for fossil fuel imports can only be avoided if low-carbon that adhere to some of the principles of formal regimes.
growth options are pursued. In these regimes employees receive minimum levels of
20 Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities
training on customer care and safety which can also Transport investments and job creation
serve them in other jobs outside of transport sector. The Experience from other continents demonstrates that
passenger is also reassured. investments in improving urban mobility can have
In Africa, formalization of the sector could take various significant impacts on economic growth and poverty
forms. One example is the consolidation of a multitude alleviation. In most established economies, the transport
of different operators into a few formal transit authorities sector is a cornerstone and an important source of jobs.
bodies as implemented in Dakar, Senegal or in Lagos, Furthermore, there are substantial multiplier effects
Nigeria, where the new BRT system is operated under since every direct job in the transport service sector
franchise by one of the largest associations of private usually results in 2 to 2.5 indirect jobs in other sectors. For
operators, which were established by the former owners instance, investments in urban transport infrastructure
of informal minibuses who have now regrouped. not only creates jobs during the construction phase,
Formalization can result in significant benefits both but also maintenance jobs as well positions in transport
in terms of increased safety and salary reliability, as operations. Even though there are no comprehensive global
earnings are not based on the number of passengers employment statistics for public transportation available,
carried. At the same time, if new public transport there is no doubt that the sector is a major employer in
systems are being planned, it is vital for successful most countries17 and that expanded investments would
implementation to integrate the informal sector also have far-reaching benefits for African cities.
as early as possible and some level of resistance will
be inevitable. The most recent example can be seen Sustainable transport investments and
opprtunities for the Green Economy
in South Africa, where the established taxi industry
was initially heavily opposed to the introduction of Yet beyond the direct and indirect economic impacts,
the new “Rea Vaya” BRT system, despite efforts being investments in sustainable urban mobility can also be
made to integrate it into the new system. important elements of strategies for moving towards green
economies, a task many governments and companies
For implementing mass transit options, the worldwide have already placed high on their agenda.
formalization of transit operations is crucial. Since
the frequency of services is carefully calibrated, bus Due to the importance of the transport sector both
breakdowns and other operational failures have to be in terms of its economic impact but also in regard to
minimized, which implies that buses must be kept in its share among total of energy consumption, applying
excellent condition. Hence, even if BRT systems replace green technologies and processes in urban mobility will
some existing informal operations, they offer at the be a crucial component of comprehensive investment
same time a substantial number of better-qualified jobs strategies towards more sustainable ways of production
in operations, maintenance and customer services16. of goods and services in the entire economy. Proven
technology exists for mass transit options using alternative
Travel Demand Management energies, but these are all still quite expensive, especially
for the developing world. UITP has developed a voluntary
Opportunities for growing African cities also exist in
charter to promote sustainable development principles
terms of travel demand management. To reduce demand
within the public transport sector and to collect good
for inner-city travel, better integration of development
examples from all types of urban transport actors.
plans with transport infrastructure can result in more
effective investments. Planning for compact cities and In relation to urban passenger travel, a major
neighborhoods shortens trip distances and makes public investment opportunity exists for IT applications and
transport more economically viable and reduces the need telematics that support the provision of comprehensive
for motorized travel by co-locating settlements, work alternatives to car use by providing real-time and tailored
and school facilities. Compact communities not only information on alternatives such as public transport or
make walking more desirable and public transport more rental bikes. At the same time, the application of new
attractive, if planned right they also contribute to safer technologies, such as better traffic management or more
and more liveable cities in general. Therefore, enhanced comprehensive “Intelligent Transportation Systems”
systems for public and non-motorized transport in well- can be a driver for enhancing the operational efficiency
designed communities can have significant benefits for of the entire transport sector and reducing energy
enabling access to better housing and employment consumption of all forms of motorized transport.
options for the poor.
16 UNEP 2008 17 UNEP 2008
Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities 21
Another impetus towards greener mobility can be To work towards livable urban regions, coordinated
catalysed through promoting vehicle technologies that national and local policy interventions are needed
provide mobility that is free of local pollution impacts. to establish affordable, economically-viable, socially-
If options such as electric bikes, cars, buses, trams or acceptable and environmentally-sound urban transport
urban rail systems are being powered by renewable systems. Integrated urban transport planning, supported
energy sources they can account for significant positive by fiscal and regulatory policies and paired with the
environmental advantages both at the local and global development of new technologies and the scaling up
level. They would also be major drivers for advances in of projects, are key to achieving transport systems that
production and storage of solar energy besides providing meet the mobility needs of citizens as well as adhere to
zero or low-carbon mobility options. At present, Africa is the principles of sustainable development.
at a disadvantage in respect to introducing these modes
as the electricity supply is usually neither sustainable State, local and private interventions for improved
nor stable enough to cope with this extra demand but public transport can range from the provision of
they are still promising options for the future. infrastructure as in Lagos, Nigeria, and to some extent
in Douala, Cameroon; the provision of vehicles as
Overall, a key opportunity for moving towards in Accra, Ghana, or where necessary the subsidizing
green economy investments emanating from urban operations as in the case of SOTRA, the public transport
mobility are the new and creative linkages and synergies company in Abidjan, Ivory Coast. Initiatives with strong
established between old and new technologies, and the involvement of the private financial sector can entail
positive effects of investment in new physical hardware, financing mechanisms with advantageous conditions to
new management processes and IT applications. The private operators to enable replacement of outdated high-
global spread of new approaches such as car sharing, emission vehicles with cleaner more modern ones.
citywide rental bike systems, demand-oriented off-
peak transit services and demand-oriented road pricing The Gobal Level: RIO + 20
utilize conventional technologies but require an
The approaching anniversaries of the United Nations
intelligent combination with new IT systems as well as
Conference on Environment and Development and
comprehensive customer information and operational
the World Summit on Sustainable Development (RIO
models that increase effectiveness and capacity of existing
+20) provide an opportunity to re-examine progress
physical infrastructure assets in cities. In this respect,
towards sustainable cities against the experience of the
Africa should be encouraged to develop appropriate
past two decades. The global economic downturn has
local options which are adapted to the local conditions
undoubtedly added complexity to the implementation
based on such schemes.
of Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of
To mobilize direct private sector investment as well as Implementation. As both public and private sector
engagement of the capital markets in large infrastructure resources become more constrained, it is more critical
projects, cities have to offer reliable urban planning and than ever to set investment priorities and to determine
solid financial management. how resources can be deployed with maximum cost
effectiveness and impact. In this spirit, the conference
A need for political will and coordinated participants agreed on the Declaration attached in the
approaches Appendix of this document.
To mobilise the necessary instruments, there needs
to be the design and implementation of programmes
which combine political will with alternative investment
paradigms to enable a shift away from car-oriented cities
towards more economically- and environmentally-
sustainable transport modes. Governments have to
commit themselves to face the challenges of motorization
and population growth to avoid the serious mobility
problems in fast-growing cities within the next 20
years. In some cities traffic congestion already causes
significant economic inefficiencies and unnecessary
social and environmental costs.
22 Sustainable Mobility
in African Cities
APPENDIX
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ISBN: 978-92-1-132324-5