Introduction to

Solar Thermal Energy

Prof. Keh-Chin Chang

Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics
National Cheng Kung University
Outline
Source of Solar Energy
Applications of Solar Energy
Introduction to Photovoltaic
Solar Thermal Energy Systems
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy
Source of Solar Energy
The Sun
Between the Sun and the Earth
Position of the Sun
Solar constant
Solar radiation and intensity
The Sun
A sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter

Consist of H, He, O, C, Ne, Fe
Surface temperature: 5,800K
Core temperature:13,600,000K
Source of Solar Energy
solstice solstice
equinox
equinox
Source of Solar Energy
Between the Sun and the Earth
Average distance:149.5 million km
(1 astronomical unit, AU)
Elliptic Orbit
Source of Solar Energy
Between the Sun and the Earth
Source of Solar Energy
Position of the Sun (view from Earth)
Apparent placement of the Sun in the northern hemisphere
Azimuth angle of the sun:
Often defined as the angle from due north in a clockwise direction. (sometimes from south)

Zenith angle of the sun:
Defined as the angle measured from vertical downward.
Source of Solar Energy
Position of the Sun (view from Earth)
Amount of incoming solar radiation per unit area
incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays.
At a distance of one 1AU from the sun (roughly the
mean distance from the Sun to the Earth).
Includes a range of wavelength (not just the visible
light).
Source of Solar Energy
Solar Constant
Solar Constant
Entry point into atmosphere
Intensity ~1350W/m
2
Source of Solar Energy
Solar Radiation Budget (to Earth)
Source of Solar Energy
Solar Radiation Spectrum
Infrared
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared
ISO

Thermal Radiation Spectra
Solar Energy Distribution
Applications of Solar Energy
Annual global mean downward solar radiation distribution at the surface


(Taiwan)(yearly average insolation flux)
11746kJ/m
2
day(21~25N)
(Japan)17608kJ/m
2
day(31~43N)
(Germany)21013kJ/m
2
day(34~52N)



(1986)
(1986)
(1994)
(NASA2005)
3.0~4.5kWh/m
2
day
(NREL2006)
Latitude
Altitude
Atmospheric transparency
Solar zenith angle
Source of Solar Energy
Factors affect the Solar intensity
Applications of Solar Energy
Advantages of using solar energy
Types of applications
No pollution
Inexhaustible
Contribution to energy supply and CO
2
reduction
The annual collector yield of the world was 109,713 GWh
(394,968 TJ ). This corresponds to an oil equivalent of 12.4
million tons and an annual avoidance of 39.4 million tons
of CO
2
.
The annual collector yield of Taiwan was 918 GWh (3306
TJ ). This corresponds to an oil equivalent of 101,780 tons
and an annual avoidance of 322,393 tons of CO
2
.
Application of Solar Energy
Advantages of using Solar Energy
Weiss, Werner, I. Bergmann, and G. Faninger. Solar Heat WorldwideMarkets and Contribution to the
Energy Supply 2008. International Energy Agency, 2010.
Energy production prediction
Application of Solar Energy
Advantages of using Solar Energy
Photovoltaic (PV)
Solar cell


Solar thermal energy
Solar water heater
Solar thermal power
Solar cooling
Solar thermal ventilation
Application of Solar Energy
Types of Applications
Introduction to Photovoltaic
What is photovoltaic
Solar cell
What is Photovoltaic
A method of generating electrical power by converting solar
radiation into direct current electricity through some materials
(such as semiconductors) that exhibit the photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic
Solar Cell
Sun light of certain wavelengths is
able to ionize the atoms in the
silicon
The internal field produced by the
junction separates some of the
positive charges ("holes") from the
negative charges (electrons).
If a circuit is made, power can be
produced from the cells under
illumination, since the free
electrons have to pass through the
junction to recombine with the
positive holes.
Photovoltaic
Solar Thermal Energy Systems
How to use solar thermal energy
Types of solar collectors
Solar water heater
Solar thermal power
Solar thermal cooling
How to Use Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Energy
working fluid
thermal energy
Solar Radiation Solar Thermal Energy
Solar collector
Working fluid
qsun
qemit
qcond,panel
qconv,mediu
m
qconv,air
Panelmetal
absorbing film
Insulator
qcond,insulator
Heat Transfer Processes in a Solar Collector
Medium flow
Heat transfer modes
Three heat transfer modes in a solar collector:
Radiation

: solar irradiation

: emitted radiant energy from the panel

Convection

,
: heat loss due to wind

,
: heat transfer to the flow medium
throughout tube wall
Conduction

,
: heat transfer inside the metal panel

,
: heat loss to the insulator from the panel
(Thermal) Radiation
Definition:
Energy is emitted by matter via electromagnetic waves with the
wavelengths ranging between the long-wave fringe ultraviolet
(UV, 10
-1
m) and far infrared (IR, 10
3
m).

Stefan-Boltzmann Law: for a blackbody (ideal case)

= "

= (
4
)
T: absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
For real case:

=
4
, 0 < 1
emissivity
Example: Glass (transparent material)
Reflection (G

)
Emission (E=
4
)
Irradiation (G)
Absorption (G

)
Transmission (G

)
G = G

+G

+G

or 1 =
G

G
+
G

G
+
G

G
= + +

reflectivity
absorptivity
transmitivity
Emissivity
Defined as the ratio of the radiant energy rate emitting from a
blackbody under identical condition
a) Monochromatic (or spectral) , directional emissivity


,
, , , =

,
(,,,)

,
(,)




emitted
intensity
blackbody
0 < 2
0

2

Spherical coordinate
Emissivity
b) Monochromatic, hemispherical emissivity

, =

,

2
0
2
0

,

2
0
2
0
=

,

2
0
2
0

,
(,)

=
1

,
(, , , )

2
0
2
0


c) Total , hemispherical emissivity
=

,
,
,

0

,
,

0
=
1

(, )
,
,

0

=
,
(T)
Absorptivity
Definition:
A function of the radiant energy incident on a body
that is absorbed by the body

a) Monochromatic, directional absorptivity,
,
(, , )

b) Monochromatic, hemispherical absorptivity,

()

c) Total, hemispherical absorptivity,
For a solar panel (opaque material,

= = 0)
1 =

, 1 = +

Looking for high

while small

A desired property for a good solar absorptance




B




As Kirchhoffs law for a diffuse (i.e., independent of direction)
surface

3
0
0.1
()
1.0

> 0.9

< 0.1
visible light : 0.4-0.7m
Types of Solar Collectors
Collectors and working temperature
Solar Thermal Energy
Low temperature
Medium
temperature
High temperature
]
Flat-plate collector
Use both beam and diffuse solar radiation, do not
require tracking of the sun, and are low-maintenance,
inexpensive and mechanically simple. A

Solar Thermal Energy
Flat-plate collector
Main losses of a basic flat-plate collector during
angular operation
Weiss, Werner, and Matthias Rommel. Process Heat Collectors. Vol. 33, 2008.
Solar Thermal Energy
Flat-plate collector
Glazed collector

Unglazed collector
Solar Thermal Energy
Flat-plate collector
Solar Thermal Energy
Evacuated tube collector
A collector consists of a row of parallel glass tubes.
A vacuum inside every single tube extremely reduces
conduction losses and eliminates convection losses.
Solar Thermal Energy
Evacuated tube collector
Heat pipe Sydney tube
Solar Thermal Energy
Parabolic trough collector
Consist of parallel rows of
mirrors (reflectors) curved in
one dimension to focus the
suns rays.

All parabolic trough plants
currently in commercial
operation rely on synthetic oil
as the fluid that transfers heat
from collector pipes to heat
exchangers.
Solar Thermal Energy
Linear Fresnel reflector
Approximate the parabolic
trough systems but by using
long rows of flat or slightly
curved mirrors to reflect the
suns rays onto a downward-
facing linear, fixed receiver.
Simple design of flexibly bent
mirrors and fixed receivers
requires lower investment costs
and facilitates direct steam
generation.
Solar Thermal Energy
Parabolic dish reflector
Concentrate the suns rays at a
focal point propped above the
centre of the dish. The entire
apparatus tracks the sun, with
the dish and receiver moving
in tandem.
Most dishes have an
independent engine/generator
(such as a Stirling machine or
a micro-turbine) at the focal
point.
Solar Thermal Energy
Heliostat field collector
A heliostat is a device that
includes a plane mirror
which turns so as to keep
reflecting sunlight toward a
predetermined target.

Heliostat field use hundreds
or thousands of small
reflectors to concentrate the
suns rays on a central
receiver placed atop a fixed
tower.
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Water Heater
Most popular and well developed application of solar
thermal energy so far
Low temperature applications
(Mainly using flat plate collector or evacuate tube collector)
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Water Heater
Installation direction
For northern hemisphere Facing south
For southern hemisphere Facing north

Solar Thermal Energy
Installation tilt angle
The angle of the collector
is roughly equal to the
local latitude
Solar Water Heater
Annual heat collection vs. direction/tilt angle (in
north hemisphere)
Solar Thermal Energy
Direction shifted from south (angle)
A
n
n
u
a
l

h
e
a
t

c
o
l
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
(
%
)

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

c
o
l
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

a
r
e
a

Tilt angle of the collector
A
n
n
u
a
l

h
e
a
t

c
o
l
l
e
c
t
i
o
n
(
%
)

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

c
o
l
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

a
r
e
a

L=local latitude
Solar Thermal Action Plan for Europe, ESTIF, 2007
Solar Water Heater
Residential hot water system
Hot water production
House warming


Large-scale system
Dormitory hot water
Swimming pool
Industrial process heating
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Water Heater
Industrial process heating
In EU, 2/3 of the industrial energy demand consists of heat
rather than electrical energy.
About 50% of the industrial heat demand is located at
temperatures up to 250C.

Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Water Heater
Market potential of industrial process heating
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Power
Conversion of sunlight into electricity
Direct means : photovoltaics (PV),
Indirect means : concentrated solar power (CSP).

High temperature applications
(by means of sun-tracking, concentrated solar collectors)

Solar Thermal Energy
Solar thermal power
Solar Thermal Power
Electrical power is generated when the concentrated
light is converted to heat and, then, drives a heat
engine (usually a steam turbine) which is connected
to an electrical power generator.
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Power
Types of solar thermal power plant
Technology roadmap concentrating solar power, IEA, 2010.
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy
PS10 and PS20 solar power tower (HFC)
(Seville, Spain). 2007 and 2009
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy
Kimberlina solar thermal energy plant (LFR)
(Bakersfield, CA), 2008.
Solar Thermal Power
Solar Thermal Energy
Calasparra solar power plant (LFR)
(Murcia, Spain) 2009.
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Power
Andasol solar power station (PTC)
(Granada, Spain), 2009
Puertollano solar power station (PTC)
(Ciudad real, Spain), 2009
Solar (Thermal) Cooling
Active cooling
Use PV panel to generate electricity for driving a
conventional air conditioner
Use solar thermal collectors to provide thermal energy for
driving a thermally driven chiller

Passive cooling
Solar thermal ventilation
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar thermal cooling
Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar cooling benefits from a better time match
between supply and demand of cooling load
1 "Renewable Energy Essentials: Solar Heating and Cooling," International Energy Agency, 2009.
2 B.W. Koldehoff and D. Grisried, "Solar Thermal & Solar Cooling in Germany," Management.
2
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Cooling
Active cooling
Use solar thermal collectors to provide thermal energy for
driving thermally driven chillers.
Solar Thermal Energy
Heat source
Cooling distribution
Cooling tower
Chiller
Solar Thermal Cooling
Basic type of solar thermal chiller
Absorption coolingLiBr+H
2
O
Adsorption coolingsilica gel+H
2
O
DEC, Desiccant Evaporative Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy
Open cycle
Closed cycle
Solar Thermal Cooling
COP
thermal
=Q
C
/Q
g
COP
elect
=Q
C
/W
e
Conventional compression cooling
Adsorption/absorption cooling
high pressure vapor
expansion
valve
W
e
Q
C
Q
L
condenser
compressor
evaporator
low pressure vapor
Q
a
W
e
Q
L
desorption
absorption
(switch)
Q
g
expansion
valve
condenser
evaporator
Q
C
high pressure vapor
low pressure vapor
Solar Thermal Energy
COP
elect
=Q
C
/W
e
"Solar Assisted Cooling State of the Art ,ESTIF, 2006.
Solar Thermal Cooling
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Cooling
D. Mugnier, "Refrigeration Workshop Market analysis Market actors Systems costs Politics : incentives & lobbying Conclusion Introduction,"
28.04.2010 Workshop rhus, Denmark ABSORPTION, 2010.
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Cooling
D. Mugnier, "Refrigeration Workshop Market analysis Market actors Systems costs Politics : incentives & lobbying Conclusion Introduction,"
28.04.2010 Workshop rhus, Denmark ABSORPTION, 2010.
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar Thermal Cooling
Passive Cooling (solar ventilation, solar chimney)
A way of improving the natural ventilation of buildings
by using convection of air heated by passive solar
energy.
Direct gain warms air inside the chimney causing it to
rise out the top and drawing air in from the bottom.
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar desalination/distillation
Solar humidification-dehumidification (HDH)
HDH is based on evaporation of brackish water and consecutive
condensation of the generated humid air, mostly at ambient pressure.
The simplest configuration: the solar still.
In sophisticated systems, waste heat is minimized by collecting the heat
from the condensing water vapor and pre-heating the incoming water
source.
Solar Thermal Applications
Solar Thermal Energy
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy
Geographical aspects
Financial aspects
Low energy density
Solar radiation has a low energy density relative to other
common energy sources

Unstable energy supply
Solar Energy supply is restricted by time and
geographical location
Easily influenced by weather condition
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy
Geographical Aspects
Higher cost compared with traditional energy
The capital cost in utilization of solar energy is generally
higher than that of traditional ones, especially for PV.

Solar water heater
Most economically competitive technology by now
The need of SWH is inversely proportional to local
insolation
Restrictions in Using Solar Energy
Financial Aspects