UNIT III UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER

1. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of renewable

and non-renewable energy systems.
Renewable energy systems.
Advantages
 Non-Exhaustible: Renewable energy resources are non-exhaustible.
 Cost of Electricity: Hydroelectric power is the best developed, providing 8%of the
world's energy supply in the form of very cheap electricity (1/8and 1/2 of the cost of
fossil fuel and nuclear generated electricity).
 Pollution free and Non-Hazardous: Renewable resources such as solar, wind and tidal
energy are pollution free and non-hazardous compared to fossil and nuclear fuels
which cause pollution or radio-activity. Biomass energy source is an exception
 Availability: Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, etc., are widely available
 Location and Transmission Cost: Renewable energy systems can be built close to the
site, where the energy is required. This will minimize the transmission cost.

Disadvantages
 Storing Energy: Our inability to store large quantities of energy using renewable
sources either in the form of heat or as electricity.
 Dilute Nature: The dilute nature of renewable resources means that large area of land
or ocean is necessary to accommodate solar collectors. 30 km square for a solar power
station or 1000 wind mills with 90 m blades set 250 m apart is required to replace the
nuclear power plant on a 1 square km site.
 Intermittent Nature of Availability: The intermittent nature of availability of the
energy from energy sources like solar, wind, tidal, etc., is a major setback for the
continuous supply of energy
Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-Renewable Sources of Energy
Advantages
 Generation of per unit energy is high.
 These energy sources can be easily transportable across any places.
 Comparable to diesel power plant, generation cost is low.
 Storage of non-renewable energy sources is easy and it can be easily Accessible
Disadvantages
 Regeneration of non-renewable energy sources is not-possible.
 Emission of greenhouse is high and pollutes the environment.
 More time is required for extracting non-renewable energy sources.
 Leads to acid rain by burning of fossil fuels.
2. Draw and explain about various types of solar power
plant.
 The sun gives out 3.7 x 1020 MW of energy into space, out of which earth intercepts only
1.7 x 1011 MW. Solar radiation is reduced in intensity in the atmosphere by clouds, dust,
haze, and fog. The energy emitted by the sun in three minutes is equivalent 10 the world
energy consumption during a year.
 Most of the energy we receive from the sun comes in the form of light, a short wave
radiation. When this radiation strikes a solid or liquid, it is absorbed and transformed into
heat energy. This heat energy is converted into useful work or mechanical energy.

Solar Heater using Flat Plate Collector

 In this, the top cover is made up of glass. It is transparent to the incoming solar radiation.
 The radiation energy of the sun falls on a flat metal (aluminium / steel / copper) absorber
plate coated with black paint having high absorbing capacity. The flat plate is placed
facing the direction of the sun and inclined to horizontal.
 When the radiation strikes the absorber plate, the heat energy is reflected back to the glass
cover. The cover reflects the energy back to the absorber plate.
 Copper tubes are provided in thermal contact with the flat plate. Heat is transferred from
the absorber plate to water, which is circulated in the copper tubes through the flat plate
collector
 Parabolic Concentrator Collector - Medium Temperature System

 Cylindrical parabolic concentrator collectors give a temperature range of 150°C to 300°C.

Diagram shows the parabolic concentrator collector is of reflecting type. The reflecting surface
is a cylindrical parabolic mirror. The sun rays striking the parabolic mirror will be reflected on
its focal point.
 The fluid in the absorber tube kept along the focal line, is heated to a very high temperature.
The temperature of the absorber fluid is very much higher than in flat plate collector.
 The reflector is steered using a chain drive mechanism during day time to keep the sun light
focused on the collector.
 This system can convert water to superheated steam, which can drive a turbine to generate
electricity. It can also use heat transfer fluids other than water (at a lower pressure, and
temperature than water), for industrial process.
 Large parabolic concentrators are subject to large wind loads. Hence, they require a very strong
supporting structure. For this reason, parabolic concentrators are not used for solar energy
power generation.
 An alternative to steer the concentrator is to use large flat plate mirrors. The latter is used to
track the sun and reflect its rays on to a parabolic concentrator. The cost factor along with the
advantages of a fixed working surface make flat mirrors common in modern parabolic solar
concentrators.
Solar Power Plant -Tower Concept
 Above diagram shows the layout of a solar power plant using tower concept. In this, a
large field of reflecting mirrors called heliostats are used. [Helio in greek means sun] The
heliostats redirect and concentrate sun's radiation energy on a boiler. The boiler, also
known as central receiver, is mounted on the top of a tower of about 500 meters high.
 The heliostats are individually guided to focus the sun's energy on the boiler at all hours
of sunlight. Individual guidance is necessary, because the heliostats are placed in a large
field.
 In the boiler, the circulating water absorbs the solar energy and vaporizes into steam of
temperature above 300°C.The steam is used to run the turbine. The turbine is coupled to a
generator. The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed in the condenser
 A thermal storage system is provided for night time and cloudy periods. The boiler is
designed to give higher output than that required for steam generation. The excess energy
during periods of greatest solar incidence is bypassed to the thermal storage system.
 During the periods of low or no solar incidence, the, feed water is not sent to the boiler.
Instead, it is shunted to the storage system, where it is converted into steam to run the
turbine.
 These tower concept solar plants are to be located in hot dry desert areas, where the sun's
energy is available in plenty. However, in such areas, water is scarce. Therefore, for
cooling the condenser, water is not used in the cooling tower. Condenser water is cooled
by air in the dry cooling tower.

Solar Cells (or) Photovoltaic Cell.

 The direct conversion of solar energy into electricity is done by the photovoltaic effect.
The basic unit of photovoltaic system is the solar cell. Solar cell is made from a single
crystal silicon
 The solar cell is a semi-conductor device. It generates voltage when sun light falls on it.
The power obtained in day time is stored in solar batteries. The configuration of a solar
cell to forma p-n junction semi-conductor is shown in Diagram.
 Silicon with added materials such as arsenic or phosphorus is called n type silicon, i.e.,
negatively charged silicon. The silicon with added materials such as boron is called p-
type silicon, i.e., positively charged silicon.
 The charge distribution near the p-n junction gives rise to an electric field and hence a
potential difference across the junction. If an external load is applied, this charge
difference will drive a current through it. The current will flow so long as the sun light
keeps generating the electron pairs.
Applications of Solar Cells
 Used in remote, unmanned devices, where utility power is unavailable and batteries
are impractical.
 They are used to operate calculators, irrigation pumps, TV station, satellite, rail-
crossing signals, navigational signals, space craft, etc.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar Energy
Advantages of Solar Energy
1. Sun is essentially an infinite source of energy. Therefore, solar energy is a very large
inexhaustible and renewable source of energy.
2. Environment Friendly: It is environmentally very clean and hence pollution-free.
3. It is a dependable energy source without new requirements of highly technical and
specialized nature for its wide spread utilization.
4. For a hot country like ours, it is the best alternative to rapid depletion of fossil fuels.
5. It is freely available.
6. No transportation problem or transmission and distribution losses.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
1. It is available in a dilute form and is at a low potential. The intensity of solar energy on a
sunny day in India is about 1.1kW/ square meter area. Hence, very large collecting areas
are required.
2. Also, the dilute and diffused nature of the solar energy needs large land area of the power
plant. For instance, 30 sq.km area is required for a solar power plant to replace a nuclear
plant on a 1 sq.km site. So, capital cost is more for the solar plant.
3. Solar energy is not available at night or during cloudy or rainy days

3. Explain in detail about wind power generation

system.
Principle of Wind Mill
 Wind is air in motion. Wind flow is created as an effect of solar beat. Winds are
caused due to the absorption of solar energy on the earth surface and the rotation of
earth about its own axis and around the sun.
 Because of this, alternate heating and cooling occurs. Thus, difference in pressure is
obtained and the air movement is caused. It is estimated that roughly 10 million
MWof energy is continuously available in the earth's winds.
 Windmills are used for pumping water, grinding grains, etc. Interests in large scale
power generations had developed over the past 50 years.
Types of Wind Mill
Depending on the axis of rotation, wind mills are classified as follows.
i) Horizontal AxisType
ii) Vertical AxisType
The horizontal axis type has better performance than the vertical type.
Horizontal Axis Wind Mill

Horizontal axis single blade wind mill as shown in Diagram is of propeller type with counter-
weight arrangement. The double blade type gives a better performance than single blade type
 In the double-blade wind mill, the wind mill head is mounted on a bed plate attached on
the top of the tower. The wind mill head accommodates a step-up gear box, control
device and the generator.
 The blade rotor drives the generator through the transmission gear box. The two blades
have thick cross section of an aerofoil, made of aluminium or sheet metal. The blades are
set at right angles to the direction of the wind.
 The energy inherent in the moving air is converted into mechanical energy due to the
dynamic action of air on the blades. This mechanical energy is transmitted to the
generator, through the gear box. The output of the generator is connected to the load.
 With rotor, the tower is also subjected to the wind loads which may cause serious
damage. Hence, the structure of the tower should also withstand the wind load.
 The best sites for wind energy are found off-shore and along seacoast with no tall
obstruction in the neighbouring area. The lowest level of wind energy is found in plains.
The present production of capacity of wind mills in Tamil Nadu is around 300 MW.

Betz Limit:
It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area that makes a wind turbine
function. The wind turbine extracts energy by slowing the wind down. The theoretical
maximum amount of energy in the wind that can be collected by a wind turbines rotor is
approximately 59.3%. This value is known as the Betz limit. If the blades were 100%
efficient, a wind turbine would not work because the air, having given up all its energy,
would entirely stop. In practice, the collection efficiency of a rotor is not as high as 59%. A
more typical efficiency is 35% to 45%. A complete wind energy system, including rotor,
transmission, generator, storage and other devices, which all have less than perfect
efficiencies, will deliver between 10% and 30% of the original energy available in the wind.
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines:

 A specially modified Vertical Axis Wind Turbine would be ideal for power
production in Antarctica.
 Such a VAWT would be able to withstand the most extreme winds without breakage.
A built-in self-powering defroster would help prevent the exposed areas from freezing
up or being damaged from extreme blizzard conditions and excessive ice build-up.
 Such a system could use its own power channelled through small heated wires
running along the structure and critical components.
 This in theory would not take a great deal of power and would most likely only need
to run occasionally. It would only need to produce enough heat to melt the offending
ice and snow.
 Considering the high and fairly constant winds available in some areas of Antarctica,
a higher than normal output efficiency would likely be easily achievable with the right
gearing.
 This high output would hopefully provide a great deal of extra power to heat a colony
and also help to compensate for low wind periods.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Energy
Advantages of Wind Energy
1. The wind energy is a renewable source of energy. It is free and inexhaustible.
2. It does not take long time to construct.
3. The power requirements for irrigation, lighting and small industrial units can be fulfilled
with the use of wind energy.
4. Wind energy has a bright future. The use of small aero-generator producing about 500 W
is sufficient to power a house of one family at a reasonable cost. This will definitely
attract the Indian villagers for good standard of life.
5. It does not need transportation.
6. Pollution free energy
Disadvantages of Wind Energy
1. Wind power is not consistent and steady, but fluctuating. Therefore, designing of wind mill
components is complicated.
2. Suitable materials required for the components of the wind mill of higher power generation
capacity are a major problem.
3. Some form of storage of wind energy is essential to maintain a constant supply of power.
4. A technological break-through in energy storage alone can create a favourable situation for
its use in India.

4. Explain in detail about construction and operation of

domestic refrigerator with its electrical circuit diagram.
In the vapour compression refrigeration system, Freon-12 or Freon-22 is used as the
Refrigerant. A Compressor does work on the refrigerant vapour to increase its pressure and
temperature.
The refrigerant is circulated through the system. It alternately undergoes a change of phase
from vapour to liquid and again liquid to vapour during the cycle. The latent heat of
vaporization is used for absorbing the heat at low temperature from the refrigerated space. A
constant temperature can be maintained in this space.

Construction
Diagram shows the layout of a typical domestic refrigerator.
1. Evaporator or Cooling coil
2. Compressor
3. Condenser
4. Capillary tube (Expansion valve or Throttling valve)
5. Thermally insulated cabinet
Evaporator or Cooling coil
 As the name implies, the liquid refrigerant is evaporated in the evaporator by absorbing
heat from the contents (perishable vegetables, fruits, etc.) of the domestic refrigerator.
 The evaporator consists of copper metal tubing. The purpose of metal tubing is to produce
cooling effect required for lowering the temperature of perishables or for freezing ice.
 Since the evaporator coil produces the cooling effect.it is also known as cooling coil. The
evaporator is the coldest part of the refrigerator located in the freezer compartment.
Compressor
 Compressor compresses the refrigerant vapour to a high pressure. Reciprocating
compressor is used for low capacity domestic refrigerator.
 It is in a hermetically sealed casing. [Centrifugal compressor is used for high capacity
refrigerators.]
 The compressor suction is connected to the evaporator. Its delivery is connected to the
condenser. An electric motor runs the compressor.
Condenser
 In the condenser, the heat from the refrigerant at a high temperature is rejected, to the
atmospheric air.
 In domestic refrigerators, air cooling of refrigerant is arranged. Thus, the heat is rejected
from the refrigerated space to the atmosphere, by the air passing over the condenser coil.
Capillary Tube (Expansion Valve or Throttling Valve)
 Capillary tube is an expansion valve or throttling valve. The low capacity systems such as
domestic refrigerator and window air conditioner use small diameter tube called capillary
tube. [Solenoid valve is used as an expansion device in large capacity refrigerators.]
 Capillary tube is used to reduce the temperature and pressure of the liquid refrigerant,
before it passes to the evaporator.
 The high pressure refrigerant liquid is to be depressurized in the expansion device for
reuse in the evaporator.
Thermally Insulated Cabinet
 The refrigerator cabinet is thermally insulated to minimize heat flow from the
atmosphere into the refrigerator. Without thermal insulation, the refrigerator would be
heavily loaded, resulting in large consumption of power.
 The cabinet is therefore double-walled. The space in-between the wall is filled with
insulation material such as poly-urethane foam.
Working Principle
 The compressor compresses the refrigerant gas. The compressed gas heats up as it is
pressurized.
 The coils on the back of the refrigerator let the hot refrigerant gas dissipate its heat. The
refrigerant gas condenses into liquid at high pressure.
 The high-pressure liquid flows through the expansion valve. On one side of the hole is
high-pressure refrigerant liquid. On the other side of the hole is a low-pressure area
(because the compressor is sucking gas out of that side).
 The liquid immediately boils and vaporizes its temperature dropping to about -25°F. This
makes the inside of the refrigerator cold.
 The cold refrigerant gas is sucked up by the compressor, and the cycle repeats

4. Explain in detail about construction and operation of

window air conditioning system with its electrical
circuit diagram.
Window air conditioner is designed to condition the air in a single room and is hence
known as room air conditioner.

Construction
The window air conditioner consists of vapour compression refrigeration system, air filter,
double shaft motor, centrifugal blower and propeller type fan.
The vapour compression refrigeration system consists of
1. Evaporator
2. Compressor
3. Condenser
4. Expansion valve in the form of a capillary tube
  The evaporator part is facing the room (INDOOR).The condenser part a project
outside the room (OUTDOOR).The evaporator part is insulated from the condenser
part.
 That is, the evaporator and condenser coils are separated by an insulated partition to
avoid the air movement between the room and atmosphere.
 Common double shaft motor drives a fan at one end and a blower at the other end.
Adjustable louvers continuously change the direction of air flow to ensure uniform
distribution of conditioned air inside the room.
Working Principle
 The compressor act as a pump compressing the refrigerant in gas form into the condenser
coils. Located the back of the unit. Where the gas is condensed into a hot liquid. The
condenser coils dissipate the heat as the liquid travels through them.
 Once the liquid refrigerant has passed through the condenser coils and the capillary tube
where it undergoes expansion. The liquid refrigerant passes through the evaporator coils. it
travels to the evaporator coils located near the front of the unit.

 As the refrigerant liquid enters these coils it expands into a gas which makes the coils cold.
The gas flows through the coils to a suction line, attached to the compressor converts the gas
back into a liquid and the cooling cycle continues.
 At the same time, the fan motor rotates a blower wheel which draws in air to be cooled by the
evaporator coils before recirculating it back into the room. It also operates the condenser fan
blade which blows outside air through the condenser coils to cool them.
 The air temperature is regulated by the thermostat control depending on the model. The
control may be a thermostat switch and sensing bulb assembly or electronic control board that
works with a sensor. The sensing bulb or electronic sensor is clipped to the front of the
evaporator coils to monitor the temperature of the air entering the coils.
 Once the room has sufficiently cooled the thermostat control shuts off the voltage to the
compressor. Some models which use event can operate the fan motor only to draw in cool air
at night.
 However, when the appliance is actively cooling the air the vent must be closed for the
system to work properly. A slinger ring on the condenser fan blade picks up collected water
at the bottom and sprays it on to the condenser coils to help the coils dissipate the heat. To
prevent the water from dripping into the room the appliance should be tilted back slightly
when they installed.
Advantages of Window Air Conditioner
1. Self-Contained Unit: Window air conditioner is a self-contained single package unit.
2. For more than one room in a residential building, several window units can be used. A
separate temperature control is provided in each room in which the unit is installed.
3. Installation: Installation is simple and plumbing is not required.
Disadvantages of Window Air Conditioner
1. Suitability: Not suitable for large halls and applications where heat and-moisture loads are
high.
2. Air Circulation: The unit has circulation of a fixed air quantity.
3. Installation Constrain: The installation must be made only on an external wall of the room.

6. Explain in detail about construction and operation of

split air conditioning system with its electrical circuit
diagram.
A split package unit is designed with the fan and cooling or heating coil in one equipment
section and the condenser as well as the compressor in another section.

Evaporator (in the indoor unit of a split air conditioner): It is a heat exchanger coil that takes
heat from the room and moves it outside. It is shown as number 3 above. The heat is absorbed
by the refrigerant and in turn, the air inside the room becomes cool.
Compressor (in the outdoor unit of a split air conditioner): It compresses the hot refrigerant
gas into a hot liquid refrigerant which is ready to exchange heat from outside (the room).

Condenser (in the outdoor unit of a split air conditioner): It is a heat exchanger coil that
throws the heat collected from the room (by the refrigerant) outside the room.
 In this whole process, a key role is played by the refrigerant which gets compressed from gas
to hot liquid at a high pressure in the compressor, changes to cool liquid in the condenser,
gets sprayed in the evaporator and absorbs heat (from the room) and gets converted into gas
again ready to get compressed.

Working Principle
 The compressor act as a pump compressing the refrigerant in gas form into the condenser
coils. Located the back of the unit. Where the gas is condensed into a hot liquid. The
condenser coils dissipate the heat as the liquid travels through them.
 Once the liquid refrigerant has passed through the condenser coils and the capillary tube
where it undergoes expansion. The liquid refrigerant passes through the evaporator coils. it
travels to the evaporator coils located near the front of the unit.
 As the refrigerant liquid enters these coils it expands into a gas which makes the coils cold.
The gas flows through the coils to a suction line, attached to the compressor converts the gas
back into a liquid and the cooling cycle continues.
 At the same time, the fan motor rotates a blower wheel which draws in air to be cooled by the
evaporator coils before recirculating it back into the room. It also operates the condenser fan
blade which blows outside air through the condenser coils to cool them.
 The air temperature is regulated by the thermostat control depending on the model. The
control may be a thermostat switch and sensing bulb assembly or electronic control board that
works with a sensor. The sensing bulb or electronic sensor is clipped to the front of the
evaporator coils to monitor the temperature of the air entering the coils.
 Once the room has sufficiently cooled the thermostat control shuts off the voltage to the
compressor. Some models which use event can operate the fan motor only to draw in cool air
at night.
Advantages of Split Type Air Conditioner
1. Installation: No constraints on the installation of the split type air conditioner, as the
condensing unit can be located in any remote place.
2. Noise-Free Operation: Noise free operation, because of remote location of the condensing
unit.
3. Wall Opening: No breakage or opening in the wall necessary.
4. Flexibility of Use: Feasibility of using multiple evaporators with single condensing unit
making its use more flexible.
Disadvantages of Split Type Air Conditioner
1. Split Package Unit: Split type is a split package unit and not a single package-self-
contained unit.
2. While it is true that the split system offers outstanding user conveniences, it is necessary
to be aware of the disadvantages also. These can be counter-balanced by the following
actions:
3. Usually a drop of 5-10% in capacity is observed in the split system due to the extended
system tubing, when compared to that of the window unit. This loss inefficiency would be
compensated partially by selecting suitable sizes of the system tubes.
4. The other part of the loss can be taken care by, increasing the air flow, using four pole
motor for the condenser fan resulting in lower discharge pressure.
5. Split system has lot of joints. It is prone to refrigerant leakage. To avoid this problem, it is
becoming a common practice to eliminate these joints by brazing the system tubes at the
site. The unit is then evacuated and charged in the installed condition itself.

7. Explain briefly about lead acid battery.

Lead acid battery uses sponge lead and lead peroxide for the conversion of chemical
energy into electrical power. This type of batteries can be used in power stations and
substations due to its low cost and high cell voltage.
Active Materials used
These are the materials which involves active participation in a chemical reaction during
charging or discharging actions in a cell.
Anode: Lead Peroxide (PbO2): It is hard and dark brown in colour.
Cathode: Sponge Lead (Pb). It is very soft and grey in colour.
Electrolyte: Dilute Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4). 30% of H2S04 and 70 % of H20.
Separators
Separators are made up of non-conducting. Materials like wood, glass fibre (or) porous
rubbers in order to provide insulation between anode and cathode.

Discharging Cycle
 During cell discharge, the (Pb02) becomes anode and cathode is of sponge lead (Pb).
When the load is connected between the electrodes, the cell starts discharging and
electrons flow from anode to cathode as shown in Diagram.
 Hydrogen ions from H2S04 gains one electron after reaching the anode. This will lead
to formation of hydrogen atom. This hydrogen atom in contact with PbO2 forms PbO2
(lead sulphate).
 The sulphate ion (S04-) gives up 2 electrons on cathode so that becomes radial SO4
helps to form the sulphate,

Charging Cycle
 During charging period, the anode is connected to the positive terminal of DC supply and
cathode is connected to the negative terminal of DC supply as shown in above diagram.
 The molecules of sulphuric acid break up into 2H+and SO4- ions. Being positively
charged, hydrogen ions get attracted towards cathode and forms hydrogen atom by
receiving two electrons.
 On the other hand, SO4- ion gives up its two electrons becomes radical SO4 in turn
reacts with anode and forms lead peroxide and lead sulphuric acid.
The chemical reactions involved are,
PbSO4 + 2H → H2 SO4 + Pb
PbSO4 + 2H2O + SO4 → PbO2 + 2H2SO4
Advantages
1. Longest life and maintenance free.
2. Available in all shapes and sizes.
3. Lead can be recycled / reused.
Disadvantages
1. Most heavier component lead (Pb).
2. Efficiency and power density of lead-acid battery need to be improved.

8. Briefly explain: Lithium-ion battery.

 Lithium is the lightest metal which can float on water. These are primary batteries, in
which lithium compound acts as anode.
 Based on the types of materials used, 1.5 V to 3 V can be produced using lithium cell.
Lithium ion batteries are rechargeable I batteries.
 Cathode material is made from lithium liberating compounds, typically the three electro-
active oxide materials such as,
• Lithium Cobalt-Oxide (LiCoO2)
• Lithium Manganese-Oxide (LiMn2O4)
• Lithium Nickel-Oxide (LiNiO2)
Active Materials Used
Anode: Negative electrode made with specially carbon has a current collector of thin copper
foil.
Cathode: Positive electrode made with Lithium Cobalt oxide has a current collector of thin
aluminium foil.
Electrolyte: Lithium salt dissolved in an organic solvent.
Separator
Insulation between anode and cathode is achieved by means of separator. Here, porous
polymer film is used as a separator.
Discharging and Charging Cycles
 The electrolytes should offer effective transport of lithium ions to the cathode during
discharge. Lithium ion battery depends on intercalation mechanism.
 This makes the lithium ions insert into crystalline lattice of host electrode without
changing its crystal structure.
  Below diagram shows the charging and discharging mechanism of lithium ion battery.

The chemical reaction that takes place during charging and discharging operation is

While charging, lithium in cathode is ionized and moves to the anode via 4 layers. On the
other hand, while discharging, dissociated lithium ions from anode, enter into the cathode via
electrolyte.

In the meanwhile, compensating electrons travel in the external circuit. The whole process is
fully reversible and so lithium ions pass back and forth between the electrodes while charging
and discharging. Hence, lithium batteries are called "Swins"cells.
Advantages
1. Less weight.
2. It has high energy density.
3. No liquid electrolyte. Therefore leakage free.
4. Fast charging/discharging rate.
5. Higher degree of safely against over charge.
Disadvantages
1. More expensive.
2. Not available in standard cell types

9. Explain in detail about Nickel-cadmium battery.

Nickel-Cadmium battery is a rechargeable battery, with cadmium and nickel hydroxideas
electrodes and alkaline potassium hydroxide as electrolyte. This is the least preferred battery
as the by-product cadmium imposes negative impact on environment.
Active Materials Used
Diagram shows the nickel-cadmium battery.
Anode: Cadmium (spongy)acts as negative plate.
Cathode: Nickelhydroxide acts as positive plate.
Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide with specific gravity of 1.2.
Nickel cadmium cell consists of nickel wire gauge electrode grids. The electrodes consists of
tablets wrapped in nickel wire gauge, separated by a fine porous separator, soaked in
electrolyte

During charging, the cathode is nickel hydroxide and anode is cadmium hydroxide. During
discharging, positive plate converts into nickel hydroxide and the negative plate is converted
into pure cadmium.

The complete reaction is reversible. The open circuit potential of the cell ranges from
1.28Vto 1.4 V.
Advantages
1. Reliable.
2. Wide range of operating temperature.
3. Good performance characteristics.
Disadvantages
1. Most expensive.
2. Toxic material (cadmium) is involved.
3. Recycling of nickel cadmium batteries is restricted.

10. What is meant by circuit breaker? Explain about

anyone one type of circuit breaker.
Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated automatically or
manually for protecting and controlling of electrical power system. In the modern power
system the design of the circuit breaker has changed depending upon the huge currents and to
prevent from arc while operating.
When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and
extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand the
voltage in the circuit.
Low voltage circuit breaker:
 Low voltage (less than 1000 V) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial
application, and include:
 MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)-rated current not more than 100 A. Trip characteristics
normally not adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated
above are in this category.
 MCCB(Moulded Case Circuit Breaker)-rated current up to 2500 A. Thermal or thermal-
magnetic operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger ratings.
Medium-voltage circuit breakers
Medium-voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into metal-
enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use or may be individual components installed
outdoors in a substation.
Vacuum circuit breakers: With rated current up to 300 A, these breakers interrupt the
current by creating and extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container.
Air circuit breakers: Rated current up to 10,000A. Trip characteristics are often fully
adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays.
High-Voltage circuit breakers
Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high-voltage
breakers. The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually
thought to be 72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electro
Technical Commission (IEC).
 SF6 Circuit Breaker
 Vacuum Circuit Breaker
 Oil Circuit Breaker
Air-Blast Circuit Breakers
 This circuit breaker will operate in the air; the quenching medium is an Arc at
atmospheric pressure.
  In many of the countries air circuit breaker is replaced by oil circuit breaker. About oil
circuit breaker we will discuss later in the article.
 Thus the importance of ACB is still preferable choice to use an Air circuit breaker up
to 15KV.
 Diagram shows the essential components of a typical axial blast circuit breaker. The
fixed and moving contacts are held in closed position by spring pressure under normal
conditions.
 The air reservoir is connected to the arcing chamber through an air valve
 This valve remains closed under normal conditions but opens automatically by
tripping impulse when a fault occurs on the system
 When a fault occurs the tripping impulse causes the opening of the air valve which
connects the circuit breaker reservoir to the arcing chamber


 The high pressure air entering the arcing chamber pushes away the moving contact
against spring pressure.
 The moving contact is separated and an arc is struck.
 At the same time, high pressure air blast flows along the arc and takes away the ionised
gases along with it. Consequently, the arc is extinguished and current flow is interrupted.
 It may be noted that in such circuit breakers, the contact separation required for
interruption is generally small about 1.75 cm. Such a small gap may constitute inadequate
clearance for the normal service voltage.
 Therefore, an isolating switch is incorporated as part of this type of circuit breaker. This
switch opens immediately after fault interruption to provide necessary clearance for
insulation.
Advantages of Air-Blast Circuit Beaker
1. It is used where frequent operation is required because of lesser arc energy.
2. It is risk free from fire.
3. Small in sizes
4. It requires less maintenance.
5. Arc quenching is much faster
 6. Speed of circuit breaker is much higher.
7. The time duration of the arc is same for all values of current.
Disadvantages of Air-Blast Circuit Breaker
1. It requires additional maintenance.
2. The air has relatively lower arc extinguishing properties
3. It contains high capacity air compressor.
4. From the air pipe junction there may be a chance of air pressure leakage
5. There is the chance of a high rate rise of re-striking current and voltage chopping.
Application and Uses of Air Circuit Breaker
1. It is used for protection of plants, electrical machines, transformers, capacitors and
generators
2. Air circuit breaker is also used in the Electricity sharing system and GND about 15Kv
3. Also used in Low as well as High Currents and voltage applications

11. Explain about low voltage fuses and high voltage

fuses.
Introduction
 A fuse is a short piece of metal. It is inserted in the circuit, which melts when excessive
current flows through it and thus breaks the circuits.
 This element is connected in series with the circuit. The fuse element carries the normal
current without overheating.
 Under short circuit or overload conditions, the current through the fuse element increases
beyond its normal value.
 Due to this, the temperatures increases and fuse element melts. Then the circuit is
protected by fuse element.
Advantages
1. It is the simple form of protection available.
2. It requires no maintenance.
3. Its operation is inherently automatic action.
4. It can break heavy short circuit currents without noise or smoke.
5. It is suitable for over current protection.
6. The operation fuel is shorter than the circuit breaker.
7. Small size of fuse element is enough for under short circuit conditions.
Disadvantages
1. Considerable time is lost in replacing.
2. Under heavy short circuit discrimination between fuses in series cannot be obtained
unless there is sufficient difference in the sizes of the fuse element concerned.
3. The current-time characteristic of a fuse element cannot always be co-related with that of
the protected electrical apparatus.
Desirable Characteristics of Fuse Element
1. It has low melting point.
2. It has high conductivity.
 3. It is free deterioration.
4. It's cost is low
Fuse Element Materials
The fuse elements are generally made up of the following materials.
1. Lead
2. Tin
3. Copper
4. Zinc
5. Silver
Types of Fuses
There are two types of fuses.
1. Low voltage type
2. High voltage type
Low Voltage Fuses
The low voltage fuses can be further divided into two types.
1. Semi-enclosed renewable fuses.
2. Cartridge type fuses.
1. Semi-enclosed Renewable Fuses
 This type of fuse is also called kit-kat types. It is used where low values of fault current
are to be interrupted. It consists of base and fuse carrier.
 The base is of porcelain and carries the fixed contacts to which the incoming and
outgoing phase wires are connected.
 The fuse carrier is also of porcelain and holds the fuse element between its terminals.
Under fault condition, the fuse element is blown out and the circuit is interrupted.
Advantages
1. The cost of replacement is negligible.
2. The detachable fuse carrier permits the replacement of fuse element without any
danger of coming in contact with live parts.
Disadvantages
1. Accurate calibration of fuse wire is impossible because fusing current very much
depends upon the length of the fuse element.
2. This type of fuse element has low-breaking capacity. Therefore, it is not suitable for
high fault level
2. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge fuse
 Where large concentrations of power are concerned, as in the modern distribution system,
it is essential that fuses should have a definite known breaking capacity and also that this
breaking capacity should have a high value.
 In its simplest form an H.R.C. cartridge fuse consists of a ceramic body having metal end-
caps to which are welded fusible silver (or bimetallic) current carrying elements. The
space within the body surrounding the elements is completely packed with a filling
powder usually quartz, which has excellent arc extinguishing properties.
 Under normal operating conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting
point. Therefore it carries the normal current without overheating. Under fault conditions,
the current increases and the fuse element melts before the fault current reaches its first
peak.
 The heat produced in the process vaporises the melted silver element. The chemical
reaction between the silver vapour and the filling powder results in the formation of high
resistance substance which helps in quenching the arc.
Advantages
1. Ability to clear high values of short circuit.
2. Non-deteriorating (if correctly selected for rating).
3. High speed operation.
4. Reliable discrimination.
5. Low cost.
6. Consistent performance.

Disadvantages
1. It must be replaced after operation.
2. Heat produced by the arc may affect the associated switches.

High Voltage Fuses

The types of high voltage fuses are,
1. Cartridge type
2. Liquid type
Cartridge Type
 HV HRC fuses are switching devices in which the current path is interrupted by
means of the fusing of certain parts (fusible conductors) under the influence of its own
current heat, if the current exceeds a certain value during a certain time
(corresponding to the fusing time characteristic).
  HV HRC fuse-wire inserts are the replaceable parts in the current path of HV HRC
fuses with the fuse-wire. They contain the contact piece, the extinguishing medium,
and the casing
 This type is similar in general construction to the low voltage cartridge type. This fuse
is used up to 33 KV, with short circuit capacities of about 8760A
 Some designs employ fuse elements wound to a helix, so as to avoid corona effect at
higher voltages. Rating of the order of 200 A at 6.6 KVand 11KVand 50 A at 33 KV
are available
 Some designs have two fuse elements in parallel, one of low resistance, carries the
rated current; the other is of high resistance and, after the low resistance fuse element
has blown, reduces-the short circuit current and finally breaks the circuit.

Liquid type

This type fuse is mainly used in high voltage systems. They may be used for voltage
transformer protection or for circuits up to about 400 A rated current on systems up to 132
KV or higher and have breaking capacities of 6100 A at 33KV.

12. Explain in detail about various types of tariff.

The rate at which energy is supplied to a consumer is known as tariff. Tariffs or energy rates
the different methods of charging the consumers for the consumption ofelectricity.
The cost of generation of electrical energy consists of fixed cost and running cost. The total
cost of generation has to be recovered from the consumers. Like other commodities, electrical
energy electrical energy is also sold at such a rate so that it not only retums the cost but also
earns reasonable profit.
GeneralTariff EquationForm

Z = ax + by + C
where
Z = Total amount of bill for the period
x = Maximum demand (kW)
y Energy consumed in kwh during the period
 a = Rate per kWof maximum demand
b = Energy rate per kWh
C = Constant amount charged to the consumer during each billing period even if
the consumer not use energy but a consumer that remains connected to the line
VariousTypesof Tariff
1. Simple tariff or uniform rate tariff
2. Hopkinson demand rate (two-part tariff)
3. Dohetry rate (Three-part tariff)
4. Flat demand rate
5. Straight meter rate
6. Block meter rate
7. Wright demand rate
8. Powerfactor tariff

Simple tariff or uniform rate tariff

Single-part tariff is based only on energy consumption. There is a fixed rate per unit of
energy consumed, it is a simple or uniform tariff. Here, the price charged per unit is constant.
The consumption of electrical energy at the consumer's terminals is recorded by means of an
energy meter.
Hopkinson demand rate (two-part tariff)
Two-parttariff is based on energy consumption and on a component linked
to maximum demand (kVAor MVA).In two-part tariff, the total charges are split into two
components that is.
i) Fixedcharge which depends on the maximumdemand ofthe consumer.
ii) Running cost which depends on the number of units consumed by the consumer.

Total charge = (b * kW + c * kWh) Rs

Where
b - Charge per kW of maximum demand
c - Charge per kWh of energy consumed
If a demand more than previous level remains sustained for say half an hour then this
becomes the established maximum demand until some other demand crosses this limit during
the month. The second component is sometimes the fixed cost.
Dohetry rate (Three-part tariff)
Three-part tariff- When the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into
three parts i.e., Fixed charge, Semi-fixed charge and running charging, it is known as three art
tariff. This type of tariff is generally applied to big consumers.

Total charge = (a + b * kW + + C * kWh)

where
a = Fixed cost which includes interest, depreciation on the cost of secondary
distribution and labor cost of collecting revenues.
b = Charge per kW of maximum demand
c = Charge per kWh of energy consumed
Flat Demand Rate

Diagram shows the representation of flat demand rate. The bill depends only on the
maximum demand irrespective of the amount of energy consumed. It is based on the
consumer's installation of energy consuming devices which is generally denoted by kW per
month or per year. The flat demand rate can be expressed as follows.
It is very common to supplies to irrigation tube wells, since the numbers of hours for which
the tube well feeders are on are fixed. The charge is made according to horse power of the
motor installed.
Straight meter rate
Here, the charge per unit is constant. The charge depends on the energy used. This tariff is
used for residential and commercial consumer. The variation of bill according to the variation
of energy consumed as shown in diagram

Block meter rate tariff

In this type of tariff, the energy consumption is distinguished into blocks. The per unit tariff
of the individual block is fixed. The price of the block is arranged in the decreasing order.
The first block has the highest cost, and it goes on decreasing accordingly.
The price and the energy consumption are divided into three blocks. The first few units of
energy at a certain rate, the next at a slightly lower rate and the remaining unit at a very lower
rate.
Power factor tariff
The tariff, which depends on the power factor of the load is known as the power factor tariff.
The power factor tariff is mainly classified into two types.
a. kVA maximum demand tariff – This is also a two-part tariff.
kva-maximum-demand-tariff-equation-3The low power factor increases the KVA rating of
the load.
b. kWh and kVarh tariff – The bill is calculated by the sum of the kVarh and Kwh rating of
the loadkwh-and-kvarh-tariff-equation-4

13. Explain the working of a sodium vapour lamp with in

a neat sketch.
 It consists of two glass tube. One is outer glass tube and other is inner glass tube. The
inner glass tube contains two electrodes.
 The two electrodes are anode and cathode. The sodium along with small quantity of neon
or argon gas is filled in the inner glass tube to make discharge self-starting.
 The sodium vapour is chemically active. The glass of the tube is made up of suitable
material to resist this action. The U-tube (outer tube) is enclosed in a double-walled
vacuum flask to maintain the career temperature in the discharge.
 This tube reduces the heat loss. The transformer includes in the circuit, heats the cathode
while choke stabilizes the discharge.

Principle of Operation
 Before the lamp starts working, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the
sides of the tube walls. When the lamp is switched on, it operates as a low pressure neon
lamp with pink colour.
 The lamp gets warmed, sodium is vaporised and it radiates yellow light and then, after
some time, about 10-15 minutes; the lamp starts giving full light.
 To start the discharge lamp, a striking voltage of 380 V is required for 40 W lamps and
450 V for 100 W lamps.
 These voltages are obtained from a high reluctance transformer or auto transformer.
Under no load condition, the voltage is very high which falls down as the lamp starts
giving light, since the regulation of transformer is poor.
 Capacitor C is connected to have a better power factor. The operating temperature of this
lamp is about 300°C
 The efficiency of sodium vapour lamp under practical conditions is about 40-50
lumens/watt. This lamp is only suitable to AC. The average life is about 3000 hours.
 This lamp is not affected by voltage variations. This lamp must be operated horizontally
or nearly so, to take the sodium wall spread out along the tube.
Advantages
1. Its efficiency is higher than that of the filament lamp.
2. It has a long life.
Disadvantages
1. The bright yellow colour obtained is not suitable for indoor lighting. So it is not useful
in houses.
2. For the necessary output, long tubes are required.
3. For giving full output, sometime delay about 10-15minutes is required.
Applications
1. Used for high way lighting.
2. Used for general outdoor lighting where discrimination colour is not required like
street light, parks, rail yards, storage yards, etc.

14. Explain the working of a Mercury vapour lamp with in

a neat sketch.
 It consists of a glass tube of borosilicate which is quite hard. At the two ends in the tube
are provided with two electrodes of specially coated wire.
 Auxiliary starting electrode which is connected to the bottom electrode through a high
resistance. The tube is sealed with an inside pressure of one and a half atmospheres.
 This tube is further evolved by another tube, the advantage of which is that the heat of
inner tube may not be dissipated outside.
 The inner, in addition to the mercury, also contains a small quantity of argon gas, since at
the time of starting, the tube is cold and the mercury is in the condensed form.
 When the tube is switched on, tube starts glowing between main and auxiliary electrodes,
and after about 5 minutes the lamp starts giving full output.
In this lamp, if once the lamp is switched off, it will not restart again until the pressure
developed inside the tube (it takes about 7 minutes to start) but there is no harm in keeping
the switches 'ON'. This lamp should always be hung vertically otherwise the arc will bum the
inner tube.
Advantages
1. Its efficiency is high and output is more.
2. It has long life.
Disadvantages
1. The initial time required for warming up is more about 5 minutes.
2. If lamp turn off while in service, cooling is required for restarting. This cooling
reduces the vapour pressure.
3. Each lamp contains mercury which can be harmful to both humans and wildlife.
Applications
1. It is used in street lighting, cricket stadium lighting, etc.

15. With a neat diagram explain the working of a low

pressure mercury vapour lamp.
Or
With a neat diagram explain the working of a Fluorescent
lamp.

Construction
 The inner surface of the tube is coated with a fluorescent powder- usually phosphor
coating.
 Tungsten wire electrodes with bi-pin cap are provided at both ends.
 There is an electrode shield around each electrode to reduce the blackening of the tubes
due to deposition of evaporated tungsten.
 The tube is filled with an inert gas such as argon to a pressure of 1.5 to 5 mm of mercury.
A small drop-let of mercury is also introduced into the tube. During normal operation,
this mercury vaporized and helps to maintain the discharge

Operation
 The starter consists of two bimetallic contacts, housed in a small glass bulb filled with a
noble gas at low pressure. The contacts are positioned with a narrow separation between
them. When the normal voltage is applied, it creates a glow discharge between the
bimetallic contacts and due to heating they bend towards each other.
 The contacts touch each other for one or two seconds and the current path is completed
through the inductive ballast and the filament electrodes. This current result in preheating
the electrodes. As the bimetallic contacts touch, the glow discharge stops and now the
contacts cool down leave apart to open the circuit
 The sudden break of current will induce a high voltage (600-1500V) in the ballast and is
applied across the tube, which in tum trigger the discharge through the tube. The
capacitor, which is connected across the starter contact, is provided to reduce the radio
interference due to switching operations.
 The starter has no function, once the lamp is started. Like other discharge lamps,
fluorescent lamps are also having a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. This
means the resistance of the tube decreases when temperature is increased, resulting in
increase of current. Therefore, the ballast is essential during normal operation also to
regulate the lamp current. When the ballast is connected in series with the circuit, it
regulates the lamp current
 The capacitor across the supply line is for power factor improvement. When there is a
discharge through the lamp, it produces radiations mainly in the ultraviolet region. This
radiation is converted to visible radiation by the phosphor coating on the inner side of the
glass tube
Advantages
1. Energy efficient- so far the best light for interior lighting
2. Low production cost (of tubes, not of the ballasts)
3. Long life of tubes
4. Good selection of desired colour temperature (cool whites to warm whites)
5. Diffused light (good for general, even lighting, reducing harsh shadows)
Disadvantages
 1. Diffused light (not good when you need a focused beam such as in a headlight or
flashlight)
2. Poorly/cheaply designed ballasts can create radio interference that disturbs other
electronics
3. Poorly/cheaply designed ballasts can create fires when they overheat
4. There is a small amount of mercury in the tubes
5. A Imitating licker at the end of the life cycle.

16. What is the need for earthing? And also explain the
different types of earthing.
To earth or earthing rather, means to connect the part of electrical apparatus such as metallic
covering of metals, earth terminal of socket cables, stay wires that do not carry current to the
earth. Earthing can be said as the connection of the neutral point of a power supply system to
the earth so as to avoid or minimize danger during discharge of electrical energy

Advantages or earthing
1. Reduced operation and maintenance expenditure.
2. Improved service reliability
3. Greater safety.
4. Better system and equipment over current protection.
5. Improved lightning protection
The methods commonly used for the system neutral are,
1. Solid earthing.
2. Resistance earthing.
3. Reactance earthing.
4. Earth fault neutralizer earthing.
5. Arc suppression coil or Paterson coil earthing system.
6. Voltage transformer earthing
7. Earthed transformer
Solid earthing
A power system is said to be solidly earthed when the neutral of a generator, power
transformer or earthing transformer is connected direct to the station earth. As the generator
or transformer would have its own reactance in series with the neutral circuit.

If the impedance of the generator is too low, direct earthing of the generator without any
external impedance may cause an earth fault current from the generator to exceed the
maximum 3-phase fault current which the generator can driver and this may exceed the short
circuit current for which its winding are braced.
If the reactance of the generator or transformer is too great, then also the purpose of earthing
is defeated. For solidly earth systems, it is necessary that the earth fault current be in the
range of 100% of the 3-pahse fault current to present the development of high transient over-
voltages.
Resistance earthing
Circuit diagram shows the methods of resistance earthing of a power system. When a power
system uses resistance earthing, the neutral is connected to earth through one or more
resistors. A system properly earthed in this way is not subject to destructive over-voltages.

Resistance earthing reduces the effects of burning and melting in faulted electrical
equipment, reduces mechanical stresses in circuits carrying fault currents, reduces electric
shock hazards to personnel caused by stray earth currents in the earth return path, and also
reduces the momentary line voltage dip caused by the occurrence and clearing of the earth
fault
The value of resistance to be used in the neutral to be earthed is such as will limit the earth
fault current to a value which will produce minimum damage at the point of fault. In general,
the earth fault current may be limited to 5%to 20%of that which occur with a 3-phase fault
Reactance earthing
In this method, a reactor is connected between the machine neutral and earth.
Since the earth current which may flow Is a reactance earthed system is a function of the
neutral reactance, the magnitude of the earth fault current is often used as a criterion for the
various system characteristics rather than referring to the neutral reactance directly.

When a generator neutral is to be connected to the earth, sometimes a low reactance is

connected is series with the neutral to limit the earth current through the generator. This
should not be greater than the 3-phase fault current of the generator.
 In order to minimise transient over-voltages, the earth fault current in a reactance earthed
system should not be less than 25%of the 3-phase fault current. This is considerably more
than the minimum current desirable is resistance earthed systems.
Earth fault neutralizer earthing

 Diagram shows the circuit diagram of earth fault neutralizer. When earth fault neutralizers are
used, the reactance is selected so that the current through the reactor is equal to the small line
charging current which would flowing to the line - to - earth fault if the system were operated
with the neutral unearthed.
 The reactance of the neutralised balances the system capacitance so that the net earth fault
current is practically zero. With such resonant earthed systems, care should be taken to keep
the, earth fault neutralised tuned to the system capacitance to minimise the development of
transient over-voltages.
Arc suppression coil or Paterson coil earthing
 In this method, it is an iron cored reactor connected in the neutral earthing circuit. The
reactance of the suppression coil is such, that on an earth fault, it is turned with the
capacitance of the healthy phases to produce resonance.
 By this method the arching is extinguished itself. When the earth fault on one of the line
persists, this coil reduces the short circuit current to a very low value, thus the healthy phases
are kept in operation.
Voltage transformer earthing
In this system, the neutral is earthed through voltage transformer and its operational
characteristics are similar to an neutral coiling system. One of the major defects in this
system is that the earthed neutral acts as a reflection point for the travelling waves through
the machine winding and it should be prevented with a voltage diverted
Earthed transformer
 Diagram shows the representation of an earthing transformer. When it is required to
earth a delta-connected system whose neutral is not directly available, earthing
transformers are used to form a neutral and then the neutral is solidly connected to
earth or through resistors in the neutral
 The earthing transformer is a 3-phase zigzag transformer with no secondary winding.
The impedance of the transformer to 3-phase currents is so high that, when there is no
fault on the system, the magnetising current flowing through the windings is very
small.
 The transformer impedance to earth currents is very low, so that the transformer
allows large earth currents to flow. The transformer divides the earth current into
three equal components. These are in phase when the earth fault is there and therefore
flow in the three windings of the earthing transformer.
 The earthing transformer is connected in zigzag and is designed for a short time KVA
rating equal to the rated line to neutral voltage multiplied by the rated neutral current.
The earthing transformer is designed to carry the rated current for a very short time of
10 seconds or for a maximum of one minute. The earthing transformer is therefore
much smaller than an ordinary
 3-phase transformer of the same rated KVA capacity. The earthing transformer should
be so connected to the power system that the system will always be earthed.

Important Two mark Questions

PART A
1. Sketch the fluorescent lamp connection arrangement. APRIL/MAY 2018.

2. List the different types of tariff calculation in electrical system. APRIL/MAY 2018.
 3. Mention the types of energy tariff for domestic loads.(Nov/Dec 2019)
DifferentTypesof Tariff
1. Simple tariff or uniform rate tariff
2. Hopkinson demand rate (two-part tariff)
3. Dohetry rate (Three-part tariff)
4. Flat demand rate
5. Straight meter rate
6. Block meter rate
7. Wright demand rate
8. Powerfactor tariff
4. How does the sodium vapour lamp works? APRIL/MAY 2019.
 Before the lamp starts working, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the
sides of the tube walls. When the lamp is switched on, it operates as a low pressure
neon lamp with pink colour.
 The lamp gets warmed, sodium is vaporised and it radiates yellow light and then, after
some time, about 10-15 minutes; the lamp starts giving full light.

5. What are Renewable energy sources? (APRIL/MAY 2019).

Renewable source of energy is defined as the energy resource which is produced
continuously in nature. It is neither consumed nor converted into something else. Therefore, it
is inexhaustible. .Example. Hydro energy, solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geo-
thermal energy, ocean thermal energy and energy from bio-mass
6. Write the most commonly used materials for fuse elements. (Nov/Dec 2019)
The fuse elements are generally made up of the following materials.
1.Lead
2.Tin
3.Copper
4.Zinc
5.Silver
1. Define solar thermal collector.
A solar thermal collector is a solar collector designed to collect heat by absorbing
sunlight. The term is applied to solar hot water panels, but may also be used to denote
more complex installations such as solar parabolic, solar trough and solar towers or
simpler installations such as solar air heat. The more complex collectors are generally
used in solar power plants where solar heat is used to generate electricity by heating
water to produce steam which drives a turbine connected to an electrical generator.
2. List out the Types of collectors. :
 Flat plate collectors.
 Concentrating solar collector.

3. Define parabolic trough reflector:

The cylindrical parabolic reflector reflects incident sunlight from its surface
onto the receiver at the focal point. Typically, the reflector is made of thick
glass silver mirrors formed into the shape of a parabola. Alternatively, mirrors can
be made from thin glass, plastic films or polished metals.
4. List out the different types on Application of solar energy:
Solar water heating
Solar heating of building
Solar cooling of buildings
Solar distillation
Solar pumping
Solar furnace
Solar cooking

5. Define Concentrators
The aim of combining solar cells with concentrators is to reduce the
cost of the produced electrical energy. A PV concentrator consists of two
principal elements: the optical collector and the cell receiver. The collector can
be a mirror, a lens or a combination of both. The cell must be designed
for the irradiance level which is received by the focus from the collector, and
they must be thermally bonded to a heat sink

6. Define Solar cell

A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell) is a solid state device that
converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
Assemblies of cells are used to make solar modules, also known as solar panels.
The energy generated from these solar modules, referred to as solar power, is an
example of solar energy.

7. Define Hydrogen fuel cell:

In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel
cell does not run down or require recharging. It will produce energy in the form
of electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied.

8. What are all the sources of light? (NOV/DEC2006)

According to principle of operation the light sources may be grouped as follows.
1. Arc lamps
2. High temperature lamps
3. Gaseous discharge lamps
4. Fluorescent type lamps
9. What is meant by luminance? (MAY/JUNE2012)
It is defined as the luminous intensity per unit projected area of either a surface source
of light or a reflecting surface and is denoted by L.
10. Define space-height ratio. (NOV/DEC2013)
It is defined as the ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps and height of
their mountings.
Space-height ratio = Horizontal distance between two adjacent lamps
- -------------------------------------------------------
Mounting height of lamps above working plane
11. Define Lumen and Luminous intensity.
 Lumen is defined as the flux emitted per unit solid angle from a uniform source, one
candle-power Cp. The flux emitted by source of 1 Cp is 41tLumen. Luminous
Intensity (I)or Candle Power or Luminosity of a source in any particular direction is
given by the luminous flux radiated per unit solid angle in that direction.

12. What are the major units in vapour compression refrigeration system?
1. Evaporator
2. Compressor
3. Condenser
4. Expansion valve in the form of a capillary tube