Expressing a Certain Vision

James, Collingwood and the Value of

Artistic Pursuits
David Collins
*
Ryerson University
Abstract. Within philosophical aesthetics, discussions of value tend to
focus on the aesthetic values of particular things (e.g. artworks, or natural
objects), leaving the question of the value or worth of creating and experi-
encing art a pressing question for artists, art educators and policy makers
comparatively unaddressed. Drawing on R. G. Collingwoods account of
art, this paper oers an answer to the question why the pursuit of artistic
activities is valuable, arguing that, when artworks are engaged with as ex-
pressions to be understood historically, in Collingwoods sense, doing so
can oer a solution to the moral and epistemic problem of value-blindness
discussed by William James in his essay On ACertain Blindness in Human
Beings, and so gives at least one reason why artistic pursuits are of value.
1. Introduction
Discussions of aesthetic value tend to focus on the aesthetic values of
things, leaving unanswered the broader question of why aesthetic activi-
ties and experiences are themselves worth engaging in. Why should peo-
ple bother with art in the rst place, rather than spending their time on
other things that might give them pleasure or be worthwhile in other ways?
What good are works of art beyond their entertainment value or the
enjoyment that can be derived from them? Without a ready answer to
questions such as these, no satisfactory reply can be given to one who re-
duces aesthetic judgments to mere personal taste and thinks that some-
ones judgment of a work of art as good just means that she likes that sort
of thing, or to those who dismiss art as frivolous as just entertainment.
*
Email: [email protected]
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The aim of this paper is to provide an answer to such questions by
putting forward a position on the value of engaging in artistic pursuits
both the creation of artworks by artists and their reception by spectators
drawn from the thinking of William James, and in doing so to highlight
the relevance of James philosophy to questions in aesthetics. As Richard
Shusterman (2011) notes, James never wrote directly on aesthetics, despite
his frequent use of examples from art and literature to illustrate his ideas
(2011: 347-49), and perhaps it is because of this that there has been al-
most no discussion of James thought in relation to aesthetic concerns.
While Shusterman has applied sections of The Principles of Psychology to
an account of aesthetic experience, I wish here to examine James 1899
Talks to Students on Some of Lifes Ideals, particularly his essay On a Certain
Blindness in Human Beings, arguing that an engagement with art, when
done in light of R. G. Collingwoods idea of art as expression and using his
method of historical understanding, can oer a solution to the blindness
with which James is concerned and this, in turn, provides an answer for
why artistic pursuits are valuable.
2. James and Value Blindness
A few years prior to 1899, James was riding through the mountains of
North Carolina when his carriage passed several coves, patches of land
between the hills that had been roughly cleared and settled by homestead-
ers. Describing the scene encountered, James writes:
The settler had in every case cut down the more manageable trees,
and left their charred stumps standing. The larger trees he had gir-
dled and killed, in order that their foliage should not cast a shade. He
had then built a log cabin, plastering its chinks with clay, and had set
up a tall zigzag rail fence around the scene of his havoc, to keep the
pigs and cattle out. Finally, he had irregularly planted the intervals
between the stumps and trees with Indian corn, which grew among
the [wood] chips... (1899a: 842)
His immediate impression was, as he puts it, one of unmitigated squalor
(Ibid.: 842). The forest that had once stood was destroyed, with the clear-
ing seeming to be without a single element of articial grace to make up
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for the loss of Natures beauty (Ibid.: 842-43). However, when his driver,
a native of the area, remarked that the regions inhabitants took pride in
these coves and were only happy when getting one of [them] under cul-
tivation (Ibid.: 843), James was struck by the dierence between his way
of taking the scene and theirs. He felt at once that hed missed the whole
inward signicance of the situation (Ibid.: 843); that he had been blind
to the meaning and value the clearings had for those whod built them
and in whose lives they featured. Following this realization, it occurred to
James how the settlers would see the coves: the stumps would appear as
reminders of their hard work, with the crude cabins and fences speaking
of safety for themselves and their families. The clearing, James writes,
which to me was a mere ugly picture on the retina, was to them a symbol
redolent with moral memories and sung a very paean of duty, struggle, and
success (Ibid.: 843).
This incident inspired On a Certain Blindness in Human Beings, in
which James discusses the common tendency of thought of which his ini-
tial judgment of the coves ugliness was an instance. This tendency, the
blindness James refers to, is an habitual lack of awareness of the feelings
of others, especially when these dier from our own, and is held by James
to have negative moral and epistemic consequences. The moral danger is
made clear in What Makes a Life Signicant, a companion talk given to
the same students, in which James states that this blindness is at the root
of most human injustices and cruelties (1899b: 861), and that an aware-
ness of the feelings of others, and how these feelings inform their values,
actions and lives, is of the most tremendous practical importance [and]
the basis of all our tolerance, social, religious, and political (Ibid.: 861).
The epistemic consequence concerns the way value-blindness limits our
awareness of the world, narrowing the scope of our feelings and judgments
to a single perspective, thereby making our judgments of others and their
actions more likely to be mistaken. If judging from a limited perspective
leads us to misjudge those who are the very sources of the alternative per-
spectives that would, if understood, put us in a better position to judge
more accurately, these misjudgments are likely to reinforce our tunnel-
vision, furthering our entrenchment in an insular understanding which is
false insofar as it misses the dierences and diversity of experience that
exist in life. The limitation this puts on our judgments relates back to the
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moral concern; as James notes, judgments concerning the worth of things
... depend on the feelings the[y] arouse in us and so [i]f we were radically
feelingless ... we should ... be unable to point to any one situation or ex-
perience in life more valuable or signicant than any other (1899a: 841).
While few of us are radically feelingless, having a narrower range of feeling
limits the value and signicance we can nd in life, along with limiting the
ways in which we are able to nd things valuable or meaningful. This leaves
us less equipped to discriminate between the worth of things to judge
one thing as better or worse than another and so restricts our ability to
make the discriminations necessary for ethical judgments.
The epistemic limitations to which this blindness leads can be seen
throughout James examples. Comparing a dog and its human owner, he
points out that, despite their living closely together, the owner is blind
to the rapture of bones under hedges, or smells of trees and lamp-posts
and the dog to the delights of literature and art (Ibid.: 841). Just as we
dont fully realize how these things are felt or experienced by dogs, they
are incapable of fathoming what were doing when reading: as James notes,
it would appear to them that we sit motionless, staring at an unchanging
object. Each side misses what the experience is like for the other, and so
their judgments of the nature and worth of these activities (to the extent,
of course, that dogs can be imagined to judge) will miss the mark.
This situation is echoed in a passage in which James contrasts Walt
Whitman, immersed in the ow of public life whilst people-watching
aboard the Brooklyn ferry, with a practically-minded man going about his
daily business. The practical man, James writes, would likely characterize
Whitmans activity as loang and judge it to be a waste of time (Ibid.:
854). Such an observer would similarly dismiss the behaviour of the boys
described in Robert Louis Stevensons The Lantern-bearers, from which
James quotes at length, who went around at night carrying tin lanterns
under their coats, not for the light they shed (which was kept concealed)
but as a sort of token of membership in a community of peers, the value
of which seemed mainly to consist in its being a secret from others. In
both cases, James suggests, an observer judging from the outside, with-
out being aware of what the actions meant for the ones acting, would judge
falsely. As he says, repeating a line of Stevensons for emphasis, to miss
the joy is to miss all (Ibid.: 847), implying the meaning of a human action
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lies in the reason why it is done as felt by the one acting, and so cant be
captured by a description of the bare external facts.
If value-blindness is the problem with which James is concerned, what
solution does he oer? From what he says in certain places it would be
easy to conclude that he thought the problem to be an unavoidable fact of
human nature, and was drawing our attention to something we could do
nothing about. For example, in one place he calls it the blindness with
which we are al aicted (Ibid.: 841, my emphasis) and in another says
that when one judges another persons actions, the judgment is sure to miss
the root of the matter (Ibid.: 842, my emphasis). However, to draw this
conclusion would be to take these phrases out of context. The greater part
of James talk consists of a series of examples and quotations from people
who, in the particular moments described, are not blind to the signicance
of things as felt by others. James personal example shows not only how
he became aware of his own blindness but how he overcame it by realizing
not just that others would feel dierently, but what they would feel. The
only example of his where we would necessarily miss the mark is that of
the dog nding value in its buried bones; but it can be seen that this is
because the dog has a dierent form of life. From James other examples,
it would seem that when we do share a form of life with the one whose
activity we are judging, understanding is possible so long as we dont miss
the joy which, being a human joy, is imaginable to us and so, in principle,
knowable.
3. Collingwood and Historical Understanding
The sort of understanding James examples suggest would be an antidote
for value-blindness is remarkably close to what Collingwood, in An Autobi-
ography, termed historical understanding. He tells of an incident from his
life similar to James realization in North Carolina. While working in Lon-
don during the First World War, Collingwood would walk daily past the
Albert Memorial and became captivated by its appearance. Everything
about it was visibly mis-shapen, he writes;
for a time I could not bear to look at it, and passed with averted eyes;
recovering from this weakness, I forced myself to look, and to face
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day by day the question: a thing so obviously, so incontrovertibly,
so indefensibly bad, why had Scott done it? ... What relation was
there, I began to ask myself, between what he had done and what
he had tried to do? Had he tried to produce a beautiful thing; a
thing, I meant, which we should have thought beautiful? If so, he
had of course failed. But had he perhaps been trying to produce
something dierent? If so, he might possibly have succeeded. If I
found the monument merely loathsome, was that perhaps my fault?
Was I looking in it for qualities it did not possess, and either ignoring
or despising those it did? (1939: 29-30)
This train of thought contributed to the development of his method of
historical understanding, which holds that you cannot nd out what a
man means by simply studying his spoken or written statements ... you
must also know what the question was ... to which the thing he had said
or written was meant as an answer (Ibid.: 31). While he refers here to
uses of language, his approach to understanding extends to any purposeful
human action, along with the artefacts that are the products thereof. His
realization about the memorial that there was something its maker had
been trying to do by making it, and that to properly judge its quality or
success required an understanding of what this was is a clear example of
this method being applied to an aesthetic object. Similarly, Collingwood
writes of witnessing at a young age the painterly activities of his parents
and their friends, seeing the various stages of the creative process and be-
coming aware of an artwork not as a nished product exposed for the
admiration of virtuosi, but as the visible record ... of an attempt to solve
a denite problem through the medium or art form to which the work
belonged (Ibid.: 2).
A two-fold objection might be raised to the eect that making art is
not always a matter of an artist having a denite problem in mind and try-
ing to solve it by what he or she creates, and that to think so would con-
tradict the position taken by Collingwood in The Principles of Art against
the reduction of art to craft because the former is not merely a matter of
executing a pre-formed plan, as one might follow a recipe (1938: 15-16).
If, for example, Scott, the creator of the Albert Memorial, had made it in
order to solve some problem through the medium of sculpture, it would,
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seemingly, reduce the Memorial to a means to an end and so wouldnt t
Collingwoods own standards for counting it a work of art-proper (Ibid.:
20-21). However, this second worry rests on an interpretation of Colling-
woods remarks against craft being the essence of art as saying that real
art couldnt involve craft or technique, but as Aaron Ridley has insisted,
this is not what Collingwood was claiming, so there is no real contradic-
tion here (Ridley 1999: 14-16). And indeed, one of the central points ar-
gued in Collingwoods An Essay on Philosophical Method is that philosophical
concepts overlap such that a distinction between concepts does not nec-
essarily entail a dierence in referents (1933: 28-29, 31); in other words, to
draw a conceptual distinction between the notions of craft and expres-
sion is not to imply an exclusive disjunction between the thing to which
each term is being used to refer, and so by Collingwoods standards a work
being both one of craft and art-proper presents no problem.
In response to the rst worry, Collingwoods writings show that he
wasnt referring primarily to problems or questions a person has in mind
prior to their solution. Reecting, in his Autobiography, on his own philo-
sophical process he writes: when I am in the early stages of work on a
problem[, u]ntil the problem has gone a long way towards being solved,
I do not know what it is; all I am conscious of is [a] vague perturbation
of mind, this sense of being worried about I cannot say what (1939: 4-
5). He holds this to be true of artistic creation, as can be seen from his
example of a sculptor playing with clay, watching it take shape under his
ngers, working out its form as he goes without planning in advance (1938:
22). Discussing his notion of art-proper as involving the expression of a
particular emotion, Collingwood writes: Until a man has expressed his
emotion, he does not yet know what emotion it is (Ibid.: 111). As Ridley
explains, since expression for Collingwood is the working out of an emotion
through a particular medium, the expression, being a clarication of that
emotion that raises it to consciousness, just is the answer to the question
What is it I feel? (Ridley 1999: 32), with the question itself becoming
clear only once the answer has emerged.
It is apparent from this that Collingwoods historical approach to un-
derstanding can be applied to artworks without contradicting his aesthetic
theory, with the problem to which the work is seen as a solution being
the successful expression of a certain feeling of the artists. What remains
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to be seen is what this has to do with James concern with value-blindness.
4. Aesthetic Engagement as a Solution to James Problem
Even if one accepts that value-blindness, as James describes it, is problem-
atic due to its moral and epistemic consequences, and that Collingwoods
historical approach to understanding anothers actions would be an anti-
dote to this, it could still be asked why art is of particular importance in this
regard. Even if art can be understood historically, its not the only thing
that can be and so it cant be claimed to be the solution to James problem.
However, it can be seen as a solution insofar as artworks are expressions
of artists feelings and perspectives, or ways of taking things, and so to
understand them historically as expressions involves imaginatively recon-
structing these feelings and perspectives for ourselves; thus, they can give
us practice in becoming aware of ways of feeling other than our own. In
other words, because expressive artworks convey or make clear an artists
feeling towards something rather than just delivering information about
it, they give us what Roger Scruton has called knowledge-what as opposed
to the knowledge-that conveyed by a factual report i.e. knowing what
it is like to feel a certain way, rather than knowing that someone feels this
way (see Scruton 2007: 34-35). This is not unlike Aristotles point that po-
etry captures the meaning of events while records chronicling what hap-
pened when (what Collingwood refers to as scissors-and-paste history)
give only the bare external facts of the matter (see Aristotle 1984: 234-35).
This view can also be seen in Collingwoods distinction between betray-
ing an emotion, which makes the percipient aware that someone feels a
certain way, and expressing one, which allows the percipient to experience
something of that emotion for him or herself, and thereby know, to some
extent, what it feels like (1938: 122-24).
James takes a similar view to Aristotle and Collingwood as to the kinds
of meaning to be found in poetic expression versus the scissors-and-paste
sort of history, prioritizing the higher vision of an inner signicance over
what is known in the dead external way (1899a: 848), and the view that
art is something that shows us the former is implicit in his writings. No-
tably, all the examples James gives in his talk involve aesthetic matters,
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either being taken from poets and novelists or describing an appreciation
of natural beauty; even in his dog example he chooses art and literature
as the objects of human signicance to which the dog is blind. Moreover,
his discussions of the poets Whitman and Wordsworth depict them as
seeing a greater range of signicance than the practically-minded due to
their imaginative openness to other perspectives and feelings. The prac-
tical man seeing Whitman as a loafer is in a position towards him com-
parable to the dogs position towards its owner; knowing only one way to
take what he observes and assuming it to be the extent of the truth, he
fails to see Whitmans attunement to the ow of life for what it is, just
as the dog cant see reading for what it is. A similar point is made when
James speculates that Wordsworths neighbours tightly and narrowly in-
tent upon their own aairs would have thought the poet walking in the
countryside, lled with ... inner joy, responsive ... to the secret life of
Nature roundabout him, to be a very insignicant and foolish person-
age (Ibid.: 849-50). It should be noted that James wouldnt hold to any
hard-and-fast categorization of people as either practical or imaginative,
but rather thinks of these as attitudes anyone can take up, although those
habitually entrenched in one would be less likely or less able from want
of practice to take up the other. Only in some pitiful dreamer, James
writes, some philosopher, poet, or romancer, or when the common practical
man becomes a lover, does the hard externality give way, and a gleam of in-
sight into ... the vast world of inner life beyond us ... illuminate our mind
(Ibid.: 847, my emphasis).
It isnt a stretch to suppose that James would hold aesthetic engage-
ment to be another way for the common practical man to rise above this
hard externality, sharing in Emersons view that artists are free, and ...
make free (1844: 301). If artists see more of the inner signicance of
things by looking beyond the limitations of their own practical needs and
habits, and if they express this signicance through their work, it follows
that an engagement with these works as expression to be understood
rather than as entertainment to be consumed, as Collingwood would have
insisted (see Collingwood 1938: 78-82 on amusement art) can allow oth-
ers to see as the artist did, looking past their own personal concerns to
imaginatively identify with the concerns of another. If the ability to walk
a mile in anothers shoes would help combat value-blindness, artists, in
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making works that express and thus make public a part of their emotional
experience of the world, can be seen as oering us a pair of their shoes to
try on.
Collingwood is not alone among philosophers in this understanding of
art; for example, Scruton says an artist presents us with a way of seeing
(and not just any way of thinking of) his subject (1981: 582) and writes
that paintings present to us a vision that we attribute not to ourselves
but to another man; we think of ourselves as sharing in the vision of the
artist... (Ibid.: 581, my emphasis). Admittedly, if taken literally this is false
(we would not claim, for example, that Picasso literaly sawa persons eyes
on the same side of their face, nor their nose as a triangle) but it should
be noted that these references to seeing and vision are at least somewhat
metaphorical. Rather than thinking of a work as reproducing the visual ex-
perience of the artist, it is more tting to see it as the expression of an inner
emotional or imaginative experience she had while perceiving her subject
not what she saw, but what she felt as she saw it. To experience the work
feelingly is to become aware of the way the artist felt when perceiving it,
based on the works expressive qualities. As Collingwood describes (1938:
306-09), the process an artist goes through while creating a work of art-
proper involves her adopting the positions of both creator and spectator:
when a painter is working she is both painting and looking at what is tak-
ing shape on the canvas, seeing and feeling the results of her brushstrokes;
when a composer writes a song he is attending to how the notes he chooses
sound together; when a poet writes she is reading as she goes, assessing the
eects of her word choice and prosody. In this sense, when we experience
a work of art we do perceive something the artist perceived: the work it-
self. If this work counts as the successful expression of a feeling the artist
had, it does so because she saw, heard or read in what she had done some-
thing she recognized as capturing this feeling; and if we take the nished
work before us as having been felt about in this way by the artist when she
perceived it, we can attempt to get on the artists wavelength, so to speak,
and imaginatively reconstruct this feeling for ourselves.
Moreover, since Collingwood holds any work of art-proper to be a cer-
tain thing rather than a thing of a certain kind (Ibid.: 114), the account
of art he oers is particularly suited to providing a solution to the prob-
lem James raises. Because value-blindness is likely to come about through
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the attribution of a general or universal emotion to someone in order to
understand her behaviour, as this will lead one to overlook any particular-
ities of what she is actually feeling that may not be contained within the
general concept, people will be less likely to be blind to the actual feel-
ings of others if they habitually engage with artworks by (i) taking them to
be expressions of particular rather than general feelings e.g., as express-
ing a particular feeling the artist felt on a certain occasion that could be
described as an instance of, say, sadness, rather than expressing sadness-
in-general and (ii) seeking to understand them in their particularity. En-
gaging with art in this way is likely to better prepare one to recognize and
understand more correctly the feelings of the other people one encoun-
ters in life, which Collingwood and James would agree will be particular
occurrences of unique feelings rather than instances of generic, universal
emotions. Also, insofar as an active engagement with art involves attend-
ing closely to perceptual details as potential sources of meaning, it could be
said to give practice in understanding the emotions of others as revealed
through body language, facial expression, tone of voice, etc. perhaps to
a greater degree than other forms of moral education, since these things
must rst be perceived before they can be conceived or understood as ex-
pressing (or even betraying) such-and-such a feeling.
5. Conclusion
The position outlined above as to the benets of engaging with art may
sound similar to the common (and admittedly vague) claim that art broad-
ens ones horizons. However, by specifying that it is our range of perspec-
tives as to the possible value or signicance of things that is in question, the
current position makes clear just what is broadened, and how. By holding
that it is the perspective the artist took to her subject that is benecial
to engage with, this view avoids the problems arising from assuming that
a works content for example, the characters and situations in a narra-
tive is what is to be identied or empathized with. There is a dierence
between imagining oneself in the place of a ctional character and imag-
inatively adopting the artists way of viewing people and their behaviour,
just as there is a dierence between imagining being in the place depicted
in a painting and attending to the painters way of seeing this place and
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learning to be able to see like this for ourselves. In the case of a narra-
tive work, it is a question of identifying with, for example, Shakespeare
and his understanding of the human condition as expressed in, say, Ham-
let, rather than with the character of Hamlet and his actions. This applies
equally to non-representational art; we can learn through their works to
hear feelingly like Beethoven or Chopin or Mingus did, or to see with
feeling similar to the way Pollock or Kandinsky or De Kooning saw.
Art has the potential to take us out of ourselves and allow us to feel,
understand and take the world as another has taken it, which is morally
and epistemically benecial insofar as it helps us break the habit of value-
blindness James warns against and makes us less likely to judge the actions
of others narrowly or falsely. While this may sound to some as if it were an
invitation to relativism, James is not saying we cant judge others who feel
or value dierently than we do; rather, he implies that were only in a posi-
tion to judge when we do so with an understanding of what things are like
for them. It would be a mistake to read James pluralism as saying that any
feeling is as good as any other; in APluralistic Universe, he explicitly states
that one persons vision may be more or less valuable than anothers (1909:
34). Of course, we cant be in a position to judge this comparative value un-
less we understand what the dierent visions involve and as both James
and Collingwood would insist, we can only do so from the inside. It is my
suggestion that works of art, when understood historically as expressions
of anothers way of taking and feeling towards parts of the world can give
us practice in doing just this.
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