LIBRARY, USAARU

~ z r _ _ _ Ff RUCKER, ALA
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.... yuletide greetings
'U1lUit!J Statu ,4"m11
AV1ATION DIGEST
EDITORIAL STAFF
CAPT JOSEPH H . POOLE
FRED M . MONTGOMERY
DIANA G. WILLIAMS
ARTICLES
ARMY AVIATION LOOKS AHEAD
Maj Gen Ernest F. Easterbrook, USA
ANIP - ARMY-NAVY
INSTRUMENTATION PROGRAM
POSTSCRIPT: RUSSIAN HELICOPTERS
Ralph P. Alex
HELICOPTER INSTRUMENT FLYING
Capt Alder P. Betti, Arty
KNOW YOUR PROPS
Lt Morris A. McCool, CE
CAUSE FACTOR- UNKNOWN
THE "HOLE" STORY IN THE HU-IA .
Fred M. Montgomery
U. S. MAP OF AAFs, AFAs, ARNG ACTIVITIES
SURVIVAL PSYCHOLOGY MADE EASY.
A CHRISTMAS CAROL
TALK THAT TELLS.
DEPARTMENTS
CRASH SENSE .
DECEMBER 1959
VOLUME 5
NUMBER 12
1
5
6
9
11
14
17
18
20
27
32
34
INDEX, VOLUME 5, 1959 . Back, Inside Back Cover
U. S. ARMY AVIATION SCHOOL
Maj Gen Ernest F. Easterbrook
Commandant
Col Delk M. Oden
Assist ant Commandant
SCHOOL STAFF
Col Robert H. Schulz
Director of I nstruction
Col Edward N. Dahlstrom
S ec'retary
Lt Col James L. Townsend
CO, USAA V NS Regiment
Lt Col John W. Oswalt
Combat Development Office
DEP ARTMENTS
Lt Col Ritchie Garrison
Tactics
Lt Col Raymond E. Johnson
Rotar y Wing
Lt Col Harry J. Kern
Maintenance
Lt Col James B. Gregorie, Jr.
Advanced Fixed Wing
Lt Col Thomas J. Sabiston
Publications and
N on-R esiden tIns tructi on
Lt Col G. Wilford Jaubert
Primary Fixed Wing
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ARMY AVIATION LOOKS AHEAD
Ma jor General Ernest F. Easterbrook, USA
H
ELICOPTERS OR VTOL
aircraft are not just some-
thing nice to have; they con-
stitute a major weapons sys-
tem more dramatic, complete,
and decisive than the airborne
forces of WW II.
Military minds of today are
already aware of t he value of
using helicopters to gain tac-
tical surprise and to provide
operational mobility. The So-
General E asterbrook is Com-
manding General of the U. S.
Army Aviation Center and Com-
mandant of the U. S. Army Avia-
tion School. The text of t his
article was covered Vn a recent
address given at the Army-Navy
I nstrumentation Program confe1<-
ence held at Dallas, T exas.
viets presently have a positive
program for increasing their
battlefield mobility through the
use of helicopter mobile forces.
A recent article in the Wall
Street Journal indicates that
the Soviets plan to have a fleet
of 2,000 transport helicopters.
A lesser known fact is that
the Soviets are also pursuing an
active program of arming heli-
copters.
Let's look in on a hypotheti-
cal situation that could exist in
the future-in a few months, or
a few years.
The setting is a task force
headquarters in an unidentified
Near East country. NATO as-
sistance has been requested to
prevent open rebellion and a
communist coup of the country.
Shortly after landing, U. S.
forces dispersed the p 0 0 r I y
trained and organized reb e I
forces. Within a few days the
rebels were pushed beyond the
coastal ran g e of mountains,
where patrol action continues.
Several months have elapsed
without major conflict. Reports
indicate a massing of forces
with modern equipment to the
north, but there is no indica-
tion of movement to the south.
Our buildup has been satis-
factory; supplies are stock-
piled; civilian labor hired. The
situation is settling into the
well-known routine of a "police
action."
The major difficulties en-
1
DECEMBER 1959
Terrain may make it entirely possible for low flying
countered so far have been the
rugged terrain, the heat, and
sand, which have compounded
maintenance difficulties. Roads
are poor and infrequent. In the
mountain areas held by the di-
visions the terrain is exception-
ally rug g e d. Temperature
changes, varying from over
100 during daytime hours to
below 40 at night, add to the
ordinary problems of military
opera tions.
Elements of a Navy task
force are present in neighbor-
ing waters. Air Force backup
both by MATS and TAC is ex-
cellent. Two U. S. divisions are
holding a normal type peri-
meter.
The Assistant G-3 of the
Army task force is about ready
to wind up a long, dull night
shift as Operations Duty Offi-
cer. The G-2 Duty Officer is
concerned over a report given
some hours ago by an infrared
equipped combat surveillance
aircraft. A possible target was
picked up, then lost. Dawn will
break in about an hour.
"Sam, that report from our
surveillance aircraft worries
me. When those SLAR air-
craft return in the morning
2
fro m that modification job,
we'd better cover that area real
well."
"I think we ought to check
it out too, Frank; but after all,
it's at least 30 miles out from
our most forward elements. I'd
direct a ground patrol effort,
but it'd take at least three days
in that country. The pi lot
wasn't really positive anyhow.
It could be the equipment cut-
ting up like it did last month.
Besides, what could be in that
area? It's right off the edge of
that barren plateau."
"I doublechecked those night
photos taken by the L-20, but
they don't show anything. Of
course he may not have been
over the right area."
"You can say that again. I
was up there on a recon last
week. It would just be luck to
find a spot like that at night
without a specific fix."
"Well, I'm not worrying
about it too much. No force of
any size could get there with-
out using those two critical
passes, and we've got those
thoroughly covered."
"Nothing to worry about,
Sam. I've checked them out
fro m our daily surveillance
runs and haven't even seen a
set of vehicle or tank tracks."
"Let's put in a request for
area coverage in the 1030 photo
mission and have a cup of cof-
fee before we go off shift."
The G-2 Duty Officer drank
the last of a stale, tepid cup of
coffee as the phone rang.
"G-2 Duty Officer speaking."
"This is Kaiser G-2. We just
had a report from OP 17 that
a lot of low-flying aircraft were
heard southwest of there. They
think they were helicopters. It
was too dark to actually see
them, and they were flying low.
All they saw were a few flashes,
I ike exhaust flames, several
times at low level."
"How many were there ?"
"Don't know for sure. They
estimate four flights with a
spread of three minutes be-
tween flights."
"Have you had any confirm-
ing reports ?"
"N egative."
"How about radar?"
"I just checked them; no
sightings reported. The moun-
tains there would cut out any
low-flying targets, though."
"How about your division
aircraft? Are they checking it
out?"
"Yes, L-19s and recon heli-
copters; but if those w ere
transport helicopters, they'll be
on their objective before our
aircraft can reach them. Can
you put a SLAR aircraft on
them ?"
The theoretical enemy air-
mobile force I have presented
could be several hundred trans-
port helicopters with assault
forces to seize the air base be-
ing used by MATS, to cut the
railroad, and/ or link up with
local sympathizers. Armed heli-
copters escorting t his force
could break away after helping
secure the objective. The y
WQuld have a fair chance Qf
shQO'ting up supply installa-
tiQns, the remaining air b s e ~
and perhaps drQP a few IQads Qf
incendiaries if their intent is to'
destrQy.
With a cQmbinatiQn Qf Qther
enemy actiQns, such an Qpera-
tiQn WQuld undQubtedly be de-
signed to' gain a majO'r advan-
tage thrO'ugh speed and sur-
prise.
ObviQusly, this tactical set-
ting CQuld be built up at great
length. I have kept the tactical
setting simple and entirely
plausible, based UPQn the trend
Qf military events during the
past ten years. The real pur-
PQse Qf this example is to IQQk
fQrward, analyze Qur military
pO' sture, and determine if we
can effectively cO'pe with this
type situatiQn.
In this setting there is Qne
Qbjective: to' PQrtray the heli-
cQpter O'r VTOL aircraft as a
majQr weapQns system. It is
nQt a "nice to' have" system,
but is Qne that is decisive in
the success Qr failure Qf a CQm-
bat missiQn.
I emphasize the geographic
area to PQint up an envirQnment
that is rQugh Qn men and equip-
ment. Systems that are devised
under the ANIP prQgram must
be capable Qf withstanding the
adverse cQnditiQns Qf wind,
dust, dirt, and extreme temper-
atures Qf such an area.
Army AviatiQn's rQles and
missiQns presently can be sum-
marized into twO' maj Qr func-
tiQns: surveillance and mQbil-
ity. The present capabilities Qf
Qur aircraft obviQusly will nQt
be adequate in future CQnflicts.
These aircraft Qffer a degree Qf
capability, but will SQO'n be Qut-
mQded. We must have much
mQre versatile aircraft if we ex-
pect effective missiQns.
As we IQok to the future, it
is the great sweep Qf senSQry
devices which gives prQmise O'f
a highly develQped surveillance
capability. Timely and accurate
infQrmatiQn of the enemy is
priceless in this era Qf mass de-
structiQn weapQns. I t is im-
perative to' success. With the
ability to' quickly and accurate-
ly pinpQint its QPPQnent, and
get Qff its tactical strikes swift-
ly, the Army stands to' gain the
decisive advantage.
When the target is a swiftly
mQving, hard hitting airmO'bile
unit, the difficulty Qf finding,
fixing, and fighting it is a diffi-
cult task.
We must have a PQsitive abil-
ity to accurately detect, evalu-
ate, identify, and IQcate the
enemy. We must nQt be con-
.. . aircraft to avoid detection and observation
ARMY AVIATION LOOKS AHEAD
fused Qr deceived by simulated
targets emplO'yed fQr deceptiO'n.
Finally, we must be able to' in-
flict a decisive tactical strike
against him.
The requirements to' find, fix,
and fight the- enemy have been
and will cO'ntinue to be the basic
prerequisites to' any successful
QperatiQn.
With increases in firepower
and the ranges to' which it can
be emplQyed, the depth O'f the
battlefield has increased. TO'
span such depth we must have
sensO'ry devices Qf the highest
Qrder.
MO'bility is the O'ther main
functiQn Qf Army A viatiQn. Or-
dinarily we think Qf this mo-
bility in the aspect Qf mQbility
Qf manpQwer, equipment, Qr
supply. A new aspect we have
bO'rdered Qn fQr sO'me time- is
the mO'bility Qf firepQwer.
WithO'ut minimizing the need
fQr mQbility O'f men, equipment,
and supply, mO'bility Qf fire-
PQwer must be cQnsidered the
mQre exacting and immediate
prQblem due to' its QperatiQnal
implicatiQns. If the navigatiQn-
al and cQntrQl features fQr mO'-
bility Qf firepQwer are satisfied,
then thQse Qf manpQwer, equip-
ment, and supply are alsO' met.
By mO'bility Qf firepQwer, I
visualize certain missile units
cQmpletely airmQbile with Qr-
ganic VTOL aircraft, capable Qf
swiftly mQving to a predeter-
mined PQsitiQn, delivering its
fire missiQn, and displacing be-
fO're the enemy can muster its
CQuntermeasures. These missile
units require airmQbility to'
increase their QperatiO'nal effi-
ciency and to' survive Qn the
future battlefield.
AirmQbile fQrces are alsO' in-
cluded in the cO'ncept Qf mQbil-
ity O'f firepQwer. As integrated
fQrces, fully airmQbile by Qr-
ganic aircraft, they will have a
reasO'nable degree Qf self-suffi-
3
DECEMBER 1959
ciency to accomplish independ-
ent missions, and be able to
operate over extended distances
of the future battle area. This
is a new role, a new mode of
warfare by units fully equipped
with integrated organic air-
craft.
ACR (Aerial Combat Recon-
naissance) companies and re-
connaissance and security com-
panies are experimental units
in the first phase of this con-
cept. Capable of providing dis-
tant reconnaissance and secu-
rity previously unobtainable,
their job is to accomplish the
finding and fixing of the enemy.
Other measures will be em-
ployed for fighting. In time,
airmobile units will also do this
final, but crucial job.
Let us return to our theo-
retical operation. The tactical
situation portrayed gave the
enemy a specific capability of
penetrating 200 miles in two
hours, directly to a vital area
with an airmobile task force.
The capabilities that accom-
pany such an operation are
many. Under such conditions it
is logical to expect the enemy to
use a combination of other ac-
tions to attain decisive results.
Here again many tactical pos-
sibilities can evolve, but let us
stick to the airmobile opera-
tion itself.
Crediting the enemy with the
capability of airmobile t ask
-forces, we then generate re-
quirements in defense against
such forces. They must be de-
tected, identified, and tracked
over the entire route. The ex-
isting surveillance pro g ram
will undoubtedly meet these re-
quirements, for they fit into the
established pattern. Finally,
there is the requirement to cope
with such a force once it has
reached the landing or objec-
tive area.
4
Rather large reserves were
held out of action in WW II to
cover the threat of airborne op-
erations. They will be required
on the future battlefield also.
Logically, an airmobile force
of our own would be the best
i m me d i ate countermeasure
against the enemy's airmobile
operation. Military his tor y
shows a pattern of like combat
forces being pitted against each
other; when one army used
mounted warriors, the other
quickly followed suit so as to
fight on equal terms.
Our most opportune time to
fight the enemy force, after de-
tection is en route to his land-
ing or objective area. This
ability to intercept and destroy
enemy aircraft while en route
is vital.
Interception probably brings
to mind the recently publicized,
shoulder fired, heat - seeking
missile available to the indi-
vidual soldier for use against
low-flying aircraft. Such weap-
ons will certainly deter low-
level flying over occupied areas.
However, on the widely dis-
persed modern battlefield, care-
fully chosen flight routes can
avoid known occupied areas.
In a widely dispersed situa-
tion such as our theoretical
problem presents, the rugged
terrain may make it entirely
possible for low-flying aircraft
to slip between defense areas,
avoiding detection and observa-
tion long enough to prevent ef-
fective ground fire.
Within the present state of
development, a specific require-
ment exists for an aircraft cap-
able of intercepting and de-
stroying enemy VTOL/ STOL
aircraft. S u chan intercept
aircraft must match enemy
VTOL/ STOL aircraft in agility
and be capable of flying in the
nap of the earth.
VTOL aircraft will inevitably
engage each other in combat as
one force endeavors to secure
and defend while the other tries
to intercept.
Advantages gained by em-
ploying a weapons s y s t e m
which utilizes air space are end-
less. Freeing elemen ts of the
Army from the restrictions and
barriers of terrain opens a new
mode of ground warfare, which
may be essential to our success
and survival in event of atomic
attack.
Inevitably certain g r 0 u n d
force formations must move
throug-h air space close to the
earth's surface to gain the mo-
bility, speed and maneuverabil-
ity so important in any form of
combat. The proven suppres-
sive fire capability of ACR ably
supports the mobility of fire-
power concept, using VTOL
aircraft.
The air medium must be uti-
lized for its ultimate worth. If
we are not quick to grasp the
challenge of this new concept,
we may be outstripped by
others who apparently have the
same ideas.
If Army Aviation is to attain
any such capability, we must
first have many of the items of
equipment being developed in
the ANIP program.
Simple and effective navaids
must be available for extended
operations. Effective airmobile
operations cannot be tied to
ground navigational aids and
to ground communication op-
erations use d in the past.
Freedom to operate in the nap
of the earth is a major order in
navigation.
These instruments will per-
mit Army Aviation to become
a major weapons system. With
them a new mode of warfare
for the better defense of our
nation may be opened.
ANIP
ARMY-NAVY INSTRUMENTATION PROGRAM
P ILOTS! COMMANDERS! Would
your unit's ability to carry out
its assigned missions be enhanced
-IF you knew your aircraft's
exact relationship to the earth's sur-
face and could see a television dis-
play of obstacles, objects, and moun-
tainous terrain during night and bad
weather operations?
-IF you knew immediately your
aircraft's roll, pitch, yaw, altitude,
groundspeed, and compass heading
under any weather condition?
-IF you had a radar altimeter so
sensitive you could measure the
height of sea waves beneath your
aircraft?
-IF you had special optical devices
that enhanced your ability to "see"
through fog and cloud formations?
-IF you could determine a heli-
copter's airspeed despite the turbu-
lence created by the rotor?
The answers are no longer condi-
tional . . . thanks to the efforts of
ANIP, Army Navy Instrumentation
Program. Since its inception in 1954,
a basic objective of ANIP has been
to provide the instrumentation, dis-
play, and control capabilities re-
quired to achieve the maximum
effectiveness of the operator or pilot-
vehicle combination under all envi-
ronmental conditions, day or night.
The basic philosophy in this "man-
machine integrated control research
program" is to design the total
system to match the requirements
of the man, rather than insert him
in a collection of preconceived black
boxes and instruments.
HIn building a composite efficient
system of this type, certain building
blocks are required for the system
to function and to close the loop be-
tween the man and the machine.
The building blocks of such a system
and thus of ANIP are sensors,
computation, display amplification,
mechanism amplification, dis p I a y
media, controls, cockpit environment
and escape, and electric power pro-
visions and management.
"We in the Army Aviation elec-
tronics field feel that this approach
and further developments by ANIP
will give us the ultimate solution to
the problem of operating our future
aerial vehicles day or night, under
all visibility conditions." (Brig Gen
E. F. Cook, Deputy Chief Signal
Officer, U. S. Army, at the fourth
major progress symposium for the
Army Navy Instrumentation Pro-
gram, Dallas, Texas.)
Well known to military users of
helicopters, limited all-weather capa-
bility exists; however, the services
continually emphasize the urgent
need for a true all-visibility capabil-
ity for the helicopter.
In the past attempts to achieve
this capability have taken the form
of minor improvements in existing
gauges or additional equipment. This
has created the problem of having a
multitude of gauges in the cockpit.
Attempts have been made to combine
instruments with limited success. In
some cases increased confusion and
disorientation have resulted under
conditions of operator stress. To
aggravate the situation, the heli-
copter industry has been forced to
accept hand - me - down instruments
developed for fixed wing aircraft.
Thus, the application of the concept
of integrated presentation of flight
information becomes a prime objec-
tive in accomplishing all-visibility
capability.
The long-range program of ANIP
seeks the basic knowledge required
to relieve the human pilot of tasks
which prevent him from utilizing his
full capabilities in carrying out the
mission of the man-machine system.
Interim results are integrated into
the current vehicle programs of the
participating agencies.
Additionally, ANIP sights are
continuously directed toward in-
creased reliability; decreased logis-
tics; and reduced size, weight, cost,
training time, and maintenance of
the man-machine complex he controls
in his efforts to get all-visibility
operating capabilities.
To date the program has yielded
a number of significant results
which are being applied to produc-
tion aircraft as specific instruments.
More highly integrated display and
control systems hardware are under-
going flight test phases. The pro-
grams represent a concentrated ef-
fort to match the capabilities of auto-
matic controls and computers to the
inductive and decisive capabilities of
man to achieve higher performance
than can be obtained by either ele-
ment alone.
A significant contribution has been
the Contact Analog Display which
provides an informational capability
under unfavorable environments,
equivalent to that available to the
pilot under VFR or contact flight.
The transparent flat cathode ray
tube display surface is another
product of ANIP research.
History has shown that anything
which increases an aircraft's func-
tional capability has resulted in new
and unexploited missions. The added
all-visibility capability promised by
the pursuit of ANIP concepts, with-
out doubt, will give rise to new mis-
sions of value to the nation.
In the interest of national defense
it is essential that scientific advances
made in the United States assume
a greater rate. The aim of ANIP
to make a significant step, rather
than evolutionary advances, in the
development of flying is in keeping
with this most important require-
ment.
(Information extracted from vari-
ous press releases and brochures
from the fourth major progress sym-
posium for ANIP, Dallas, Texas.)
5
Russian Helicopters
I
N MAY 1959 Ralph P. Alex,
president of the American
Helicopter Society, made a trip
to Russia. He reported his im-
pressions of Russian helicopter
development in the July issue
of NEWSLETTER. With ex-
ceptions noted, the following in-
formation is excerpted from
that magazine and is used with
permission. The NATO names
such as "Horse" are use d
throughout this article. The
September 1958 issue of U. S.
ARM Y AVIATION DIGEST
carried an article entitled "The
Soviet Helicopter Program";
only later information on the
various helicopters is printed
here.
The HORSE (Yak-24) has
two 65-foot diameter rotors,
powered by two 1,750 hp
I vchenko piston engines. The
latest model includes an all-
aluminum fuselage, and a new
rotor blade consisting of a
formed leading edge, steel tube
spar, and wrapped pocket sec-
tions. In future models the
rotor diameter is to be in-
creased by approximately 10
feet and the fuselage extended
to allow greater passenger ca-
Ralph P. Alex is president of
'the American Helicopt er Society
and the Int ernational Helicopter
Commission of the F. A. I. He is
head of. Component Design, Sikor-
sky Aircraft Division of United
Corporation.
6
Ralph P. Alex
pacity. The goals are 40 pas-
sengers for short haul airline
work and larger volume inter-
nal cargo capacity for both mil-
itary and commercial use.
The vibration level in the
HORSE is considered to be
completely acceptable. The
pilot and copilot stations are
widely spaced with individual
T -shaped instrument consoles.
Visibility is excellent.
The landing gear is a long-
stroke t r a vel, full-swiveling
type. It is fabricated from steel
castings and tubing strut mem-
bers, inert-atmosphere arc-
welded. A rear loading and un-
loading ramp is power oper-
ated and lends greatly to the
aircraft's utility for cargo and
troop loading and unloading.
Single-point suspension cargo
hook carrying has been success-
fully developed, and trucks up
to 5 tons have been lifted and
flown. Cruising speed is 126
mph and the maximum speed
157 mph. The HORSE has had
extensive military usage.
The HOUND (Mil-4) has a
65-foot diameter rotor and a
10-foot diameter tail rotor. It
weighs 8,800 lbs empty and the
gross weight is 15,500 lbs. Be-
cause of the average distance
between fuel or supply bases in
R us s i a, the range of the
HOUND is 300 miles. This
range is standard for all Rus-
YAK-24 (Horse) cargo hook single-point suspension
sian helicopters. Troop or high-
density passenger capacity is
16 to 20. The c.g. travel is just
12 inches, which requires dis-
criminate loading. The rear-
opening clamshell doors are of
very lig-ht construction but well
secured.
The engine installation is
completely shuttered for cold
weather operation. The starter
on the HOUND is an inertia
type which was actuated con-
tinuously, even with the clutch
engaged. The bat t e r y is a
standard 28-volt type, some-
what smaller than American
batteries. There was no evi-
dence that the Russians depend
upon a battery cart or APU for
starting.
The HOUND carries no safe-
ty belts because the Russians
believe it is safe enough with-
out them. Mr. Alex was granted
a flight in the HOUND and had
this to say about the trip:
"The pilot engaged the start-
er and after the engine caught,
he pushed a button on the in-
strument which automatically
sequenced the rotor engaging
clutch. The clutch intermittent-
ly engaged the rotor, brought it
up to speed; then by throttle
manipulation the final lock-in
was accomplished. There was
no manifold pressure. The sole
indication of power was pitch
and rpm."
The next flight was in a HEN
(Kamov-15) equipped with a
propane gas starter, w h i c h
starts almost instantaneously.
Again manifold pressure is ab-
sent and pitch indication is sub-
stituted. The pilot did acrobat-
ics, including t i g h t spirals,
inverted flight, and vertical
stall maneuvers. These feats
produced such a violent blade
motion and blade stall condition
that it appeared the pilot was
overdemonstrating.
POSTSCRIPT: RUSSIAN HELICOPTERS
KAMOY -15 (Hen) max sl,eed 100 mph; range 155 miles
The maximum speed is 100
mph; range is 155 miles; ceil-
ing 10,800 feet; gross weight
2,995 lbs; rotor diameter 32.6
inches; 255 hp I vchenko motor;
carries pilot, passenger, and 110
lbs of baggage. It is equipped
with all-weather aids such as
UHF radio, electric artificial
horizon, all navigation and pow-
erplant instruments including
lighted panel, rotor blade, a d
fluid windshield deicing.
The HOG (Kamov - 18) is
much the same model as the
HEN except that the HOG has
a slightly larger cabin area.
Both have the same rotor and
powerplant.
The HOOK (Mil-6) has a new
configuration. Notice the wing
which is used to unload the
rotor by 20 percent to reduce
blade stall primarily, but it also
allows a reduction in rotor rpm
to delay blade stall at high
KAMOV-18 (Hog) same as Hen, but larger cabin
7
DECEMBER 1959
An experimental flying crane? Russia's answer to S-60?
speed. The designer considered
that the vertical drag of the
wing was insignificant as com-
pared to the vertical drag of
the fuselage, although the wing
is removed to eliminate the
wing vertical drag d uri n g
weight lifting record attempts.
Mr. Alex reported (in July)
that an attempt would be made
to beat the world's helicopter
speed record within the next 2
or 3 months, and that within
the last year an aerodynamic
breakthrough had made it pos-
sible to increase the speed of
the HOOK up to 217 mph. A
news item in the October MILI-
TARY REVIEW reported that
the HOOK has broken all previ-
ous records for "load-to-height"
lift by hoisting a 5-ton load to
an altitude of 18,207 feet and a
10-ton load to 15,090 feet. This
aircraft is one of the largest
helicopters in existence and is
credited with a normal seating
capacity of 70 to 80 persons
MIL-6 (Hook) in a new configuration; speed 217 mph
8
and a maximum load of up to
120 persons.
The engines in the HOOK are
5,500 hp Soloviev (5 minute
takeoff rating) and 4,400 hp for
normal maximum continuous
rating. It has a main rotor di-
ameter of 115 feet and tail rotor
diameter is 21 feet. The air-
craft is winterized as all of the
Russian aircraft seem to be, for
their considerably variable cli-
mate. All helicopters have de-
icing equipment (some with al-
cohol blade deicing) but on the
HOOK, HOUND, and HORSE
electric deicing is used. Gross
weight of the HOOK is 71,000
Ibs; empty weight, depending
on equipment, about 45,000 Ibs.
The HOOK carries ASE as
standard equipment, ' although
its designer explained it was an
aircraft autopilot adaptation
and required aircraft type op-
eration, a minimum speed of 40
to 50 knots, and a typical air-
craft ILS approach to landing.
This huge aircraft is still in
the experimental stage.
Commenting on the HOOK,
Mr. Alex said, "It is a remark-
able accomplishment, and if
their efforts to establish a 230
mph plus speed record is ac-
complished as anticipated, it
should establish bey 0 n d a
doubt, the future of the heli-
copter as the most promising
of VTOLs."
In an address before the
AAA meeting at Fort Rucker
on September 29, Mr. Alex
stated that he saw films and
other media which showed that
Russia was engaged in an
active program of arming heli-
copters. Light and heavy ma-
chineguns, rockets, and can-
nons have been mounted on the
HEN and HOUND helicopters.
The Russians h a v e selected
rockets as their ideal weapon
system.
Helicopter Instrument
Flying
Captain Alder P. Betti, Arty
T
HE FIRST QUESTION that
usually arises in helicopter
instrument flying discussion is,
"Why fly the helicopter on in-
struments ?" This v e r sat i 1 e
piece of equipment is capable of
flying at a hover, in a very small
radius, and is highly maneuver-
able at all functional airspeeds.
Perhaps these are the basic ar-
guments in the layman's eyes
for not requiring instrument
capability.
We know that instrument
flying, whether it be in fixed or
rotary wing aircraft, becomes
necessary only when the ceiling
and visibility are marginal VFR
or below. Most people sincerely
believe there is no necessity for
a helicopter to ever fly on in-
struments, let alone have the
capability. How many times
have we seen the phrase "mar-
ginal VFR and below" on an
accident report? How many
times have we heard "hairy"
tales from our fellow pilots be-
cause of this phrase? A mere
"routine" night flight is indica-
tive of the requirement of in-
strument capability.
Now, what of the require-
ment of flying the helicopter on
actual instruments intention-
ally? The future concept of
Captain Betti is presently as-
signed to the 19th Trans Co (Med
H el) Ft Benning, Ga. He is dual
qualified, and is an instrument
examiner in fixed and rotary wing
aircraft. He has logged approxi-
mately 3200 hours. '.
Army operations will require it.
The ability of a commander to
place troops and equipment any
place in the world, under all
weather conditions, would cer-
tainly be a valuable instrument
in time of war.
To fulfill this need, a helicop-
ter instrument program has
been implemented at the U. S.
Army Aviation School. The pro-
gram began in December 1954,
when flight testing and evalu-
ation began. Various national
agencies were contacted for in-
formation regarding helicopter
instrument flying, but the infor-
mation acquired sorely lacked
the technical data which was
sought. So, the Army's helicop-
ter instrument program started
from practically scratch.
On hand at that time were
the H-19 (Chickasaw) and the
H-25. Standard instrumentation
was considered adequate for
this evaluation. With these "off
the shelf" instruments, control
techniques were developed for
precision instrument flying, and
a limited training program was
begun. The problem of helicop-
ter instrument flying was ap-
proached very cautiously.
Students were selected at
random from a list of qualified
H-19 (Chickasaw) instructor
pilots. The training program
closely paralleled that of the
fixed wing instrument program.
In fact, the first program of
instruction was almost identi-
cal, with the exception of a few
minor techniques which were
peculiar to the helicopter. To
determine whether the program
was effective, the students were
given a modified instrument
flight examination at the end of
the course by well qualified in-
strument examiners.
Limited training programs
continued, logging hour after
hour of simulated instrument
time. In January 1956, authori-
zation was received to fly heli-
copters under actual instrument
conditions. The first actual in-
strument flight was made under
GCA control off airways at
Cairns AAF. Numerous weath-
er flights followed, which in-
cluded IFR flights on the civil
airways. All flights were made
without incident, and no diffi-
culties were encountered in fol-
lowing ATC clearances or pro-
cedures.
Wit h the compilation of
actual and simulated instru-
ment time, the following con-
clusions were reached: Heli-
copter instrument flying was
both feasible and practical in
current helicopters, utilizing
standard "off the shelf" instru-
ments, and IFR procedures for
fixed wing aircraft were satis-
factory for rotary wing air-
craft.
DECEMBER 1959
As training continued, these
further con c Ius ion s were
drawn:
1. Instrument training prob-
lems in rotary wing aircraft
were no greater than those in
fixed wing aircraft.
2. The time required to train
an aviator to fly the helicopter
on instruments was no greater
than the time required to teach
the pilot to fly fixed wing air-
craft on instruments.
3. Pilots qualified in fixed
wing instrument flying, or with
pre vi 0 u s instrument back-
ground, could qualify in approx-
imately one-half the time re-
quired for pilots without instru-
ment experience.
Several notes of interest
about helicopter instrument fly-
ing were experienced during
the t est i n g and evaluation
phase.
Heavy Precipitations: Sev-
eral model helicopters are re-
stricted because of rotor con-
struction. In other helicopters,
excessive water leakage in the
cockpit and electronic compart-
ment presented a fire hazard
and possible damage to radio
e qui p men t. Problems have
arisen in relationship to static
source location. On one occa-
sion, d uri n g an instrument
actual GCA approach in driving
rain, the altimeter and vertical
speed indicator became com-
pletely unreliable. Had t his
No sweat!
been on some type approach
other than a GCA, it would
have been necessary to have
broken the glass of the vertical
speed indicator for an alternate
static source.
Turbulence: Numerous turb-
ulence experiments were made
in the Fort Rucker area under
the control of air surveillance
radar. At the request of the
pilO'ts, the ground controller
vectored the helicopter into
known areas of turbulence, as
indicated on the radar screen.
In these areas were various
stages of thunderstorm activity
imbedded in s t rat o-cumulus
cloud formatiO'ns. These experi-
ences were encountered: One
moment maximum power would
not hold altitude, yet seconds
later a rate of climb of 1400
fpm in autorotation was en-
countered. On other occasions
GCA approaches were made in
which the copilot had to make
all voice communicatiO'ns be-
cause the pilot was so busy con-
trolling the aircraft.
Instrument takeoffs: This did
not constitute a real prO'blem.
Torque effect, although exces-
sive (single - rotor configura-
tion) is easily controlled. In-
strument takeoffs have bee n
successfully made in as near
zero-zero conditions as was pos-
sible.
Approaches: Satisfactory
GCA approaches have been con-
ducted in ceilings of 50 feet and
visibility 1/ 16 mile.
Proposed changes to Army
Regulations have been recom-
mended to lower takeoff and
approach minimums. (These
proposed changes will be incor-
porated in the new AR 95
series.) Experience indicates
that these. prO'Posals are conser-
vative. Due to' the proficiency
level attainable, the relatively
slow approach speed, the capa-
bility of the helicopter to
"stop, look, and listen" after
breaking out of an overcast, it
is believed that successful ap-
proaches can consistently be
made through minimums lower
than those presently published
for fixed wing aircraft.
To date, School pilots have
flown over 8,000 hours of heli-
copter hooded ins t rum e n t
flight, and over 600 hours of
actual weather time. This time
has been accumulated in the H-
19, H-21, H-25, H-34, and H-37
helicopters.
In July 1958, the first formal
Helicopter Instrument Flight
Course (HIFC) was implement-
ed at the U. S. Army Aviation
School. Of a 10-week duration,
this course consists of seventy-
five (75) hours of flight time,
a minimum of 25 hours of link
t r a i n e r instruction, and 96
hours of ground school instruc-
tion. In addition to the HIFC,
a Helicopter Instrument Flight
Examiners Course (HIFEC)
has also been inaugurated. This
course is of a 4-week duration
and consists of 40 hours of
flight time, and an appropriate
ground schoO'l.
Just a few short years ago,
flying a helicopter on instru-
ments was comparable to bal-
ancing a disc on a pencil. Now,
with the advent of automatic
stabilization equipment, hands-
off and feet-on-the-floor type
flying is a reality. Great strides
in engineering are constantly
being made for ease of opera-
tion and improved instrumenta-
tion. Items such as absolute
altimetry, instantaneous verti-
cal speed indicators, integrated
instrument systems, and more
reliable navigation systems are
rapidly bringin'g the era of all-
weather helicopter instrument
flight into the foreseeable fu-
ture.
KNOW
E
VERY PILOT and mechanic
must know his aircraft and
understand the operation of its
components. He should be able
to analyze, correct, and, if pos-
sible, prevent any malfunctions,
and make the proper response
in an emergency situation.
Each student in the Officer
Fixed Wing Aviator Course and
the Aircraft Maintenance (En-
try) Course at the U. S. Army
Aviation School receives in-
struction on the basic propeller.
He is only slightly exposed,
however, to the operation of
the variable pitch propellers.
Many pilots checked out in both
the TL-19D (Bird Dog) and the
L-20 (Beaver) still have little
knowledge of the operation of
the constant speed propeller or,
for that matter, of the differ-
ences between the constant
speed and the fixed pitch pro-
pellers.
Lt McCool is presently assigned
as an instructor in the Power-
plants Branch of the Department
of Maintenance. He is fixed wing
qualified and instrument rated.
YOUR
Lieutenant Morris A. McCool, CE
The purpose of this article
is to review the basic propeller
and the practical application of
this information, particularly
in emergency situations.
THE BASIC PROPELLER
Basically a propeller blade is
an airfoil. A section through
the blade will show that it is
shaped like the conventional
airfoil of a wing. One of the
most important considerations
in the design of the blade is
that this airfoil is moving in a
never-ending turn about the
propeller drive shaft. For this
reason the propeller tip is mov-
ing faster than a section of the
blade nearer the shank. The tip,
therefore, is a thinner, higher
speed airfoil set at a smaller
angle of incidence than the
blade shank, giving the propel-
ler blade its twisted shape.
FIXED PITCH PROPELLERS
Fixed pi tch propellers are
manufactured with a pitch or
blade angle (see fig. 1) suitable
for the job for which the pro-
PROPS
peller is designed. This angle
cannot be changed or adj usted
by the pilot or mechanic.
A fixed pitch propeller de-
signed for short field work must
have a relatively low pitch
(small blade angle). A low
pitch allows the airfoil to work
most efficiently and develop
optimum thrust at low forward
speeds (see fig. 2). The same
propeller, however, produces
very little thrust at high for-
Fig. 1: Blade Angle
PLANE OF
ROTATION
11
DECEMBER 1959
BLADE ANGLE CONSTANT, RPM CONSTANT
SPEED
FORWARD SPEED
CHORD LINE
CHORD LINE
RELATIVE WIND
ZERO FORWARD SPEED
LOW FORWARD SPEED
HIGH FORWARD SPEED
ANGLE OF ATTACK LARGE
ANGLE OF ATTACK OPTIMUM
ANGLE OF ATTACK SMAll
THRUST GOOD
THRUST OPTIMUM
THRUST SMALL
(a) (b) Ie)
Fig. 2: Effect of forward speed on propeller thrust - low pitch, fixed-pitch propeller
ward speeds. This is comparable
to low gear in an automobile.
An aircraft with a high pitch
(large blade angle) propeller is
comparable to an automobile
with only high gear. The engine
has to work hard to start the
vehicle moving, but once some
forward speed is attained the
powerplant w 0. r k s efficiently
and the vehicle is able to travel
fast. A fixed pitch pro.peller
with a large blade angle is re-
TAKE OFF
CHORD LINE
ferred to as a cruise pro.peller,
while a pro.peller with a small
blade angle is called a climb pro-
peller.
VARIABLE PITCH
P'ROPELLERS
Variable pitch pro.pellers are
constructed so that the blade
angle may be changed either
manually or automatically to.
take advantage of both the low
pitch - high thrust character-
Fig. 3: Variable pitch propeller
CLIMB
istics of the climb propeller dur-
ing takeoff, and the high pitch-
high speed characteristics of
the cruise propeller for cruising
(see fig. 3).
The only type of variable
pitch propeller in use by the
Army is the constant speed pro-
peller - with or without full
feathering pro.visions. The con-
stant speed propeller is auto-
matically controlled by a gover-
nor to maintain a constant
CRUISE
ANGLE OF ATTACK ANGLE OF
ANGI:E OF ATTACK
FORWARD SPEED:
BLADE ANGLE:
ANGLE OF ATTACK:
THRUST:
12
ZERO
SMALL
OPTIMUM
OPTIMUM
ROTATIONAL
VELOCITY
LOW
MODERATE
OPTIMUM
OPTIMUM
ROTATIONAL
VELOCITY
HIGH
HIGH
OPTIMUM
OPTIMUM
engine rpm by varying the
blade angle. Should the engine
speed up for any reason, the
governor will automatically in-
crease the blade angle slightly.
This increases the load on the
engine, and it will slow back
down to the rpm for which the
governor is set. Should the en-
gine slow down, the governor
will decrease the blade angle of
the propeller, thus reducing the
load on the engine, allowing the
engine to speed back up to the
preset speed. The speed which
the governor will maintain may
be set by the "prop" control.
Figure 4 shows that the pro-
peller and governor system is
entirely s epa rat e from the
throttle and induction system.
The manifold pressure is a mea-
sure of the power being put into
the engine, and the rpm a mea-
sure of the power output of the
engine.
CONSTANT SPEED
PROPELLERS
The Hamilton Standard con-
stant s pee d (counterweight)
propellers used on the L-20, the
LC-126, and early models of the
V-lA, and the Hartzell constant
speed, full feathering propeller
used on the L-23D and the L-26
all operate on the same princi-
ple. To decrease pitch the
governor gear pump increases
normal engine oil pressure to
useable propeller pre s sur e
(180-200 psi). This oil is then
directed by the governor pilot
valve to the propeller cylinder
forcing the cylinder outward,
giving a low pitch setting. To
increase the pitch, the oil is
released and centrifugal force
of counterweights (p Ius a
spring on propellers with more
than a 20 pitch change) moves
the blades to a larger blade
angle.
When the Hamilton Standard
counterweight propeller is in
the low pitch (increase rpm)
pos.ition, the cylinder is full of
oil and the piston is exposed.
To prevent exposure and corro-
sion of the piston and to drain
the oil from the cylinder, this
propeller s h 0 u I d always be
placed in the high pitch (de-
crease rpm) position before the
engine is shut down.
In the event of an oil leak in
either the Hartzell or the Ham-
ilton Standard propellers, the
flow of oil to the propeller may
be stopped by placing the pro-
peller control in the full de-
crease rpm position. This will
place the Hamilton Standard
propeller in the full high pitch
position, and the aircraft may
be flown to a safe landing area
by using enough manifold pres-
sure to maintain altitude and
a safe flying speed.
The full decrease rpm posi-
tion of the Hartzell propeller is
the fully feathered position.
Single-engine procedure should
be used to effect a safe landing.
The McCauley constant speed
propeller used on the TL-19D
differs considerably from the
previously discussed propellers.
The governor increases the pro-
peller blade angle by directing
pressurized engine oil to a pis-
ton in the propeller hub. The
KNOW YOUR PROPS
blade angle is decreased by re-
leasing the oil and allowing the
streamlining force of the air,
aided by a spring assembly, to
move the blades to a smaller
blade angle.
This streamlining force is
usually not great enough to
move the blades to the full low
pitch position if the aircraft is
not moving at flying speed. For
this reason the TL-19D propel-
ler should always be placed in
the full increase rpm (low
pitch) position prior to landing
and the propeller should never
be exercised while the aircraft
is on the ground.
In case of a bad oil leak the
flow of oil to the McCauley pro-
peller may be stopped by plac-
ing the propeller in the full in-
crease rpm position. With the
propeller in this position the
engine may easily overspeed, so
the rpm must be controlled
by the throttle and a landing
should be made as soon as it is
safely possible.
Knowing your machine and
its limitations and how to care
for it is basic knowledge to a
professional flier. Does your
knowledge of props help you to
be a better pilot? Does it in-
crease your value to Army A vi-
ation? If not, a refresher course
might be in order.
Fig. 4
CONTROLS GOVERNOR
PROP CONTROL
CONTROLS BLADE ANGLE
RPM
GOVERNOR
CONTROLS RPM
MANIFOLD M.P. IS MEASURE OF FUEL ENTERING CYL.
PRESSURE
I
THROTTLE CONTROLS AMOUNT OF MIXTURE TO THE CYLINDERS
13
l
CAUSE FACTOR UNKNOWN
A
N ARMED helicopter dem-
onstration is a stirring
sight. There's action - swift,
pulse - quickening, vigorous ac-
tion. There's the noise and fire
of a Fourth of July celebration
and the drama of portraying a
tactical situation.
The youthful officers who fly
these missions are experienced,
dedicated, and enthusiastic.
They are aware of the hazards
of their job, and only rarely
does their skill or their com-
plex machine fail them. There
are times, however, when the
unexpected happens, and not
even the most able investiga-
tors can provide a complete an-
swer to the puzzle.
THE ACCI DENT
The day was gray, overcast,
and rainy, with light winds.
Rain beaded back on the bub-
bles as the three Sioux roared
in toward the target at treetop
level. The flight leader was 50
yards. from the firing point.
Suddenly, without warning, the
Sioux pitched up in a shudder-
ing nose-high attitude.
Throat in mouth, the young
aviator bottomed pit chand
shoved forward on the cyclic.
Nothing happened for a mo-
ment. Then the stick moved
forward under the tremendous
This article was prepared by the
U. S . Army Board for AviaMon
A ccident Research.
14
exertion applied by the aviator
and suddenly became loose and
sloppy.
The Sioux dropped in a tail-
low attitude, s t r i kin g the
ground on its tail, and rolling
to the right side. Dazed, the
aviator attempted to shut off
the switches. He was still grop-
ing when his wingman landed
nearby, ran to the wreckage
and cut the switches, while the
third aviator, in a high hover,
called for the crash helicopter.
The aviator suffered 0 n I y
minor inj uries but the aircraft
sustained major damage.
THE INVESTIGATION
After a thorough investiga-
tion the Form 285 read: Pri-
mary Unsafe Act - undeter-
mined; Unsafe Physical Condi-
tion - undetermined; and the
same answer for Contributing
Factors.
The analyst at USABAAR
had this to say: "The cause fac-
tors in this particular accident
cannot be determined from the
evidence presented. The ma-
neuver as described suggests
retreating blade stall. Unfor-
tunately, the accident report
does not show the weight of the
aircraft. If the cause was re-
treating blade stall, the pilot's
reaction of forward cyclic would
have made the aircraft behave
as it did-crash tail first. Ap-
parently the pilot was not
trained to recognize and react
properly to retreating blade
stall, which is to center cyclic
control, down collective pitch,
and increase rpm. It is probable
that this pilot was faced with a
situation with which he had not
been trained to cope."
Just what is retreating blade
stall? An Army aeronautical
engineer called attention to re-
treating blade stall in early
Army models of the helicopter.
Retreating blade stall is no myth
CA USE FACTOR - UNKNOWN
Circle in photo at right marks spot where Sioux crashed in firebreak clearing
This inherent characteristic is
what makes the helicopter es-
sentially a hovering machine
and limits its forward speed.
Since those early days the heli-
copters have measurably im-
proved, but the problem is still
there. Additionally, there have
been several accidents in which
the finger of suspicion pointed
to retreating blade stall as the
cause.
The increase in retreating
blade stall accidents is directly
related to the increased usage
of Army helicopters, particu-
larly in armed helicopter dem-
onstrations. Other accidents
may have been caused by
this rotary win g peculiarity
and not recognized by investi-
gation boards.
HOW IT HAPPENS
How does blade stall occur?
During forward flight, the heli-
copter rotor blades encounter
rotational velocity, and addi-
tionally the velocity of relative
wind. The retreating blade will
encounter lower velocities than
the advancing blade, which op-
erates in a higher relative ve-
locity. This is because the ad-
vancing blade has the added
velocity of the forward motion
of the helicopter.
To balance the lift forces
across the rotor disc, the re-
treating blade must operate at
higher angles of attack as the
forward speed increases. The
change in angle of attack, with
azimuth position to correct dis-
symmetry of lift, is taken care
of automatically by flapping of
the rotor system about its flap-
ping hinges. As the advancing
blade flaps upward, due to its
increase in lift from forward
flight velocity, its angle of at-
tack is reduced. Conversely,
the retreating blade will flap
downward, increasing the angle
of attack of blade elements op-
era ting in that region, and,
therefore, increasing the lift to
maintain lateral equilibrium of
the rotor system.
At a critical forward speed,
the retreating blade will reach
an angle of attack at which that
airfoil will stall. It should be
noted that the maximum force
for upward flapping occurs on
the advancing side; but, due to
a phase lag of 114 cycle, the
blade reaches its maximum up-
ward displacement at a for-
ward position. Other effects,
such as coning, cause flapping
of the rotor system in other
azimuth positions, but they are
secondary to flapping due to
velocity differential.
ANOTHER OF THE SAME
With these facts in mind,
turn now to another accident
involving possible blade stall.
This was also an armed heli-
copter demonstration and a dry
run was being made in prepara-
tion for the forthcoming pres-
entation. The aviator said: "I
executed a normal takeoff into
the wind, turned downwind on
my simulated firing run, and
made a sharp right turn over
the valley at the completion of
the run to make another pass
at the target area .... the nose
suddenly rose approximately 20
to 30 degrees above normal
cruise attitude and I applied
forward cyclic stick but this
action had no apparent effect
on the aircraft. I fell back-
wards to the left and I looked
behind me and saw a tree clos-
ing rapidly. I don't remember
anything else about this acci-
dent because I was too busy
trying to fly the aircraft until
it struck the trees."
Again the three "unknowns"
came up on the accident report.
Again the evidence pointed to
retreating b I ad e stall. The
15
DECEMBER 1959
weight of the helicopter was
not known, but the wind was
gusty and turbulence had been
reported. These conditions are
ideal for retreating blade stall.
Severe blade stall has been
encountered during maneuvers
involving g, such as recovering
from a diving descent where
rapid application of pitch was
involved. Violent pitch-up was
experienced fro m which the
pilot recovered, using a lateral
roll with rudder to avoid use of
forward cyclic control. Blade
stall and pitch-up have also
been experienced in turbulence
when the aviator attempted to
counteract the induced porpois-
ing by rapid application of for-
ward cyclic stick. In another
instance, an aviator induced
blade stall and resulting pitch-
up while depressing the nose
of the helicopter with forward
cyclic during a normal turn re-
covery at high altitude.
BASIC I NSTRUCTION HELPS
Pitch-up can be avoided if the
pilot does not fight turbulence
with rapid application of con-
trols, especially forward cyclic.
When the nose rises, it should
be eased down gently. During
recovery from turns (especially
at critical altitudes and speeds),
forward stick should be applied
slow ly and smoothly. Rapid
high-speed flares should also be
avoided. Speed should be re-
duced in turbulence.
NO SURVIVORS
There is still another case in
USABAAR records that indi-
cates a blade stall accident. This
accident left no survivors, but
hundreds of witnesses in the
area graphically described the
gyrations of the Chickasaw as
it came apart in flight.
An instructor pilot, pilot, and
two crew members departed on
16
a 2-hour night r i n i n ~ mission.
Shortly after takeoff over a
heavily-populated area, the hel-
icopter was observed at about
600 feet altitude, to execute a
right turn and nose pitch-up,
followed by chopping off the
tail p y Ion. The Chickasaw
rolled sharply to the right, with
the nose still high and one of
the rotor blades separated from
the hub. The helicopter then
began to disintegrate as the re-
maining blades progressively
chopped the tail cone from the
rear forward. Parts were scat-
tered over a wide area, and fire
consumed the aircraft upon im-
pact with the ground.
Expert opinion seemed to
support blade stall in this case,
caused by the instructor pilot's
habit of turning the servos off
and then back on while the stu-
dent executed a maneuver. Al-
though this opinion was not
conclusive, the gyrations of the
helicopter seem to indicate that
blade stall did occur.
It is the aviator's responsi-
bility to avoid serious blade
stall, not only by adhering to
flight restrictions but also by
recognizing and correcting sit-
uations which could cause blade
stall.
Blade stall in steady forward
flight is not a serious danger,
since ample warning is given to
the aviator by increased vibra-
tion and stick forces. The speed
at which blade stall appears is
partially a function of gross
weight, tip speed, and the den-
sityaltitude. Therefore, a pilot
can be flying well under maxi-
mum speed (VNE) of the heli-
copter and still encounter blade
stall if maneuvering loads are
high or severe gust conditions
are met. Loss of rotor rpm and
high g loads while maneuvering
will cause premature stalling,
which often gives the aviator
little warning when encoun-
tered suddenly.
As the density altitude in-
creases, the helicopter blade
angles increase to provide the
same lift in less dense air.
Therefore, the maximum speed
will have to be adjusted accord-
ing to the altitude at which the
helicopter is flying. The Chick-
asaw, for instance, decreases
VNE 4 to 5 knots for each 1,000
feet of increased altitude. Most
flight handbooks give charts for
VNE vs altitude.
An increase in gross weight
or load factor will reduce VNE
appreciably. The Chi c k a sa w
will experience a decrease of 15
knots in the speed at which
blade stall occurs for each in-
crease of 1,000 pounds in gross
weight. It is evident that a
high speed pullout of several
g's can easily cause s eve r e
blade stall.
SOMETHING TO LIVE WITH
Retreating blade stall will al-
ways be present with conven-
tional helicopters. Its main ef-
fect is a limiting factor for for-
ward speed and altitude. De-
signers have been able to delay
blade stall to increase speed,
but future gains will be small
without resorting to a different
approach to vertical lift ma-
chines. From the accident pre-
vention standpoint, blade stall
need not have serious effects,
but the aviator must know the
limitations of the helicopter
and recognize blade stall when
it does occur.
The solution is simple. Rec-
ommended procedure as stated
in most flight handbooks in-
clude four basic corrective ac-
tions: REDUCE COLLECTIVE
PITCH, INCREASE ROTOR
SPEED, REDUCE FORWARD
SPEED, AND REDUCE ALTI-
TUDE. It's that easy.
you plan and give you confi-
dence.
"As I had always done in the
past before going down on my
dive bomb run, I surveyed the
country for a crash - landing
area. In this case, I selected the
river about nine miles south-
west, and it was in this direc-
tion that I headed."
What to do:
1. Get your intelligence brief-
ings.
2. Know where you are at all
times.
3. Know the country over
which you are flying.
4. Feel at home.
SIZE UP THE ENEMY
Assess the enemy, move care-
fully . . . admit your physical
limitations. Use reason. Put
yourself in the enemy's shoes.
What would you do? Base your
plan on what they do and what
they might do. Remember, you
know where they are, but they
don't know where you are.
"We reasoned that if the
weather was bothering us, it
should be bothering the enemy(
also. If you have the guts to
get out in it, maybe he hasn't."
"I figured the patrol would
think we would move out fast,
so to confuse them we carefully
moved about 300 yards down
the trail and off to one side and
'holed up.' I knew no one would
figure we would do this and I
knew I could not outrun a fresh
patrol. About an hour later,
eight soldiers cam e trotting
past on the trail. We spent the
rest of the night trying to sleep
as the soldiers searched the
area several miles farther up
the trail."
What to do:
1. Put yourself in the en-
emy's shoes.
2. Watch the habits and rou-
tines of the enemy.
3. Make your plans in terms
of what the enemy does.
UNDUE HASTE
MAKES WASTE
Don't be too 'eager' to es-
cape. Haste makes you get
careless and impatient, and you
take unnecessary risks. Keep
your temper. Face the facts.
Don't lose your temper over
a piece of equipment. That's
childish and may result in
panic. Watch for the signs:
you begin to swear; you stop
thinking; you get mad. This is
the time to stop, take a deep
breath, and relax. Then start
over.
Trying to fool yourself that
danger doesn't exist only adds
to the danger. In order to fig-
ure the situation out and do
something intelligent about it,
you must face the facts.
This man was captured: "All
that was on my mind was to,
escape, so I just rushed head-
long without any plan. I tried
to travel at night but I just
fur the r injured myself by
bumping into trees and fences.
Instead of laying low and try-
ing to evade the Germans, I en-
This man blew his top
, \.

fI/

SURVIVAL PSYCHOLOGY
gaged them with my .45 and
was captured the second time."
This man escaped: "I moved
only after observing the situa-
tion carefully, even if it in-
volved crossing only a small
area . . . I traveled when the
patrols seemed less active. I
would look for patrols to come
and estimate how long they
would take to pass. I slept be-
tween patrols."
This man blew up: "I tried
to operate it (URC-4 radio) in
every way I had been shown.
Growing more angry and dis-
appointed at its failure, I tore
the aerial off, threw the cord
away, beat the batteries to
pieces with the radio, and beat
the battery and radio on the
rocks. I was sure disappointed."
This one kept his head: "I
took my radio, extended the
antenna, and tried to use it, but
it didn't work. When I finally
decided that I wasn't in any
immediate danger from shore,
I sat down on my dingy pack
and took out the URC-4 radio
to examine it. I found that the
battery connection was loose.
After fastening it, I got the
radio into operation."
What to do:
1. Keep your shirt on.
2. Count the risk before you
act.
3. Risk only what you have to.
4. Wait them out. The situa-
tion will change.
5. Learn how to locate equip-
ment trouble and make neces-
sary repairs.
6. If a piece of equipment
fails to operate when you are
under pressure, wait until you
are calmer, then you may be
able to get it to operate.
7. Face the facts. Tell your
self: This is the situation.
8. Don't give up, but don't
forget the spot you're in.
9. Admit the facts so that
21
,
Habits can betray you
you can plan and act intelli-
gently.
REMEMBER WHERE YOU ARE
Don't forget where you are.
Doing "what comes naturally"
may be the tipoff that you don't
belong there.
"Everything had been going
well on the train. Suddenly an
ugly little woman started whis-
tling 'Tiperary'. I'm not sure
just what I did, but it gave me
away." This fellow probably
started whistling along with
the woman. If he had been one
of the "enemy," he wouldn't
have known the song.
These men were too used to
taking orders-from anybody!
"About 45 Air Force personnel
were milling around the yard.
A German officer came out and
ordered all crews to fall in by
crews, and one crew did, from
pilot to tail gunner."
What to do:
1. Remember where you are.
2. Your habits can betray
you.
3. Watch what is going on at
all times.
4. Watch out for tricks.
VANQUISH FEAR AND PANIC
Almost everyone in a danger-
ous situation feels fear. It is
22
normal and natural; so don't be
ashamed of it. It is nature's
way of giving you an extra shot
of energy just when you need
it. Pain may turn fear into
panic, which makes us act with-
out thinking. Panic can be
caused by loneliness. It leads
to hopelessness, thoughts of su-
icide, and carelessness result-
ing in capture or even surren-
der. Recognize the signs. Re-
member that it is you who are
in worse shape, not the situa-
tion. Finding things to do and
watch, even though trivial, re-
duce fear and can aid survival
even under extreme conditions
of isolation and loneliness.
Prayer, reading the Bible and
o the r religious observances
may also have a calming effect.
A careful look at the situa-
tion often reduces fear and pre-
vents panic. This man looked
himself over, r e c a II e d the
source of his fear of the hill,
and investigated the source of
the sounds. His fears proved
groundless. "When our plane
was first hit, I thought that I
had been shot. I looked down
at my own body for holes and
then realized that I had not
been touched. I looked up at
this high cliff. I could visualize
a werewolf on top grabbing me.
I vividly remembered it was
like a hill I had been afraid of
as a child. But I went on up the
hill and crossed ... I thought
I heard Japanese being spoken,
but w hen I investigated, it
turned out to be only a bab-
bling stream."
If this man had been able to
stop and think, he probably
would have escaped. "His para-
chute caught in a tree and he
was suspended head down when
his left foot tangled in the web-
bing. Unfortunately, the pilot's
head touched an ant hill and bit-
ing ants immediately swarmed
over him. Apparently in des-
peration he pulled his gun and
fired five rounds into the web-
bing holding his foot. When he
did not succeed in breaking the
harness by shooting at it, he
placed the last shot in his head
and thus took his own life."
What a difference a compan-
ion can make! "I was seized by
a panic of loneliness and I
would have given up that first
night, if there had been anyone
to surrender to. I met the en-
gineer the next day. We could
talk things over, and this made
me gain confidence."
This man lost all interest in
escape. "A man needs some-
body to talk to . . . I got to
where I didn't care whether I
was captured or not ... One day
a dog started barking and I
started chasing him and got
caught."
At home, when you are wor-
ried about someone out too late,
Doing things reduces fear
it helps to go out and look for
them, call the police, the hos-
pital, or friends. From the story
of a man who was injured and
was unable to move, we have
this helpful hint. "Not know-
ing what to do, I decided to kill
all the bugs. There were a lot
of spiders, the big ones that do
not hurt a human, so I killed
the flies and gave them to the
spiders to eat."
"We took turns reading the
Bible. This had an extremely
stabilizing effect on us."
"I prayed before the mission,
but not at this time because I
had lived the right life and it
was up to me to preserve my-
self."
"I never pushed the panic
button even when I came down.
I'll tell you why I didn't push
the panic button. I'm a Catho-
lic and you may think I'm a re-
ligious fanatic. The Sunday be-
fore this mission, I had gone
to Mass and Communion. I was
in a state of grace. I was not
alone up there ... Religion and
God are no longer just beliefs
to me. I know! He was with
me for four months. I'm cer-
tain."
What to do:
1. When fear comes, stop!
Don't run.
2. When you investigate, you
will find many of your fears un-
real.
3. Realize that pain adds to
panic and keeps you fro m
thinking.
4. Recognize that it is loneli-
ness that is getting you, not the
whole situation.
5. Planning your escape will
help keep your mind busy.
6. Form a workable plan and
stick to it until you find a bet-
ter one.
7. Groups of two to four are
best whenever possible. In this
size group, fewer men report
thoughts of suicide than do
those in larger groups or when
alone.
8. If you must survive alone,
you have only yourself to deal
with. You can make your own
plans and count on your own
resources.
9. Observe carefully, like an
outsider, what is happening to
you.
10. Read or write.
11. Don't be ashamed of your
religious beliefs. This does not
mean that you can take a pas-
sive attitude. Miracles work
best for those who prepare
carefully and who do all they
can to save themselves.
IMPROVISE
Make a special effort to take
care of yourself. If you need
something you don't have, im-
provise it. After all, a boot is
just a cover for your foot.
Be willing to accept or put up
with new and unpleasant
though not necessarily harm-
ful conditions and things. After
all, you had to learn to like
olives and beer, and even girls,
once. The thought to hold onto
to is SURVIVAL. Then these
other things will seem unim-
portant. If you can't stop it, try
to enjoy it.
"My left flying boot was lost,
too, and I'm sure that happened
on the bailout as I didn't have
it off at any time in the air-
craft. I wanted to wrap some of
my chute around my left foot as
it was getting cold. I didn't
have a knife, so I had to rip and
chew a piece of the canopy loose
to tie around my foot."
And a glove is just a cover
for your hand. "I found that I
had lost my gloves on bailout,
so I took a pair of my extra
socks and put them on like mit-
tens."
"I pulled off my blue silk
SURVIV AL PSYCHOLOGY
scarf to use as a 'wind sock' so
the helicopter pilot could see
the wind direction. This scarf
was the first thing that drew
the attention of the occupants.
Until I waved it, they had not
spotted me."
This man was inj ured and
was unable to move about very
much. "While waiting for res-
cue, I began eating the grass
around me. My only company
was ins e c t s. They kept me
awake by crawling over me.
They didn't annoy me, because
it gave me something to do to
watch them."
And some things are worse
than bad air. This pilot had
crashed near Pyongyang and
had lived in this cave with two
native Koreans for 23 days.
Then he told the two that he
could not stand the smell of
the air in the cave and that he
was going to leave. He left the
cave and was soon captured.
Improvise - and survive
23
DECEMBER 1959
The area was surrounded and
searched until the two Koreans
were found. They were sen-
tenced to death. One of them
was hanged near the cave but
the other escaped.
This man was offered a popu-
lar native dish, s 0 met h i n g
mother never made. "Some men
would almost starve before eat-
ing the food. There was a soup
made from lamb's head, with
its eyes floating around in it.
When there was a new prisoner,
I would try to find a seat next
to him so I could eat the food
he refused."
What to do:
1. Figure out what you need.
2. Take stock of what you
have. Even nature can be made
to help you.
3. Then improvise.
4. Remember: Something can
always be done to improve the
situation.
5. Learn to put up with new
and unpleasant situations.
6. Do everything possible to
keep up your strength.
7. Don't be afraid to try
strange foods. It's better than
starving.
8. Help fellow survivors by
making the first move. Say,
"I'd rat her eat this than
starve."
V ALU E LIVI NG
A real plan for and hope to
escape lessens pain and makes
your chances of survival better.
Take your mind off the present
and think of the better future.
Hunger, cold, fatigue, and the
like lower efficiency and stam-
ina which results in careless-
ness leading to capture. They
also break a man's spirit so
that he just "gives up." Know-
ing this will help you be es-
pecially careful. You will also
realize that your low spirits are
the result of your physical con-
24
dition and not the danger. The
constant goal of "getting out
alive" will help you keep your
chin up and make the extra
effort. Concentrating on the
time after you get out alive will
help you VALUE LIVING now.
Just beginning to plan his
escape made this man feel bet-
ter. "I went outside one time
to urinate and saw a powerful
search light from a distance.
I realized this was the Third
Division of the MSR. This
caused me to begin planning my
escape. Immediately I trans-
ferred all my thoughts from my
personal miseries to esc ape
plans and I began to feel bet-
ter."
This man sized up the situ-
ation and then made plans. "I
could hear Chinese to the north
and northeast, but no noise
from the south. Our troops had
been in this area when I was
shot down. This added to my
conviction that I was already
in 'no man's land' and just a
little more travel would put me
in friendly hands. I would be
able to receive aid for my burns
and not have to wait for an-
other day."
These men just gave up; they
didn't care any more. "I gave
up trying to hide as I had a
fever by now and was dead
tired. I had terrific blisters on
both feet and just didn't care
anymore."
"I knew that traveling in the
open like that was very care-
less, but I was extremely hun-
gry and fatigued. I wanted food
more than anything else."
This man kept his mind on
his wife and children whom he
would see if he made the effort
to survive. "We had been in
the water seven hours and
everyone was about ready to
give up. I had the will to sur-
vive to go back to my wife and
two children. Five of us did
not survive. The reason they
didn't survive was because they
had no will to survive. They
didn't swim or make any effort.
They just lay there and died. I
kept jumping up and down and
swimming to keep up circula-
tion."
What to do:
1. Keep your mind and hopes
on escape.
2. Keep your eye on the situ-
ation. Any minute a change
may make your escape or the
solution of your problem possi-
ble.
3. Plan your action carefully.
Then ACT!
4. Remember what hunger,
cold, and fatigue can do to a
man's body and spirit.
5. If you can't do anything
about it, at least remember that
they can make you careless.
6. Remember that neither
the situation nor the danger
has changed. Only you have
changed.
7. Prize the future more than
the present.
8. Recognizing that your goal
is worth the effort and is more
important than immediate com-
fort will help you to make the
extra effort to survive.
ACT LIKE THOSE
AROUND YOU
"When in Rome, do as the Ro-
mans do"; otherwise, you'll
stick out like a sore thumb.
Failure to accept the customs
of the natives makes you con-
spicuous and likely to be de-
tected.
Modesty is all right, but it
can be carried too far in the
wrong place. "At the railroad
station there were G e r man
guards. I had an urgent need
to urinate. The only rest room
was an exposed one in front of
the station. I felt too embar-
rassed to relieve myself in front
of all passers by. I walked
throughout the entire town oc-
casionally stopping and inquir-
ing if a rest room were avail-
able." (He was detected and
taken prisoner within a few
hours.)
This man observed the na-
tives carefully and imitated
them. "I made progress travel-
ing merely by carrying a hoe or
rake or other farm implement
and walking along the main
roads. I always looked around
and did what they were doing,
and that is how I got by. I kept
clean shaven, because the na-
tives were clean shaven. A
heavy beard would have been
suspicious." (He walked safely
out of enemy occupied terri-
tory.)
What to do:
1. Study the behavior and
customs of the natives and ac-
cept and adopt them.
2. A void attracting attention
to yourself.
LIVE THROUGH
BEING WELL TRAINED
The best survival insurance
you can have is to make sure
that your survival training is
so thorough that it becomes
automatic. Then it is likely that
you will do the right thing
even in panic. Well trained
crews act in emergency situ-
ations with order and system.
They act automatically, and
they have a high rate of sur-
vival. Everything in the train-
ing program may be important
to your survival. Pay attention
to all of it. Panic and confusion
can result when men do not
know what to do. Keep your-
self briefed. Just as a man must
make his survival training auto-
matic, so must a crew. Crews
that have learned to work to-
gether and in which the leader
lives up to what is expected of
him have the best chance of
survival.
This man went through a
series of complicated acts, even
though he "hit the panic but-
ton." "I guess I just hit the
panic button in this case. All I
remember clearly after that is
putting on my chute. I don't re-
member salvoing the bomb load,
although the crew told me later
that I did. I had no sensation of
falling and I do not even re-
member pulling the ripcord."
This man wasn't well trained.
"I had dye marker, flares and a
signal mirror. I don't know why
I didn't think to use any of
them, but I was excited and
hadn't ever used them before.
I even forgot that I had them.
If the pilot flying over me
hadn't dropped some dye mark-
er near me, the helicopter pilot
wouldn't have been able to spot
me."
The consequences of inade-
quate training is underscored
in this case. "On a low bomb-
ing mission over France after
hitting the primary target, we
were severely hit by flak. I
was scared. That is the only
way I can describe it. Our bail-
out was very disorderly. It was
just a madhouse. Due to the
lack of adequate bailout train-
ing, there was no orderly con-
duct. We had to kick some out.
I pushed the radio operator out,
but his chute never opened. My
own just did open in time."
The value of adequate train-
ing is exemplified here. "At the
time, our altitude was such that
we could not return. Instruc-
tions for ditching were given
for which we had been ade-
quately briefed many times.
The entire crew assumed ditch-
ing stations and calmly awaited
contact. As soon as we hit the
water, ditching operations were
SURVIVAL PSYCHOLOGY
immediately put into effect and
within 35 seconds all crew mem-
bers had left the ship. The ship
then broke in two and sank
within two minutes."
This man knew all he wanted
to know about PW camps. This
gave him the extra push to es-
cape. "Suddenly I spotted a
large Communist soldier about
six feet tall, armed with a rifle,
about 125 yards from me. For
a moment I thought I had sure-
ly been 'had' and thought for
a moment of giving up. Then, I
remembered pictures I had seen
of PW camps and decided by
golly I was going to do every-
thing possible to escape. I
jumped out of the ditch and
started to run ... " (He was not
caught.)
Just a few words were all
that were necessary for these
success stories. "When he and
the crew decided to make for
Adopt native customs, behavior
25
DECEMBER 1959
Africa, he briefed the crew on
the possibilities of damage and
the precautions e n t ail e d in
crash landing. I attribute to this
briefing the 100 percent suc-
cessful and orderly behavior of
the entire crew."
"Just before bailout, he ran
quickly through the things to
do. He also briefed us on how to
get together."
This crew had been well
drilled: "We talked things over
in the crippled plane and al-
ready had plans. We worked out
the use of food and water. Even
though there was at times dur-
ing our evasion and escape little
hope of getting out alive, every-
body felt that what we were
doing was the best thing that
could be done." (All members of
this crew inc 1 u din g their
wounded bombardier, evaded
the enemy successfully for sev-
eral days and escaped without
capture.)
T his c r e w had not been
drilled. "The CFC was the real
hero. He went around the ship
and pulled out some of the crew.
He and I had to organize the
rescue procedures. The bombar-
dier went completely out of his
head and the navigator was
completely useless. When we
were dropped a Higgins boat,
we tied them up and placed
them in the front compartment.
The radio operator was inj ured
and we put him in the front
compartment with them. The
tail gunner got out without his
Mae West, and I took mine off
and tried to give it to him, but
he was so nervous and excited
that he couldn't put it on. He
drowned, leaving the Mae West
floating beautifully on the wa-
ter. The engineer was also a
casualty of panic.
"After we had gotten the
Higgins boat, some of the men
wanted to eat, but I wouldn't let
26
them because we were in a
rough high sea. As soon as I
turned my back to do some-
thing, the AI C let them eat. As
soon as they started eating,
high waves washed all of the
food overboard." (Fortunately,
this crew was rescued in about
three days.)
What to do:
1. Learn the best emergency
procedures and practice them,
both as an individual and with
your crew.
2. Rehearse in your mind
what you would do in various
emergency situations on the
ground and in the air.
3. And PRACTICE, PRAC-
TICE. PRACTICE!
4. Really work on the train-
ing you are offered. It may
mean your life!
5. Besides this, find out your-
self what you think you need
to know.
6. Drill your own crew on
procedures that require coope-
rative action.
7. All parts of your training
can be important to you. Ab-
sorb all of it. It may be needed.
8. To prevent panic and con-
fusion, k e e p you r c r e w in-
formed about the situation.
Remember, you may know, but
they don't.
9. When the whole crew
knows what is happening they
can act in a planned, rather
than in a random, confused
way.
10. Learn to work with other
members of the crew in making
certain decisions.
11. Practice carefully and
often emergency procedures.
12. Recognize that someone
has to take leadership.
13. Decide who is to lead in
different situations.
Total fitness for survival in-
cludes technical fitness, mental
and emotional fitness, and phy-
sical fitness. If any of these
attributes are lacking, survival
effectiveness suffers pro p 0 r-
t ion ate I y. Without techni-
cal fitness, a soldier lacks the
knowledge and skill to survive;
without mental and emotional
fitness, he lacks the incentive
and will to survive; without
physical fitness, he lacks the
strength and endurance to sur-
vive. The physically fit indivi-
dual enjoys a feeling of well
being and confidence in his abil-
ity to meet any emergency. His
ability to accomplish his mis-
sion is also improved because
he has the strength and determ-
ination to avoid capture and, if
captured, to resist efforts to
break his will and lessen his de-
sire for escape. He is physically
capable of exploiting any oppor-
tunity to escape and, after
escaping, of enduring severe
hardship until he can make his
way to friendly lines.
Training is continually men-
tioned in any discussion of
evasion and survival. Training
gives experience; and from ex-
perience g row s forethought,
ability, and efficiency. The les-
son learned from experience is
far more effective than the
theoretical one. Only training in
peacetime will teach the lesson;
but no amount of training can
make up for a lack of personal
determination. If you have the
will, training will help enor-
mously, but without the deter-
mination, you will not survive.
1. Size up the situation.
2. Undue haste makes waste.
3. Remember where you are.
4. Vanquish fear and panic.
5. Improvise.
6. Value living.
7. Act like those' around you.
8. Live- through being well
trained.
Do you have the will to live?
STAVE ONE: BURLEY'S GHOST
B
URLEY was shanghaied.
There is no doubt about
that. The original of his orders
was signed by Maj or Ebenezer
Skroog himself. And Skroog's
name was good upon the de-
tachment indorsement for any-
thing he chose to put his hand
to "by direction."
Old Burley, the aviation safe-
ty officer, had "had it."
Major Skroog knew he was
transferred? Why of course he
did. How could it be otherwise
with an aviation safety officer
who was forever nagging the
Old Man about a bigger and
better accident prevention pro-
gram that Skroog considered a
downright nuisance.
Skroog never bothered to
paint out old Burley's name
from the unit sign though.
There it stood, months after-
ward, above the entrance to
Operations: "-th A v i a t ion
Company - Commanding Offi-
This article was prepared by the
U. S. Army Board f or Aviation
Accident Research.
,
rts mas
aro
cer : Maj Ebenezer Skroog ;
Deputy: Capt Robert Ratchit;
Safety Officer: Capt Mike Bur-
ley." Sometimes people new to
the company called Burley the
S.O.; sometimes Skroog was
called the S.O. - be that as it
may, Skroog answered to both
names. As CO it was all the
same to him.
Oh, but he was a real pistol
of a CO, was Skroog! A real
driving, charging aviator tiger-
type. Weather or not, briefing
or not, had little influence on
him. No wind that blew was
bitterer than he, no falling snow
more intent upon its purpose,
no pelting rain less open to
entreaty. Foul weather and poor
maintenance didn't know where
to pierce his tough hide. The
heaviest rain, snow, hail, and
sleet, it was said by the opera-
tions officer, could best him in
only one respect: they often
came down handsomely; Skroog
never did.
Nobody ever stopped him on
the ramp to say, with gladsome
looks, "Hi, Major, how's every- '
thing? Come over for a cup of
coffee." No lieutenants implored
him to bestow the trifle of a
long weekend; no pilot ever in-
quired the route to such and
such a place of Major Skroog.
But what did Skroog care! It
was the very thing he liked: to
barrel his way along the crowd-
ed airways, on an operational
clearance, with his company of
tail-end-charlies hanging on for
dear life. That was the Skroog
System: learn the hard way,
as he had done!'
Once upon a Christmas Eve,
of all the good days during the
ATP, old Skroog sat busily dis-
approving leave requests in his
office. It was cold, bleak, biting,
fog g y; real sec 0 n d john
weather.
"M err y Christmas, boss!"
cried a cheerful voice. I twas
Skroog's deputy, Ratchit, who
had finished cleaning out his
"in" basket.
"Bah!" said Major Skroog,
"H umbug ! Out upon Mer r y
Christmas! What's Christmas-
time to you but a time for let-
ting pilots go on leave; a time
for scraping together a lousy
27
DECEMBER 1959
parttime flight schedule. If I
had my way, every idiot who
goes about yakking 'M err y
Christmas' should be shipped
out to Korea!"
"But, Major!"
"Captain, k e e p Christmas
your way, and let me keep it
mine - getting 'em into the
blue. And another thing, knock
off these proposals for expand-
ing the safety program! And
get off my back about more
ground school!"
"Sorry, sir, I just thought we
might get together for a ration
of eggnog over the weekend
and talk over the company acci-
dent rate. It's pretty serious,
you know, and I was thinking
that when you got around to
naming a new safety officer we
could drop that extra hat of
assistant mess officer-"
"Safety officer!" g row led
Skroog, "the only thing in the
world more ridiculous than a
Merry Christmas. Good after-
noon!"
"Well, anyway, Merry Christ-
mas, sir!"
"Good afternoon!"
"And a Happy New Year!"
"Good afternoon !"
Later, when at length quit-
ting time a r r i v e d, Skroog
walked out to take his melan-
choly dinner in his usual man-
ner and then to his gloomy
room in the BOQ. The room was
sparsely furnished with a bed,
chairs, a desk, record player,
various articles of flight gear,_
and 19 plastic aircraft models.
Skroog closed and locked his
door and, placing a worn record
of "Heartbreak Hotel" on the
record player, stretched out on
the bed. There sounded a clank-
ing noise, deep down below, as
if some civil service plumber
were dragging chains across
the floor. Then he heard the
noise much louder, on the floor
below, then coming up the
stairs, straight toward his door.
A vague figure pas sed
through the door and into the
room before his eyes.
"Burley!" murmured Skroog,
marveling but unafraid. "Mike
Burley!"
The apparition spake not a
word, but seated himself famil-
iarly beside the record player
and glared at Skroog, who
squirmed a bit before growling!
"Well, now that you're here,
say something."
The ghost frowned. "Why do
you doubt what you see?"
"Because you are probably
only an undigested bit of ham,
a blot of A-I sauce, a crumb of
"Burley! Mike Burley's ghost!"
cheese, a fragment of an under-
done cheeseburger!" But even
so, Skroog suddenly became
fearful and he added hastily,
"Why do you seek me out?"
"Because I am cursed by
DCSOPS to roam the world, to
pass the word to all concerning
matters of aviation accident
prevention. Thus am I forced to
make amends for the misused
opportunities of many company
tours !"
"But you were always a
pretty sharp aviator, Mike,"
faltered Skroog, who now began
to apply this situation to him-
self.
"Aviator!" cried the appari-
tion, wringing his hands, "acci-
dent prevention was my busi-
ness. The problems of efficient
operations were my business;
my pilot ability was but a drop
in the bucket of flight opera-
tions! I'm here to warn you
that you have yet a chance and
hope of escaping the fate of
such an assignment as mine,
Ebenezer."
"Thanks, buddy, I ... " began
Skroog.
"You will be haunted by
three spirits," interrupted Bur-
ley.
"This is a favor?" asked
Skroog dubiously.
"Without these visits you
cannot hope to shun a set of
orders such as mine. Expect
the first at 0100 tonight."
Whereupon the figure of Bur-
ley drifted through the floor
and disappeared. Skroog moved
after him and then hauled up
short. "Humbug!" he growled.
Pondering over these events he
returned to bed and fell asleep
without bothering to undress.
STAVE TWO: SPIRIT NO.1
When Skroog awoke, it was
quite dark. He looked at the
luminous dial of his watch and
saw that it was 0100. On lifting
his eyes from the watch, he
blinked as light flashed brightly
in the room. Skroog beheld the
strange figure of a small, beard-
ed old man in faded flight cloth-
ing. A dented nose marked his
flying, as in the days before
shoulder harness or crash hel-
mets. In one hand he carried a
battered pilot's log book.
"I am the Ghost of Accidents
Past,'! the figure intoned.
"How long past ?" SkrO'og
mumbled.
"Your past. The things you
will see are shadO'ws O'f things
that have been. Rise and walk
with me!"
They passed thrO'ugh the
wall, and stood in the crO'wded
hangar of a busy primary flight
school. The ghost paused at a
certain door and asked Skroog
if he knew it.
"KnO'w it! I went through
flight training here!"
They went in. At the sight O'f
a grey-haired major in sum-
mer khaki sitting at one end of
a long green table, Skroog cried
in great excitement, "Why, it's
Fliplid, my O'ld flight command-
er; bless his heart - b-but I
thO'ught O'ld Flip got it in the
N 0' r man d y invasion?" The
ghO'st merely pointed to the
other end of the table where a
thO'roughly frightened f I i g h t
student huddled in a chair.
"W h - why, t hat's me!"
Skroog murmured in astO'nish-
ment. "I remember the very day
I was up for a chewing, after I
got two pink slips ... " His voice
trailed away as he leaned for-
ward to hear what the major
was saying to the student.
" ... seem to' be having more
than yO'ur share of troubles,
Skroog. Looks like you've bent
up twO' airplanes already, not
to' mention some rather border-
line grades in grO'und school.
What seems to be the trouble ?"
The greying major listened
g r a vel y to the student's
wretched story of sickness.
family troubles, and hardnosed
instructors. Then, as the young
Skroog waited fearfully, the
officer permitted a slight smile
to appear.
"Well, son, maybe you aren't
the world's best pilot, but I
guess we can give you a chance
to get a little mO're dual time
and then try it again. YO'U
know, most of us have had a
little trouble at one time or
another ... " The voice faded
and the ghO'st turned to Skroog.
"Such a small matter," he
said, "to find a workable solu-
tion to a problem, eh?" Skroog
could only stare foolishly.
"Well," he complained, "the
program was really rough when
I went thrQugh. We didn't have
any Santa Clauses then - ah,
get me out of here."
"I told yQU these were the
shadows of the things that have
been," said the ghQst. "That
they are what they are, do not
blame me!"
STAVE THREE: SPIRIT NO. II
Then Skroog was back in his
own BOQ bedroom, awakening
to squint at a great light in the
next room. Stumbling in the
dOQr to' chew Qut some transient
pilot's bull session, he saw a
giant of a phantom seated at a
flight planning table. This spirit
was splendidly dressed in a
spangled flight coverall, dark
glasses, and three buttO'n watch.
"Come in, Buster! Come in!
Let's get the shO'W on the road.
I'm the Ghost of Accidents
Present. Would you know me ?"
"Uh, I dQn't think I have,
fO'rtunately," Skroog faltered.
"Unless you want to cO'unt that
barrier I gQt during the last
ATP - but there was a gusting
A CHRISTMAS CAROL
crosswind not reported by the
pathfinder team; anyway the
damage didn't make it a real
accident."
"Ah, but you and I knO'w bet-
ter, dQn't we, E ben e z e r?"
chuckled the spirit. "We know
you held O'ff and floated into
the trees, eh? But nO' matter,
let us be off, and perhaps you
may learn yet another lessO'n."
Then the roO'm and all its
contents vanished, and they
stood in the ready room, where
Skroog beheld .himself briefing
a flight. He squirmed to observe
the speed with which he went
over the points to' be covered.
Moving to the rear of the room,
the spirit permitted Skroog to
hear a whispered remark from
Qne pilot, one 2/Lt Timm, called
"Tiny" by his flight buddies.
"Jeepers," murmured Tiny to'
his buddy, "I still don't know
how we rendezvous. And what
sort Qf break ... and what fre-
quency ... "
"Beats me," mourned the
other, "I'm w 0 r r i e dab 0 u t
where we're supposed to gO' if
the field gets socked in while
we're out."
"In that case," murmured
Tiny Timm, "God help us every
one."
Skroog fidgeted wrathfully at
the stupidity of this conversa-
tion. "Danged knuckleheads! I
told 'em I'd give 'em the word
about that when and if we got
there ... " Then he flinched on
recalling, and the spirit nodded
at the thought which Skroog
was considering.
"That's right, Buster. You
goofed; two did collide on the
break, remember?"
Skroog nodded miserably.
"Uh huh, I guess I was a lit-
tle brief on the briefing. But it
seems to me those young char-
acters could have ... "
"That's just why," interrupt-
29
DECEMBER 1959
The Ghost of Accidents Yet to Come
ed the spirit, "it's even more
important for you experienced
pilots to give these young gents
all the good dope you can think
of, and then some."
And suddenly the spirit was
gone. As Skroog remembered
the prediction of Mike Burley,
he beheld a solemn phantom, in
full flight suit and helmet, com-
ing toward him.
STAVE FOUR: SPIRIT NO. III
Skroog trembled to see this
spirit which, with face con-
cealed by plastic sun visor,
30
spoke not but extended a gloved
hand.
"I am in the presence of the
G h 0 s t of Accidents Yet to
Come? Ghost of the Future? I
fear you more than any spectre
I have seen, but get on with it."
It gave him no reply. The
hand was pointed straight be-
fore them. They seemed scarce-
ly to enter the hangar area;
rather, the walls seemed to
spring up about them. But
there they were in the heart of
it, outside an office door. The
spirit stopped beside one little
group of pilots. Skroog ad-
vanced to listen to their talk.
"No," a captain was saying.
"I don't know much about it
either way; I only know he piled
one up when he ran out of fuel
on a long cross-country over the
swamps."
"When did he prang it?" in-
quired another.
"Last night, I believe."
"Why, what happened? I
never thought he'd buy the
farm."
"Beats me," yawned the first.
"Personally, I think he made
the same mistake he made on
the flight when Tiny Timm
went in."
"You'd think," said the other,
"after the Board found that
Tiny might have gotten back
if he'd been sufficiently briefed,
that he'd have changed his
ways."
Skroog was at first surprised
that the spirit should attach
importance to this conversation.
Then he looked about for his
own image, but another major
sat at his desk, and he saw no
likeness of himself among the
personnel moving about the
company area.
Leaving this scene they went
to another part of the air field,
to a small conference room. A
rather senior-looking light col-
onel sat at a table in the room
smoking a cigar. Skroog and the
phantom came in, just as Bob
Ratchit, another captain, a
flight surgeon and several other
officers entered. Seating them-
selves about the table, the little
group began arranging various
notes and folders.
The colonel indica ted the
thick folder which Ratchit had
placed before him.
"Guess this about winds it
up, doesn't it?"
"Looks like it, Colonel," said
Rarehit with a sigh. "All we
need now are the signatures
and an indorsement."
As the colonel leafed through
the folder, Skroog was suddenly
assailed by a terrible suspicion.
He barely heard the words
which the colonel was reading
from the report, " ... cause of
this accident is that the pilot
failed to plan properly ... "
The spirit stood behind the
colonel seated at the table and
pointed down to the folder.
Skroog was beset with an un-
controllable trembling.
"Spirit," said Skroog, "tell
me what pilot was that whose
accident we heard discussed in
the hangar?"
The Ghost of Accidents Yet
to Come pointed to the AAR
folder on the table.
"N ow hold up here just a
cotton-picking minute," quaver-
ed Skroog. "Let's get this deal
squared away. Are those the
shadows of the Things That
Will Be, or shadows of Things
That May Be Only?"
Still the ghost pointed down-
ward to the report.
"But look here, sir!" choked
Skroog, "the way I understand
it is that certain things, if al-
lowed to continue, must lead
to certain conclusions. But if a
man gets the- word, the con-
clusions will change. Isn't that
the way with this setup?"
The spirit was as immovable
as ever.
Skroog crept toward the re-
port, shuddering as he went.
Following the finger, he read
upon the Aircraft Accident Re-
port folder his own name:
SKROOG, EBENEZER.
"No, Spirit! Oh, no, no! Lis-
ten, buddy! I am not the pilot
I was; I will not be the aviator
I must have been but for this
revelation. Assure me that I
may yet change these shadows
you h a v e s how n me by a
changed life. Tell me how I may
cancel this report!"
Holding up his hands in one
last prayer to have his fate re-
versed, he saw a change in the
phantom's helmet and dress. As
though he had fallen victim to
carbon monoxide, Skroog saw
the figure blur, shrink and col-
lapse, and dwindle down to a
bedpost.
The bedpost, the bed, and
room were his own. Best and
happiest of all, the time before
him was his own - to make
amends in.
Overj oyed, he ran to the win-
dow, opened it, and put out his
head. No fog, no mist, no night
- clear bright, stirring golden
day!
"What's to day?" c r i e d
Skroog, calling down to a sol-
dier who moved past.
"T 0 day? Why, t 0 day is
Christmas Day."
"It's C h r is t mas Day! I
haven't missed it! Wahoo! Hey,
soldier! Do you know the quar-
ters of Captain Ratchit?"
"I sure do!"
"Then get over to his room on
the double. Tell him his com-
manding officer says he's to re-
port to company headquarters
immediately.' ,
"Yes, sir]" The man was off
like a shot.
Skroog, all a'chuckle, dressed
quickly and went down to the
company area. By this time the
duty section was pouring forth,
just as he had seen them with
the Ghost of Christmas Pres-
ent. Skroog regarded everyone
with a delightful smile. He
looked so irresistibly pleasant
that three or four good-hum-
ored fellows ventured a "Good
morning, sir! A Merry Christ-
mas to you!"
Skroog had only seated him-
self at his desk when his deputy
A CHRISTMAS CAROL
arrived, displaying an under-
standable concern.
"Hello!" growled Skroog in
his accustomed voice, as near
as he could make it. "Try and
get here on time once."
"Sorry, sir, my alarm clock
didn't go off."
"Humph! Well, here's the
thing. I'm not putting up with
this sort of stuff any longer.
And therefore," Skroog con-
tinued, leaping up from his
chair and giving Bob such a
dig in the ribs that he stag-
gered back, "and therefore, I'm
about to give you that safety
officer you want, and put your
safety program into the com-
pany SOP! I'd thought of young
Timm - the one they call Tiny
for the job."
Bob gasped and looked about
uncertainly.
"A Merry Christmas, Bob!"
said Skroog, with an earnest-
ness that couldn't be mistaken.
"A Merry, and a safe Christ-
mas, boy, and we'll discuss this
thing further tomorrow, after
everyone gets the day off! I'll
need the day off, too, you
know," Skroog grinned, "if I'm
to be the first gent to begin
your ground school course! Now
how's about that Christmas
toddy you mentioned yeterday?
We could work out some of the
details, then, huh?"
"Duh-h-h," said Ratchit.
Skroog was better than his
word. He did it all and consider-
ably more. He changed his phil-
osophy from "learn the hard
way" to "teach by example."
Afterwards, it was always said
of Skroog that he knew how to
fly with the best, and how to
celebrate Christmas with the
best. And may that be truly
said of all Army Aviators! And
so, as the new safety officer,
Tiny Timm observed, God Bless
Us Every One!
31
HAT
ELLS
P
EOPLE AND HARDWARE
cause accidents. People and
hardware also solve those acci-
dents. Just as soon as the
wreckage is nailed down and
under guard the good investi-
gator turns to the people. The
hardware (wreckage) can wait.
I t will be there weeks from
now. But people forget quickly.
Interviewing witnesses to an
accident ranks in importance
with examining the wreckage.
Often the remarks of witnesses
can d ire c t the investigator
straight to the heart of the
trouble that caused the crash.
This article was prepared by the
U. S. Army Board for Aviation
Accident Research.
32
Ignoring witnesses can result
in a verdict no investigator
wants to use: cause unde-
termined.
THE ART OF INTERVIEWING
A Sioux (H-13) accident was
witnessed by a nonrated soldier.
His description of the odd ma-
neuvers of the Sioux prior to
the crash led investigators to
suspect control trouble. Exam-
ination of the wreckage proved
the accident to have bee n
caused by control malfunction.
Don't underestimate any wit-
ness.
To the member of an accident
investigation board, interview-
ing is one of the most impor-
tant aspects of his assignment,
and often one of the most diffi-
cult. It is an art that grows with
experience. The investigator
should study and cultivate a
winning "chairside" manner.
Tact and diplomacy are tools
of the trade.
In the absence of experience,
some proved techniq ues can
greatly assist the new investi-
gator. Make the witness prove
the validity of his statement -
in a nice way, of course. This
can be done by actually accom-
panying him to the spot where
he saw the accident and visual-
izing from his words just what
he saw and heard. Have him
sketch a diagram of what he
saw, the flight path or any
o the r pertinent information.
Give him a model of the air-
craft and have him demon-
strate exactly howit performed.
Compare his later version with
the first and freshest.
Chances are, if the witness is
also an aviator, he'll tell you
then and there just what caused
the accident. "I flew the bird
15 hours," he'll say. "That car-
buretor has been acting up. I
knew it would happen sooner or
later. And Joe Zilch - gee, did
you ever see him make a strip
landing ... " and so on. You can
safely ignore his conclusions.
Like Joe Friday of television
fame, you're after "just the
facts, ma'am." Nothing more.
Sometimes you'll be faced
with the distressful task of in-
terviewing grieving relatives
and friends of the deceased
aviator. Such a task may be
helped by understanding some
of the basic techniques of the
art of interviewing.
MAJOR FACTORS
Major factors fall roughly in-
to two categories: technical and
nontechnical, or practical. Tech-
nical considerations are inextri-
cably bound up with the non-
technical; so both categories
will be treated together.
Key factors to be studied are
validity, reliability, purpose,
and planning. A formal atmos-
phere defeats all of these. Re-
laxed informality is the only
way to talk to witnesses. Al-
ways put the witness at ease.
Consider the language use d.
The farmer has a different vo-
cabulary from the salesman,
who has a different one from
the doctor.
An interview is valid to the
degree that the information
gathered in the interview is a
true account of the actual cir-
cumstances as they occurred.
Validity will suffer seriously
when the investigator is inept
in his interviewing technique.
Perhaps the best way to sum up
validity is to stick to the point.
Area planning before the inter-
view is the best means for
eliciting information that sticks
to the point and maintains a
high degree of validity.
HOW RELIABLE?
The reliability of the inter-
view is another primary factor
that must be considered. An
interview is reliable to the ex-
tent that the varied witnesses
tell, in essence, the same story.
Ask three aviators the altitude
of an airplane (that subse-
quently crashed) at the time it
appeared to develop trouble.
You get three d iff ere n t
answers: 100,300, and 600 feet.
You then ask a service station
operator who saw the same air-
plane in trouble.
"See that building over there,
the one with the tower?" he
asks. "Seemed to be right above
that tower, about so high." He
measures with his fingers. You
find another observer of the
plane's g r 0 un d track, and
you've got a simple problem in
triangulation - and the actual
altitude.
To put it even more simply,
two investigators separately in-
terviewing the same witness
should come up with the same
basic story. A difference may
cause the interviewers to arrive
at dissimilar conclusions. Or
even worse, the same inter-
viewer may not agree even with
himself to a high degree as to
the basic data on two succes-
sive interviews with the same
man.
Make the interview quick and
thorough. Do not conduct it in
such a way that it's necessary
to recall the witness, or have
another investiga.tor complete
your splotchy job.
Haphazard interviews are
usually a spontaneous give-and-
take between two people. The
investigator who conducts this
type interview usually enters
the situation with only a hazy
conception of how he is going
to proceed. He feels his way
along. Low reliability o the
haphazard interviews can be
raised substantially by knowing
beforehand the procedure and
program to be employed. Plan-
ning should be in terms of gen-
eral areas rather than a pre-
pared list of questions. The area
into which the interviewer
should plan to direct his energy
will be determined by the pur-
pose of the interview.
The first and most important
question to be asked is WHAT
TALK THAT TELLS
AITRACTED YOUR ATTEN-
TION TO THE AIRCRAFT?
Airplanes fly overhead all the
time and no one looks up. A
noise, a puff of smoke, or an odd
maneuver reported by even an
inexperienced (aviation - wise)
person can often pinpoint a
cause factor. The purpose of the
interview is to uncover, if pos-
sible, any variables that may
have caused or contributed to
the accident. First step, then,
is to find out as much as pos-
sible about the accident and the
pilot BEFORE THE INTER-
VIEW. Use preinterview infor-
mation to help manage the in-
terview.
LEADING THE WITNESS
Question lists are awkward
and tend to make an interview
too long, boring, and rigid. Also,
when a list of questions is put
to a witness, he has a tendency
to answer with an unqualified
"yes" or "no." Such an inter-
view sometimes leaves vital
facts unrevealed. In place of a
list, ask, in certain areas ...
"Did smoke come from the air-
craft?" "What color was the
smoke?" This leads the witness
along and ideally you won't
have to ask too many questions.
Examples of systematic plan-
ning in the mental field would
be in the areas of home environ-
ment (sick children, marital
difficulties, fin a n cia I trou-
bles ... ), working environment
(relations with supervisor ... ),
and personality (emotional re-
actions, mood, tempers ... ).
N early all authorities agree
that the interviewer should do
as little talking as he can get
by with. Have the interviewee
do the bulk of the talking. The
information is deposited with
the witness, not the interroga-
tor. As interviewing is an art,
33
DECEMBER 1959
not a science, it takes experi-
ence to keep the interviewee
talking.
PAUSES HELP
Many witnesses are anxious
to talk. In these cases the in-
terviewer's task is to direct the
conversation into the proper
course. The experienced investi-
gator knows that one of the
most effective devices for get-
ting a person to continue talk-
ing without a direct question is
the pause. When used follow-
ing an assertion by the inter-
viewee, the pause is an especi-
ally good technique for getting
significant information. Pauses
as long as 10-40 seconds may be
used.
Beware the odd ball who
claims to have seen the acci-
dent but who only desires the
limelight. These persons will
sometimes step forward and
volunteer information that is
only hearsay. Leading questions
will usually uncover the unreli-
ability of their evidence.
It is a good practice for the
interviewer to note his opinion
of the reliability of the witness,
and his reasons for this opinion.
Taking records during inter-
views seriously interferes with
rapport and limits the flow of
information. On the other hand,
what is said during the inter-
view is subject to rapid forget-
ting. Approved procedure is to
let the interviewee talk at will
and then later make notes, hav-
ing him repeat what he has
just told you - leaving out all
the extraneous material about
how his Uncle George used to
be a pilot in World War I.
A successful interview can
mean a successful conclusion to
an investigation. Maybe you
can't help a dead aviator, but
the information you gain may
keep another aviator living.
34
PROFICIENCY VS
COMPLACENCY
I
F YOU'RE AN experienced
aviator you'll have little trou-
ble transitioning into a new
model. You have enough back-
ground, enough mature judg-
ment to treat the aircraft with
a healthy respect.
After much time in a model,
when you get to know the work-
ings inside out, the s tor y
changes. Familiarity is almost
the same thing as competence;
but it breeds contempt, too.
Some of us get the idea that the
airplane is a steady old bird and
can do no wrong.
When this happens, we're set-
ting ourselves up for an inci-
dent, or worse, an accident.
There are bore holes all over the
ZI and overseas, too, made by
Bird Dogs whose pilots thought
you had to try real hard to
augur one in.
COMPETENCE I N MODEL
An airline pilot (also a re-
serve Army Aviator) received a
checkout in a multijet airliner
shortly before reporting for
two weeks active duty. During
his first two days in flight
status with an aviation unit,
he flew the Bird Dog a total of
6.4 hours. This was also his
total time in the model for the
preceding 6 months. On the
third day he was assigned an
administrative flight. Aft e r
completing an uneventful mis-
sion, he was returning to the
airfield in the afternoon. He
called the tower and asked for
landing instructions.
"The tower cleared me to en-
ter left traffic pattern for run-
way 32L with the wind at 4
knots and instruction to call on
final.
"A normal downwind was
flown with the aircraft slowed
to 80 mph before turning on
base leg, at which time the
flaps were lowered to the 30 de-
gree position, airspeed still 80
mph. During the turn onto final
approach the tower called and
advised me the wind was now
22 knots from 240 degrees. I
acknowledged and continued
my turn so as to keep lined up
with the runway. At this time
I advanced the throttle to ap-
proximately 1400 rpm and
maintained an approach speed
of 75 mph. As I neared my in-
tended point of touchdOown I
straightened the nose and low-
ered the wing into the wind,
keeping lined up with the run-
way. The aircraft touched down
and was rolling ahead as in any
normal landing except in this
case I kept the stick to the left
as well as to the rear.
"Abruptly, the air c r aft
swerved to the left, heading
toward a building, fire truck
and a group of men. I applied
right brake without any ap-
parent helpful action resulting,
followed by an application of
throttle to bring the nOose of the
aircraft around and away from
the truck. I succeeded in turn-
ing and then I tried tOo raise the
right wing with the hopes of
flying out of the situation that
was the end result. I was un-
successful and the nose went
forward skidding across the
runway. As soon as the nose
went down, I pulled the throttle
back and cut Ooff all switches.
Coming to a stop I opened the
right window and signaled the
advancing fire truck we were
uninj ured."
COMPLACENCY?
We continuously hear about
experienced pilots committing
gross errors. There was a Sen-
ior Army Aviator who tried to
take a Seminole off with the
control column locked. Another
landed with the wheels up. Still
another field g r a d e officer,
flying a Bird Dog day after day
and proficient in it, landed on
a long, wide runway (5,000 ' x
100') and ingloriously grOound-
looped.
Accidents such as these are a
commentary on the fallibility of
man, no mat t e r how well-
trained, conscientious, strOong,
and healthy. It was not lack of
proficiency, except perhaps in
the case of the reserve pilot
who was accustomed to boring
"Simple" planes can be as deadly as fastest bomber
CRASH SENSE
down in crosswinds up to 35
knots in a high-performance
jet. The best answer to the
"why" may be cOomplacency.
The pilot doesn't live who is
so old or so bold he can afford
to be self-satisfied about his
flying. He must not lose respect
for the aircraft he flies, no
matter how simple it may seem.
All of these "simple" airplanes
can be as deadly as the hottest
fighter or bomber plane in the
air today.
TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE
The training of a new pilot or
transitioning of an old one into
a new model can invOolve the
same problem. This can be
solved by applying the same
basic principles.
Right off the bat the young
pilot will scream, "Who needs
training? I've just got thrOough
a year of it!"
This is true, but he must go
on accumulating experience in
the air. In this respect all pilots
are continually training. They
must be c los ely supervised
while gaining this experience.
The supervision lessens as ex-
perience is gained. By the time
the youthful pilot has learned
he must rely on his own per-
sonal knowledge, capability and
experience, supervision can be
relaxed to a minimum. He is
then capable of handling emer-
gencies - if he knows his air-
craft.
How can we assure ourselves
that all pilots understand the
aircraft they are assigned to
fly?
Flight Handbooks are de-
signed to provide aviators with
the latest information on the
operation of an aircraft and its
systems. There are no magic
words to be said that will tell
either a young or an old pilot all
he should know about his air-
35
Habit landed pilot in field
craft. But things can be done,
like thorough planning of the
flight, conscientious study of
the -1, establishing a program
adapted to the individual's need
and staying with it.
Human error accidents which
occur as a direct result of com-
placency or lack of proficiency
in models CAN be eliminated.
HABIT PATTERNS
There are good habits and
bad habits. Most of us cultivate
the good and try to eliminate
the undesirable. Force of habit
is desirable in many ways, but
it can be a bear trap. Once
you've learned some sequence
of acts and repeated it many
times, you're on the kick. The
habit has become a relatively
permanent part of your re-
sponse. As you gain skill, func-
tions become set and require
less and less attention. Some-
times this is not good.
An instructor pilot chopped
power on a Raven (H-23D) dur-
ing a hover. Automatically, the
student bottomed his pitch. His
reflex was geared to engine
failure in flight and at altitude.
The Raven was bent and in-
structor pilot and stu den t
shaken.
Even a complex activity, if
repeated often enough, will be-
come habitual. This situation
can produce some problems.
There was the fixed-wing pilot
who finally went into rotary
wing training and was well on
his way to becoming dual-quali-
fied until a fixed-wing backstick
reaction in a helicopter chopped
off his tail.
Another fixed-wing pilot ha-
bitually made wheel landings.
This pattern became so fixed
that when he was faced with
an engine failure and subse-
quent forced landing, what did
he do? You guessed it: a wheel
landing in an alfalfa patch. The
Bird Dog came apart and the
aviator emerged sadder and
wiser.
The new aviator knows the
meaning of habit patterns. He
wins his wings and immediately
gets orders for the instrument
school. He grinds away at this
new task in a different type air-
craft. Finally he has a new skill
'NUFF SAID!
and a ticket to prove it. Joy-
ously, or otherwise, he goes
back to the Bird Dog for his
first flight in over three months.
According to accident records,
that first flight ends dismally
and provides work for the ac-
cident investigators.
The worst part of habits is
their effect during emergencies
or under stress. Often, you un-
consciously rea c t to w hat
you've learned to do. If the con-
trols of the aircraft you're fly-
ing are radically different from
those to which you're accus-
tomed, it could mean inability
to cope with an emergency.
This makes the complex job
of being a professional Army
A viator even more difficult.
When technique becomes im-
bedded through countless hours
of experience, the response is
almost automatic. To change, it
is necessary for old responses
to be superseded by the new.
This can only be done through
practice in the new activity by
an aviator who has left his com-
placency where it belongs - on
the ground.
You may be a hot shot fresh
out of school or a high-time
type with years of experience,
but when you check out in that
new bird or fly a familiar old
model after a long layoff, look
out! That's the time to shed
complacency and time for an
honest self-evaluation. Learn
well and prove that changing to
another aircraft need not make
an accident.
Word comes that FAA has recently begun
vigorous enforcement of that portion of part
60.2 of CAR 60 which reads:
air traffic control to give priority to an aircraft,
the pilot of such aircraft shall make a report
within 48 hours of such emergency situation
to the nearest regional office of the Admin-
istrator." "In an emergency situation which requires
36
Research 6- Development (Equipment)
ARMY'S NEW TRANSPORT
HELICOPTER
FLYING CRANE, THE
GAS TURBINE POWERPLANTS FOR
HELICOPTERS
David C. Gerry
HU-1A IROQUOIS DESIGNED FOR
FRONTLINE SERVICE
INTEGRATED SYSTEM
Capt M. Jameson, Arty
Month Page
Jun In ide
Back
Cover
Nov Back
Jul
Jun
Apr
Cover
23
11
25
LOOKING AHEAD May 8
Col Robert H. Schulz, Inf
NEXT DECADE IN ARMY AVIATION, THE Aug 27
Brig Gen Richard D. Meyer, USA
UHF Sep 14
Major James H. Gooden, ig C
VTOL OR JUST TOL?
Ken S. Coward
Rotary Wing Aircraft-
Rotary Wing Flight Operations
May 5
ARMY'S NEW TRANSPORT HELICOPTER Jun Inside
Back
CAMOUFLAGE FOR THE BIG ONES
Lt Arne J. Bang, CE
IRCLE OF ACTION
Lt Bobby M. Knight, Arty
FLIGHT TO ALASKA
Arthur D. Neely
FLYING CRANE, THE
FREN H TURBINE-POWERED
HELICOPTERS, THE
Maj Hilaire Bethouart
GAS TURBINE POWERPLANTS FOR
HELICOPTERS
David C. Gerry
HELICOPTER INSTRUMENT FLYING
"HOLE" STORY IN THE HU -lA, THE
Fred M. Montgomery
HU-1A IROQUOI DESIGNED FOR
FRONTLINE SERVICE
HURRY! SEND A CHOPPER!
Capt Curti O. Greer, Jr., M C
NIGHT FLYING HINT FOR THE SIOUX
Capt Wilford A. Baugh, Jr., Inf
POSTSCRIPT: RUSSIAN HELICOPTERS
Ralph P. Alex
SHAWNEE ON SNOW HOE
CWO George F. Bea ton
SINGLE ENGINE OPERATING
TECHNIQUES FOR MULTI-ENGINE
HELICOPTERS
K. B. Gilmore
Weather
BEWARE THE 1,000-FOOT FORECAST
FLYING THE SUMMER HANDICAP
Jay Lewi Quinn
DEPARTMENTS
Cra h Sense
Gray Hair Department
Letter to The Editor
Memo From Flight Surgeon
Puzzler
Cover
Apr 1
Sep 30
Jul 17
Nov Back
over
May 13
Jul 23
Dec 9
Dec 17
Jun 11
Oct 13
Apr 24
Dec 6
Nov 17
Apr 6
Mar 20
May 1
Apr - Dec
Jan - Mar
Jun
Jan - Nov
Feb - Apr
Jun - Nov
ALL FOR ONE, OR ONE FOR ALL? Sep
AVIATION SAFETY: PURPOSE OR
RESULT Apr
BABY, IT'S COLD INSIDE! Jun
CAUSE FACTOR- UNKNOWN Dec
CHRISTMAS CAROL, A Dec
CIRCLE OF ACTION Sep
Lt Bobby M. Knight, Arty
DON'T BE A BRUTE WITH YOUR CHUTE Apr
FROM THE HORSE'S MOUTH Oct
FROSTY, MAN, FROSTY Oct
GO FOR BROKE Oct
Dr. Thoma F. Staton
GROW OLD ALONG WITH ME Feb
HOW MUCH IS TOO MUCH? Jul
INVISIBLE WINGS Feb
Dorothy John on
IT HAPPENED TO ME Apr
Capt Warren E. Bolich, Inf
KICK THE TIRE AND LIGHT THE FIRE! Feb
LET'S LOOK FOR WIRE Jul
Capt Harold T. Smith, Arty
NO JOB FOR AMATEURS Jul
PERFECT PILOT Mar
Brig Gen Carl I. Hutton, USA
PRONE TO ERR? Feb
Pierce L. Wiggin
SAGA OF JOHNNY, THE Jan
Lt Albert L. Smith, Sig C
STOP! Mar
TAKE IT OFF Jun
Lt Col David M. Kyle, Arty
TALK THAT TELLS Dec
TIGERS ON THE PROWL Nov
Tactical Employment
AERIAL COMBAT RECONNAISSANCE
COMPANY DOCTRINE AND TACTICS Aug
Maj Karl . Patton, Arty
ARMY AVIATION AND THE AIRBORNE Aug
Capt John H. Richardson, Arty
FUTURE Aug
Capt James M. Rockwell, Inf
I FLEW FOR AERIAL COMBAT RECON-
N AI SANCE Aug
WO Harold D. Wilcoxen, T
SABER IN THE SKY Aug
William E. Vance
TASK OB ERVE Jul
Training
AVIATION TRAINING Jun
FL Y BEITER THROUGH DISCIPLINE Feb
William E. Vance
ICE FOLLIES Sep
ON-THE-JOB-TRAINING ep
Lt Carroll O. Durham, Inf
SCHOOLS CAN'T DO IT ALL Feb
SUB-ARCTIC SURVIVAL Jul
Fred M. Montgomery
SURVIVAL-A GUN AND A MACHETE Aug
Fred M. Montgomery
SURVIVAL PSYCHOLOGY MADE EASY Dec
TASK OBSERVE Jul
TO STAY OR NOT TO STAY?-I May
Fred M. Montgomery
TO STAY OR NOT TO STAY?-II Jun
Fred M. Montgomery
UNIT IP Nov
WILL TO LIVE, THE Apr
Fred M. Montgomery
19
14
24
14
27
30
20
27
24
4
6
7
12
20
2
36
29
2
22
21
31
1
32
28
12
14
7
10
1
1
4
19
10
1
14
20
22
20
1
34
20
9
9
1959 INDEX U. S. ARMY AVIATION DIGEST
ARTICLES
Aeromedicine
HURRY! SEND A CHOPPER!
Capt Curtis O. Greer, Jr., MSC
IPSO FATSO
Fred M. Montgomery
Fixed Wing Aircraft-
Fixed Wing Flight Operations
CARIBOU DEBUT
GETIING THE MO T FROM
THE OTTER
Bob Fowler
GROUND LOOP ANTHOLOGY
Owen W. Lazenby
GROUND LOOP FOLLOWING
POWER APPROACHES
Malcolm F. Landrum
LOW AND SLOW IN THE BIRD DOG
Capt 'Ernest llruce, Inf .
PLAN CHARLIE
Capt arl H. Sa,wl , 'Jr., Inf . ,
STOP! .
USSR SMALL AIRCRAFT
Maintenance
ARMY AVIATION SCAMP
Brig Gen William B. Bunker, USA
AVIATION MECHANIC, THE
Griffin Williams
FUELING WITH JP-4
Bruce Frazer
MECHANIC'S TOOL BOX, THE
Capt William R. Swift, Arty
ON -THE-JOB-TRAINING
Lt Carroll O. Durham, Inf
OUR PRODUCT: ASSISTANCE
Irving J. Wagner
SUDDENLY THERE WERE NO EDPS
Capt Theo C. Watkins, TC
TORQUING
Fenton M. Dimmick
Miscella neous
~ a g e
Oct 13
ept 26
Nov 1
Mar 5
Sep 5
Apr 18
Oct 16
Oct 10
Mar 31
May 16
May 20
Oct 22
Nov 5
May Back
Cover
Sep 1
Jun 8
Jan 19
Nov 19
ARMY AVIATION SUPPORT FOR lAGS Jun 27
AVIATOR CAPABILITY VS WORKLOAD May 18
FAA - FRIEND AND ADVISOR
TO AVIATORS Sep 24
Capt Archie W. Summers, Inf
FORGOTTEN MAN May 26
GOING MY WAY? Jan 15
William E. Vance
MENTAL EXERCISE, A Jul 14
Major Byron H. Brite, Arty
SIR, WHERE CAN I FIND? Nov 12
Major C. B. Sinclair, Armor
USABAAR (Pictorial) Jun 18
U. S. Map of AAFs, AFAs, ARNG Activities Dec 18
Mission and Concepts
AERIAL COMBAT RECONNAISSANCE
COMPANY DOCTRINE AND TACTIC
Maj Karl S. Patton, Arty
ARMY AVIATION PHILOSOPHY
Maj Gen Ernest F. Easterbrook, USA
ARMY AVIATION LOOKS AHEAD
Maj Gen Ernest F. Easterbrook, USA
ARMY AVIATOR'S MISSION, THE
Maj E. R. Lucas, Arty
FL YABLE AND FIREABLE
FUTURE
Capt James M. Rockwell, Inf
LOOKING AHEAD
Col Robert H. chulz, Inf
MP WITH WINGS
NEXT DECADE IN
ARMY AVIATION, THE
Brig Gen Richard D. Meyer, USA
SABER IN THE SKY
William E. Vance
TAKE IT OFF
Lt Col David M. Kyle, Arty
TASK OBSERVE
VTOL OR JUST STOL?
Ken S. Coward
Navigational Aids-
I nstrument Flight
ANIP-ARMY-NAVY
INSTRUMENTATION PROGRAM
HELICOPTER INSTRUMENT FLYING
Capt Alder P. Betti, Arty
INSTRUMENT ATTITUDE FLYING
AMONG ARMY AVIATORS
Capt William P. Brake, CE
INTEGRATED SYSTEMS
Capt M. Jameson, Arty
NAVIGATIONAL AIDS-KEY TO
FUTURE ARMY MOBILITY
Col Horace M. Wood, Sig C
UHF
Maj James H. Gooden, Sig C
Principles of Flight
BE WISE ABOUT WEIGHT
Aug 12
Oct 1
Dec 1
Jul 11
Aug 20
Aug 7
May
Mar 16
Aug 27
Aug 1
Jun 1
Jul 1
May 5
Dec 5
Dec 9
Jun 6
Apr 25
Jan 2
Sep 14
AND BALANCE Jan 12
DO YOU KNOW YOUR AIRCRAFT Aug 24
Maj Clifford S. Athey
KNOW YOUR PROPS Dec 11
Lt Morris A. McCool, CE
WEIGHT AND BALANCE Nov 20
Maj Warren P. Pauley, Inf
Proficiency
FLYING PROFICIENCY Mar 12
Ca pt E. H. Edmonds, Inf
INSTRUMENT ATTITUDE FLYING
AMONG ARMY AVIATORS Jun 6
Capt William P. Brake, CE
IT'S THE ATMOSPHERE THAT COUNTS Apr 27
CONTINUED ON INSIDE BACK COVER