Jurnal 2

T h e new engl and journal o f medicine
n engl j med 365;1 nejm.org july 7, 2011

21
original article
Primary Isoniazid Prophylaxis against
Tuberculosis in HIV-Exposed Children
Shabir A. Madhi, M.D., Ph.D., Sharon Nachman, M.D., Avy Violari, M.D.,
Soyeon Kim, Sc.D., Mark F. Cotton, M.D., Ph.D., Raziya Bobat, M.D.,
Patrick Jean-Philippe, M.D., George McSherry, M.D, and Charles Mitchell, M.D.,
for the P1041 Study Team
From the Department of Science and
Technology/National Research Founda-
tion: Vaccine Preventable Diseases and
the Medical Research Council: Respirato-
ry and Meningeal Pathogens Research
Unit (S.A.M.), and the Perinatal HIV Re-
search Unit (A.V.), University of the Wit-
watersrand, Johannesburg; Stellenbosch
University, Cape Town (M.F.C.); and the
University of KwaZulu Natal, Durban (R.B.)
all in South Africa; the Department of
Pediatrics, State University of New York
at Stony Brook, Stony Brook (S.N.); the
Center for Biostatistics in AIDS Research,
Department of Biostatistics, Harvard
School of Public Health, Boston (S.K.);
Henry Jackson Foundation, Division of
AIDS, Bethesda, MD (P.J.-P.); Pennsylva-
nia State University College of Medicine,
Hershey (G.M.); and the University of Mi-
ami, Miami (C.M.). Address reprint re-
quests to Dr. Madhi at the Respiratory
and Meningeal Pathogens Research Unit,
P.O. Box 90753, Bertsham, Gauteng 2013,
South Africa, or at [email protected].
Drs. Madhi, McSherry, and Mitchell con-
tributed equally to this article.
N Engl J Med 2011;365:21-31.
Copyright 2011 Massachusetts Medical Society.
Abstract
Background
The dual epidemic of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tuberculosis is a major
cause of sickness and death in sub-Saharan Africa. We conducted a double-blind,
randomized, placebo-controlled trial of preexposure isoniazid prophylaxis against
tuberculosis in HIV-infected children and uninfected children exposed to HIV during
the perinatal period.
Methods
We randomly assigned 548 HIV-infected and 804 HIV-uninfected infants (91 to
120 days of age) to isoniazid (10 to 20 mg per kilogram of body weight per day) or
matching placebo for 96 weeks. All patients received bacille CalmetteGurin (BCG)
vaccination against tuberculosis within 30 days after birth. HIV-infected children had
access to antiretroviral therapy. The primary outcome measures were tuberculosis
disease and death in HIV-infected children and latent tuberculosis infection, tuber-
culosis disease, and death in HIV-uninfected children within 96 to 108 weeks after
randomization.
Results
Antiretroviral therapy was initiated in 98.9% of HIV-infected children during the study.
Among HIV-infected children, protocol-defined tuberculosis or death occurred in
52 children (19.0%) in the isoniazid group and 53 (19.3%) in the placebo group (P = 0.93).
Among HIV-uninfected children, there was no significant difference in the combined
incidence of tuberculosis infection, tuberculosis disease, or death between the iso-
niazid group (39 children, 10%) and the placebo group (45 children, 11%; P = 0.44).
The rate of tuberculosis was 121 cases per 1000 child-years (95% confidence interval
[CI], 95 to 153) among HIV-infected children as compared with 41 per 1000 child-years
(95% CI, 31 to 52) among HIV-uninfected children. There were no significant differ-
ences in clinical or severe laboratory toxic effects between treatment groups.
Conclusions
Primary isoniazid prophylaxis did not improve tuberculosis-diseasefree survival
among HIV-infected children or tuberculosis-infectionfree survival among HIV-unin-
fected children immunized with BCG vaccine. Despite access to antiretroviral thera-
py, the burden of tuberculosis remained high among HIV-infected children. (Funded
by the National Institutes of Health and Secure the Future; ClinicalTrials.gov number,
NCT00080119.)
The New England Journal of Medicine
Downloaded from nejm.org on October 31, 2012. For personal use only. No other uses without permission.
Copyright 2011 Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.
22
T
uberculosis is highly endemic in
sub-Saharan Africa, a situation aggravated
by the ongoing epidemic of human immu-
nodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1).
1
The increased
burden of tuberculosis among adults in areas with
a high prevalence of HIV infection is also associ-
ated with high rates of transmission of Mycobacte-
rium tuberculosis (MTB) to household members and
other contacts.
2-5
Therefore, it has been proposed
that in areas such as South Africa, tuberculosis-
prevention strategies with isoniazid chemoprophy-
laxis, which so far have targeted only household
contacts of adults with positive sputum smears for
MTB acid-fast bacilli, be expanded to include other
high-risk groups.
Among otherwise immunocompetent children,
MTB infection in the first 2 years of life is associ-
ated with a 43% risk of the development of tuber-
culosis during the next 12 months.
6
Also, the risk
of culture-confirmed tuberculosis is increased by
a factor of more than 20 among HIV-infected chil-
dren under 2 years of age.
7,8
Furthermore, post-
mortem studies have identified tuberculosis as a
leading cause of death in HIV-infected children in
Africa, accounting for 12 to 18% of deaths in these
children.
9,10
Isoniazid has shown effectiveness in
preventing progression to tuberculosis disease in
children who had known contact with persons
with infectious tuberculosis,
11-13
but its role in
preexposure prophylaxis has not been evaluated in
HIV-infected infants or uninfected children ex-
posed to HIV during the perinatal period both
groups at increased risk for tuberculosis.
Our study evaluated the safety and efficacy of
isoniazid versus placebo for preexposure prophy-
laxis against tuberculosis in HIV-infected children
and uninfected children exposed to HIV during the
perinatal period, when treatment was started at
3 to 4 months of age and continued for 96 weeks.
Methods
Study Sites
This multicenter, phase 23, randomized, double-
blind, placebo-controlled trial of isoniazid was un-
dertaken in three South African centers (Chris Hani
Baragwanath Hospital, Johannesburg; Tygerberg
Hospital, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Town;
and King Edward VII Hospital, Durban) and one
center in Botswana (Princess Marina Hospital,
Gaborone). Enrollment at the Botswana site be-
gan shortly before the study was terminated. All
sites had existing programs for the prevention of
mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Children in-
fected with HIV were given antiretroviral treatment,
which primarily included stavudine, lamivudine,
and lopinavirritonavir, per country-specific guide-
lines, or zidovudine, lamivudine, and lopinavir
ritonavir.
Study Enrollment and Participants
Enrollment occurred between December 2004 and
June 2008. Enrollment of the HIV-uninfected cohort
was completed in June 2006. Infants born to HIV-
infected women were identified through programs
for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission
of HIV. The HIV-infection status of infants was
determined by means of HIV-1 DNA polymerase-
chain-reaction (PCR) testing. HIV-uninfected in-
fants had their negative status confirmed by a
second negative DNA PCR assay 24 weeks after
randomization and a negative HIV enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) at 18 months of age.
Participants were enrolled between the 91st and
120th days of life. Eligibility criteria included re-
ceipt of the BCG vaccine by 30 days of age; no his-
tory of tuberculosis in the infant, known exposure
to a microbiologically confirmed case of tubercu-
losis, or active antituberculosis treatment in the
mother at the time of the infants birth; and no
evidence of failure to thrive, recurrent pneumonia,
chronic diarrhea, or immunosuppressive condi-
tions other than HIV infection.
Infants were randomly assigned to receive daily
isoniazid, at a dose of 10 to 20 mg per kilogram
of body weight, or placebo. Other aspects of their
care, including trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole
prophylaxis, are detailed in the Supplementary
Appendix, available with the full text of this ar-
ticle at NEJM.org.
Study Objectives and End Points
The coprimary objectives were to compare the
isoniazid and placebo groups with respect to tu-
berculosis-diseasefree survival (hereafter referred
to as disease-free survival) among HIV-infected
children and tuberculosis-infectionfree survival
(hereafter referred to as infection-free survival)
among HIV-uninfected children 96 weeks after ran-
domization. The end point for disease-free survival
was the first occurrence of death from any cause
or tuberculosis disease, and the end point for infec-
tion-free survival was the first occurrence of death
from any cause, tuberculosis disease, or MTB in-
Isoniazid Prophylaxis in HIV-Exposed Children
23
fection. Secondary study objectives for the cohort
of HIV-infected children were to determine wheth-
er isoniazid prophylaxis decreased the incidence
of tuberculosis infection at 96 weeks and whether
it reduced the risk of HIV disease progression, de-
fined as the first occurrence of worsening of the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
clinical categorization of HIV infection or death.
A secondary objective for the cohort of HIV-unin-
fected children was to determine whether isonia-
zid prophylaxis improved disease-free survival.
Tuberculosis Investigation and Outcome
Categorization
Participants were screened for symptoms of tuber-
culosis at each study visit and assessed further if
they had a score of 4 or more on the clinical algo-
rithm scale (Table 1),
14
excluding scoring on the
tuberculin skin test. Children were also assessed
for pulmonary tuberculosis when presenting with
clinical or radiographic evidence of pneumonia or
at the discretion of the attending physician. For
children with MTB exposure, the study drug was
discontinued and open-label isoniazid was ad-
ministered according to the guidelines in South
Africa.
14
Investigations for tuberculosis included col-
lection of information on the status of sputum
smears in the index case, a history taking for
symptoms and signs suggestive of MTB infec-
tion, an intradermal tuberculin skin test with the
use of RT23 2TU (Statens Serum Institut), a chest
radiograph, and microbiologic or histopathologi-
cal evaluation as clinically indicated. In children
suspected of having pulmonary tuberculosis, two
gastric washings, two induced-sputum samples, or
both were tested by means of auramine staining
and a mycobacterial culture was tested with the
use of the Bactec method at nationally accredited
laboratories. Mycobacterial isolates were analyzed
for drug resistance with the use of the BACTEC
460 system (Becton Dickinson).
On the basis of positive results of these evalu-
ations, children received a diagnosis of definite,
probable, or possible tuberculosis (Table 2).
Children whose health care providers initiated an-
tituberculosis treatment but who did not fulfill
protocol-defined criteria for a diagnosis of tuber-
culosis were classified as having non-algorithm
tuberculosis. Latent tuberculosis infection was
diagnosed on the basis of a positive tuberculin
skin test (induration 5 mm in horizontal diam-
eter in HIV-infected children and 10 mm in HIV-
uninfected children), in the absence of evidence
of active tuberculosis disease, 96 weeks after ran-
domization. An end-point review committee of
study-team clinicians who were unaware of the
study-group assignments reviewed all deaths and
Table 1. Algorithm Used to Screen for and Diagnose Clinical Tuberculosis.*
Feature Score
0 1 2 3 4
Weeks of illness (including cough) <2 24 >4
Nutritional status (% weight for age) >80% 6080% <60% or a drop of
2 percentiles
Family history of tuberculosis None Reported by family Sputum-confirmed
Tuberculin skin test Negative Reactive (5 or
10 mm)
Fever not responding to treatment
for >2 wk
No Yes
Confirmed or suspected EPTB No Yes
* The algorithm is from the tuberculosis guidelines for South Africa.
14
Study participants with a score of 4 or more (excluding the tuberculin skin test) during screenings at their routine visits
every 3 months were screened further by means of a tuberculin skin test and a chest radiograph.
Evaluation for malnutrition was performed according to World Health Organization guidelines
15
on the basis of z scores
and clinical and laboratory evaluations.
A reactive skin test was defined as an induration of at least 5 mm in horizontal diameter in HIV-infected children and
an induration of at least 10 mm in HIV-uninfected children.
Extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) included extrathoracic lymphadenopathy, joint or bone involvement, abdominal
mass, meningitis, and tuberculosis of the spine, diagnosed according to criteria that were prespecified in the protocol.
24
potentially tuberculosis-related primary and sec-
ondary end points.
Screening for safety was undertaken at sched-
uled visits every 3 months while the participants
were receiving the study drug. Screening included
serum liver enzyme tests, complete blood counts,
and clinical neurologic evaluations for peripheral
neuropathy with the use of a modified Denver
Developmental Screening Test, with severity grad-
ing based on criteria from the Division of Ac -
quired Immunodeficiency Syndrome at the Na-
tional Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
(NIAID).
16
Study Oversight
The study was approved by the institutional re-
view board of each participating center, the Med-
icines Control Council in South Africa, and the
Division of AIDS at the NIAID. The study was con-
ducted in accordance with Good Clinical Prac-
tices guidelines and the Declaration of Helsinki.
Written informed consent was obtained from the
legal guardians of the children before they un-
derwent randomization. All authors vouch for the
accuracy and completeness of the analyses pre-
sented and the adherence of the study and this
report to the protocol, available at NEJM.org.
Statistical Analysis
The study was designed and powered to evaluate
study outcomes independently in the HIV-infected
and HIV-uninfected cohorts. A detailed descrip-
tion of the sample-size calculation (with a target
sample of 500 HIV-infected and 800 HIV-unin-
fected children) and of oversight by the data and
safety monitoring board is provided in the Sup-
plementary Appendix.
KaplanMeier estimates were used to summa-
rize the distribution of time to efficacy and safety
end points. Data on end points were censored at
week 96, with allowance for the inclusion of end
points for 12 additional weeks (up to 108 weeks
after randomization). Log-rank tests were used to
compare these distributions between the study
groups. Cox regression was used for hazard ratios
and analyses adjusted for covariates.
Analyses followed an intention-to-treat ap-
proach unless otherwise specified. Data on chil-
dren whose guardians declined further study
follow-up before meeting a study end point were
censored at the date of the last follow-up visit.
All testing was two-sided at the 5% significance
level. To maintain the significance level for each
cohort at 5%, nominal P values of 0.0492 and
0.0493 for between-group differences in the HIV-
infected and HIV-uninfected cohorts, respectively,
were required in the final analysis of the primary
end points. All P values presented were nominal.
Data were analyzed with the use of SAS software,
version 9.1 (SAS Institute).
Results
Characteristics of the Participants
A total of 548 HIV-infected and 806 HIV-unin-
fected infants were enrolled; the majority (65%)
were enrolled in Johannesburg. Figure 1A shows
the disposition of the 274 HIV-infected infants
enrolled in each study group; the study drug was
initiated within 4 days after randomization, except
Table 2. Protocol-Defined Criteria for Categorization of Tuberculosis Disease and Infection.
Tuberculosis Category Microbiologic, Radiographic, Histologic, and Clinical Criteria
Definite tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultured from any site, or positive auramine staining of a cerebro-
spinal fluid specimen
Probable tuberculosis The presence of at least two clinical criteria in the algorithm shown in Table 1, plus either
positive auramine staining of an induced-sputum or gastric-washing smear or suggestive
histologic findings (caseating granuloma); or positive auramine staining of a gastric-
washing or induced-sputum smear and a chest radiograph suggestive of tuberculosis*
Possible tuberculosis An algorithm score 6 and a radiograph suggestive of tuberculosis, or a positive tuber-
culin skin test (induration 5 mm in horizontal diameter) and a chest radiograph
suggestive of tuberculosis
Latent M. tuberculosis
infection
A positive tuberculin skin test at week 96 after randomization in the absence of active
tuberculosis (definite, probable, or possible)
* Radiographic findings that were considered to be suggestive of pulmonary tuberculosis included hilar lymphadenopathy,
alveolar consolidation, a miliary pattern of lesions, and cavitations in the lung parenchyma.
25
in 1 child who never received it and was excluded
from the analysis. The disposition of the HIV-
uninfected infants, including 2 children who did
not receive the study drug and were excluded from
the analysis, is shown in Figure 1B.
The baseline characteristics were generally well-
balanced between the two groups (Table 3) in
both cohorts. Infants underwent randomization
at a median age of 96 days. All infants had re-
ceived BCG vaccination by 30 days of age, before
their positive HIV status was determined. The ma-
jority of infants were indigenous Africans (97.0%).
By chance, in the HIV-infected cohort, a higher
percentage of children of mixed ancestry were
enrolled in the isoniazid group. A history of
maternal tuberculosis was reported for 7.1% and
7.2% of HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected partici-
pants, respectively. Four participants in the HIV-
548 Children underwent randomization
359 Were from Johannesburg
132 Were from Cape Town
53 Were from Durban
4 Were from Botswana
274 Were assigned to receive
INH
273 Received INH
1 Never received INH,
failed to return
placebo
274 Received placebo
75 Completed intervention
34 Were lost to follow-up
7 Were unable to get to
the clinic
4 Withdrew consent
5 Were unwilling to adhere
to study requirements
18 Could not be contacted
34 Discontinued intervention
11 Had exposure to TB case
1 Had laboratory toxicity
12 Did not meet protocol
definition of clinical TB
1 Had peripheral neuropathy
9 Did not adhere to regimen
130 Did not complete inter-
vention because of study
closure
1 Was unable to get to
the clinic
6 Withdrew consent
1 Was unwilling to adhere
2 Disallowed concomitant
medication
1 Discontinued following
hospitalization
141 Did not complete inter-
vention because of study
closure
273 Were included in analysis
1 Was excluded from analysis
A B HIV-Infected HIV-Uninfected
806 Children underwent randomization
519 Were from Johannesburg
280 Were from Cape Town
7 Were from Durban
INH
403 Received INH
placebo
401 Received placebo
2 Did not receive placebo
1 Mother was HIV-
uninfected
1 Had randomization
error
the clinic
13 Withdrew consent
1 Had peripheral neuropathy
the clinic
16 Withdrew consent
2 Were excluded from analysis
Figure 1. Enrollment, Randomization, and Follow-up of the HIV-Infected and HIV-Uninfected Study Cohorts.
Four HIV-infected children (one in the isoniazid group and three in the placebo group) who were positive for HIV at baseline were sub-
sequently confirmed to be HIV-uninfected. Six HIV-uninfected children (two in the isoniazid group and four in the placebo group) who
were negative for HIV at baseline were subsequently confirmed to be HIV-infected. The numbers of participants lost to follow-up or who
discontinued the intervention denote those who were lost to follow-up or discontinued the intervention before a primary end point oc-
curred. The reasons for discontinuing the intervention are enumerated only for those not lost to follow-up. INH denotes isoniazid, and
TB tuberculosis.
26
infected cohort, who initially had a positive HIV
PCR test, were subsequently found to be HIV-neg-
ative on PCR assay. At study entry, 65.3% of HIV-
infected infants were asymptomatic (CDC clinical
category N) and 26.2% were mildly symptomatic
(category A) (Table 3). Among children who were
confirmed to be HIV-infected, the median CD4+
lymphocyte percentage and HIV-1 viral load were
28% and 625,000 copies per milliliter, respec-
tively, at study entry, and 171 children (31.5%) had
already started to receive antiretroviral treatment
(Table 3).
Efficacy
HIV-Infected Cohort
Primary end points are detailed in Table 4. Partici-
pants who reached more than one end point were
categorized according to the first end point met.
Eight participants with previous protocol-defined
tuberculosis died, and only tuberculosis end points
were included in the efficacy analysis for these
participants. Either protocol-defined tuberculosis
or death occurred in 52 children (19.0%) in the
isoniazid group as compared with 53 children
(19.3) in the placebo group (hazard ratio, 0.98;
95% confidence interval [CI], 0.67 to 1.44) (Fig. 1
in the Supplementary Appendix). Tuberculosis ac-
counted for 31 (59.6%) of the primary end points
in the isoniazid group and for 38 (71.7%) in the
placebo group (P = 0.40); death accounted for 21
(40.4%) and 15 (28.3%) of the primary end points
in the two groups, respectively (P = 0.12). The re-
sults were similar when the analysis was adjusted
for status with respect to antiretroviral treatment
at baseline and maternal history of tuberculosis.
Overall, 98.9% of HIV-infected children were initi-
ated on antiretroviral treatment during the study.
The results of analyses of the secondary end points
Table 3. Baseline Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of Children Randomly Assigned to Isoniazid or Placebo.*
Characteristic HIV-Infected Children HIV-Uninfected Children
Total
(N = 547)
Isoniazid
Group
(N = 273)
Placebo
Group
(N = 274)
Total
(N = 804)
Isoniazid
Group
(N = 403)
Placebo
Group
(N = 401)
Age days
Median 96 97 95 96 96 96
Range 91 to 120 91 to 120 91 to 120 91 to 120 91 to 120 91 to 120
Weight-for-age z score
Median 0.58 0.61 0.54 0.35 0.37 0.34
Range 4.29 to 3.07 3.44 to 3.07 4.29 to 3.03 2.83 to 3.95 2.14 to 3.95 2.83 to 3.64
Male sex no. (%) 237 (43.3) 114 (41.8) 123 (44.9) 411 (51.1) 200 (49.6) 211 (52.6)
Race or ethnic group no. (%)
Indigenous African 536 (98.0) 264 (96.7) 272 (99.3) 775 (96.4) 389 (96.5) 386 (96.3)
Mixed ancestry or other 11 (2.0) 9 (3.3) 2 (0.7) 29 (3.6) 14 (3.5) 15 (3.7)
Biologic mother as primary caregiver
no. (%)
504 (92.1) 254 (93.0) 250 (91.2) 792 (98.5) 394 (97.8) 398 (99.3)
Housing type no. (%)
Brick house 345 (63.3) 162 (59.3) 183 (67.3) 468 (58.2) 235 (58.3) 233 (58.1)
Shack or wooden structure 198 (36.3) 109 (39.9) 89 (32.7) 336 (41.8) 168 (41.7) 168 (41.9)
Hostel 2 (0.4) 2 (0.7) 0 0 0 0
Household size no. of members
Median 4 4 5 5 5 4
Range 2 to 15 2 to 15 2 to 15 2 to 21 2 to 21 2 to 16
Breast-feeding no. (%)
Ever breast-fed 73 (13.3) 37 (13.6) 36 (13.1) 48 (6.0) 24 (6.0) 24 (6.0)
Breast-fed at baseline 29 (5.3) 15 (5.5) 14 (5.1) 7 (0.9) 3 (0.7) 4 (1.0)
27
were consistent with lack of efficacy. In addition,
a post hoc analysis of the composite end point of
probable or definite tuberculosis showed no
significant difference in incidence between the
isoniazid group (10 participants, 3.7%) and the pla-
cebo group (11 participants, 4.0%; P = 0.83). The
overall incidence of tuberculosis was 121 cases per
1000 child-years (95% CI, 95 to 153).
Table 3. (Continued.)
Characteristic HIV-Infected Children HIV-Uninfected Children
Total
(N = 547)
Isoniazid
Group
(N = 273)
Placebo
Group
(N = 274)
Total
(N = 804)
Isoniazid
Group
(N = 403)
Placebo
Group
(N = 401)
Maternal history of tuberculosis
no. (%)
During index pregnancy 2 (0.4) 0 2 (0.7) 6 (0.7) 4 (1.0) 2 (0.5)
Before index pregnancy 37 (6.8) 14 (5.1) 23 (8.4) 51 (6.3) 29 (7.2) 22 (5.5)
Any history of tuberculosis 39 (7.1) 14 (5.1) 25 (9.1) 57 (7.1) 33 (8.2) 24 (6.0)
BCG vaccination no. (%)
Within 7 days after birth 513 (93.8) 255 (93.4) 258 (94.2) 787 (97.9) 395 (98.0) 392 (97.8)
8 to 29 days after birth 34 (6.2) 18 (6.6) 16 (5.8) 17 (2.1) 8 (2.0) 9 (2.2)
CDC clinical HIV category no. (%)
N 354 (65.3) 178 (65.7) 176 (64.9)
A 142 (26.2) 74 (27.3) 68 (25.1)
B 37 (6.8) 16 (5.9) 21 (7.7)
C 5 (0.9) 2 (0.7) 3 (1.1)
HIV-uninfected 4 (0.7) 1 (0.4) 3 (1.1)
Missing data 5 2 3
CD4+ cells %
Median 28 29 28
Range 6 to 58 6 to 53 6 to 58
CD4+ category no. (%)
<20% 111 (21.5) 56 (21.7) 55 (21.3)
2024% 86 (16.7) 40 (15.5) 46 (17.8)
2534% 187 (36.2) 90 (34.9) 97 (37.6)
35% 132 (25.6) 72 (27.9) 60 (23.3)
Missing data or HIV-uninfected 31 15 16
Plasma HIV-1 RNA copies/ml
Median 625,000 710,000 482,000
Interquartile range 46,000 to
750,000
97,905 to
750,000
258,000 to
750,000
Antiretroviral treatment at or before
study entry no. (%)
171 (31.5) 78 (28.7) 93 (34.3)
* Percentages may not add to 100 because of rounding. BCG denotes bacille CalmetteGurin, CDC Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, HIV human immunodeficiency virus, and HIV-1 human immunodeficiency virus type 1.
Housing type was not provided for two HIV-infected participants in the placebo group.
Category N denotes asymptomatic, A mildly symptomatic, B moderately symptomatic, and C severely symptomatic.
Participants with missing data and HIV-uninfected participants were excluded from the percentages.
Excluded were seven and six HIV-infected participants with missing data from the isoniazid and placebo groups, respectively. HIV-uninfected
participants were excluded from the percentages. The range was 400 to 750,000 for both study groups.
HIV-uninfected participants were excluded from the percentages.
28
Details on compliance with study follow-up,
HIV-AIDS disease progression, and mortality rates
and causes of death are provided in the Supple-
mentary Appendix. Self-reported compliance at
scheduled visits (defined as no missed doses since
the last visit) ranged from 74 to 92% across visits
and did not differ significantly between the study
groups.
HIV-Uninfected Cohort
The rate of loss to follow-up at 96 weeks was 14.4%
(95% CI, 12.0 to 17.0) in the cohort of children with-
out HIV infection, with no significant difference
between the isoniazid and placebo groups (P = 0.58).
Eighty-four children (10.4%) reached a primary end
point, a composite of tuberculosis disease, latent
tuberculosis infection, or death. The estimated haz-
ard ratio for the isoniazid group as compared with
the placebo group was 0.85 (95% CI, 0.55 to 1.30)
(Table 4, and Fig. 1 in the Supplementary Appen-
dix). There was no significant difference between
study groups (P = 0.44) (Table 4). Analyses of all
secondary end points showed lack of efficacy of
isoniazid prophylaxis as compared with placebo.
The overall incidence of tuberculosis was 41 cases
per 1000 child-years (95% CI, 31 to 52). Six HIV-
uninfected children (three each in the isoniazid
and placebo groups) died of either gastroenteritis
or unknown reasons (Table 1 in the Supplemen-
tary Appendix). Survival did not differ significantly
between the study groups (P>0.99). Self-reported
compliance at scheduled visits ranged from 62 to
82% across visits and was similar in the two groups.
Drug-Susceptibility Testing
Overall, isoniazid resistance was identified in 5 of
19 children (26.3%; 95% CI, 9.2 to 51.2) with
culture-confirmed tuberculosis who were tested
for susceptibility. Of these 5 children, 2 children
(1 HIV-infected and 1 HIV-uninfected) were in the
isoniazid group and 3 (all HIV-uninfected) were
in the placebo group.
Safety
Rates of grade 3 or higher clinical or laboratory
abnormalities were similar in the two study groups,
stratified according to HIV status (Table 2 in the
Supplementary Appendix). With the exception of
Table 4. Summary of First End Point Met toward Primary Outcome Measures in Children Randomly Assigned to Isoniazid or Placebo.*
End Point HIV-Infected Children HIV-Uninfected Children
Total
(N = 547)
Isoniazid
Group
(N = 273)
Placebo
Group
(N = 274) P Value
Total
(N = 804)
Isoniazid
Group
(N = 403)
Placebo
Group
(N = 401) P Value
no. (%) no. (%)
Primary end point: tuberculosis
disease or death
105 (19.2) 52 (19.0) 53 (19.3) 0.93 84 (10.4) 39 (9.7) 45 (11.2) 0.44
Specific end points
Protocol-defined tuberculosis 69 (12.6) 31 (11.4) 38 (13.9) 0.40 59 (7.3) 28 (6.9) 31 (7.7)
Definite PTB 8 (1.5) 5 (1.8) 3 (1.1) 14 (1.7) 8 (2.0) 6 (1.5)
Probable PTB 8 (1.5) 5 (1.8) 3 (1.1) 9 (1.1) 3 (0.7) 6 (1.5)
Possible PTB 48 (8.8) 21 (7.7) 27 (9.9) 36 (4.5) 17 (4.2) 19 (4.7)
Definite EPTB 3 (0.5) 0 3 (1.1) 0 0 0
Probable EPTB and possible PTB 2 (0.4) 0 2 (0.7) 0 0 0
Death without prior tuberculosis 36 (6.6) 21 (7.7) 15 (5.5) 4 (0.5) 2 (0.5) 2 (0.5)
Latent tuberculosis 21 (2.6) 9 (2.2) 12 (3.0)
* Percentages for specific outcomes may not add to the total percentages because of rounding.
P values are for the log-rank test.
P = 0.85 in an analysis adjusted for status with respect to antiretroviral treatment at baseline and maternal history of tuberculosis.
Protocol-defined tuberculosis included any episode that fulfilled the protocol-specified criteria for possible, probable, or definite tuberculo-
sis, as confirmed by the end-point review committee. EPTB denotes extrapulmonary tuberculosis, and PTB pulmonary tuberculosis.
One HIV-infected participant with possible pulmonary tuberculosis later fulfilled the criteria for probable pulmonary tuberculosis.
Latent tuberculosis was evaluated at 96 weeks of age by means of a tuberculin skin test (with an induration 10 mm in horizontal diameter
considered to be reactive). The outcome was not evaluated for HIV-infected children because most children had not completed 96 weeks in
the study when the study ended.
29
grade 3 peripheral neuropathy in one HIV-infected
child in the isoniazid group, all grade 3 or higher
toxic effects resolved, allowing for the resumption
of treatment with the randomly assigned study
drug. All reportable serious adverse events are
shown in Table 3 in the Supplementary Appendix.
Discussion
The prevention of tuberculosis in perinatally ex-
posed HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected infants in
areas with high incidences of tuberculosis and HIV
infection, such as southern Africa, is a major pub-
lic health challenge. The only current alternative
to BCG vaccination for preventing tuberculosis is
chemoprophylaxis, especially with isoniazid. Our
study showed no benefit of isoniazid as preexpo-
sure prophylaxis in improving disease-free survival
among HIV-infected children or infection-free
survival among HIV-uninfected children. Similar-
ly, a post hoc analysis that included the composite
outcome of protocol-defined tuberculosis, death,
or non-algorithm tuberculosis showed no signifi-
cant differences in outcome between the isoniazid
group (24.2%) and the placebo group (24.1%,
P = 0.93) among HIV-infected children.
A meta-analysis of trials of tuberculosis pro-
phylaxis in HIV-infected adults showed that iso-
niazid reduced the incidence of tuberculosis (by
62%) in those with a positive tuberculin skin test
but was ineffective in those with a negative test,
17

suggesting that prophylaxis does not prevent pri-
mary tuberculosis. In addition, the meta-analysis
showed no significant overall reduction in mor-
tality.
17
These data are corroborated by our study,
in which isoniazid prophylaxis failed to prevent
tuberculosis among HIV-infected children without
a history of MTB exposure.
The other major published study of isoniazid
prophylaxis in HIV-infected children was under-
taken in Cape Town, South Africa. Isoniazid pro-
phylaxis was associated with a 54% reduction in
all-cause mortality and a 72% reduction in the
incidence of tuberculosis, prompting early trial
termination by the data and safety monitoring
board.
18
There were marked differences between
the HIV-infected children enrolled in our study
and those in the Cape Town study, limiting a
direct comparison of the findings from the two
studies. The children enrolled by Zar et al. as com-
pared with our cohort were older (median age,
24.7 months vs. 96 days), had been treated for tu-
berculosis in some cases before enrollment (16%
vs. 0%), were more likely to be severely immuno-
compromised (CDC category B or C, 88% vs. 8%),
were less likely to be receiving antiretroviral treat-
ment at study entry (9% vs. 31%), had lower CD4+
percentages (20% vs. 28%), and were more se-
verely malnourished at study entry (median z score,
1.56 vs. 0.58). In addition, 9% of children in the
study by Zar et al. had a reactive tuberculin skin
test at study entry, possibly indicating previous
MTB infection.
Contrary to the findings of the meta-analysis
of antituberculosis prophylaxis in HIV-infected
adults with a nonreactive tuberculin skin test,
17

the study by Zar et al. showed a 49% reduction
in mortality and a 68% reduction in the incidence
of tuberculosis among children with a nonreactive
tuberculin skin test.
18
A clinically relevant aspect
of the findings by Zar et al. is that the causes of
death in both groups were primarily attributed to
sepsis (44%), pneumonia (22%), and gastroen-
teritis (9%), not directly to tuberculosis. However,
tuberculosis could have predisposed the children
to bacterial infection.
19
In addition, the greatest
difference in survival observed between the groups
occurred primarily within 30 days after random-
ization, with marginal differences between the
groups thereafter. The study also enrolled 44.8% of
the children during the course of hospitalization
for an acute illness.
20
Because the progression from MTB infection
to active disease takes 1 to 3 months to be
manifested,
21
the mechanism by which isoniazid
prophylaxis prevented tuberculosis and improved
survival in the study by Zar et al. remains unex-
plained. It is possible, however, that the reduction
in the incidence of tuberculosis observed in the
isoniazid group by Zar et al. was the result of treat-
ment of unrecognized underlying primary tuber-
culosis in the enrolled children, as was observed
in early studies of isoniazid,
22
rather than the re-
sult of prophylaxis against MTB infection and its
progression, which was the objective in our study.
Possible reasons why isoniazid prophylaxis was
ineffective in children without known MTB expo-
sure in our study include a suboptimal dose of the
drug, isoniazid resistance, lack of compliance with
the medication regimen, and issues regarding the
specificity of the study end points. A discussion
of these factors is available in the Supplementary
Appendix.
Finally, a limitation of our study is related to
possible changes in the epidemiology of tubercu-
losis and in mortality among HIV-infected children
30
because of increased access to antiretroviral treat-
ment. The overall rate of a primary end point
among HIV-infected children in our study was 22%
over a period of 96 weeks, which is below the 40%
rate that we originally estimated. We therefore
continued enrolling children after the initial target
enrollment of 500 participants had been reached.
The futility analysis, nevertheless, indicated that
even with the most optimistic estimates, it was
unlikely that the study was adequately powered to
show significant differences in the primary end
points between the two groups. Our study was
adequately powered (91.7%) to detect a 50% rela-
tive reduction in primary end points among HIV-
infected children on the basis of an estimate that
25% of the children in the placebo group would
reach a primary end point over the 96-week period,
an incidence similar to that observed in our study.
In conclusion, in our study isoniazid prophy-
laxis as compared with placebo was safe but inef-
fective as preexposure prophylaxis against tubercu-
losis in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children.
However, the results of our study are specific to a
setting such as South Africa with a high dual bur-
den of tuberculosis and HIV infection. Much in-
sight has been gained into the epidemiology of
tuberculosis in southern Africa in the era of an-
tiretroviral treatment. In a study conducted in Cape
Town from 2004 to 2007, the incidence of culture-
confirmed tuberculosis was 1596 cases per 100,000
HIV-infected infants.
7
In addition, the incidence
of hospitalization for culture-confirmed and all
categories of pulmonary tuberculosis in Johannes-
burg, before the introduction of antiretroviral
treatment, was 3028 per 100,000 and 10,016 per
100,000, respectively, in children under 5 years of
age.
8
The burden of tuberculosis among HIV-
infected children (121 cases per 1000 child-years)
in our study remained high despite access to an-
tiretroviral treatment. A high burden of tuberculo-
sis was also identified among HIV-exposed un-
infected children (41 cases per 1000 child-years).
These findings underscore the need to explore al-
ternative options for the prevention and manage-
ment of tuberculosis in HIV-exposed children.
The content of this article is solely the responsibility of the
authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of
the National Institutes of Health.
Overall support for the International MaternalPediatric
Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trials (IMPAACT) Group was provided
by grants from the NIAID (U01 AI068632), the Eunice Kennedy
Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
(NICHD), and the National Institute of Mental Health (AI068632).
This work was supported by the Statistical and Data Analysis
Center at the Harvard School of Public Health, under NIAID co-
operative agreements with the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group
(5 U01 AI41110) and the IMPAACT Group (1 U01 AI068616). Sup-
port of the sites was provided by NIAID and the NICHD Interna-
tional and Domestic Pediatric and Maternal HIV Clinical Trials
Network (NICHD contract number N01-DK-9-001/HHSN2672 00-
800 001C). The study was also funded by a grant from the Secure
the Future Fund, a philanthropy program sponsored by Bristol-
Myers Squibb.
Disclosure forms provided by the authors are available with
the full text of this article at NEJM.org.
We thank the parents and legal guardians for allowing their
children to participate in the clinical trial; the health care work-
ers for providing care to the participants; other members of the
P1041 team for assisting in the conduct of the study; Peter R.
Donald, M.D., and H. Simon Schaaf, M.D., for their critical re-
view of the manuscript; and Anneke Hesseling, M.D., for her
contribution to drug-susceptibility testing.
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