LKM 1

H
H
H
Y
Y
Y
D
D
D
R
R
R
A
A
A
U
U
U
L
L
L
I
I
I
C
C
C
S
S
S


A
A
A
N
N
N
D
D
D


P
P
P
N
N
N
E
E
E
U
U
U
M
M
M
A
A
A
T
T
T
I
I
I
C
C
C
S
S
S


Chapter: 2
THE SOURCE OF HYDRAULIC POWER

Introduction:

A pump is the heart of a hydraulic system, which converts mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy.
The mechanical energy is delivered to the pump via prime mover such as an electric motor.
Due to mechanical action, the pump creates a partial vacuum at its inlet. This permits atmospheric
pressure to force the fluid through the inlet line and into the pump. The pump then pushes the
fluid into the hydraulic system.


Fig 2.1 The hydraulic pump

A Hydraulic pump (fig 2.1 a) takes oil from a tank and delivers it to the rest of the
hydraulic circuit. In doing so it raises oil pressure to the required level. Fig 2.1b shows the
symbol of a pump with the arrowhead showing the direction of flow. Fig 2.1c shows pump
associated components for the working of the pump.

Pumping Theory:

Pumps operate on the principle whereby a partial vacuum is created at the pump inlet due
to the internal operation of the pump. This allows atmospheric pressure to push the fluid out of the
oil tank (reservoir) and into the pump intake. The pump then mechanically pushes the fluid out to
the discharge line.

LKM 2


Fig 2.2 Pumping action of a simple piston pump.

In the above fig 2.2, pump contains two ball check valves, one is connected to the pump
inlet line and allows fluid to enter the pump only, and second one is connected to the pump
discharge line and allows fluid to leave the pump.
When the piston is pulled to the left, a partial vacuum is generated in pump cavity 3
because of the close tolerance between the piston and cylinder prevents air inside cavity 4 from
traveling into cavity 3. This vacuum holds the ball of check valve 2 against its seat (lower
position) and allows atmospheric pressure to push fluid from the reservoir into the pump via check
valve 1. This inlet flow occurs because the force of the fluid pushes the ball of check valve 1 off
its seat.
When the piston is pushed to the right, the fluid movement closes inlet valve 1 and opens
outlet valve 2. The fluid displaced by the piston is ejected out the discharge line leading to the
hydraulic system.


Classification of pump:

1. Dynamic (nonpositive displacement) pumps/ Hydrodynamic pump: This type is generally
used for low-pressure, high-volume flow applications. Because they are not capable of
with-standing high pressures, they are of little use in the fluid power field (250 300psi).
In this clearance b/w the rotation impeller or propeller and the stationary housing
should be less. Thus as the resistance of the external system starts to increase, some of the
fluid slips back into the clearance spaces, causing a reduction in the discharge flow-rate.
This is due to the fact that the fluid follows the path of least resistance. When the
resistance of the external system becomes infinitely large, the pump will produce no flow.

This type of pump is used for transporting fluids from one location to another.
There are two types of Dynamic pumps:
a) Centrifugal pumps (impeller)
b) Axial flow (propeller) pumps





LKM 3
a) Centrifugal pump:



Fig 2.3 Centrifugal pump (a) Construction features. (b) Pressure versus flow curve.

The above fig shows the construction features of a centrifugal pump. The fluid
enters at the center of the impeller and is picked up by the rotating impeller. As the fluid
rotates with the impeller, the centrifugal force causes the fluid to move radially outward.
This causes the fluid to flow through the outlet discharge port of the housing.
The dynamic pumps provide smooth continuous flow (when a demand exists); their
output flow rate is reduced as resistance to flow is increased. This is shown for centrifugal
pumps in fig 2.3 b, where pump pressure is plotted versus pump flow. The maximum
pressure is called the shutoff head because an external circuit valve is closed which shuts
off the flow. As the external resistance decreases due to the valve being opened, the flow
increases at the expense of reduced pressure.

b) Axial pump:


Fig 2.4, Axial propeller type.

Here the fluid is pumped by the dynamic action of the propeller. Here the fluid
flows parallel to the axis of the shaft. The figure 2.4 shows the axial pump.

The dynamic pumps are used for low-pressure, high-volume flow applications. Also
since there is a great deal of clearance between the rotation and stationary elements,
LKM 4
dynamic pumps are not self-priming unlike positive displacement pumps. This is because
the large clearance space does not permit a suction pressure to occur at the inlet port when
the pump is first turned on. Priming is required to pump the fluid from the reservoir.
(Priming is the prefilling of the pump housing and inlet pipe with fluid so that the pump
can initially draw in the fluid and pump it efficiently.)

2) Positive Displacement Pumps: This type of pump ejects a fixed quantity of fluid per
revolution of the pump shaft. As a result, pump output flow, neglecting changes in the
small internal leakage, is constant and not dependent on system pressure. This makes them
particularly well suited for fluid power systems. Usually a pressure relief valve is used to
protect the pump against overpressure by diverting pump flow back to the hydraulic tank.
(The over pressure happens if a valve is completely closed and there is no physical place
for the fluid to go.)...


Fig 2.5, Positive displacement pump.

Fig 2.5 shows a simple piston pump called a positive displacement or hyraostatic
pump. As the piston is driven down, the inlet valve opens and a volume of fluid is
drawn into the cylinder. Next, the piston is driven up with the inlet valve closed
and the outlet valve open, driving the same volume of fluid to the pump outlet.

Classification of Positive displacement pumps:

1. Gear pumps (fixed displacement only by geometrical necessity)

a) External gear pumps
b) Internal gear pumps
c) Lobe pumps
d) Screw pumps

2. Vane pumps

a) Unbalanced vane pumps (fixed or variable displacement)
b) Balanced vane pumps (fixed displacement only)

3. Piston pumps (fixed or variable displacement).

LKM 5
a) Axial design
b) Radial design

1. a) External gear pump:


Fig 2.6, External gear pump.

Figure 2.6, illustrates the operation of an external gear pump, which develops flow by
carrying fluid between the teeth of two meshing gears. One of the gears is connected to a drive
shaft connected to the prime mover. The second gear is driven as it meshes with the driver gear.
Oil chambers are formed between the gear teeth, the pump housing, and the side wear plates. The
suction side is where teeth come out of mesh, and it is here that the volume expands, bringing
about a reduction in pressure to below atmospheric pressure. Fluid is pushed into this void by
atmospheric pressure because the oil supply tank is vented to the atmosphere. The discharge side
is where teeth go into mesh, and it is here that the volume decreases between mating teeth. Since
the pump has a positive internal seal against leakage the oil is positively ejected into the outlet
port.
Volumetric displacement and Theoretical flow rate:

V
d
= (D
2
0
D
2
i
) L
D
Where,
D
0
= outside diameter of gear teeth (m)
D i = inside diameter of gear teeth (m)
L = width of gear teeth (m)
V
d
= displacement volume of pump (m3/rev)
N = rpm of pump
Q
T
= theoretical pump flow-rate

Q
T
= V
d
x N m
3
/min .. (1)


LKM 6
Q
T
= V
d
x N gpm, since 1 gal = 231 in
3
.... (2)


231



Fig 2.7. Positive displacement pump Q vs N and P vs Q curves

From the equation 1 and 2 it can be seen that pump flow varies directly with speed.
And it is graphically illustrated in the above figure 2.7.

Volumetric efficiency:

v
= Q
A
Q
T

Where, Q
A
= actual flow rate
Q
T
= theoretical flow rate
The higher the discharge pressure, the lower the volumetric efficiency because
internal leakage increases with pressure. This is shown by the dashed line in fig.

1. b) Internal Gear Pump:


Fig 2.8. Internal gear pump.


Internal gear pump consists of an internal gear, a regular spur gear, a crescent-shaped seal,
and an external housing. As power is applied to either gear, the motion of the gears draws
fluid from the reservoir and forces it around both sides of the crescent seal, which acts as a
seal between the suction and discharge ports. When the teeth mesh on the side opposite to
the crescent sea, the fluid is forced to enter the discharge port of the pump.

LKM 7
1. c) Lobe pump:

Fig 2.9 Lobe pump.

This pump operates in a fashion similar to the external gear pump. But unlike the external
gear pump, both lobes are driven externally so that they do not actually contact each other.
Thus they are quieter than other types of gear pumps. Due to the smaller number of mating
elements, the lobe pump output will have a somewhat greater amount of pulsation, although its
volumetric displacement is generally greater than that for other types of gear pumps.

1. d) Gerotor pump:


Fig 2.10 Gerotor pump.

It operates very much like the internal gear pump. The inner gear rotor (Gerotor
element) is power-driven and draws the outer gear rotor around as they mesh together.
This forms inlet and discharge pumping chambers between the rotor lobes. The tips of the
inner and outer rotors make contact to seal the pumping chambers from each other. The
inner gear has one tooth less than the outer gear, and the volumetric displacement is
determined by the space formed by the extra tooth in the outer rotor.

1. e) Screw pump:

Fig 2.11 Screw pump.
LKM 8

The screw pump is an axial flow positive displacement unit. Three precision
ground screws, meshing within a close-fitting housing, deliver no pulsating flow quietly
and efficiently. The two symmetrically opposed idler rotors act as rotating seals, confining
the fluid in a succession of closures or stages. The idler rotors are in rolling contact with
the central power rotor and are free to float in their respective housing bores on a
hydrodynamic oil film. There are no radial bending loads. Axial hydraulic forces on the
rotor set are balanced, eliminating any need for thrust bearings.


2. Vane Pumps:


Fig 2.12 Vane pump operation.

Figure 2.12, shows the operation of a vane pump. The rotor, which contains radial slots, is
splined to the drive shaft and rotates inside a cam ring. Each slot contains a vane designed to mate
with the surface of the cam ring as the rotor turns. Centrifugal force keeps the vanes out against
the surface of the cam ring. During one-half revolution of rotor rotation, the volume increases
between the rotor and cam ring. The resulting volume expansion causes a reduction of pressure.
This is the suction process, which causes fluid to flow through the inlet port and fill the void. As
the rotor rotates through the second half revolution, the surface of the cam ring pushes the vanes
back into their slots, and the trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped fluid
through the discharge port.

Analysis of volumetric Displacement:

Dc = diameter of cam ring (m)
Dr = diameter of rotor (m)
L = width of rotor (m)
V
d
= pump volumetric displacement (m3)
e = eccentricity (m)
e
max
= maximum possible eccentricity (m)
v
dmax
= maximum possible volumetric displacement (m3)

we have from geometry,
e max = Dc Dr
2
LKM 9
V
d

max
= (D2c D2r) L = (Dc + Dr) (Dc Dr) L = (Dc + Dr) 2 e
max
L
4 4 4
Actual displacement occurs when e
max
= e


2 a) Pressure compensated vane pump:


Fig 2.13 Variable displacement, pressure compensated vane pump

Pressure compensated vane pump is one in which system pressure acts directly on the cam
ring via a hydraulic piston on the right side. This forces the cam ring against the compensator
spring-loaded piston on the left side of the cam ring. If the discharge pressure is large enough, it
overcomes the compensator spring force and shifts the cam ring to the left. This reduces the
eccentricity, which is maximum when discharge pressure is zero. As the discharge pressure
continues to increase, zero eccentricity is finally achieved, and the pump flow becomes zero.


Fig 2.14 Pressure versus flow for pressure compensated vane pump.

As shown in fig 2.14, when the pressure reaches a value called P cutoff, the compensator
spring force equals the hydraulic piston force. As the pressure continues to increase, the
compensator spring is compressed until zero eccentricity is achieve. The maximum pressure
achieved is called P deadhead, at which point the pump is protected because it produces no more
flow. As a result there is no power wasted and fluid heating is reduced.

LKM 10
2 b) Balanced Vane Pump:


Fig 2.15 Balanced vane pump principles

A balanced vane pump is one that has two intake and two outlet ports diametrically
opposite each other. Thus, pressure ports are opposite each other, and a complete hydraulic
balance is achieved. One disadvantage of a balanced vane pump is that it cannot be designed as a
variable displacement unit. Instead of having a circular cam ring, a balanced design vane pump
has an elliptical housing, which forms two separate pumping chambers on opposite sides of the
rotor. This eliminates the bearing side loads and thus permits higher operating pressure.

Types of Vanes:

1. Dual vanes
2. Pin vanes
3. Angled vanes
4. Intra vanes
5. Spring loaded vanes.


Fig 2.16 Types of vanes: (a) Dual vane (b) Intra vane (c) Pin vane
(d) spring loaded vane (e) Angular vane
(1-System pressure, 2-Vane, 3-Chamfer, 4-Intra vane, 5-Pin, 6-Spring}
LKM 11
A dual vane consists of two vanes in each slot of the rotor. With this arrangement, the vane
is considerably balanced with a possibility of positive sealing.
An Intra vane consists of a smaller vane within a larger vane with a beveled edge. The
delivery pressure (system pressure) from the pump is directed above the smaller vane resulting in
less vane loading.
In pin vane the pressure is directed underside the pin which forces the vane out against the
cam ring.
In a spring loaded vane, a spring is used to force the vane against the cam ring along with
system pressure.
In angled vanes, the vanes are positioned at an angle in the rotor. This reduces the loading
on the vane without any mechanical means.

3 Piston Pumps: A piston pump works on the principle that a reciprocating piston can draw in
fluid when it retracts in a cylinder bore and discharge it when it extends. To explain operation
of piston pump explain pumping theory.

Piston pump classification:

1. Fixed or constant displacement pump
2. Adjustable or variable displacement pump

As per geometrical and physical arrangement of pistons they may be classified as

1. In-line crank shaft driven pump
2. Axial piston pump
3. Radial piston pump

1. In-line crank shaft driven pump:

Fig 2.17 In-line crank shaft driven pump

Above fig 2.17 illustrates a crank shaft driven piston pump. Crank-shaft drives are well
known from automotive and steam engines. They require a parallel arrangement of
cylinders and hence may require more space. This specific factor may limit their use in
modern hydraulic systems which need to be more compact. However, they are still many
applications where one or two-cylinder piston pumps are used, e.g. in certain mobile
applications like small fork-lifters, simple loaders, etc.




LKM 12
2. Axial Piston pump: Classification axial piston pumps:
1. In-line axial piston pumps (Swash Plate Design)
2. Bent axis piston pumps (Bent-Axis Design)
3. Radial Piston Pump

1. In-line piston pump (swash plate design):

Fig 2.18 In-line piston pump

Figure 2.18 shows the swash plate design in-line piston pump. In this type, the
cylinder block and drive shaft are located on the same centerline. The pistons are
connected to a shoe plate which bears against an angled swash plate. As the cylinder
rotates the pistons reciprocate because the piston shoes follow the angled surface of the
swash pate as shown in fig 2.18. The outlet and inlet ports are located in the valve plate so
that the pistons pass they inlet as they are being pulled out and pass the outlet as they are
being forced back in.



Fig 2.19 Variation in pump displacement

To obtain variable displacement capability, the swash plate is mounted in a movable
yoke, as shown in fig 2.19. The swash plate angle can be changed by pivoting the yoke on
pintles. Positioning of the yoke can be accomplished by manual operation, servo control,
or a compensator control. The maximum swash plate angle is limited to 17
0
.

LKM 13
Theoretical volume (q) = n.N.h.A

Where, n = number of bore/cylinders
N = speed of the pump
d = diameter of the bore
h = stroke length which depends on the piston angle0

A = area of the piston bore

2. Bent axis piston pumps:


Fig 2.20 Bent axis piston pump
Fig 2.20 shows an axial piston pump that contains a cylinder block rotating with the
drive shaft. However, the centerline of the cylinder block is set at an offset angle
relative to the centerline of the drive shaft. The cylinder block contains a number of
pistons arranged along a circular. The piston rods are connected to the drive shaft
flange by ball-and-socket joints. The pistons are forced in and out of their bores as the
distance between the drive shaft flange and cylinder block changes. A universal link
connects the block to the drive shaft to provide alignment and positive drive.

Fig 2.21 Volumetric displacement changes with offset.

The volumetric displacement of the pump varies with the offset angle as shown in
fig 2.21. No flow is produced when the cylinder block centerline is parallel to the drive
shaft centerline. Can vary from 0o to 30o offset angles.
LKM 14
Volumetric Displacement and Theoretical Flow rate:

= offset angle (
o
)
S = piston stroke (m)
D = piston circle diameter (m)
Y = number of pistons
A = piston area (m
2
)
N = pump speed (rpm)
Q
T
= theoretical flow-rate (m
3
/min)

From fig. tan () = S, S = D tan ()
D

Total displacement volume V
D
= YAS = YAD tan ()

Theoretical flow-rate Q
T
= N x V
d
= DANY tan () m
3
/min

3. Radial Piston Pump:


Fig 2.22 Operation of a radial piston pump

Fig 2.22, shows the construction and operation of a radial piston pump. It consists
of a pintle to direct fluid in and out of the cylinders, a cylinder barrel with pistons, and a
rotor containing a reaction ring. The pistons remain in constant contact with the reaction
ring due to centrifugal force and back pressure on the pistons. For pumping action, the
reaction ring is moved eccentrically with respect to the pintle or shaft axis. As the cylinder
barrel rotates, the pistons on one side travel outward. This draws in fluid as each cylinder
passes the suction ports of the pintle. When a piston passes the point of maximum
eccentricity, it is forced inward by the reaction ring. This forces the fluid to enter the
discharge port of the pintle. In some models, the displacement can be varied by moving the
reaction ring to change the piston stroke.


LKM 15
PUMP PERFORMANCE:

The performance of a pump is primarily a function of the precision of its
manufacture. Components must be made to close tolerances, which must be maintained
while the pump is operating under design conditions. The maintenance of close tolerances
is accomplished by designs that have mechanical integrity and balance pressures.
Theoretically the ideal pump would be one having zero clearance between all
mating parts. Although this is not feasible, working clearances should be as small as
possible while maintaining proper oil films for lubrication between rubbing parts.

1. Pump efficiencies:
1. Volumetric efficiency (
v
): Volumetric efficiency indicates the amount of
leakage that takes place within the pump. This involves considerations such
as manufacturing tolerances and flexing of the ump casing under design
pressure operating conditions.

v
= actual flow-rate produced by pump = Q
A

theoretical flow-rate pump should produce Q
T


Gear pumps - 80% to 90%
Vane pumps 82% to 92%
Piston pumps 90% to 98%

2. Mechanical efficiency (
m
): Mechanical efficiency indicates the amount of energy
losses that occur for reasons other than leakage. This includes friction in bearings
and between other mating parts. It also includes energy losses due to fluid
turbulence.



m
= pQ
T

T
A
N where, p = pump discharge pressure (Pa)
QT = pump theoretical flow-rate (m3/s)
TA = actual torque delivered to pump (N-m)
N = pump speed (rpm)


m
= theoretical torque required to operate pump = T
T

actual torque delivered to pump T
A


T
T
= Vd x p, T
A
= actual horsepower delivered to pump x 63000
2 N (rpm)
Or
T
A
= actual power delivered to pump (W)
N (rad/s)
N (rad/s) = 2 N (rpm)
60


LKM 16
4. Overall efficiency (
0
): = actual power delivered by pump
Actual power delivered to pump


0
= v x m = p Q
A

T
A
N

5. Pump power: = work / time = (p x A x d) / T
= (pressure x flow rate) / 600 kw





PUMP SELECTION:

Pumps are selected by taking into account a number of considerations for a complete
hydraulic system involving a particular application. Among these considerations are flow-rate
requirements (gpm), operating speed (rpm), pressure rating (psi), performance, reliability,
maintenance, cost, and noise. The selection of a pump typically entails the following sequence of
operations:

1. Select the actuator (hydraulic cylinder or motor) that is appropriate based on the loads
encountered.
2. Determine the flow-rate requirements. This involves the calculation of the flow rate
necessary to drive the actuator to move the load through a specified distance within a given
time limit.
3. Select the system pressure. These ties in with the actuator size and the magnitude of the
resistive force produced by the external load on the system. Also involved here is the total
amount of power to be delivered by the pump.
4. Determine the pump speed and select the prime mover. This, together with the flow-rate
calculation, determines the pump size (volumetric displacement).
5. Select the pump type based on the application (gear, vane, or piston pump and fixed or
variable displacement).
6. Select the reservoir and associated plumbing, including piping, valving, filters and
strainers, and other miscellaneous components such as accumulators.
7. Consider factors such as noise levels, horsepower loss, need for a heat exchanger due to
generated heat, pump wear, and scheduled maintenance service to provide a desired life of
the total system.
8. Calculate the overall cost of the system.

VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS:

Explain any one of the above variable pumps.

Problems can be solved by the above formulas, for particular type.